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43  kingdoms , kings and an early republicHow some men became rulers Choosing leaders or rulers by voting is something that has become common during the last fifty years or so. How did men become rulers in the past? Around 3000 years ago, some men became recognised as rajas by performing big sacrifices. The ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual. A horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja’s men. If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight. If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them. These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice, which was performed by specially trained priests, who were rewarded with gifts. The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who came brought gifts for him. The raja was a central figure in these rituals. He often had a special seat, a throne or a tiger skin. His charioteer, who was his companion in the battlefield and witnessed his exploits, chanted tales of his glory. His relatives, especially his wives and sons, had to perform a variety of minor rituals. CHAPTER 5 KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARL Y REPUBLIC Election day Shankaran woke up to see his grandparents all ready to go and vote. They wanted to be the first to reach the polling booth. Why, Shankaran wanted to know, were they so excited? Somewhat impatiently, his grandfather explained: “We can choose our own rulers today.” Chapter 5-6.indd 43 22 April 2022 12:49:54 Rationalised 2023-24 Painted Grey Ware. Plates and bowls are the most common vessels made out of Painted Grey Ware. These are extremely fine to touch, with a nice, smooth surface. Perhaps these were used on special occasions, for important people, and to serve special food. The other rajas were simply spectators who had to sit and watch the performance of the sacrifice. Priests performed the rituals including the sprinkling of sacred water on the king. The ordinary people, the vish or vaishya , also brought gifts. However, some people, such as those who were regarded as shudras by the priests, were excluded from many rituals. Make a list of all those who would be present at the sacrifice. Which are the categories that are described in terms of their occupation? Varnas There were four social categories, namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts. Kshatriyas were expected to fight battles and protect people. Vaishyas were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders. The Shudras were expected to serve the other three groups. Janapadas The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now recognised as being rajas of janapadas rather than janas. The word janapada literally means the land where the jana set its foot, and settled down. Some important janapadas are shown on Map 4 (page 45). Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these janapadas , such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut, and Atranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are in Uttar Pradesh). They found that people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals. They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard. Is there a crop in this list that was not mentioned in Chapter 3? Chapter 5-6.indd 44 26 May 2022 10:45:40 Rationalised 2023-24 45  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThey made earthen pots. Some of these were grey in colour, others were red. One special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware. As is obvious from the name, these grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns. Mahajanapadas About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahajanapadas. Some of these are shown on Map 4. Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified. This means that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them. Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed Map : 4 Important Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and Cities Chapter 5-6.indd 45 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  46 our pasts–iThe fortification wall at Kaushambi. This is a picture of remains of a wall made of brick, found near present-day Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh). A part of it was probably built about 2500 years ago. protection. It is also likely that some rulers wanted to show how rich and powerful they were by building really large, tall and impressive walls around their cities. Also in this way, the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king. Building such huge walls required a great deal of planning. Thousands, if not lakhs of bricks or stones had to be prepared. This in turn meant enormous labour, provided, possibly, by thousands of men, women and children. And resources had to be found for all of this. Chapter 5-6.indd 46 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 47  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThe new rajas now began maintaining armies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year. Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins (see the illustration on page 75). You will read more about these coins in Chapter 8. List two ways in which the rajas of the mahajanapadas were different from those mentioned in the Rigveda. T axes As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were (a) building huge forts (b) maintaining big armies, they needed more resources. And they needed officials to collect these. So, instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas , they started collecting regular taxes. • Taxes on crops • Taxes on craftspersons • Herders paid taxes as animals and animal produce. • Taxes on goods through trade. • Hunters and gatherers had to provide forest produce to the raja. What do you think would have been provided by hunters and gatherers? Changes in agriculture There were two major changes in agriculture around this time. One was the growing use of iron ploughshares. This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced. Second, people began transplanting Chapter 5-6.indd 47 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  48 our pasts–ipaddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields. This led to increased production, as many more plants survived. Can you think why kings would encourage these changes? A closer look — (a) Magadha Find Magadha on Map 4 (page 45). Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years. Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha were forested. Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army. Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts and chariots. Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons. Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used all possible means to conquer other janapadas . Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent. Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna). More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror. Of course, he didn’t conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas. When he wanted to march further eastwards, his soldiers refused. They were scared, as they had Chapter 5-6.indd 48 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 49  kingdoms , kings and an early republicheard that the rulers of India had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots and elephants. In what ways were these armies different from those described in the Rigveda? A closer look — (b) Vajji While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as gana or sangha . In a gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers and each one was known as a raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies, and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate. For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they met to discuss what should be done to meet the threat. However, women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies. This is an account of the Vajjis from the Digha Nikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which contains some of the speeches of the Buddha. These were written down about 2300 years ago. Ajatasattu and the Vajjis Ajatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis. He sent his minister named Vassakara to the Buddha to get his advice on the matter. The Buddha asked whether the Vajjis met frequently, in full assemblies. When he heard that they did, he replied that the Vajjis would continue to prosper as long as: • They held full and frequent public assemblies. • They met and acted together. • They followed established rules. • They respected, supported and listened to elders.KEYWORDS raja ashvamedha varna janapada mahajanapada fortification army tax transplantation gana or sangha Chapter 5-6.indd 49 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  50 our pasts–i• Vajji women were not held by force or captured. • Chaityas (local shrines) were maintained in both towns and villages. • Wise saints who followed different beliefs were respected and allowed to enter and leave the country freely. In what ways was the Vajji sangha different from the other mahajanapadas? Try and list at least three differences. Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas . Nevertheless, these lasted for a very long time, till about 1500 years ago, when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta rulers, about whom you will read in Chapter 9. Imagine You are peeping through a crack in the walls of the assembly of Vaishali, where a meeting is in progress to discuss ways to deal with an attack by the king of Magadha. Describe what you might hear. Let’s recall 1. State whether true or false: (a) Rajas who let the ashvamedha horse pass through their lands were invited to the sacrifice. (b) The charioteer sprinkled sacred water on the kin g. (c) Archaeologists have found palaces in the settlements of the janapadas. (d) Pots to store grain were made out of Painted Grey Ware. (e) Many cities in mahajanapadas were fortified. Chapter 5-6.indd 50 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24 51  kingdoms , kings and an early republic2. Fill in the chart given below with the terms: hunter- gatherers, farmers, traders, craftspersons, herders. 3. Who were the groups who could not participate in the assemblies of the ganas? Let’s discuss 4. Why did the rajas of mahajanapadas build forts? Let’s do 5. Were there any janapadas in your state? If yes, name them. If not, name the janapadas that would have been the closest to your state, and mention whether they were to the east, west, north or south. 6. Find out whether the groups mentioned in answer 3 have voting rights at present. THE RAJA OF THE MAHAJANAPADATHOSE WHO PAID TAXES  New kinds of rajas (about 3000 years ago)  Mahajanapadas (about 2500 years ago)  Alexander’s invasion, composition of the Digha Nikaya (about 2300 years ago)  End of the ganas or sanghas (about 1 500 years ago) SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 5-6.indd 51 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24

Ajatasattu sent his minister named Vassakara to the

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43  kingdoms , kings and an early republicHow some men became rulers Choosing leaders or rulers by voting is something that has become common during the last fifty years or so. How did men become rulers in the past? Around 3000 years ago, some men became recognised as rajas by performing big sacrifices. The ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual. A horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja’s men. If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight. If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them. These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice, which was performed by specially trained priests, who were rewarded with gifts. The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who came brought gifts for him. The raja was a central figure in these rituals. He often had a special seat, a throne or a tiger skin. His charioteer, who was his companion in the battlefield and witnessed his exploits, chanted tales of his glory. His relatives, especially his wives and sons, had to perform a variety of minor rituals. CHAPTER 5 KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARL Y REPUBLIC Election day Shankaran woke up to see his grandparents all ready to go and vote. They wanted to be the first to reach the polling booth. Why, Shankaran wanted to know, were they so excited? Somewhat impatiently, his grandfather explained: “We can choose our own rulers today.” Chapter 5-6.indd 43 22 April 2022 12:49:54 Rationalised 2023-24 Painted Grey Ware. Plates and bowls are the most common vessels made out of Painted Grey Ware. These are extremely fine to touch, with a nice, smooth surface. Perhaps these were used on special occasions, for important people, and to serve special food. The other rajas were simply spectators who had to sit and watch the performance of the sacrifice. Priests performed the rituals including the sprinkling of sacred water on the king. The ordinary people, the vish or vaishya , also brought gifts. However, some people, such as those who were regarded as shudras by the priests, were excluded from many rituals. Make a list of all those who would be present at the sacrifice. Which are the categories that are described in terms of their occupation? Varnas There were four social categories, namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts. Kshatriyas were expected to fight battles and protect people. Vaishyas were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders. The Shudras were expected to serve the other three groups. Janapadas The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now recognised as being rajas of janapadas rather than janas. The word janapada literally means the land where the jana set its foot, and settled down. Some important janapadas are shown on Map 4 (page 45). Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these janapadas , such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut, and Atranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are in Uttar Pradesh). They found that people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals. They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard. Is there a crop in this list that was not mentioned in Chapter 3? Chapter 5-6.indd 44 26 May 2022 10:45:40 Rationalised 2023-24 45  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThey made earthen pots. Some of these were grey in colour, others were red. One special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware. As is obvious from the name, these grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns. Mahajanapadas About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahajanapadas. Some of these are shown on Map 4. Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified. This means that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them. Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed Map : 4 Important Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and Cities Chapter 5-6.indd 45 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  46 our pasts–iThe fortification wall at Kaushambi. This is a picture of remains of a wall made of brick, found near present-day Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh). A part of it was probably built about 2500 years ago. protection. It is also likely that some rulers wanted to show how rich and powerful they were by building really large, tall and impressive walls around their cities. Also in this way, the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king. Building such huge walls required a great deal of planning. Thousands, if not lakhs of bricks or stones had to be prepared. This in turn meant enormous labour, provided, possibly, by thousands of men, women and children. And resources had to be found for all of this. Chapter 5-6.indd 46 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 47  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThe new rajas now began maintaining armies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year. Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins (see the illustration on page 75). You will read more about these coins in Chapter 8. List two ways in which the rajas of the mahajanapadas were different from those mentioned in the Rigveda. T axes As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were (a) building huge forts (b) maintaining big armies, they needed more resources. And they needed officials to collect these. So, instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas , they started collecting regular taxes. • Taxes on crops • Taxes on craftspersons • Herders paid taxes as animals and animal produce. • Taxes on goods through trade. • Hunters and gatherers had to provide forest produce to the raja. What do you think would have been provided by hunters and gatherers? Changes in agriculture There were two major changes in agriculture around this time. One was the growing use of iron ploughshares. This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced. Second, people began transplanting Chapter 5-6.indd 47 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  48 our pasts–ipaddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields. This led to increased production, as many more plants survived. Can you think why kings would encourage these changes? A closer look — (a) Magadha Find Magadha on Map 4 (page 45). Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years. Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha were forested. Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army. Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts and chariots. Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons. Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used all possible means to conquer other janapadas . Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent. Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna). More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror. Of course, he didn’t conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas. When he wanted to march further eastwards, his soldiers refused. They were scared, as they had Chapter 5-6.indd 48 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 49  kingdoms , kings and an early republicheard that the rulers of India had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots and elephants. In what ways were these armies different from those described in the Rigveda? A closer look — (b) Vajji While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as gana or sangha . In a gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers and each one was known as a raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies, and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate. For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they met to discuss what should be done to meet the threat. However, women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies. This is an account of the Vajjis from the Digha Nikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which contains some of the speeches of the Buddha. These were written down about 2300 years ago. Ajatasattu and the Vajjis Ajatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis. He sent his minister named Vassakara to the Buddha to get his advice on the matter. The Buddha asked whether the Vajjis met frequently, in full assemblies. When he heard that they did, he replied that the Vajjis would continue to prosper as long as: • They held full and frequent public assemblies. • They met and acted together. • They followed established rules. • They respected, supported and listened to elders.KEYWORDS raja ashvamedha varna janapada mahajanapada fortification army tax transplantation gana or sangha Chapter 5-6.indd 49 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  50 our pasts–i• Vajji women were not held by force or captured. • Chaityas (local shrines) were maintained in both towns and villages. • Wise saints who followed different beliefs were respected and allowed to enter and leave the country freely. In what ways was the Vajji sangha different from the other mahajanapadas? Try and list at least three differences. Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas . Nevertheless, these lasted for a very long time, till about 1500 years ago, when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta rulers, about whom you will read in Chapter 9. Imagine You are peeping through a crack in the walls of the assembly of Vaishali, where a meeting is in progress to discuss ways to deal with an attack by the king of Magadha. Describe what you might hear. Let’s recall 1. State whether true or false: (a) Rajas who let the ashvamedha horse pass through their lands were invited to the sacrifice. (b) The charioteer sprinkled sacred water on the kin g. (c) Archaeologists have found palaces in the settlements of the janapadas. (d) Pots to store grain were made out of Painted Grey Ware. (e) Many cities in mahajanapadas were fortified. Chapter 5-6.indd 50 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24 51  kingdoms , kings and an early republic2. Fill in the chart given below with the terms: hunter- gatherers, farmers, traders, craftspersons, herders. 3. Who were the groups who could not participate in the assemblies of the ganas? Let’s discuss 4. Why did the rajas of mahajanapadas build forts? Let’s do 5. Were there any janapadas in your state? If yes, name them. If not, name the janapadas that would have been the closest to your state, and mention whether they were to the east, west, north or south. 6. Find out whether the groups mentioned in answer 3 have voting rights at present. THE RAJA OF THE MAHAJANAPADATHOSE WHO PAID TAXES  New kinds of rajas (about 3000 years ago)  Mahajanapadas (about 2500 years ago)  Alexander’s invasion, composition of the Digha Nikaya (about 2300 years ago)  End of the ganas or sanghas (about 1 500 years ago) SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 5-6.indd 51 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24

What did he say would continue to prosper as long as the Vajjis continued to

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43  kingdoms , kings and an early republicHow some men became rulers Choosing leaders or rulers by voting is something that has become common during the last fifty years or so. How did men become rulers in the past? Around 3000 years ago, some men became recognised as rajas by performing big sacrifices. The ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual. A horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja’s men. If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight. If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them. These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice, which was performed by specially trained priests, who were rewarded with gifts. The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who came brought gifts for him. The raja was a central figure in these rituals. He often had a special seat, a throne or a tiger skin. His charioteer, who was his companion in the battlefield and witnessed his exploits, chanted tales of his glory. His relatives, especially his wives and sons, had to perform a variety of minor rituals. CHAPTER 5 KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARL Y REPUBLIC Election day Shankaran woke up to see his grandparents all ready to go and vote. They wanted to be the first to reach the polling booth. Why, Shankaran wanted to know, were they so excited? Somewhat impatiently, his grandfather explained: “We can choose our own rulers today.” Chapter 5-6.indd 43 22 April 2022 12:49:54 Rationalised 2023-24 Painted Grey Ware. Plates and bowls are the most common vessels made out of Painted Grey Ware. These are extremely fine to touch, with a nice, smooth surface. Perhaps these were used on special occasions, for important people, and to serve special food. The other rajas were simply spectators who had to sit and watch the performance of the sacrifice. Priests performed the rituals including the sprinkling of sacred water on the king. The ordinary people, the vish or vaishya , also brought gifts. However, some people, such as those who were regarded as shudras by the priests, were excluded from many rituals. Make a list of all those who would be present at the sacrifice. Which are the categories that are described in terms of their occupation? Varnas There were four social categories, namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts. Kshatriyas were expected to fight battles and protect people. Vaishyas were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders. The Shudras were expected to serve the other three groups. Janapadas The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now recognised as being rajas of janapadas rather than janas. The word janapada literally means the land where the jana set its foot, and settled down. Some important janapadas are shown on Map 4 (page 45). Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these janapadas , such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut, and Atranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are in Uttar Pradesh). They found that people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals. They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard. Is there a crop in this list that was not mentioned in Chapter 3? Chapter 5-6.indd 44 26 May 2022 10:45:40 Rationalised 2023-24 45  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThey made earthen pots. Some of these were grey in colour, others were red. One special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware. As is obvious from the name, these grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns. Mahajanapadas About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahajanapadas. Some of these are shown on Map 4. Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified. This means that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them. Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed Map : 4 Important Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and Cities Chapter 5-6.indd 45 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  46 our pasts–iThe fortification wall at Kaushambi. This is a picture of remains of a wall made of brick, found near present-day Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh). A part of it was probably built about 2500 years ago. protection. It is also likely that some rulers wanted to show how rich and powerful they were by building really large, tall and impressive walls around their cities. Also in this way, the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king. Building such huge walls required a great deal of planning. Thousands, if not lakhs of bricks or stones had to be prepared. This in turn meant enormous labour, provided, possibly, by thousands of men, women and children. And resources had to be found for all of this. Chapter 5-6.indd 46 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 47  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThe new rajas now began maintaining armies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year. Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins (see the illustration on page 75). You will read more about these coins in Chapter 8. List two ways in which the rajas of the mahajanapadas were different from those mentioned in the Rigveda. T axes As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were (a) building huge forts (b) maintaining big armies, they needed more resources. And they needed officials to collect these. So, instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas , they started collecting regular taxes. • Taxes on crops • Taxes on craftspersons • Herders paid taxes as animals and animal produce. • Taxes on goods through trade. • Hunters and gatherers had to provide forest produce to the raja. What do you think would have been provided by hunters and gatherers? Changes in agriculture There were two major changes in agriculture around this time. One was the growing use of iron ploughshares. This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced. Second, people began transplanting Chapter 5-6.indd 47 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  48 our pasts–ipaddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields. This led to increased production, as many more plants survived. Can you think why kings would encourage these changes? A closer look — (a) Magadha Find Magadha on Map 4 (page 45). Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years. Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha were forested. Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army. Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts and chariots. Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons. Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used all possible means to conquer other janapadas . Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent. Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna). More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror. Of course, he didn’t conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas. When he wanted to march further eastwards, his soldiers refused. They were scared, as they had Chapter 5-6.indd 48 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 49  kingdoms , kings and an early republicheard that the rulers of India had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots and elephants. In what ways were these armies different from those described in the Rigveda? A closer look — (b) Vajji While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as gana or sangha . In a gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers and each one was known as a raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies, and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate. For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they met to discuss what should be done to meet the threat. However, women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies. This is an account of the Vajjis from the Digha Nikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which contains some of the speeches of the Buddha. These were written down about 2300 years ago. Ajatasattu and the Vajjis Ajatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis. He sent his minister named Vassakara to the Buddha to get his advice on the matter. The Buddha asked whether the Vajjis met frequently, in full assemblies. When he heard that they did, he replied that the Vajjis would continue to prosper as long as: • They held full and frequent public assemblies. • They met and acted together. • They followed established rules. • They respected, supported and listened to elders.KEYWORDS raja ashvamedha varna janapada mahajanapada fortification army tax transplantation gana or sangha Chapter 5-6.indd 49 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  50 our pasts–i• Vajji women were not held by force or captured. • Chaityas (local shrines) were maintained in both towns and villages. • Wise saints who followed different beliefs were respected and allowed to enter and leave the country freely. In what ways was the Vajji sangha different from the other mahajanapadas? Try and list at least three differences. Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas . Nevertheless, these lasted for a very long time, till about 1500 years ago, when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta rulers, about whom you will read in Chapter 9. Imagine You are peeping through a crack in the walls of the assembly of Vaishali, where a meeting is in progress to discuss ways to deal with an attack by the king of Magadha. Describe what you might hear. Let’s recall 1. State whether true or false: (a) Rajas who let the ashvamedha horse pass through their lands were invited to the sacrifice. (b) The charioteer sprinkled sacred water on the kin g. (c) Archaeologists have found palaces in the settlements of the janapadas. (d) Pots to store grain were made out of Painted Grey Ware. (e) Many cities in mahajanapadas were fortified. Chapter 5-6.indd 50 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24 51  kingdoms , kings and an early republic2. Fill in the chart given below with the terms: hunter- gatherers, farmers, traders, craftspersons, herders. 3. Who were the groups who could not participate in the assemblies of the ganas? Let’s discuss 4. Why did the rajas of mahajanapadas build forts? Let’s do 5. Were there any janapadas in your state? If yes, name them. If not, name the janapadas that would have been the closest to your state, and mention whether they were to the east, west, north or south. 6. Find out whether the groups mentioned in answer 3 have voting rights at present. THE RAJA OF THE MAHAJANAPADATHOSE WHO PAID TAXES  New kinds of rajas (about 3000 years ago)  Mahajanapadas (about 2500 years ago)  Alexander’s invasion, composition of the Digha Nikaya (about 2300 years ago)  End of the ganas or sanghas (about 1 500 years ago) SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 5-6.indd 51 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the fortification that was built in Vajji?

qa_24

43  kingdoms , kings and an early republicHow some men became rulers Choosing leaders or rulers by voting is something that has become common during the last fifty years or so. How did men become rulers in the past? Around 3000 years ago, some men became recognised as rajas by performing big sacrifices. The ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual. A horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja’s men. If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight. If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them. These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice, which was performed by specially trained priests, who were rewarded with gifts. The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who came brought gifts for him. The raja was a central figure in these rituals. He often had a special seat, a throne or a tiger skin. His charioteer, who was his companion in the battlefield and witnessed his exploits, chanted tales of his glory. His relatives, especially his wives and sons, had to perform a variety of minor rituals. CHAPTER 5 KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARL Y REPUBLIC Election day Shankaran woke up to see his grandparents all ready to go and vote. They wanted to be the first to reach the polling booth. Why, Shankaran wanted to know, were they so excited? Somewhat impatiently, his grandfather explained: “We can choose our own rulers today.” Chapter 5-6.indd 43 22 April 2022 12:49:54 Rationalised 2023-24 Painted Grey Ware. Plates and bowls are the most common vessels made out of Painted Grey Ware. These are extremely fine to touch, with a nice, smooth surface. Perhaps these were used on special occasions, for important people, and to serve special food. The other rajas were simply spectators who had to sit and watch the performance of the sacrifice. Priests performed the rituals including the sprinkling of sacred water on the king. The ordinary people, the vish or vaishya , also brought gifts. However, some people, such as those who were regarded as shudras by the priests, were excluded from many rituals. Make a list of all those who would be present at the sacrifice. Which are the categories that are described in terms of their occupation? Varnas There were four social categories, namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts. Kshatriyas were expected to fight battles and protect people. Vaishyas were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders. The Shudras were expected to serve the other three groups. Janapadas The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now recognised as being rajas of janapadas rather than janas. The word janapada literally means the land where the jana set its foot, and settled down. Some important janapadas are shown on Map 4 (page 45). Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these janapadas , such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut, and Atranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are in Uttar Pradesh). They found that people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals. They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard. Is there a crop in this list that was not mentioned in Chapter 3? Chapter 5-6.indd 44 26 May 2022 10:45:40 Rationalised 2023-24 45  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThey made earthen pots. Some of these were grey in colour, others were red. One special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware. As is obvious from the name, these grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns. Mahajanapadas About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahajanapadas. Some of these are shown on Map 4. Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified. This means that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them. Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed Map : 4 Important Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and Cities Chapter 5-6.indd 45 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  46 our pasts–iThe fortification wall at Kaushambi. This is a picture of remains of a wall made of brick, found near present-day Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh). A part of it was probably built about 2500 years ago. protection. It is also likely that some rulers wanted to show how rich and powerful they were by building really large, tall and impressive walls around their cities. Also in this way, the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king. Building such huge walls required a great deal of planning. Thousands, if not lakhs of bricks or stones had to be prepared. This in turn meant enormous labour, provided, possibly, by thousands of men, women and children. And resources had to be found for all of this. Chapter 5-6.indd 46 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 47  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThe new rajas now began maintaining armies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year. Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins (see the illustration on page 75). You will read more about these coins in Chapter 8. List two ways in which the rajas of the mahajanapadas were different from those mentioned in the Rigveda. T axes As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were (a) building huge forts (b) maintaining big armies, they needed more resources. And they needed officials to collect these. So, instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas , they started collecting regular taxes. • Taxes on crops • Taxes on craftspersons • Herders paid taxes as animals and animal produce. • Taxes on goods through trade. • Hunters and gatherers had to provide forest produce to the raja. What do you think would have been provided by hunters and gatherers? Changes in agriculture There were two major changes in agriculture around this time. One was the growing use of iron ploughshares. This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced. Second, people began transplanting Chapter 5-6.indd 47 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  48 our pasts–ipaddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields. This led to increased production, as many more plants survived. Can you think why kings would encourage these changes? A closer look — (a) Magadha Find Magadha on Map 4 (page 45). Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years. Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha were forested. Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army. Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts and chariots. Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons. Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used all possible means to conquer other janapadas . Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent. Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna). More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror. Of course, he didn’t conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas. When he wanted to march further eastwards, his soldiers refused. They were scared, as they had Chapter 5-6.indd 48 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 49  kingdoms , kings and an early republicheard that the rulers of India had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots and elephants. In what ways were these armies different from those described in the Rigveda? A closer look — (b) Vajji While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as gana or sangha . In a gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers and each one was known as a raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies, and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate. For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they met to discuss what should be done to meet the threat. However, women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies. This is an account of the Vajjis from the Digha Nikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which contains some of the speeches of the Buddha. These were written down about 2300 years ago. Ajatasattu and the Vajjis Ajatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis. He sent his minister named Vassakara to the Buddha to get his advice on the matter. The Buddha asked whether the Vajjis met frequently, in full assemblies. When he heard that they did, he replied that the Vajjis would continue to prosper as long as: • They held full and frequent public assemblies. • They met and acted together. • They followed established rules. • They respected, supported and listened to elders.KEYWORDS raja ashvamedha varna janapada mahajanapada fortification army tax transplantation gana or sangha Chapter 5-6.indd 49 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  50 our pasts–i• Vajji women were not held by force or captured. • Chaityas (local shrines) were maintained in both towns and villages. • Wise saints who followed different beliefs were respected and allowed to enter and leave the country freely. In what ways was the Vajji sangha different from the other mahajanapadas? Try and list at least three differences. Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas . Nevertheless, these lasted for a very long time, till about 1500 years ago, when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta rulers, about whom you will read in Chapter 9. Imagine You are peeping through a crack in the walls of the assembly of Vaishali, where a meeting is in progress to discuss ways to deal with an attack by the king of Magadha. Describe what you might hear. Let’s recall 1. State whether true or false: (a) Rajas who let the ashvamedha horse pass through their lands were invited to the sacrifice. (b) The charioteer sprinkled sacred water on the kin g. (c) Archaeologists have found palaces in the settlements of the janapadas. (d) Pots to store grain were made out of Painted Grey Ware. (e) Many cities in mahajanapadas were fortified. Chapter 5-6.indd 50 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24 51  kingdoms , kings and an early republic2. Fill in the chart given below with the terms: hunter- gatherers, farmers, traders, craftspersons, herders. 3. Who were the groups who could not participate in the assemblies of the ganas? Let’s discuss 4. Why did the rajas of mahajanapadas build forts? Let’s do 5. Were there any janapadas in your state? If yes, name them. If not, name the janapadas that would have been the closest to your state, and mention whether they were to the east, west, north or south. 6. Find out whether the groups mentioned in answer 3 have voting rights at present. THE RAJA OF THE MAHAJANAPADATHOSE WHO PAID TAXES  New kinds of rajas (about 3000 years ago)  Mahajanapadas (about 2500 years ago)  Alexander’s invasion, composition of the Digha Nikaya (about 2300 years ago)  End of the ganas or sanghas (about 1 500 years ago) SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 5-6.indd 51 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the difference between the sanghas and the other mahajanapadas?

qa_25

43  kingdoms , kings and an early republicHow some men became rulers Choosing leaders or rulers by voting is something that has become common during the last fifty years or so. How did men become rulers in the past? Around 3000 years ago, some men became recognised as rajas by performing big sacrifices. The ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual. A horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja’s men. If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight. If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them. These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice, which was performed by specially trained priests, who were rewarded with gifts. The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who came brought gifts for him. The raja was a central figure in these rituals. He often had a special seat, a throne or a tiger skin. His charioteer, who was his companion in the battlefield and witnessed his exploits, chanted tales of his glory. His relatives, especially his wives and sons, had to perform a variety of minor rituals. CHAPTER 5 KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARL Y REPUBLIC Election day Shankaran woke up to see his grandparents all ready to go and vote. They wanted to be the first to reach the polling booth. Why, Shankaran wanted to know, were they so excited? Somewhat impatiently, his grandfather explained: “We can choose our own rulers today.” Chapter 5-6.indd 43 22 April 2022 12:49:54 Rationalised 2023-24 Painted Grey Ware. Plates and bowls are the most common vessels made out of Painted Grey Ware. These are extremely fine to touch, with a nice, smooth surface. Perhaps these were used on special occasions, for important people, and to serve special food. The other rajas were simply spectators who had to sit and watch the performance of the sacrifice. Priests performed the rituals including the sprinkling of sacred water on the king. The ordinary people, the vish or vaishya , also brought gifts. However, some people, such as those who were regarded as shudras by the priests, were excluded from many rituals. Make a list of all those who would be present at the sacrifice. Which are the categories that are described in terms of their occupation? Varnas There were four social categories, namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts. Kshatriyas were expected to fight battles and protect people. Vaishyas were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders. The Shudras were expected to serve the other three groups. Janapadas The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now recognised as being rajas of janapadas rather than janas. The word janapada literally means the land where the jana set its foot, and settled down. Some important janapadas are shown on Map 4 (page 45). Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these janapadas , such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut, and Atranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are in Uttar Pradesh). They found that people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals. They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard. Is there a crop in this list that was not mentioned in Chapter 3? Chapter 5-6.indd 44 26 May 2022 10:45:40 Rationalised 2023-24 45  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThey made earthen pots. Some of these were grey in colour, others were red. One special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware. As is obvious from the name, these grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns. Mahajanapadas About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahajanapadas. Some of these are shown on Map 4. Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified. This means that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them. Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed Map : 4 Important Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and Cities Chapter 5-6.indd 45 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  46 our pasts–iThe fortification wall at Kaushambi. This is a picture of remains of a wall made of brick, found near present-day Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh). A part of it was probably built about 2500 years ago. protection. It is also likely that some rulers wanted to show how rich and powerful they were by building really large, tall and impressive walls around their cities. Also in this way, the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king. Building such huge walls required a great deal of planning. Thousands, if not lakhs of bricks or stones had to be prepared. This in turn meant enormous labour, provided, possibly, by thousands of men, women and children. And resources had to be found for all of this. Chapter 5-6.indd 46 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 47  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThe new rajas now began maintaining armies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year. Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins (see the illustration on page 75). You will read more about these coins in Chapter 8. List two ways in which the rajas of the mahajanapadas were different from those mentioned in the Rigveda. T axes As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were (a) building huge forts (b) maintaining big armies, they needed more resources. And they needed officials to collect these. So, instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas , they started collecting regular taxes. • Taxes on crops • Taxes on craftspersons • Herders paid taxes as animals and animal produce. • Taxes on goods through trade. • Hunters and gatherers had to provide forest produce to the raja. What do you think would have been provided by hunters and gatherers? Changes in agriculture There were two major changes in agriculture around this time. One was the growing use of iron ploughshares. This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced. Second, people began transplanting Chapter 5-6.indd 47 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  48 our pasts–ipaddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields. This led to increased production, as many more plants survived. Can you think why kings would encourage these changes? A closer look — (a) Magadha Find Magadha on Map 4 (page 45). Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years. Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha were forested. Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army. Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts and chariots. Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons. Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used all possible means to conquer other janapadas . Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent. Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna). More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror. Of course, he didn’t conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas. When he wanted to march further eastwards, his soldiers refused. They were scared, as they had Chapter 5-6.indd 48 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 49  kingdoms , kings and an early republicheard that the rulers of India had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots and elephants. In what ways were these armies different from those described in the Rigveda? A closer look — (b) Vajji While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as gana or sangha . In a gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers and each one was known as a raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies, and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate. For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they met to discuss what should be done to meet the threat. However, women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies. This is an account of the Vajjis from the Digha Nikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which contains some of the speeches of the Buddha. These were written down about 2300 years ago. Ajatasattu and the Vajjis Ajatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis. He sent his minister named Vassakara to the Buddha to get his advice on the matter. The Buddha asked whether the Vajjis met frequently, in full assemblies. When he heard that they did, he replied that the Vajjis would continue to prosper as long as: • They held full and frequent public assemblies. • They met and acted together. • They followed established rules. • They respected, supported and listened to elders.KEYWORDS raja ashvamedha varna janapada mahajanapada fortification army tax transplantation gana or sangha Chapter 5-6.indd 49 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  50 our pasts–i• Vajji women were not held by force or captured. • Chaityas (local shrines) were maintained in both towns and villages. • Wise saints who followed different beliefs were respected and allowed to enter and leave the country freely. In what ways was the Vajji sangha different from the other mahajanapadas? Try and list at least three differences. Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas . Nevertheless, these lasted for a very long time, till about 1500 years ago, when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta rulers, about whom you will read in Chapter 9. Imagine You are peeping through a crack in the walls of the assembly of Vaishali, where a meeting is in progress to discuss ways to deal with an attack by the king of Magadha. Describe what you might hear. Let’s recall 1. State whether true or false: (a) Rajas who let the ashvamedha horse pass through their lands were invited to the sacrifice. (b) The charioteer sprinkled sacred water on the kin g. (c) Archaeologists have found palaces in the settlements of the janapadas. (d) Pots to store grain were made out of Painted Grey Ware. (e) Many cities in mahajanapadas were fortified. Chapter 5-6.indd 50 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24 51  kingdoms , kings and an early republic2. Fill in the chart given below with the terms: hunter- gatherers, farmers, traders, craftspersons, herders. 3. Who were the groups who could not participate in the assemblies of the ganas? Let’s discuss 4. Why did the rajas of mahajanapadas build forts? Let’s do 5. Were there any janapadas in your state? If yes, name them. If not, name the janapadas that would have been the closest to your state, and mention whether they were to the east, west, north or south. 6. Find out whether the groups mentioned in answer 3 have voting rights at present. THE RAJA OF THE MAHAJANAPADATHOSE WHO PAID TAXES  New kinds of rajas (about 3000 years ago)  Mahajanapadas (about 2500 years ago)  Alexander’s invasion, composition of the Digha Nikaya (about 2300 years ago)  End of the ganas or sanghas (about 1 500 years ago) SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 5-6.indd 51 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the horse that was sacrificed?

qa_26

43  kingdoms , kings and an early republicHow some men became rulers Choosing leaders or rulers by voting is something that has become common during the last fifty years or so. How did men become rulers in the past? Around 3000 years ago, some men became recognised as rajas by performing big sacrifices. The ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual. A horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja’s men. If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight. If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them. These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice, which was performed by specially trained priests, who were rewarded with gifts. The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who came brought gifts for him. The raja was a central figure in these rituals. He often had a special seat, a throne or a tiger skin. His charioteer, who was his companion in the battlefield and witnessed his exploits, chanted tales of his glory. His relatives, especially his wives and sons, had to perform a variety of minor rituals. CHAPTER 5 KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARL Y REPUBLIC Election day Shankaran woke up to see his grandparents all ready to go and vote. They wanted to be the first to reach the polling booth. Why, Shankaran wanted to know, were they so excited? Somewhat impatiently, his grandfather explained: “We can choose our own rulers today.” Chapter 5-6.indd 43 22 April 2022 12:49:54 Rationalised 2023-24 Painted Grey Ware. Plates and bowls are the most common vessels made out of Painted Grey Ware. These are extremely fine to touch, with a nice, smooth surface. Perhaps these were used on special occasions, for important people, and to serve special food. The other rajas were simply spectators who had to sit and watch the performance of the sacrifice. Priests performed the rituals including the sprinkling of sacred water on the king. The ordinary people, the vish or vaishya , also brought gifts. However, some people, such as those who were regarded as shudras by the priests, were excluded from many rituals. Make a list of all those who would be present at the sacrifice. Which are the categories that are described in terms of their occupation? Varnas There were four social categories, namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts. Kshatriyas were expected to fight battles and protect people. Vaishyas were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders. The Shudras were expected to serve the other three groups. Janapadas The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now recognised as being rajas of janapadas rather than janas. The word janapada literally means the land where the jana set its foot, and settled down. Some important janapadas are shown on Map 4 (page 45). Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these janapadas , such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut, and Atranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are in Uttar Pradesh). They found that people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals. They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard. Is there a crop in this list that was not mentioned in Chapter 3? Chapter 5-6.indd 44 26 May 2022 10:45:40 Rationalised 2023-24 45  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThey made earthen pots. Some of these were grey in colour, others were red. One special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware. As is obvious from the name, these grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns. Mahajanapadas About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahajanapadas. Some of these are shown on Map 4. Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified. This means that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them. Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed Map : 4 Important Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and Cities Chapter 5-6.indd 45 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  46 our pasts–iThe fortification wall at Kaushambi. This is a picture of remains of a wall made of brick, found near present-day Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh). A part of it was probably built about 2500 years ago. protection. It is also likely that some rulers wanted to show how rich and powerful they were by building really large, tall and impressive walls around their cities. Also in this way, the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king. Building such huge walls required a great deal of planning. Thousands, if not lakhs of bricks or stones had to be prepared. This in turn meant enormous labour, provided, possibly, by thousands of men, women and children. And resources had to be found for all of this. Chapter 5-6.indd 46 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 47  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThe new rajas now began maintaining armies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year. Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins (see the illustration on page 75). You will read more about these coins in Chapter 8. List two ways in which the rajas of the mahajanapadas were different from those mentioned in the Rigveda. T axes As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were (a) building huge forts (b) maintaining big armies, they needed more resources. And they needed officials to collect these. So, instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas , they started collecting regular taxes. • Taxes on crops • Taxes on craftspersons • Herders paid taxes as animals and animal produce. • Taxes on goods through trade. • Hunters and gatherers had to provide forest produce to the raja. What do you think would have been provided by hunters and gatherers? Changes in agriculture There were two major changes in agriculture around this time. One was the growing use of iron ploughshares. This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced. Second, people began transplanting Chapter 5-6.indd 47 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  48 our pasts–ipaddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields. This led to increased production, as many more plants survived. Can you think why kings would encourage these changes? A closer look — (a) Magadha Find Magadha on Map 4 (page 45). Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years. Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha were forested. Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army. Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts and chariots. Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons. Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used all possible means to conquer other janapadas . Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent. Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna). More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror. Of course, he didn’t conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas. When he wanted to march further eastwards, his soldiers refused. They were scared, as they had Chapter 5-6.indd 48 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 49  kingdoms , kings and an early republicheard that the rulers of India had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots and elephants. In what ways were these armies different from those described in the Rigveda? A closer look — (b) Vajji While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as gana or sangha . In a gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers and each one was known as a raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies, and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate. For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they met to discuss what should be done to meet the threat. However, women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies. This is an account of the Vajjis from the Digha Nikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which contains some of the speeches of the Buddha. These were written down about 2300 years ago. Ajatasattu and the Vajjis Ajatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis. He sent his minister named Vassakara to the Buddha to get his advice on the matter. The Buddha asked whether the Vajjis met frequently, in full assemblies. When he heard that they did, he replied that the Vajjis would continue to prosper as long as: • They held full and frequent public assemblies. • They met and acted together. • They followed established rules. • They respected, supported and listened to elders.KEYWORDS raja ashvamedha varna janapada mahajanapada fortification army tax transplantation gana or sangha Chapter 5-6.indd 49 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  50 our pasts–i• Vajji women were not held by force or captured. • Chaityas (local shrines) were maintained in both towns and villages. • Wise saints who followed different beliefs were respected and allowed to enter and leave the country freely. In what ways was the Vajji sangha different from the other mahajanapadas? Try and list at least three differences. Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas . Nevertheless, these lasted for a very long time, till about 1500 years ago, when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta rulers, about whom you will read in Chapter 9. Imagine You are peeping through a crack in the walls of the assembly of Vaishali, where a meeting is in progress to discuss ways to deal with an attack by the king of Magadha. Describe what you might hear. Let’s recall 1. State whether true or false: (a) Rajas who let the ashvamedha horse pass through their lands were invited to the sacrifice. (b) The charioteer sprinkled sacred water on the kin g. (c) Archaeologists have found palaces in the settlements of the janapadas. (d) Pots to store grain were made out of Painted Grey Ware. (e) Many cities in mahajanapadas were fortified. Chapter 5-6.indd 50 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24 51  kingdoms , kings and an early republic2. Fill in the chart given below with the terms: hunter- gatherers, farmers, traders, craftspersons, herders. 3. Who were the groups who could not participate in the assemblies of the ganas? Let’s discuss 4. Why did the rajas of mahajanapadas build forts? Let’s do 5. Were there any janapadas in your state? If yes, name them. If not, name the janapadas that would have been the closest to your state, and mention whether they were to the east, west, north or south. 6. Find out whether the groups mentioned in answer 3 have voting rights at present. THE RAJA OF THE MAHAJANAPADATHOSE WHO PAID TAXES  New kinds of rajas (about 3000 years ago)  Mahajanapadas (about 2500 years ago)  Alexander’s invasion, composition of the Digha Nikaya (about 2300 years ago)  End of the ganas or sanghas (about 1 500 years ago) SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 5-6.indd 51 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the early republic?

qa_27

43  kingdoms , kings and an early republicHow some men became rulers Choosing leaders or rulers by voting is something that has become common during the last fifty years or so. How did men become rulers in the past? Around 3000 years ago, some men became recognised as rajas by performing big sacrifices. The ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual. A horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja’s men. If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight. If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them. These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice, which was performed by specially trained priests, who were rewarded with gifts. The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who came brought gifts for him. The raja was a central figure in these rituals. He often had a special seat, a throne or a tiger skin. His charioteer, who was his companion in the battlefield and witnessed his exploits, chanted tales of his glory. His relatives, especially his wives and sons, had to perform a variety of minor rituals. CHAPTER 5 KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARL Y REPUBLIC Election day Shankaran woke up to see his grandparents all ready to go and vote. They wanted to be the first to reach the polling booth. Why, Shankaran wanted to know, were they so excited? Somewhat impatiently, his grandfather explained: “We can choose our own rulers today.” Chapter 5-6.indd 43 22 April 2022 12:49:54 Rationalised 2023-24 Painted Grey Ware. Plates and bowls are the most common vessels made out of Painted Grey Ware. These are extremely fine to touch, with a nice, smooth surface. Perhaps these were used on special occasions, for important people, and to serve special food. The other rajas were simply spectators who had to sit and watch the performance of the sacrifice. Priests performed the rituals including the sprinkling of sacred water on the king. The ordinary people, the vish or vaishya , also brought gifts. However, some people, such as those who were regarded as shudras by the priests, were excluded from many rituals. Make a list of all those who would be present at the sacrifice. Which are the categories that are described in terms of their occupation? Varnas There were four social categories, namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts. Kshatriyas were expected to fight battles and protect people. Vaishyas were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders. The Shudras were expected to serve the other three groups. Janapadas The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now recognised as being rajas of janapadas rather than janas. The word janapada literally means the land where the jana set its foot, and settled down. Some important janapadas are shown on Map 4 (page 45). Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these janapadas , such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut, and Atranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are in Uttar Pradesh). They found that people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals. They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard. Is there a crop in this list that was not mentioned in Chapter 3? Chapter 5-6.indd 44 26 May 2022 10:45:40 Rationalised 2023-24 45  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThey made earthen pots. Some of these were grey in colour, others were red. One special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware. As is obvious from the name, these grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns. Mahajanapadas About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahajanapadas. Some of these are shown on Map 4. Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified. This means that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them. Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed Map : 4 Important Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and Cities Chapter 5-6.indd 45 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  46 our pasts–iThe fortification wall at Kaushambi. This is a picture of remains of a wall made of brick, found near present-day Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh). A part of it was probably built about 2500 years ago. protection. It is also likely that some rulers wanted to show how rich and powerful they were by building really large, tall and impressive walls around their cities. Also in this way, the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king. Building such huge walls required a great deal of planning. Thousands, if not lakhs of bricks or stones had to be prepared. This in turn meant enormous labour, provided, possibly, by thousands of men, women and children. And resources had to be found for all of this. Chapter 5-6.indd 46 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 47  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThe new rajas now began maintaining armies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year. Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins (see the illustration on page 75). You will read more about these coins in Chapter 8. List two ways in which the rajas of the mahajanapadas were different from those mentioned in the Rigveda. T axes As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were (a) building huge forts (b) maintaining big armies, they needed more resources. And they needed officials to collect these. So, instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas , they started collecting regular taxes. • Taxes on crops • Taxes on craftspersons • Herders paid taxes as animals and animal produce. • Taxes on goods through trade. • Hunters and gatherers had to provide forest produce to the raja. What do you think would have been provided by hunters and gatherers? Changes in agriculture There were two major changes in agriculture around this time. One was the growing use of iron ploughshares. This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced. Second, people began transplanting Chapter 5-6.indd 47 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  48 our pasts–ipaddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields. This led to increased production, as many more plants survived. Can you think why kings would encourage these changes? A closer look — (a) Magadha Find Magadha on Map 4 (page 45). Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years. Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha were forested. Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army. Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts and chariots. Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons. Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used all possible means to conquer other janapadas . Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent. Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna). More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror. Of course, he didn’t conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas. When he wanted to march further eastwards, his soldiers refused. They were scared, as they had Chapter 5-6.indd 48 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 49  kingdoms , kings and an early republicheard that the rulers of India had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots and elephants. In what ways were these armies different from those described in the Rigveda? A closer look — (b) Vajji While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as gana or sangha . In a gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers and each one was known as a raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies, and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate. For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they met to discuss what should be done to meet the threat. However, women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies. This is an account of the Vajjis from the Digha Nikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which contains some of the speeches of the Buddha. These were written down about 2300 years ago. Ajatasattu and the Vajjis Ajatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis. He sent his minister named Vassakara to the Buddha to get his advice on the matter. The Buddha asked whether the Vajjis met frequently, in full assemblies. When he heard that they did, he replied that the Vajjis would continue to prosper as long as: • They held full and frequent public assemblies. • They met and acted together. • They followed established rules. • They respected, supported and listened to elders.KEYWORDS raja ashvamedha varna janapada mahajanapada fortification army tax transplantation gana or sangha Chapter 5-6.indd 49 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  50 our pasts–i• Vajji women were not held by force or captured. • Chaityas (local shrines) were maintained in both towns and villages. • Wise saints who followed different beliefs were respected and allowed to enter and leave the country freely. In what ways was the Vajji sangha different from the other mahajanapadas? Try and list at least three differences. Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas . Nevertheless, these lasted for a very long time, till about 1500 years ago, when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta rulers, about whom you will read in Chapter 9. Imagine You are peeping through a crack in the walls of the assembly of Vaishali, where a meeting is in progress to discuss ways to deal with an attack by the king of Magadha. Describe what you might hear. Let’s recall 1. State whether true or false: (a) Rajas who let the ashvamedha horse pass through their lands were invited to the sacrifice. (b) The charioteer sprinkled sacred water on the kin g. (c) Archaeologists have found palaces in the settlements of the janapadas. (d) Pots to store grain were made out of Painted Grey Ware. (e) Many cities in mahajanapadas were fortified. Chapter 5-6.indd 50 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24 51  kingdoms , kings and an early republic2. Fill in the chart given below with the terms: hunter- gatherers, farmers, traders, craftspersons, herders. 3. Who were the groups who could not participate in the assemblies of the ganas? Let’s discuss 4. Why did the rajas of mahajanapadas build forts? Let’s do 5. Were there any janapadas in your state? If yes, name them. If not, name the janapadas that would have been the closest to your state, and mention whether they were to the east, west, north or south. 6. Find out whether the groups mentioned in answer 3 have voting rights at present. THE RAJA OF THE MAHAJANAPADATHOSE WHO PAID TAXES  New kinds of rajas (about 3000 years ago)  Mahajanapadas (about 2500 years ago)  Alexander’s invasion, composition of the Digha Nikaya (about 2300 years ago)  End of the ganas or sanghas (about 1 500 years ago) SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 5-6.indd 51 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24

What did the rajas of mahajanapadas build forts?

qa_28

43  kingdoms , kings and an early republicHow some men became rulers Choosing leaders or rulers by voting is something that has become common during the last fifty years or so. How did men become rulers in the past? Around 3000 years ago, some men became recognised as rajas by performing big sacrifices. The ashvamedha or horse sacrifice was one such ritual. A horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja’s men. If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight. If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them. These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice, which was performed by specially trained priests, who were rewarded with gifts. The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who came brought gifts for him. The raja was a central figure in these rituals. He often had a special seat, a throne or a tiger skin. His charioteer, who was his companion in the battlefield and witnessed his exploits, chanted tales of his glory. His relatives, especially his wives and sons, had to perform a variety of minor rituals. CHAPTER 5 KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARL Y REPUBLIC Election day Shankaran woke up to see his grandparents all ready to go and vote. They wanted to be the first to reach the polling booth. Why, Shankaran wanted to know, were they so excited? Somewhat impatiently, his grandfather explained: “We can choose our own rulers today.” Chapter 5-6.indd 43 22 April 2022 12:49:54 Rationalised 2023-24 Painted Grey Ware. Plates and bowls are the most common vessels made out of Painted Grey Ware. These are extremely fine to touch, with a nice, smooth surface. Perhaps these were used on special occasions, for important people, and to serve special food. The other rajas were simply spectators who had to sit and watch the performance of the sacrifice. Priests performed the rituals including the sprinkling of sacred water on the king. The ordinary people, the vish or vaishya , also brought gifts. However, some people, such as those who were regarded as shudras by the priests, were excluded from many rituals. Make a list of all those who would be present at the sacrifice. Which are the categories that are described in terms of their occupation? Varnas There were four social categories, namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Brahmins were expected to study (and teach) the Vedas, perform sacrifices and receive gifts. Kshatriyas were expected to fight battles and protect people. Vaishyas were expected to be farmers, herders, and traders. The Shudras were expected to serve the other three groups. Janapadas The rajas who performed these big sacrifices were now recognised as being rajas of janapadas rather than janas. The word janapada literally means the land where the jana set its foot, and settled down. Some important janapadas are shown on Map 4 (page 45). Archaeologists have excavated a number of settlements in these janapadas , such as Purana Qila in Delhi, Hastinapura near Meerut, and Atranjikhera, near Etah (the last two are in Uttar Pradesh). They found that people lived in huts, and kept cattle as well as other animals. They also grew a variety of crops — rice, wheat, barley, pulses, sugarcane, sesame and mustard. Is there a crop in this list that was not mentioned in Chapter 3? Chapter 5-6.indd 44 26 May 2022 10:45:40 Rationalised 2023-24 45  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThey made earthen pots. Some of these were grey in colour, others were red. One special type of pottery found at these sites is known as Painted Grey Ware. As is obvious from the name, these grey pots had painted designs, usually simple lines and geometric patterns. Mahajanapadas About 2500 years ago, some janapadas became more important than others, and were known as mahajanapadas. Some of these are shown on Map 4. Most mahajanapadas had a capital city, many of these were fortified. This means that huge walls of wood, brick or stone were built around them. Forts were probably built because people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed Map : 4 Important Janapadas, Mahajanapadas and Cities Chapter 5-6.indd 45 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  46 our pasts–iThe fortification wall at Kaushambi. This is a picture of remains of a wall made of brick, found near present-day Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh). A part of it was probably built about 2500 years ago. protection. It is also likely that some rulers wanted to show how rich and powerful they were by building really large, tall and impressive walls around their cities. Also in this way, the land and the people living inside the fortified area could be controlled more easily by the king. Building such huge walls required a great deal of planning. Thousands, if not lakhs of bricks or stones had to be prepared. This in turn meant enormous labour, provided, possibly, by thousands of men, women and children. And resources had to be found for all of this. Chapter 5-6.indd 46 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 47  kingdoms , kings and an early republicThe new rajas now began maintaining armies. Soldiers were paid regular salaries and maintained by the king throughout the year. Some payments were probably made using punch marked coins (see the illustration on page 75). You will read more about these coins in Chapter 8. List two ways in which the rajas of the mahajanapadas were different from those mentioned in the Rigveda. T axes As the rulers of the mahajanapadas were (a) building huge forts (b) maintaining big armies, they needed more resources. And they needed officials to collect these. So, instead of depending on occasional gifts brought by people, as in the case of the raja of the janapadas , they started collecting regular taxes. • Taxes on crops • Taxes on craftspersons • Herders paid taxes as animals and animal produce. • Taxes on goods through trade. • Hunters and gatherers had to provide forest produce to the raja. What do you think would have been provided by hunters and gatherers? Changes in agriculture There were two major changes in agriculture around this time. One was the growing use of iron ploughshares. This meant that heavy, clayey soil could be turned over better than with a wooden ploughshare, so that more grain could be produced. Second, people began transplanting Chapter 5-6.indd 47 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  48 our pasts–ipaddy. This meant that instead of scattering seed on the ground, from which plants would sprout, saplings were grown and then planted in the fields. This led to increased production, as many more plants survived. Can you think why kings would encourage these changes? A closer look — (a) Magadha Find Magadha on Map 4 (page 45). Magadha became the most important mahajanapada in about two hundred years. Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha were forested. Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army. Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts and chariots. Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons. Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, who used all possible means to conquer other janapadas . Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent. Rajagriha (present-day Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. Later the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (present-day Patna). More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror. Of course, he didn’t conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas. When he wanted to march further eastwards, his soldiers refused. They were scared, as they had Chapter 5-6.indd 48 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24 49  kingdoms , kings and an early republicheard that the rulers of India had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots and elephants. In what ways were these armies different from those described in the Rigveda? A closer look — (b) Vajji While Magadha became a powerful kingdom, Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government, known as gana or sangha . In a gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers and each one was known as a raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies, and decided what had to be done and how, through discussion and debate. For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they met to discuss what should be done to meet the threat. However, women, dasas and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies. This is an account of the Vajjis from the Digha Nikaya, a famous Buddhist book, which contains some of the speeches of the Buddha. These were written down about 2300 years ago. Ajatasattu and the Vajjis Ajatasattu wanted to attack the Vajjis. He sent his minister named Vassakara to the Buddha to get his advice on the matter. The Buddha asked whether the Vajjis met frequently, in full assemblies. When he heard that they did, he replied that the Vajjis would continue to prosper as long as: • They held full and frequent public assemblies. • They met and acted together. • They followed established rules. • They respected, supported and listened to elders.KEYWORDS raja ashvamedha varna janapada mahajanapada fortification army tax transplantation gana or sangha Chapter 5-6.indd 49 22 April 2022 12:49:58 Rationalised 2023-24  50 our pasts–i• Vajji women were not held by force or captured. • Chaityas (local shrines) were maintained in both towns and villages. • Wise saints who followed different beliefs were respected and allowed to enter and leave the country freely. In what ways was the Vajji sangha different from the other mahajanapadas? Try and list at least three differences. Rajas of powerful kingdoms tried to conquer the sanghas . Nevertheless, these lasted for a very long time, till about 1500 years ago, when the last of the ganas or sanghas were conquered by the Gupta rulers, about whom you will read in Chapter 9. Imagine You are peeping through a crack in the walls of the assembly of Vaishali, where a meeting is in progress to discuss ways to deal with an attack by the king of Magadha. Describe what you might hear. Let’s recall 1. State whether true or false: (a) Rajas who let the ashvamedha horse pass through their lands were invited to the sacrifice. (b) The charioteer sprinkled sacred water on the kin g. (c) Archaeologists have found palaces in the settlements of the janapadas. (d) Pots to store grain were made out of Painted Grey Ware. (e) Many cities in mahajanapadas were fortified. Chapter 5-6.indd 50 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24 51  kingdoms , kings and an early republic2. Fill in the chart given below with the terms: hunter- gatherers, farmers, traders, craftspersons, herders. 3. Who were the groups who could not participate in the assemblies of the ganas? Let’s discuss 4. Why did the rajas of mahajanapadas build forts? Let’s do 5. Were there any janapadas in your state? If yes, name them. If not, name the janapadas that would have been the closest to your state, and mention whether they were to the east, west, north or south. 6. Find out whether the groups mentioned in answer 3 have voting rights at present. THE RAJA OF THE MAHAJANAPADATHOSE WHO PAID TAXES  New kinds of rajas (about 3000 years ago)  Mahajanapadas (about 2500 years ago)  Alexander’s invasion, composition of the Digha Nikaya (about 2300 years ago)  End of the ganas or sanghas (about 1 500 years ago) SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 5-6.indd 51 22 April 2022 12:49:59 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the RAJA OF THE MAHAJANAPADATHOSE WHO PAID

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 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

Anagha's school trip was the first time she was going on a school trip

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 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the Buddha's position in the world?

qa_2

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

Buddha was known as the Wise One.

qa_3

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the chapter 6?

qa_4

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

Buddha taught in the language of ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everyone could understand his

qa_5

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the stupa at Sarnath?

qa_6

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the story of Kisagotami?

qa_7

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

Kisagotami found out that someone had died in her family.

qa_8

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What did the Upanishads say about the mother of the sorrowing mother?

qa_9

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What does Upanishad mean?

qa_10

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What philosophy system was founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila,

qa_11

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the Upanishadic philosophers?

qa_12

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

Satyakama Jabala was one of the best-known thinkers of the time.

qa_13

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

Shaunaka and Abhipratarin worshipped the universal soul.

qa_14

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What did Shaunaka say to the beggar?

qa_15

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What did the beggar say to the sages?

qa_16

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas

qa_17

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What did the kshatriya prince teach?

qa_18

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the basic life of the followers of Mahavira?

qa_19

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What did the rules of celibacy require of men and women?

qa_20

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the main reason Jainism spread to different parts of India?

qa_21

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

The rules for the sangha were written in a book called the Vinaya Pit

qa_22

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives.

qa_23

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What did the ibhikkhus do to settle disputes?

qa_24

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What sangha did the students join?

qa_25

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the only time the monks stayed in one place?

qa_26

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What were the first viharas built of?

qa_27

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the stage of life of Ashramas Ashram?

qa_28

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

Brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha,

qa_29

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the new form of Buddhism that developed in India?

qa_30

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

When Bodhisattvas were enlightened, they were supposed to live in

qa_31

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

Buddhism spread to Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia,

qa_32

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the ancient form of Buddhism that was more popular in the area?

qa_33

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What did Xuan Zang describe the teachers of Nalanda?

qa_34

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the gatekeeper's rule of entry?

qa_35

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the place where the Buddha taught for the first time?

qa_36

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the main teaching of the Mahavira?

qa_37

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the reason why the Chinese pilgrims came to India?

qa_38

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the preacher you want to go to?

qa_39

 52 our pasts–i Anagha’s school trip This was the first time Anagha was going on a school trip. They boarded the train from Pune (in Maharashtra) late at night, to go all the way to Varanasi (in Uttar Pradesh). Her mother, who came to see her off at the station, told the teacher: “Do tell the children about the Buddha, and take them to see Sarnath as well.” The story of the Buddha Siddhartha, also known as Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, was born about 2500 years ago. This was a time of rapid change in the lives of people. As you saw in Chapter 5, some kings in the mahajanapadas were growing more powerful. New cities were developing, and life was changing in the villages as well. Many thinkers were trying to understand these changes in society. They also wanted to try and find out the true meaning of life. The Buddha belonged to a small gana known as the Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya. When he was a young man, he left the comforts of his home in search of knowledge. He wandered for several years, meeting and holding discussions with other thinkers. He finally decided to find his own path to realisation, and meditated for days on end under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya in Bihar, where he attained enlightenment. After that, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One. He then went to Sarnath, near Varanasi, where he taught for the first time. He spent the rest of his life travelling on foot, going from place to place, teaching people, till he passed away at Kusinara. CHAPTER 6 NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS Chapter 5-6.indd 52 22 April 2022 12:50:00 Rationalised 2023-24 53  new questions and ideas The Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness. This is caused because we have cravings and desires (which often cannot be fulfilled). Sometimes, even if we get what we want, we are not satisfied, and want even more (or want other things). The Buddha described this as thirst or tanha. He taught that this constant craving could be removed by following moderation in everything. He also taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals. He believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad, affect us both in this life and the next. The Buddha taught in the language of the ordinary people, Prakrit, so that everybody could understand his message. What was the language used to compose the Vedas? He also encouraged people to think for themselves rather than to simply accept what he said. Let us see how he did this.The stupa at Sarnath. This building, known as a stupa, was built to mark the place where the Buddha first taught his message. Y ou will learn more about stupas in Chapter 10. Chapter 5-6.indd 53 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  54 our pasts–iThe story of Kisagotami Here is a famous story about the Buddha. Once there was a woman named Kisagotami, whose son had died. She was so sad that she roamed through the streets of the city carrying the child with her, asking for help to bring him back to life. A kind man took her to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “Bring me a handful of mustard seeds, and I will bring your child back to life.” Kisagotami was overjoyed and started off at once, but the Buddha gently stopped her and added: “The seeds must come from the house of a family where nobody has died.” Kisagotami went from door to door, but wherever she went, she found out that someone or the other — father, mother, sister, brother, husband, wife, child, uncle, aunt, grandfather, grandmother — had died. What was the Buddha trying to teach the sorrowing mother? Upanishads Around the time, various other thinkers also tried to find answers to philosophical questions. Some of them wanted to know about life after death, others wanted to know why sacrifices should be performed. Many of these thinkers felt that there was something permanent in the universe that would last even after death. They described this as the atman or the individual soul and the brahman or the universal soul. They believed that ultimately, both the atman and the brahman were one. Many of their ideas were recorded in the Upanishads. These were part of the later Vedic texts. Upanishad literally means ‘approaching and sitting Six Schools of Indian Philosophy Over centuries, India’s intellectual exploration of truth has come to be represented by six systems of philosophy. These are known as Vaishesika , Nyaya , Samkhya , Yoga, Purva Mimansa and Vedanta or Uttara Mimansa. These six systems of philosophy are said to have been founded by sages Konada, Gotama, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Vyasa, respectively. These philosophies still guide scholarly discourse in the country. German-born British indologist, Friedrich Max Muller, has observed that the six systems of philosophy were developed over many generations with contributions made by individual thinkers. However, today, we find an underlying harmony in their understanding of truth, although they seem distinct from each other. Chapter 5-6.indd 54 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 55  new questions and ideasnear’ and the texts contain conversations between teachers and students. Often, ideas were presented through simple dialogues. Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, especially brahmins and rajas. Occasionally, there is mention of women thinkers, such as Gargi, Apala, Ghosha, and Maitreyi, who were famous for their learning, and participated in debates. Poor people rarely took part in these discussions. One famous exception was Satyakama Jabala, who was named after his mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known thinkers of the time. Many of the ideas of the Upanishads were later developed by the famous thinker Shankaracharya, about whom you will read in Class VII. The wise beggar Here is a dialogue based on a story from one of the most famous Upanishads , the Chhandogya Upanishad . Shaunaka and Abhipratarin were two sages who worshipped the universal soul. Once, as they sat down to eat, a beggar came and asked for some food.“We cannot spare anything for you,” Shaunaka said.“Learned sirs, whom do you worship?” the beggar asked.“The universal soul,” Abhipratarin replied. “Ah! It means that you know that the universal soul fills the entire world.”“Yes, yes. We know that.” The sages nodded. “If the universal soul fills the whole world, it fills me too. Who am I, but a part of the world?” the beggar asked. “You speak the truth, O young brahmin.”“Then, O sages, by not giving me food, you are actually denying food to the universal soul.” The sages realised the truth of what the beggar said, and shared their food with him. How did the beggar convince the sages to share their food with him? Chapter 5-6.indd 55 26 May 2022 10:47:50 Rationalised 2023-24  56 our pasts–iPanini, the grammarian This was also the time when other scholars were at work. One of the most famous was Panini, who prepared a grammar for Sanskrit. He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to create formulae like those found in Algebra. He used these to write down the rules of the language in short formulae (around 3000 of them!). Jainism The last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, Vardhamana Mahavira, also spread his message around this time, i.e. 2500 years ago. He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was a part of the Vajji sangha, about which you read in Chapter 5. At the age of thirty, he left home and went to live in a forest. For twelve years, he led a hard and lonely life, at the end of which he attained enlightenment. He taught a simple doctrine: men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes. They must follow very strictly the rules of ahimsa, which means not hurting or killing living beings. “All beings,” said Mahavira “long to live. To all things life is dear.” Ordinary people could understand the teachings of Mahavira and his followers, because they used Prakrit. There were several forms of Prakrit, used in different parts of the country, and named after the regions in which they were used. For example, the Prakrit spoken in Magadha was known as Magadhi. Followers of Mahavira, who were known as Jainas , had to lead very simple lives, begging for food. They had to be absolutely honest, and were especially asked not to steal. Also, they had to observe celibacy. And men had to give up everything, including their clothes. Chapter 5-6.indd 56 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24 57  new questions and ideasIt was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules. Nevertheless, thousands left their homes to learn and teach this new way of life. Many more remained behind and supported those who became monks and nuns, providing them with food. Jainism was supported mainly by traders. Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow the rules. Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries. They were written down in the form in which they are presently available at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago (see Map 7, page 87). The sangha Both the Mahavira and the Buddha felt that only those who left their homes could gain true knowledge. They arranged for them to stay together in the sangha , an association of those who left their homes. The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya Pitaka. From this, we know that there were separate branches for men and women. All men could join the sangha . However, children had to take the permission of their parents and slaves that of their masters. Those who worked for the king had to take his permission and debtors that of creditors. Women had to take their husbands’ permission. Men and women who joined the sangha led simple lives. They meditated for most of the time, and went to cities and villages to beg for food during fixed hours. That is why they were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for renouncer) and Jaina The word Jaina comes from the term Jina, meaning conqueror. Why do you think the term Jina was used for Mahavira? Chapter 5-6.indd 57 22 April 2022 12:50:01 Rationalised 2023-24  58 our pasts–ibhikkhunis. They taught others, and helped one another. They also held meetings to settle any quarrels that took place within the sangha . Those who joined the sangha included brahmins , kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and slaves. Many of them wrote down the teachings of the Buddha. Some of them also composed beautiful poems, describing their life in the sangha. List at least two ways in which the sangha described in this lesson was different from the one mentioned in Chapter 5. Were there any similarities? Viharas To begin with, both Jaina and Buddhist monks went from place to place throughout the year, teaching people. The only time they stayed in one place was during the rainy season, when it was very difficult to travel. Then, their supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in hilly areas. As time went on, many supporters of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and they themselves, felt the need for more permanent shelters and so monasteries were built. These were known as viharas . The earliest viharas were made of wood, and then of brick. Some were even in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India. A cave hollowed out in the hills.This is a cave in Karle, present-day Maharashtra. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis lived and meditated in these shelters. Chapter 5-6.indd 58 25 April 2022 02:09:40 Rationalised 2023-24 59  new questions and ideasStages of life: Ashramas Ashram means a stage of life. Four ashramas were recognised: brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha and samnyasa. Brahmanas , kshatriyas and vaishyas were expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas during the early years of their life ( brahmacharya ). Then they had to marry and live as householders (grihastha). Then they had to live in the forest and meditate ( vanaprastha ). Finally, they had to give up everything and become samnyasins. The system of ashramas allowed a person to spend some parts of their lives in meditation. In what way was the system of ashramas different from life in the Sangha ?A Buddhist text tells us: Just as the waters of rivers lose their names and separateness when they flow into the mighty ocean, so are varna and ranks and family forgotten when the followers of the Buddha join the order of monks. Very often, the land on which the vihara was built was donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the king. The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. In return, they taught the people. Over the centuries, Buddhism spread to many parts of the subcontinent and beyond. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed. This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila. The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas . These were supposed to be persons who had Chapter 5-6.indd 59 09 June 2022 05:26:14 Rationalised 2023-24 attained enlightenment. Once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people. The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan. Buddhism spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for bhikkhus to live in. Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas. Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship. The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang. They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries. Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them. Nalanda – A unique centre of learning Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda (Bihar), the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.” List the reasons why Xuan Zang wanted to study in Nalanda. Chapter 5-6.indd 60 26 May 2022 10:49:19 Rationalised 2023-24 61  new questions and ideasLet’s recall 1. Describe the ways in which the Buddha tried to spread his message to the people. 2. Write whether true or false: (a) The Buddha encouraged animal sacrifices. (b) Sarnath is important because it was the place where the Buddha taught for the first time. (c) The Buddha taught that karma has no effect on our lives. (d) The Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya. (e) Upanishadic thinkers believed that the atman and brahman were ultimately one. 3. What were the questions that Upanishadic thinkers wanted to answer? 4. What were the main teachings of the Mahavira? Let’s discuss 5. Why do you think Anagha’s mother wanted her to know the story of the Buddha? 6. Do you think it would have been easy for slaves to join the sangha? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Discuss the reasons why the Chinese pilgrims came to India. Let’s do 8. Make a list of at least five ideas and questions mentioned in this lesson. Choose three from the list and discuss why you think they are important even today. 9. Find out more about men and women who renounce the world today. Where do they live, what kinds of clothes do they wear, what do they eat? Why do they renounce the world? KEYWORDS tanha Prakrit Upanishad atman brahman ahimsa Jaina sangha bhikkhu vihara ashramaImagine You want to go to listen to one of the preachers who lived about 2500 years ago. Describe your conversation with your parents as you try to persuade them to let you go. SOME IMPORTANT DATES  Upanishadic thinkers, the Jaina teacher Mahavira and the Buddha (about 2500 years ago)  Writing down of the Jaina texts (about 1 500 years ago) Chapter 5-6.indd 61 22 April 2022 12:50:02 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the date of the writing of the Jaina texts?

qa_40

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of Ashoka's kingdom?

qa_1

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the dynasty that is often called a king

qa_2

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the CD that Roshan's grandfather gave her?

qa_3

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What did the lions ask?

qa_4

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the capital of Pataliputra?

qa_5

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the empire that was found in the Mauryan Empire?

qa_6

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the role of the officials in the emperor's tax collection?

qa_7

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the area that was ruled from Pataliputra?

qa_8

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What resources were collected as tax and tribute?

qa_9

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the chapter that was rationalised in 2022?

qa_10

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw.

qa_11

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What did Pataliputra say about Patna?

qa_12

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the ruler who was Ashoka?

qa_13

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the ancient Orissa city?

qa_14

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What did Ashoka say about the Kalinga war?

qa_15

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the Rampurwa bull's name?

qa_16

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What was Ashoka's dhamma?

qa_17

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

Ashoka appointed officials to solve problems in the empire.

qa_18

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

Ashoka sent messages to other lands, including Sri Lanka and Egypt.

qa_19

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the letter 'a' written in different scripts?

qa_20

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

Ashoka said that rituals that people perform are not useful.

qa_21

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What are some other practices?

qa_22

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire?

qa_23

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What did the Mauryan rulers try to control?

qa_24

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What did Ashoka do to spread the message of dhamma?

qa_25

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the lions on the currency notes?

qa_26

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the book that shows the history of the Mauryan empire?

qa_27

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the Roman city in Arikamedu?

qa_28

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What kingdoms did the Shakas set up?

qa_29

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the Kushana dynasty?

qa_30

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What kingdom did the Satavahana rule for 400 years?

qa_31

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the people who were involved in trade in India?

qa_32

The lions that we see on our notes and coins have a long history. They were carved in stone, and placed on top of a massive stone pillar at Sarnath (about which you read in Chapter 6). Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions inscriptions were inscribed on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces. Before we find out what was written in these inscriptions, let us see why his kingdom was called an empire. The empire that Ashoka ruled was founded by his grandfather, Chandragupta Maurya, more than 2300 years ago. Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra. CHAPTER 7 FROM A KINGDOM TO AN EMPIRE Dynasty When members of the same family become rulers one after another, the family is often called a dynasty. The Mauryas were a dynasty with three important rulers — Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.The lion capital Roshan’s rupees Roshan clutched the crisp notes that her grandfather had given her on her birthday. While she badly wanted to buy a new CD, she also wanted to just see and feel the brand new notes. It was then that she noticed that all of them had a smiling face of Gandhiji printed on the right, and a tiny set of lions on the left. What were the lions there for, she wondered. Chapter 7-8.indd 62 22 April 2022 02:36:26 Rationalised 2023-24 63  from a kingdom to an empireThe places where inscriptions of Ashoka have been found are marked with red dots. These were included within the empire. Name the countries where Ashokan inscriptions have been found. Which Indian states were outside the empire? There were several cities in the empire (marked with black dots on the map). These included the capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain. Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central Asia, while Ujjain lay on the route from north to south India. Merchants, officials and craftspersons probably lived in these cities. In other areas there were villages of farmers and herders. In some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food. People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages. Map : 5 The Mauryan Empire: showing the principal cities and some of the places where inscriptions were found. Inscriptions were found Chapter 7-8.indd 63 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  64 our pasts–iThey probably ate different kinds of food, and wore different kinds of clothes as well. How are empires different from kingdoms? • Emperors need more resources than kings because empires are larger than kingdoms, and need to be protected by big armies. • So also they need a larger number of officials who collect taxes. Ruling the empire As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently. The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes from farmers, herders, craftspersons and traders, who lived in villages and towns in the area. Officials also punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders. Many of these officials were given salaries. Messengers went to and fro, and spies kept a watch on the officials. And of course the emperor supervised them all, with the help of members of the royal family, and senior ministers. There were other areas or provinces. Each of these was ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain. Although there was some amount of control from Pataliputra, and royal princes were often sent as governors, local customs and rules were probably followed. Besides, there were vast areas between these centres. Here the Mauryas tried to control roads and rivers, which were important for transport, and to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute. For example, the Arthashastra tells us that the north-west was important for blankets, and south India for its gold and precious stones. It is possible that these resources were collected as tribute. Chapter 7-8.indd 64 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 65  from a kingdom to an empireT ribute Unlike taxes, which were collected on a regular basis, tribute was collected as and when it was possible from people who gave a variety of things, more or less willingly. There were also the forested regions. People living in these areas were more or less independent, but may have been expected to provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials. The emperor and the capital city Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia named Seleucus Nicator. Megasthenes wrote an account about what he saw. Here is a part of his description: “The occasions on which the emperor appears in public are celebrated with grand royal processions. He is carried in a golden palanquin. His guards ride elephants decorated with gold and silver. Some of the guards carry trees on which live birds, including a flock of trained parrots, circle about the head of the emperor. The king is normally surrounded by armed women. He is afraid that someone may try to kill him. He has special servants to taste the food before he eats. He never sleeps in the same bedroom for two nights.” And about Pataliputra (modern Patna), he wrote:“This is a large and beautiful city. It is surrounded by a massive wall. It has 570 towers and 64 gates. The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick. The king’s palace is also of wood, and decorated with stone carvings. It is surrounded with gardens and enclosures for keeping birds.” Why do you think the king had special servants to taste the food he ate? In what ways was Pataliputra different from Mohenjodaro? (hint: see Chapter 3) Chapter 7-8.indd 65 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24  66 our pasts–iAshoka, a unique ruler The most famous Mauryan ruler was Ashoka. He was the first ruler who tried to take his message to the people through inscriptions. Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script. Ashoka’s war in Kalinga Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa (see Map 5, page 63). Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga. However, he was so horrified when he saw the violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any more wars. He is the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest after winning a war. Ashoka’s inscription describing the Kalinga war This is what Ashoka declared in one of his inscriptions: “Eight years after becoming king I conquered Kalinga. About a lakh and a half people were captured. And more than a lakh of people were killed. This filled me with sorrow. Why?Whenever an independent land is conquered, lakhs of people die, and many are taken prisoner. Brahmins and monks also die. People who are kind to their relatives and friends, to their slaves and servants die, or lose their loved ones. That is why I am sad, and have decided to observe dhamma, and to teach others about it as well. I believe that winning people over through dhamma is much better than conquering them through force. I am inscribing this message for the future, so that my son and grandson after me should not think about war. Instead, they should try to think about how to spread dhamma.” How did the Kalinga war bring about a change in Ashoka’s attitude towards war? (‘Dhamma’ is the Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’). Chapter 7-8.indd 66 22 April 2022 02:36:28 Rationalised 2023-24 67  from a kingdom to an empireThe Rampurwa bull. Look at this finely polished stone sculpture. This was part of a Mauryan pillar found in Rampurwa, Bihar, and has now been placed in Rashtrapati Bhavan. It is an example of the skill of the sculptors of the time.What was Ashoka’s dhamma? Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that just as a father tries to teach his children, he had a duty to instruct his subjects. He was also inspired by the teachings of the Buddha (Chapter 6). There were a number of problems that troubled him. People in the empire followed different religions, and this sometimes led to conflict. Animals were sacrificed. Slaves and servants were ill treated. Besides, there were quarrels in families and amongst neighbours. Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems. So, he appointed officials, known as the dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place teaching people about dhamma. Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves. Ashoka also sent messengers to spread ideas about dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka. Try and identify these on Map 6, pages 70–71 . He built roads, dug wells, and built rest houses. Besides, he arranged for medical treatment for both human beings and animals. Chapter 7-8.indd 67 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  68 our pasts–i Early Brahmi Devanagari (Hindi) Bengali Malayalam T amilBelow : The Brahmi script. Most modern Indian scripts have developed from the Brahmi script over hundreds of years.Here you can see the letter ‘a’ written in different scripts. Ashoka’s message to his subjects: “People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill, when their children get married, when children are born, or when they go on a journey. These rituals are not useful.If instead, people observe other practices, this would be more fruitful. What are these other practices? These are: being gentle with slaves and servants.Respecting one’s elders.Treating all creatures with compassion.Giving gifts to brahmins and monks.”“It is both wrong to praise one’s own religion or criticise another’s. Each one should respect the other’s religion.If one praises one’s own religion while criticising another’s, one is actually doing greater harm to one’s own religion. Therefore, one should try to understand the main ideas of another’s religion, and respect it.” Identify the parts of Ashoka’s message that you think are relevant today. Imagine You live in Kalinga, and your parents have suffered in the war. Messengers from Ashoka have just arrived with the new ideas about dhamma . Describe the dialogue between them and your parents. Let’s recall 1. Make a list of the occupations of the people who lived within the Mauryan empire. 2. Complete the following sentences: (a) Officials collected __________ from the area under the direct control of the ruler. Chapter 7-8.indd 68 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24 69  from a kingdom to an empireKEYWORDS empire capital province dhamma messenger official (b) Royal princes often went to the provinces as ______________. (c) The Mauryan rulers tried to control _____________ and ______________ which were important for transport. (d) People in forested regions provided the Mauryan officials with ____________. 3. State whether true or false: (a) Ujjain was the gateway to the north-west. (b) Chandragupta’s ideas were written down in the Arthashastra. (c) Kalinga was the ancient name of Bengal. (d) Most Ashokan inscriptions are in the Brahmi script. Let’s discuss 4. What were the problems that Ashoka wanted to solve by introducing dhamma? 5. What were the means adopted by Ashoka to spread the message of dhamma? 6. Why do you think slaves and servants were ill-treated? Do you think the orders of the emperor would have improved their condition? Give reasons for your answer. Let’s do 7. Write a short paragraph explaining to Roshan why the lions are shown on our currency notes. List at least one other object on which you see them. 8. Suppose you had the power to inscribe your orders, what four commands would you like to issue?  Beginning of the Mauryan empire (more than 2300 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 69 22 April 2022 02:36:29 Rationalised 2023-24  70 our pasts–i These routes were under the control of Chinese rulers. These routes were under the control of the Kushanas (Chapter 8). These were important sea routes. These routes were under the control of the rulers of Iran (Persia). These routes were controlled by the Roman emperors.Map : 6 Showing Important T rade Routes including the Silk Route Chapter 7-8.indd 70 22 April 2022 02:36:32 Rationalised 2023-24 71  from a kingdom to an empire A Shaka coin Based on The Times Atlas of World History, (ed. Geoffrey Barraclough) Hammond Inc, New Jersey, 1 986, pp 70–71. Chinese, Indian, Iranian, Arab, Greek and Roman traders participated in these exchanges. The ports along the coast of south India were important centres for the export of pepper and other spices. Find Poduca (south India) on the map. This was the Roman name for Arikamedu (Chapter 8). Chapter 7-8.indd 71 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24 LOOKING AHEAD The Mauryan empire collapsed about 2200 years ago. In its place (and elsewhere) rose several new kingdoms. In the north-west, and in parts of north India, kings known as the Indo-Greeks ruled for about one hundred years. They were followed by a Central Asian people known as the Shakas, who set up kingdoms in the north-west, north and western India. Some of these kingdoms lasted for about 500 years, till the Shakas were defeated by the Gupta kings (Chapter 9). The Shakas in turn were followed by the Kushanas (about 2000 years ago). You will learn more about the Kushanas in Chapter 8. In the north, and in parts of central India, a general of the Mauryas, named Pushyamitra Shunga, set up a kingdom. The Shungas were followed by another dynasty, known as the Kanvas, and by rulers from other families till the establishment of the Gupta empire about 1700 years ago. The Shakas who ruled over parts of western India fought several battles with the Satavahanas, who ruled over western and parts of central India. The Satavahana kingdom, which was established about 2100 years ago, lasted for about 400 years. Around 1700 years ago, a new ruling family, known as the Vakatakas, became powerful in central and western India. In south India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas ruled between 2200 and 1800 years ago. And, about 1500 years ago, there were two large kingdoms, those of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. There were several other kingdoms and kings as well. We know about them from their coins and inscriptions, as well as from books. There were other changes that were taking place, in which ordinary men and women played a major role. These included the spread of agriculture and the growth of new towns, craft production and trade. Traders explored land routes within the subcontinent and outside, and sea routes to West Asia, East Africa and South East Asia (see Map 6) were also opened up. And many new buildings were built — including the earliest temples and stupas, books were written, and scientific discoveries were made. These developments took place simultaneously, i.e. at the same time. Keep this in mind as you read the rest of the book. A Kushana coin A Satavahana coin An Indo-Greek coin A Shaka coin Chapter 7-8.indd 72 22 April 2022 02:36:33 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the time of the first temples and stupas?

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73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the use of iron tools and agriculture?

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73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What was another step to increase production?

qa_2

73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the blacksmiths in Prabhakar?

qa_3

73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the people who lived in the villages?

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73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the people who work in irrigation works in Tamil?

qa_5

73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the village headman in the northern part of the country?

qa_6

73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the role of the grama bhojaka?

qa_7

73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the first coin that was in use for 500 years?

qa_8

73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the earliest works in Tamil literature?

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73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the town Mathura?

qa_10

73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

Punch-marked Coins were usually rectangular or square in shape.

qa_11

73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

Punch-marked coins are stamped with symbols using dies or punches.

qa_12

73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the first way of exchange for salt?

qa_13

73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the Kushanas?

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73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

Mathura was also a religious centre — Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrine

qa_15

73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What is the name of the pottery that is believed to have been made in NBPW?

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73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What is NBPW?

qa_17

73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the association that provided training and supplies to craftspeople?

qa_18

73  villages , towns and tradeIron tools and agriculture We often take the use of iron for granted today. Things made of iron (and steel) are a part of our daily lives. The use of iron began in the subcontinent around 3000 years ago. Some of the largest collections of iron tools and weapons were found in the megalithic burials, about which you read in Chapter 4. Around 2500 years ago, there is evidence for the growing use of iron tools. These included axes for clearing forests, and the iron ploughshare. As we had seen (Chapter 5), the ploughshare was useful for increasing agricultural production. Other steps to increase production: irrigation The kings and kingdoms you have been reading about could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages. While new tools and the system of transplantation (Chapter 5) increased production, irrigation was also used. Irrigation works that were built during this time included canals, wells, tanks, and artificial lakes.CHAPTER 8 VILLAGES, TOWNS AND TRADE Prabhakar at the blacksmith’s shop Prabhakar sat watching the smiths at the local shop. There was a small bench on which iron tools like axes and sickles were laid out, ready for sale. A bright fire was burning, and two men were heating and beating metal rods into shape. It was very hot and noisy, and yet it was fascinating to watch what was happening. Iron tools. Here is a set of captions. Choose the right one for each of the pictures.Sickle, tongs, axe.Prepare a list of at least five objects made of iron or steel that you use almost everyday. Chapter 7-8.indd 73 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24  74 our pasts–iWho lived in the villages? There were at least three different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern and northern parts of the subcontinent. In the Tamil region, large landowners were known as vellalar, ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar, and landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai. 1. Kings need money for armies, palaces, forts.2. They demand taxes from farmers. 4. This is possible with irrigation. 6. 7 . Production increases. 3. 5. 8. So does revenue. 9. If you look at the chart, you will find that some of the stages in the construction of irrigation works are mentioned. Fill in the rest by using the following phrases: • Labour is provided by the people. • Farmers also benefit because crop production is more certain. • Farmers have to increase production to pay taxes. • Kings provide money and plan irrigation works. Chapter 7-8.indd 74 22 April 2022 02:36:34 Rationalised 2023-24 75  villages , towns and tradeIn the northern part of the country, the village headman was known as the grama bhojaka. Usually, men from the same family held the position for generations. In other words, the post was hereditary. The grama bhojaka was often the largest landowner. Generally, he had slaves and hired workers to cultivate the land. Besides, as he was powerful, the king often used him to collect taxes from the village. He also functioned as a judge, and sometimes as a policeman. Apart from the grama bhojaka, there were other independent farmers, known as grihapatis, most of whom were smaller landowners. And then there were men and women such as the dasa karmakara, who did not own land, and had to earn a living working on the fields owned by others. In most villages there were also some craftspersons such as the blacksmith, potter, carpenter and weaver. Coins Archaeologists have found several thousands of coins belonging to this period. The earliest coins which were in use for about 500 years were punch-marked coins, such as the one shown here. The earliest T amil compositions Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai (see Map 7, page 87). The Tamil terms mentioned above are found in Sangam literature. Chapter 7-8.indd 75 25 April 2022 02:28:35 Rationalised 2023-24  76 our pasts–iCities with many functions Very often, a single town was important for a variety of reasons. Let us look at the example of Mathura (Map 7, page 87). Mathura has been an important settlement for more than 2500 years. It was important because it was located at the cross roads of two major routes of travel and trade — from the northwest to the east and from north to south. There were fortifications around the city, and several shrines. Farmers and herders from adjoining areas provided food for Punch-marked Coins Punch-marked coins were generally rectangular or sometimes square or round in shape, either cut out of metal sheets or made out of flattened metal globules (a small spherical body). The coins were not inscribed, but were stamped with symbols using dies or punches. Hence, they are called punch-marked coins. These coins are found over most parts of the subcontinent and remained in circulation till the early centuries CE. Other means of exchange Read this short poem from the Sangam collection: As they carry the white paddy of their land To exchange it for the salt of another, Crossing the long roads in carts, Through sands white as moonlight, Taking whole families, Who hate to be left behind, The departure of the salt merchants Leaves the city empty. Salt was produced plentifully along the sea coast. What are the merchants planning to exchange it with? How are they travelling? Chapter 7-8.indd 76 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 77  villages , towns and tradepeople in the city. Mathura was also a centre where some extremely fine sculpture was produced. Around 2000 years ago, Mathura became the second capital of the Kushanas, about whom you would read. Mathura was also a religious centre — there were Buddhist monasteries, Jaina shrines, and it was an important centre for the worship of Krishna. Several inscriptions on surfaces such as stone slabs and statues have been found in Mathura. Generally, these are short inscriptions, recording gifts made by men (and sometimes women) to monasteries and shrines. These were made by kings and queens, officers, merchants, and craftspersons who lived in the city. For instance, inscriptions from Mathura mention goldsmiths, blacksmiths, weavers, basket makers, garland makers, perfumers. Make a list of the occupations of people who lived in Mathura. List one occupation that was not practised in Harappan cities. Crafts and craftspersons We also have archaeological evidence for crafts. These include extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). It gets its name from the fact that it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. Remember that the archaeological evidence for many crafts may not have survived. We know from texts that the manufacture of cloth was important. There were famous centres such as Varanasi in the north, and Madurai in the south. Both men and women worked in these centres.Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) NBPW is a hard, wheel made, metallic looking ware with a shiny black surface. The potter used to expose the earthenware to very high temperature in his kiln which resulted in the blackening of its outer surface. A fine black slip was also applied on this, which gave the pottery a mirror-like shine. Chapter 7-8.indd 77 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  78 our pasts–i Many craftspersons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis. These shrenis of craftspersons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product. Then shrenis of merchants organised the trade. Shrenis also served as banks, where rich men and women deposited money. This was invested, and part of the interest was returned or used to support religious institutions such as monasteries. A closer look — Arikamedu Find Arikamedu (in Puducherry) on Map 7 (page 87). Between 2200 and 1900 years ago, Arikamedu was a coastal settlement where ships unloaded goods from distant lands. A massive brick structure, which may have been a warehouse, Rules for spinning and weaving These rules are from the Arthashastra, mentioned in Chapter 7. They describe how spinning and weaving could be done in workshops under the supervision of a special official. “Widows, young women who are differently abled, nuns, mothers of courtesans, retired women servants of the king, women who have retired from service in temples, may be used for processing wool, bark, cotton, hemp and flax. They should be paid according to the quality and quantity of work. Women who are not permitted to leave their homes can send maid- servants to bring the raw material from the superintendent, and take the finished work back to him. Women who can visit the workshop should go at dawn to give their work and receive their wages. There should be enough light to examine the work. In case the superintendent looks at the woman or talks about anything other than the work, he should be punished. If a woman does not complete her work, she will have to pay a fine, and her thumbs can be cut off.” Make a list of all the women who could be employed by the superintendent. Do you think women would have faced any problems while working? Chapter 7-8.indd 78 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 79  villages , towns and tradewas found at the site. Other finds include pottery from the Mediterranean region, such as amphorae (tall double-handled jars that contained liquids such as wine or oil) and stamped red-glazed pottery, known as Arretine Ware, which was named after a city in Italy. This was made by pressing wet clay into a stamped mould. There was yet another kind of pottery which was made locally, though Roman designs were used. Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site. Small tanks have been found that were probably dyeing vats, used to dye cloth. There is plenty of evidence for the making of beads from semi-precious stones and glass. List the evidence that indicates that there was contact with Rome. T amil-Brahmi inscriptions. Several pieces of pottery have inscriptions in Brahmi, which was used to write T amil. An Account by a Greek Sailor The Story of Barygaza (the Greek name for Bharuch) The gulf is very narrow at Barygaza, and very hard to navigate for those coming from the sea. Ships had to be steered in by skilful and experienced local fishermen who were employed by the king. The imports into Barygaza were wine, copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, cloth, gold and silver coins. Exports from the town included plants from the Himalayas, ivory, agate, carnelian, cotton, silk and perfumes. Special gifts were brought by merchants for the king. These included vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful women, fine wines and fine cloth. Make a list of all the things imported and exported from Barygaza. Underline at least two things that were not in use during Harappan times. Why do you think merchants brought gifts for the king? Chapter 7-8.indd 79 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  80 our pasts–iT rade and traders You have read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places? Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places. South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans. There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India. Can you think of how and why these reached India? A poem about trade We can find evidence of trade in the Sangam poems. Here is one which describes the goods brought into Puhar, an important port on the east coast: “(Here are brought) Swift, prancing horses by sea in ships, Bales of black pepper in carts, Gems and gold born in the Himalayas, Sandalwood born in the western hills, The pearls of the southern seas And corals from the eastern oceans The yield of the Ganga and the crops from the Kaveri, Foodstuffs from Sri Lanka, pottery from Myanmar, And other rare and rich imports.” Make a list of all the things that are mentioned. What would they be used for? Chapter 7-8.indd 80 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24 81  villages , towns and tradeTraders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly. So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys. New kingdoms along the coasts The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile. Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful. Sangam poems mention the muvendar . This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas (see Map 7, page 87), who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago. Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas. The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas. They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets. Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often Chapter 7-8.indd 81 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24  82 our pasts–irewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth. Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India (see Map 7, page 87). The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed on behalf of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region. He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts. Why do you think he wanted to control the coasts? Silk Route and the Kushanas Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers. The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago. Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom. During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. Chapter 7-8.indd 82 26 May 2022 10:49:49 Rationalised 2023-24 83  villages , towns and tradeImagine You live in Barygaza and are visiting the port. Describe what you would see there. Let’s recall 1. Fill in the blanks: (a) __________ was a word used for large landowners in Tamil. (b) The gramabhojaka often got his land cultivated by the _________________ (c) Ploughmen were known as _________________ in Tamil. (d) Most grihapatis were ______________ landowners. 2. Describe the functions of the gramabhojaka. Why do you think he was powerful? 3. List the craftspersons who would have been present in both villages and cities. 4. Choose the correct answer: (a) Punch marked coins were made of: 1. silver 2. gold 3. tin 4. ivory (b) Mathura was an important: 1. village 2. port 3. religious centre 4. forested area (c) Shrenis were associations of: 1. rulers 2. craftspersons 3. farmers 4. herders 5. What kinds of evidence do historians use to find out about trade and trade routes?  Beginning of the use of iron in the subcontinent (about 3000 years ago)  Increase in the use of iron, cities, punch-marked coins (about 2500 years ago)  Beginning of the composition of Sangam literature (about 2300 years ago)  Settlement in Arikamedu (between 2200 and 1 900 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATESKEYWORDS iron irrigation port Sangam shreni silk route trader Chapter 7-8.indd 83 26 May 2022 10:50:14 Rationalised 2023-24  84 our pasts–iLet’s discuss 5. Which of the iron tools shown on page 73 would have been important for agriculture? What would the other tools have been used for? 6. Compare the drainage system in your locality with that of the cities mentioned in the lesson. What similarities and differences do you notice? Let’s do 7. If you have seen craftspersons at work, describe in a short paragraph what they do. (Hint: how do they get the raw materials, what kind of equipment do they use, how do they work, what happens to the finished product). 8. List the functions performed by men and women who live in your city or village. In what ways are these similar to those performed by people who lived in Mathura? In what ways are they different? 9. List five things that you buy from the market. Which of these are made in the city/village in which you live, and which are brought by traders from other areas?  Discovery of silk making (about 7000 years ago) The Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (about 2300 years ago)  Growing demand for silk in the Roman Empire (about 2000 years ago)  Kanishka, the Kushana ruler (about 1 900 years ago)  Fa Xian comes to India (about 1 600 years ago)  Xuan Zang comes to India, Appar composes devotional poems in praise of Shiva (about 1 400 years ago)SOME IMPORTANT DATES Chapter 7-8.indd 84 22 April 2022 02:36:35 Rationalised 2023-24

What was the name of the settlement in Arikamedu?

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