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Sir Charles William Oatley OBE, FRS FREng (14 February 1904 – 11 March 1996) was Professor of Electrical Engineering, University of Cambridge, 1960–1971, and developer of one of the first commercial scanning electron microscopes. He was also a founder member of the Royal Academy of Engineering. Biography He was born in Frome on Valentine's Day, 14 February 1904. A plaque has been placed on the house at the junction of Badcox Parade and Catherine Hill. He was educated at Bedford Modern School and St. John's College, Cambridge. He lectured at King's College London for 12 years, until the war. He was a director of the English Electric Valve Company from 1966 to 1985. In 1969 he was elected to the Royal Society. Oatley also received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 1974. In that same year, he was knighted. He received an Honorary Degree (Doctor of Science) from the University of Bath in 1977. He retired from the English Electric Valve Company in 1985. He was awarded the Howard N. Potts Medal in 1989. He died on 11 March 1996. Graduate students Oatley and the graduate students he supervised made substantial contributions, particularly to the development of the scanning electron microscope (SEM). His students included: Thomas Everhart, former President of Caltech Alec Broers, former Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge and former president of the Royal Academy of Engineering. Haroon Ahmed, former Master of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge and Professor of Microelectronics References External links Charles Oatley: Pioneer of Scanning Electron Microscopy The Papers of Sir Charles Oatley held at Churchill Archives Centre accessed 2 July 2008 1904 births 1996 deaths People educated at Bedford Modern School Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge Academics of King's College London British physicists British electronics engineers Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering Fellows of the Royal Society Knights Bachelor Officers of the Order of the British Empire Royal Medal winners People from Frome Howard N. Potts Medal recipients Engineering professors at the University of Cambridge

This Is an Exercise is an album by experimental electropop artist Anna Oxygen, released in 2006 on Kill Rock Stars. Allmusic described the album as "just as fascinating as it is chilly and alienating. In her songs, Oxygen explores some of the same issues of authenticity, creation, and consumption that Tracy + the Plastics do, but with a sci-fi/fantasy bent." Production and release Oxygen composed the album herself, also handling piano, primary vocals, and sequencing. It also featured Melissa Collins on cello, Andy Gertz on accordion, and guest vocalists Kitty Jenson, Mirah Yom Tov Zeitlyn & Ginger Takahashi. Portland artist Jona Bechtolt helped Oxygen with the cover art. It was released on February 21, 2006 on Kill Rock Stars. Critical reception The album met with a mixed reception, with a number of reviewers writing about the album with acclaim. In a positive review for the Phoenix New Times, Ray Cummings called the album "dancey." About Oxygen's vocals, Cummings wrote that "Huff's voice recalls Linda Perry's... at its lightest, it's diva-in-training delightful. In either mode, her pipes are a perfect contrast to the rhythmically ebullient programmed synths and beats supporting them - backdrops coursing, playful, robotic, and pop basic." In a positive review for Allmusic, Heather Phares called the album "a darker, more dramatic, and more polished affair than All Your Faded Things," also describing it as "just as fascinating as it is chilly and alienating. In her songs, Oxygen explores some of the same issues of authenticity, creation, and consumption that Tracy + the Plastics do, but with a sci-fi/fantasy bent." Phares gave the album 3.5/5 stars, also stating that "on This Is an Exercise, Anna Oxygen excels at creating a unique, sometimes disturbing sonic world with an almost-palpable sense of atmosphere." Track listing "Fairy Quest" – 2:59 "Fake Pajamas" – 2:41 "Dream. Dream. Dreams." – 2:26 "March of Human" – 1:40 "Hypertension" – 3:25 "R.R.N." – 2:23 "Mechanical Fish" – 2:51 "Walk" – 2:53 "Psychic Rainbow" – 2:13 "Willow Song" – 4:08 "This Is..." – 2:27 "Hold You" – 2:17 Personnel Anna Oxygen - Composer, Cover Art, Layout Design, Piano, Primary Artist, Sequencing Melissa Collins - Cello Andy Gertz - Accordion Kitty Jenson - Vocals Mirah Yom Tov Zeitlyn & Ginger Takahashi - vocals Jona Bechtolt - Cover Art, Layout Design References External links This Is an Exercise at Discogs This Is an Exercise at Bandcamp 2006 albums Anna Oxygen albums

NASA's Independent Verification & Validation (IV&V) Program was established in 1993 as part of an agency-wide strategy to provide the highest achievable levels of safety and cost-effectiveness for mission critical software. NASA's IV&V Program was founded under the NASA Office of Safety and Mission Assurance (OSMA) as a direct result of recommendations made by the National Research Council (NRC) and the Report of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. Since then, NASA's IV&V Program has experienced growth in personnel, projects, capabilities, and accomplishments. NASA IV&V efforts have contributed to NASA's improved safety record since the program's inception. Today, Independent Verification and Validation (IV&V) is an Agency-level function, delegated from OSMA to Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and managed by NASA IV&V. NASA's IV&V Program's primary business, software IV&V, is sponsored by OSMA as a software assurance technology. Having been reassigned as GSFC, NASA IV&V is Code 180 (Center Director's direct report). NASA's IV&V Program houses approximately 270 employees and leverages the expertise of in-house partners and contractors. Its facilities are located in Fairmont, West Virginia. In the summer, high school and college interns are employed in addition. On February 22, 2019, the facility was renamed to the Katherine Johnson Independent Verification and Validation Facility in honor of Katherine Johnson, an African-American woman who worked as a mathematician at NASA for 35 years and who is featured in the 2016 film Hidden Figures. Affiliations NASA's IV&V Program is affiliated with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and the Educator Resource Center (ERC), funded through a partnership with Fairmont State University, is part of a nationwide network of training sites at NASA centers and facilities. Projects NASA's IV&V Program is the lead NASA organization for system software IV&V, and is responsible for the management of all system software IV&V efforts within the Agency. NASA's IV&V Program's role is to provide value-added service to the Agency's system software projects, primarily by appropriately performing IV&V on system software based on the cost, size, complexity, life span, risk, and consequences of failure. Independent Technical Assessments of NASA Systems NASA's IV&V Program also provides independent technical assessments of NASA systems and software processes/products to identify developmental and operational risks. This effort helps to provide assurance that safe and reliable software is being provided to NASA missions and projects as they work toward successful systems and software development. Independent assessments can address any aspect of software engineering and can be applied within any SDLC phase. This capability provides for multiple spot-checking throughout the SDLC and addresses those issues that can jeopardize mission safety and quality. Simulation-to-Flight 1 (STF-1) Simulation-to-Flight 1 (STF-1) is West Virginia’s first CubeSat, or small satellite. It was built under NASA’s CubeSat Launch Initiative, where potential launch opportunities are provided to select CubeSat proposals from NASA Centers, accredited US educational or non-profit organizations. NASA's main goal in this initiative is to provide CubeSat developers access to a low-cost pathway to conduct research in the areas of science, exploration, technology development, education or operations. JSTAR’s main goal in this mission is to fully demonstrate the capabilities of the NASA Operational Simulation (NOS) technologies, most notably its development of the NASA Operational Simulation for Small Satellites, or NOS3. JSTAR had a huge outreach opportunity with West Virginia University through the support of NASA IV&V and West Virginia Space Grants Consortium (WVSGC). By being partnered with JSTAR engineers and scientists, WVU Engineering, Computer Science, and Physics departments got to learn first-hand the rewards and challenges involved in working in any STEM career such as with NASA. More specifically, WVU provided their experimental ideas and worked alongside the JSTAR team to incorporate their scientific instruments into STF-1. Along with offering their professional project management, JSTAR has supported WVU in their scientific development and research. By offering their software resources to this CubeSat, STF-1 has the capability of recording data once it is launched into orbit around Earth—data that can be sent directly to WVU for STEM research and the education of future scientists. While community outreach is a huge component of this mission, major benefits for NASA and JSTAR have come of it as well. In the development of these NASA Operational Simulation technologies and their demonstrations in the STF-1 mission, the IV&V tool-set has been matured to better support current and future NASA missions. For example, these NOS technologies, among them NOS3, have demonstrated significant value in several areas such as: the James Webb Space Telescope, Global Precipitation Measurement, Juno, and Deep Space Climate Observatory in the areas of software development, mission operations/training, verification and validation, test procedure development, and software systems check-out. STF-1 launched into Low Earth orbit on a Rocket Lab Electron rocket on December 16, 2018. STF-1 is orbiting Earth in LEO and operating nominally. Educator Resource Center Thanks to a grant with Fairmont State University, the Independent Verification and Validation Program Educator Resource Center (ERC) provides resources and training opportunities for approximately 1,000 in-service, pre-service, and informal educators and in West Virginia annually. The materials and training cover a wide range of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) topics. The ERC also loans hands-on STEM kits to trained teachers which impact over 10,000 students per year in the state. The on-site student outreach program brings over 2,000 youth to the facility annually to experience workshops on robotics, rocketry, aviation, and other STEM topics. The ERC also runs numerous student STEM competitions in the fields of robotics and aviation. Starting in 2012 the ERC became the partner for the FIRST LEGO League competition and has overseen a rapid growth in robotic competitions that now include over 100 teams at 10 tournaments statewide each fall. See also Verification and validation References External links Current projects NASA IV&V Facility NASA ERC Network Buildings and structures in Marion County, West Virginia Goddard Space Flight Center Government agencies established in 1993 Independent Verification and Validation Program Space technology research institutes Aerospace research institutes Aviation research institutes

Research Triangle Institute, trading as RTI International, is a nonprofit organization headquartered in the Research Triangle Park in North Carolina, USA. RTI provides research and technical services. It was founded in 1958 with $500,000 in funding from local businesses and the three North Carolina universities that form the Research Triangle. RTI research has covered topics like HIV/AIDS, healthcare, education curriculum and the environment. The US Agency for International Development accounts for about 35 percent of RTI's research revenue. History In 1954, a building contractor, met with the North Carolina state treasurer and the president of Wachovia to discuss building a research park in North Carolina to attract new industries to the region. They obtained support for the concept from the state governor, Luther Hodges, and the three universities that form the research triangle: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Duke University and North Carolina State University. The Research Triangle Institute (now RTI International) was formed by the park's founders as the research park's first tenant in 1958. The following January, they announced that $1.425 million had been raised by the Research Triangle Foundation to fund the park and that $500,000 of it had been set aside for RTI International. RTI started with three divisions: Isotope Development, Operational Sciences and Statistics Research. Its first contract was a $4,500 statistical study of morbidity data from Tennessee. In RTI's first year of operation, it had 25 staff and $240,000 in research contracts. Its early work was focused on statistics, but within a few years RTI expanded into radioisotopes, organic chemistry and polymers. In 1960, the institute had its first international research contract for an agricultural census in Nigeria. RTI won contracts with the Department of Education, Defense Department, NASA and the Atomic Energy Commission, growing to $3.4 million in contracts in 1964 and $85 million in 1988. In 1971, RTI's staff of 430 was reorganized into four research groups: social and economic systems, statistical sciences, environmental sciences and engineering, and chemistry and life sciences. It also created a division for education called the Center for Education Research and Evaluation. Four years later, RTI created the Office for International Programs to manage international projects. RTI provided funding assistance to help found the North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics in 1980. Two years later, it was part of a joint venture to create Microelectronics Center of North Carolina (MCNC), a non-profit whose computer network connected local K-12 schools. RTI has had five presidents: George R. Herbert 1958 - 1988 Thomas Wooten 1988 - 1998 Victoria Franchetti Haynes 1998 - 2012 Wayne Holden 2012 - 2022 Tim J. Gabel 2022–Present Organization RTI International is a non-profit research organization. It was initially established by three local universities but it is managed by a separate board and management team. RTI's structure consists of members of the corporation, the board of governors and corporate officers. The members of the corporation elect governors, who in turn create the organization's policies. RTI has primarily eight practice areas: RTI also has a separate business called RTI Health Solutions, which supports biotech, diagnostic and medical device companies. In 2012, the organization's largest service areas were in social, statistical and environmental sciences. More than half of RTI's staff have advanced degrees in one of 120 fields and work on approximately 1,200 projects at a time. RTI has 12 US offices and 12 international locations, supporting operations in 80 countries. About 60 percent of RTI's staff are headquartered on a 180-acre campus inside the Research Triangle Park. Most of RTI International's funding comes from government research contracts. In 2018, RTI staff wrote 1,052 journal articles. The institute bids on $2 billion in research contracts a year and wins approximately 40 percent of the budget it bids on. While RTI is technically a non-profit research institute, senior employees are rewarded salary bonuses (4% for senior staff, and 9-15% for managers) based on annual performance and corporate profit. However, employees have no current vested interest or role in corporate governance. Projects RTI International's research has spanned areas like cancer, pollution, drug abuse and education. RTI scientists Monroe Wall and Mansukh C. Wani synthesized the anti-cancer treatments camptothecin in 1966, from the bark of the Camptotheca tree, and Taxol in 1971, from a Pacific yew tree. These two drugs account for $3 billion a year in sales by pharmaceutical companies. In 1986, RTI was awarded a $4 million contract with the National Cancer Institute to conduct an eight-year clinical trial on the effects of an anti-smoking campaign. Two years later, RTI began a $4.4 million program to co-ordinate AIDS drug trials for the National Institutes of Health. This grew to $26 million by 1988. RTI scientists helped to identify toxic chemicals in the Love Canal in the 1970s. In 1978, RTI researched the possibility of improving solar cells for the US Department of Energy and coal gasification for the Environmental Protection Agency in 1979. RTI trained Chinese government employees on using computer models to forecast pollution patterns before the 2008 Olympics in Beijing. An RTI survey in 1973, commissioned by the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs, confirmed earlier research that found no connection between drug use and violent crime, despite perceptions of heroin users as more prone to violence. A 1975 study that RTI conducted for the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism found that 28 percent of 13,000 teenagers polled were "problem drinkers", despite their age. A 1996 study by RTI and funded by the Pentagon found that drug abuse in the military had been reduced by 90 percent since 1980. In 1975, RTI recommended that the Bureau of the Mint halt expensive production of cents and replace half-dollars with a new dollar coin. In 2001, RTI scientists created a new thinfilm superlattice material that uses the thermoelectric effect to cool microprocessors. A 2009 study by RTI and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention published in Health Affairs estimated that obesity in the US caused $147 billion in increased medical care costs annually. RTI also developed a reading skill measurement program, the Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA), for the USAID and the World Bank. The EGRA has been used in 70 languages and 50 countries. In the 1980s, RTI created and distributed the Architecture Design and Assessment System, a set of software programs that helped model intricate systems. The ADAS programs were produced until the mid-1990s. RTI began working for the US Agency for International Development (USAID) after the conflict between Iraq and the US began in 2003. USAID work represented 35 percent of RTI's revenue by 2010. Under Iraq’s previous, highly centralized regime, citizens had almost no experience with local governance or active participation in the governing process. To inform and train Iraqis in local governance systems, RTI ultimately set up offices in Iraq’s 18 provinces. A staff of 200 people drawn from 33 countries, augmented by the hiring of 800 Iraqis, was deployed. In 2004, Nextreme was spun off from RTI to develop a thermoelectric material for semiconductors commercially. In October 2018, RTI published a study showing that heroin addicts who used fentanyl testing strips were more likely to adopt safer drug habits. RTI Press RTI Press publishes peer-reviewed, open-access research briefs, policy briefs, research reports, methods report, occasional papers, conference proceedings, and books. RTI International funds RTI Press as a means of sharing research and practical knowledge to improve the human condition. References External links Multidisciplinary research institutes Non-profit organizations based in North Carolina Research institutes in North Carolina Research Triangle 1958 establishments in North Carolina Life sciences industry Organizations established in 1958 Love Canal

Saab Bofors Dynamics is a subsidiary of the Saab Group that specializes in military materiel such as missile systems and anti-tank systems. It is located in Karlskoga and Linköping, Sweden. Its corporate heritage goes back to Bofors, a hammer mill, which was founded as a royal state-owned company in 1646. In 1873, this was converted to a modern corporate structure by becoming an "stock company", in Swedish an aktiebolag, that is a "limited company" or a "corporation". In 1999, Saab purchased the Celsius Group, by that time the parent owner of Bofors. In September 2000, SAAB sold their Bofors Weapon Systems, which produced the autocannon and tube artillery weapons, to United Defense Industries, while Saab retained their missile interests. Later BAE Systems acquired United Defense Industries. The weapon systems include sensors based on radar, infrared, and lasers. Several public campaigns, including civil disobedience actions, have targeted production sites as a protest against Swedish arms export. Products Ground Systems Anti-armour systems AT4/AT4 CS anti-tank recoilless gun Carl-Gustaf M3 (M3 MAAWS) 84 mm anti-tank recoilless rifle RBS-56 Bill ATGM RBS 56 Bill 2 ATGM NLAW ATGM Canons Bofors 40 mm Firearms Saab Bofors Dynamics CBJ-MS 9 mm PDW Ak 5C 5.56mm carbine rifle, standard issue in the Swedish Armed Forces Naval Systems Canons Bofors 57 mm Naval Automatic Gun L/60 Bofors 57 mm Naval Automatic Gun L/70 Anti-ship missiles RBS 15 RBS 17 Aerial Systems Anti-air systems Bofors 40 mm RBS 70 SAM system RBS 23 BAMSE SAM system ASRAD-R Air-air missiles IRIS-T (international collaboration, Aircraft Interface Unit and Signal Processing Unit provided by Saab Bofors Dynamics) Meteor (international collaboration, active radar proximity fuze subsystem (PFS) provided by Saab Bofors Dynamics) Cruise missiles Taurus KEPD 350 Saab Bofors Dynamics Switzerland GmbH STRIX 120 mm guided mortar round Thor 120mm mortar ammunition Mortar Anti-Personnel Anti-Material (MAPAM) (60 and 81 mm mortar ammunitions) Akeron MP warhead SM-EOD (charges for demining) References External links Saab Bofors Dynamics Defence companies of Sweden . . Manufacturing companies of Sweden Aerospace companies of Sweden Manufacturing companies established in 1999 Swedish companies established in 1999

Nanocomputer refers to a computer smaller than the microcomputer, which is smaller than the minicomputer. Microelectronic components that are at the core of all modern electronic devices employ semiconductor transistors. The term nanocomputer is increasingly used to refer to general computing devices of size comparable to a credit card. Modern single-board computer such as the Raspberry Pi and Gumstix would fall under this classification. Arguably, smartphones and tablets would also be classified as nanocomputers. Future computers with features smaller than 10 nanometers Die shrink has been more or less continuous since around 1970. A few years later, the 6 μm process allowed the making of desktop computers, known as microcomputers. Moore's Law in the next 40 years brought features 1/100th the size, or ten thousand times as many transistors per square millimeter, putting smartphones in every pocket. Eventually computers will be developed with fundamental parts that are no bigger than a few nanometers. Nanocomputers might be built in several ways, using mechanical, electronic, biochemical, or quantum nanotechnology. There used to be consensus among hardware developers that it is unlikely that nanocomputers will be made of semiconductor transistors, as they seem to perform significantly less well when shrunk to sizes under 100 nanometers. Neverthelesss developers reduced microprocessor features to 22 nm in April 2012. Moreover, Intel's 5 nanometer technology outlook predicts 5 nm feature size by 2022. The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors in the 2010s gave an industrial consensus on feature scaling following Moore's Law. A silicon-silicon bond length is 235.2 pm, which means that a 5 nm-width transistor would be 21 silicon atoms wide. See also Nanotechnology Quantum computer Starseed launcher – interstellar nanoprobes proposal References External links A spray-on computer is way to do IT Future Nanocomputer Technologies – diagram of possible technologies (electronic, organic, mechanical, quantum). Classes of computers Nanoelectronics

The Haeco-CSG or Holzer Audio Engineering-Compatible Stereo Generator system was an analog electronic device developed by Howard Holzer, Chief Engineer at A&M Records in Hollywood, California. His company, Holzer Audio Engineering, developed the system in the 1960s during the years of transition from mono to stereophonic sound in popular music recording. The process was used primarily from about 1968 until 1970 but still exists on a significant number of recordings made during the time. Reasons for using the system The Haeco-CSG process was designed to make stereophonic vinyl LP records compatible with mono playback equipment. These recordings were intended to make the two-channel stereo mix automatically "fold-down" properly to a single mono channel. The reason for the process is the compatibility issue between stereophonic and monaural recordings: information which is identical on both the left and right channels of a stereophonic mix was feared to be too loud when played back on mono AM and FM radio stations and phonographs. When the left and right channels are summed together, any musical parts that are common to both channels combine to be 6 decibels louder than they are in the same mix when played in stereo (a phenomenon known as "center-channel buildup"). Vocals, solo instruments and bass lines are often mixed equally to both stereo channels — these sounds were contended to be too loud when heard in mono. Because of this fear, separate mono and stereo mixes of the same record were authored, manufactured, and distributed during the 1960s and early 1970s. The Haeco-CSG system appeared to be an attractive option for record companies and retailers by allowing them to cut costs. Engineers could produce a single mix, record companies could manufacture and distribute one version, and vendors could stock one product. How the technology works Haeco-CSG technology works on the basis of phase cancellation. When two waves that are not in phase are mixed, the resulting waveform has an attenuation in accordance to the degree of shift. For example, two waves which are 180 degrees out of phase will entirely cancel out when mixed together whereas two waves which are entirely in phase will double in amplitude. A difference in phase between 180 and 0 degrees results in a partial cancellation, which is the effect Haeco-CSG takes advantage of. The system electrically rotated the waveform of the right channel by up to 120 degrees to control the buildup of center information during a simple mono downmix. It is not fully known how exactly the circuit accomplished this, however a technician who worked there in 1972–1973, indicates here that the CSG appeared to have split one stereo channel into up to 8 single octave channels followed by eight ganged selectable phase shift networks, controlled via front panel setting. Then a summing amplifier was used for recombination of multiple audio channels into one, followed by a transformer isolated balanced output. The other channel was not encoded and simply passed thru, via another audio transformer. This is how the effect could be encoded without slightly delaying one channel, which would have only provided close enough to 90 degree phase shift within less than an octave and somewhere between 0 and 180 degrees of phase shift is approached at the highest and lowest frequencies in the audio spectrum. A later version, the CSG-2 in R&D in 1973 may have encoded both audio channels, but may have used half the phase shift per channel, and perhaps provided a smoother frequency response. The most common listing of 90 degrees out of phase corresponds to Haeco's own recommended setting of the +3 dB build up, whereas no build-up would require a 120 degree offset. This setting was most commonly used because of its robustness against polarity reversal of audio interconnects down the chain, which can affect the resulting audio when downmixed to mono. Information that is not common to both channels is entirely unaffected as there is no offset phase wave to cancel with. The genius of Holzer's design is in how it overcame the limitations of a single phase shift network to shift the entire audio bandwidth. A phase shift network is composed of a resistive and a reactive circuit element, either a capacitor or an inductor. Relative values of the two will cause a phase shift (i.e. 90 degrees) at some given frequency that is easily calculated. But the amount of phase shift varies with the frequencies above or below that pass through it, relative to the intended phase shift. So a fairly consistent phase delay over the entire audio bandwidth was achieved by using multiple phase delay networks with audio bands restricted to the allowable deviation in desired phase shift versus permissible flatness of the audio response. Negative effects Generally speaking, Haeco-CSG has a degrading effect on the performance of both stereo and mono sounds processed through the system. The effect can vary substantially from one recording to another depending on the characteristics of the original unprocessed sound. The system "blurs" the focus of lead vocals or other sounds mixed to the center of a stereo recording. This is the main reason why Haeco-CSG was usually applied to recordings with bass positioned in one channel only. Bass frequencies are usually centered on modern recordings. The effect today would cause a significant loss of low frequency information, making the resulting sound somewhat "tinny". Negative effects of the system can be heard on any stereo speaker system, but makes headphone listening particularly un-natural sounding. This is because the lead vocalist or performer's audio waveform would be attempting to partially cancel itself inside the listener's head, confusing the brain's audio positioning sense. Due to complicated interaction of phase and frequency it is difficult to predict exactly how the reduction from two channels to one will affect the sound of a particular instrument. Therefore mono sound from a true mono mix is preferable to the use of the Haeco-CSG stereo to mono process. Known recordings Atlantic Records took out a full page advertisement in the 6 April 1968 issue of Billboard magazine to promote its adoption of the technique, calling it "CSG Stereo". Many A&M Records LP releases during the period including popular titles by Sérgio Mendes and Herb Alpert were released with this audio process starting in September 1968. Other record labels soon followed suit, and an estimated 10% of all stereophonic albums released during the late 1960s and early 1970s employed the system. Other labels known to have used the system include Warner Bros. Records and Reprise Records. One of the biggest selling albums using the process is The Association's Greatest Hits, released in 1968. This recording has sold more than 2 million copies in the United States. The process was also used on the 1968 Frank Sinatra album Cycles as well as on most of the studio recordings on Wheels of Fire by Cream. Early 1968 copies of Neil Young's self-titled debut album also used the system. Use of Haeco-CSG in promotional recordings for radio The original intention of using Haeco-CSG on commercial LP releases was rather short lived, however, use of the process continued well into the mid-1970s on promotional records sent to radio stations. Many commercial FM Rock stations did not transition from mono to stereo broadcasting until the mid to late 1970s. AM Pop music stations continued to broadcast in mono, as AM stereo broadcasting was not introduced until 1982 and was never widely adopted. Many promotional singles and some commercial singles from the Warner/Reprise/Atlantic label group from this era had "CSG Mono Process" or "CSG Process" printed on the labels. Artists included Frank Sinatra, Gordon Lightfoot, James Taylor, Seals and Crofts. Warner subsidiary labels such as Atlantic issued a series of mono radio station promotional LPs by progressive rock artists circa 1968–1971. The series included titles by Led Zeppelin, Yes, King Crimson and many others. In 1979, the Warner distributed label Sire Records issued a promotional single of "Pop Muzik" by M which contains both short and long versions in CSG processed stereo. This may be the latest known recording to utilize the CSG stereo process. Modern remastering without Haeco-CSG Haeco-CSG can be applied during the mastering stage, near the end of the record production chain. In such cases, the earliest stereo master tapes exist without processing. Therefore, the process can be avoided entirely when such recordings are remastered for compact disc. Remastering without the effect requires a well informed audio engineer who makes an effort to locate the correct master tapes. However the Haeco-CSG processing was often applied at the master tape mix session. This, in effect, makes it a permanent part of the stereo recording. But, the process can still be reversed through modern digital reprocessing. Unfortunately, many compact discs of these processed albums still are encoded with the system, causing negative effects even on modern digital playback systems. Digital reprocessing Haeco-CSG processing can be reversed through digital audio workstation software by digitally re-rotating phase of the right channel back by the correct number of degrees. The phase module of iZotope RX allows a user to fully adjust the phase of each stereo audio channel independently. Adobe Audition is able to remove the effect using the Graphic Panner tool (the Automatic Phase Correction tool is unable to accurately do this) by manually selecting the "Phase −90 degrees" preset. The "Auto Center Phase" and "Learn Phase" features will also work, but are not recommended. There are sometimes slight offsets caused by various mixing effects and, to a lesser extent, tape-head misalignment; studio reverb or naturally decaying reverb is a prime example. As a waveform decays in a large room, it naturally changes phase. In Auto Center phase, this is (generally) shown as the upper frequencies making a drastic change. Tape head misalignment (azimuth) also will cause a phase change in upper frequencies. One should be aware of this when attempting to remove Haeco processing and not use auto-phase options. Azimuth alignment adjustment tools can however be used AFTER Haeco has been removed. The "Stereo Tool" plug-in used with Winamp is able to reverse Haeco-CSG. Enable the "Stereo Image Processing" option and adjust the "Angle" setting right to 90 degrees. By adjusting the Winamp plug-in settings under the "Preferences" tab to "out_disk" it is possible to capture the reprocessed audio to a new file. Orban Optimod-PCn (x86 Native) Professional Broadcast Audio Processing Software can be used to effectively remove all HAECO-CSG as well as any other phase/azimuth errors, all automatically. There is no need for any time or angle settings. The result is always perfect stereo that is perfect mono downmix capable. A description and examples are available at the StreamIndex website. One can also use a simple channel mixer found in most workstations to do a simple correction. By having each channel contain 75% of itself and 25% of the other channel, the "blended" result will be mostly in phase. This, however, will cause the stereo separation to be somewhat diminished. Use today While the system is no longer in use anywhere today, the basic idea of shifting the phase to create a mono downmix can be applied today if one has a reason to do so. The "encoding" process is similar to the "decoding" process in the application of a 90 or 120 degree phase shift followed by averaging the channels together in a channel mixer. References Sound recording

Elxsi Corporation was a minicomputer manufacturing company established in the late 1970s in Silicon Valley, US, along with a host of competitors (Trilogy Systems, Sequent, Convex Computer). The Elxsi processor was an Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL) design that featured a 50-nanosecond clock, a 25-nanosecond back panel bus, IEEE floating-point arithmetic and a 64-bit architecture. It allowed multiple processors to communicate over a common bus called the Gigabus, believed to be the first company to do so. The operating system was a message-based operating system called EMBOS. The Elxsi CPU was a microcoded design, allowing custom instructions to be coded into microcode. History Elxsi was founded in 1979 by Joe Rizzi (previously a manager at Intersil) and Thampy Thomas (who would go on to found NexGen Microsystems). It is believed that Elxsi was the first startup founded by an Indian in Silicon Valley. Much of the architecture of the Elxsi machine was designed by former Stanford University professors Len Shar and Balasubrimanian Kumar. Another key contributor to the design was Harold (Mac) McFarland, who was also a key designer on the team that created the PDP-11. George Taylor (on the IEEE standard committee and a student of UC Berkeley Professor William Kahan) provided a key design for the IEEE floating-point unit. Elxsi was bought out by Gene Amdahl in 1985 with money that was leftover from the Trilogy venture. Venture investors in Elxsi included Tata Group (India) and Arthur Rock. In 1989, however, Elxsi left the computer business because of the general shift away from the use of mainframes in the global computer industry and the advent of the personal computer. The Tata Group kept the name Tata Elxsi but it now belongs to the Tata group of companies. The original Elxsi Corporation, however, remained in business as a going concern. In 1989, the company sold its computer maintenance business to National Computer Systems. In 1991, the company entered two entirely different lines of business: restaurants and sewer inspection equipment. ELXSI is still engaged in these businesses, as well as its CUES unit, which makes video pipeline inspection equipment. Before its withdrawal from the computer industry, the large range of hardware expansion gave the machine some success in departmental technical computing environments. The 64-bit registers and ability to do parallel adds within them gave it an unanticipated advantage in COBOL benchmarks, where it outperformed some mainframes. And the extreme independence of the CPUs (lack of cache snooping and invalidation), coupled with the ability to lock processes into register sets and later, the ability to partition the caches, gave it some success in real-time applications. Hardware The machine was a mini-supercomputer: a category of computers that was larger than a VAX 11/780 and smaller than a mainframe. This market segment disappeared as high-end microprocessor-based systems became more powerful. The architecture was unusual, especially for its day. The system bus connected as many as 12 CPUs and I/O processors. Each CPU was built from three large boards of ECL gate arrays. Key elements of its instruction set architecture were: 16 registers (64-bit) 32-bit linear address space (64-bit integers but 32-bit pointers) Multiple register sets per processor, with switches among processes loaded into register sets handled by microcode Small set of basic addressing modes Small set of instruction lengths, length determinable from first few nibbles of instruction No hardware cache coherence among processors Microcoded message system to communicate among software processes and with I/O controllers and CPU microcode No supervisor mode—equivalent restrictions applied by controlling which processes held special message system communication links and which virtual address space had the memory management tables mapped into it Multiple hardware CPU interrupts that supported real-time computing applications (e.g., flight simulators and industrial process controllers) Two generations of CPU were sold and a third developed but never sold. All plugged into the same backplane and could be intermixed in a single system. Software The EMBOS OS was written entirely from scratch in a slightly extended Pascal. It was a multi-server architecture (like GNU Hurd, but long predating that project). The UI was Unix-like, especially at the shell level, with similar concepts but different commands, syntax, etc. (e.g. "files" instead of "ls"; "find" instead of "grep"). Later, a Unix kernel was hosted on top of the lower-level servers so that EMBOS and Unix processes and users could co-exist (ENIX). VMS compatibility software running on top of EMBOS was also added to ease porting of VAX applications. Famous employees Although Elxsi was not a financial success, many of its employees did go on to fame and fortune. Joe Rizzi co-founded Liquid Robotics, now a subsidiary of the Boeing Company; Rizzi and William Stutz are among the co-founders of the related, oceanographic Jupiter Research Foundation, a 501(c)(3) organization "dedicated to developing and applying new technologies for monitoring and understanding the natural world, and sharing them with the public and the academic community." Roger Dellor serves as a vice-president of the organization; Thampy Thomas serves on its Board. Ralph Merkle (who wrote the Elxsi Fortran compiler) later became a noted nanotechnologist. Rob Catlin became an early employee of Chips and Technologies. Thampy Thomas became a founder of NexGen, which was later acquired by AMD. The NexGen design became the design for the AMD K6 processor. Mac McFarland was also an early NexGen employee. Mac's role in the design of the PDP-11 is given in Gordon Bell's history of DEC (page 87) B. V. Jagadeesh became a founder of Exodus Communications took it public in 1998 and became CEO of NetScaler in Aug 2000 and successfully sold to Citrix for $325M in 2005 Bob Rau and Arun Kumar became founders of Cydrome. Bob then worked at HP Labs and was one of the developers of the IA-64 architecture. Allen Roberts and Harlan Lau became early employees of Rambus John Sanguinetti founded Chronologic and wrote the VCS Verilog Compiler Robert Olson became the founder of Virtual Vineyards (now wine.com), and later served as an engineering executive with several Internet-focused startups, such as PostX. Mike Farmwald (an Elxsi consultant) founded several Silicon Valley high tech companies. Jim Kaschmitter is the CEO of UltraCell, a maker of micro fuel cells Kevin McGrath is an AMD Fellow and developed the 64-bit extensions for the AMD64 architecture. Russell Williams is an architect and engineer of Adobe Systems Photoshop Loren Kohnfelder originated the idea of the digital certificate and developed security for the Microsoft Internet Explorer. Leonard Shar was the first person to propose what is now called hyperthreading. Herbert (Bert) Slade, Vice President of Field Service Stuart Sackman is Vice President, Global Product and Technology at ADP References Notes John Sanguinetti and B. Kumar, "Performance of a Message-Based Multi-Processor," Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Computer Architecture (12th ISCA'85), IEEE, Boston, MA, June 1985, pp. 424–425. Gary R. Montry and Robert E. Benner, "Parallel Processing on an ELXSI 6400," Second International Conference on Supercomputing, Proceedings, Supercomputing '87, Industrial Supercomputer Applications and Computations, vol. II, International Supercomputing Institute, Inc., 1987, pp. 64–71. Robert Olson, "Parallel processing in a message-based operating system," IEEE Software, vol. 2, 4, July 1985, pp. 39–49. George S. Taylor, "Arithmetic on the Elxsi System 6400", Proceedings of the IEEE Sixth Symposium on Computer Arithmetic ( 1983), IEEE Computer Society, pp. 110–115, External links Elxsi Website Elxsi share down American companies established in 1979 American companies disestablished in 1989 Computer companies established in 1979 Computer companies disestablished in 1989 Defunct companies based in California Defunct computer companies of the United States Minicomputers

The Institute for Language and Speech Processing (ILSP) () is an Athens based, Greek non-profit private foundation focusing on applied research in various areas mainly related to language technology. In 1991 ILSP was established as a research institute; it operates under the auspices of the General Secretariat for Research and Innovation, Ministry of Development and Investment. ILSP is the oldest institute of Athena Research & Innovation Center in Information, Communication and Science Technologies. The institute also has a division in Xanthi. The goal of ILSP is to support the growth of Language Technology in Greece. To this end, it has brought together a team of experts creating the necessary technical infrastructure in accordance with the European Community policy towards safeguarding the European cultural heritage through technology. ILSP aims to be a pole of attraction for the language industry, which is growing both in Greece and in the rest of Europe, thus contributing to the expansion of activities in this particularly important area of current IT. The industrial direction which it maintains, the know-how of its researchers and the close relations it keeps with key research centres in other European countries, are the three basic elements of the institute's profile. The main areas that form ILSP’s research agenda are: Natural language processing Embodied language processing Speech and music technology Multimedia processing Multilingual content processing Sign language technologies Technology-enhanced language learning Language development and assessment Digital cultural archives ILSP carries out applied research in man-machine interfaces, machine learning, speech processing, text processing, theoretical and computational linguistics, and language learning technologies. Expertise used by the Institute includes basic fields such as natural language processing, digital signal processing and pattern recognition. The institute's mission is mainly to support research by successfully combining the basic and applied perspectives and pursue complementary collaborations in the areas of interest, while maintaining a societal and industrial relevance. ILSP has been creating the necessary technical infrastructure and a collaborative interdisciplinary framework enabling to: establish a comprehensive digitized repository of Modern Greek language data and resources to be used for a variety of purposes (research, education, preservation, evolution, dissemination, translation etc.) work on the interface between Modern Greek language and the other languages of the world develop highly innovative language and semiotic technologies. See also List of research institutes in Greece References External links Official website Linguistic research institutes Research institutes in Greece Organizations based in Athens

Karlovasi () is a town, a municipal unit, and a former municipality on the island of Samos, North Aegean, Greece. Since the 2019 local government reform it is part of the municipality West Samos, of which it is a municipal unit and the seat. It is located on the northwest side of the island and it is considered the commercial center of the island. According to the 2011 census, the population of the municipal unit was 9,855 inhabitants. Its land area is 100.330 km2. The municipal unit shares the island of Samos with the municipal units of Vathy, Pythagoreio, and Marathokampos. The School of Sciences of University of the Aegean is located in the town and currently there are three academic departments: Department of Mathematics Department of Information and Communication Systems Engineering Department of Statistics and Actuarial - Financial Mathematics There are over 1,000 active students living in the town throughout the year. Karlovasi is a town with a rich cultural and industrial history, being a flourishing tannery and tobacco manufacturing center in the early 1900s. Many magnificent neoclassical mansions can be seen from that period as well as the remains of the large stone-built factories at the "Ormos" seaside. The town's economy shifted to trade after World War II and the collapse of the leather market. Pottery and brick-making became a flourishing business due to the rare quality of the soil in the environs of Karlovasi while the town's market was continuously growing to become the largest and most important in the Island. The connection of the Karlovasi Port with Seferihisar's Sığacık, in Turkey, brings a large number of travelers in the island. Lykourgos Logothetis, the island's leader during the Greek War of Independence was born here in 1772. Karlovasi is also closely linked to Yiannis Ritsos, one of the country's most important poets, who spend most of his summers in his Karlovasi house, now the residence of his daughter, author Eri Ritsou. Karlovasi has an unusually large number of almost cathedral-size churches, due to the fact that the modern town was formed by the unification of four smaller ones, all of them hometowns of wealth patrons such as tannery moguls and ship owners. The main touristic sights are the Tannery Museum, the Folklore Museum, the 11th century church of Metamorfosis, the church of Agia Triada at Paleo Karlovasi and the adjoining Venetian castle at Potami. The waterfalls of Potami and the nearby beaches of Mikro and Megalo Seitani are among the islands most popular attractions. Communities The municipal unit contains ten communities (κοινότητες, koinótites). References External links Official Website School of Sciences (University of the Aegean) My Samos directory - History e-samos webpage - History & Culture Visit Samos Populated places in Samos

The Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities (ABRF) is dedicated to advancing core and research biotechnology laboratories through research, communication, and education. ABRF members include over 2000 scientists representing 340 different core laboratories in 41 countries, including those in industry, government, academic and research institutions. History In 1986 a Research Resource Facility Satellite Meeting was held in conjunction with the Sixth International Conference on Methods in Protein Sequence Analysis. The next year protein sequencing and amino acid samples were sent to survey 103 core facilities. By 1989 the ABRF was formally organized and incorporated. Each year an annual meeting was held as a satellite meeting of the Protein Society until 1996 when separate meetings began. ABRF Research Groups Research Groups are established to fulfill two of the purposes of the Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities. First, to provide mechanisms for the self-evaluation and improvement of procedural and operational accuracy, precision and efficiency in resource facilities and research laboratories. Second, to contribute to the education of resource facility and research laboratory staff, users, administrators, and interested members of the scientific community. The results of ABRF Research Group studies have been published in scientific papers. Results from ABRF Research Group studies have seen reuse in other research. ABRF Next Generation Sequencing Group (ABRF-NGS) Antibody Technology Research Group (ARG) Biomedical 'Omics Research Group (BORG) DNA Sequencing Research Group (DSRG) Flow Cytometry Research Group (FCRG) Genomics Research Group (GVRG) Glycoprotein Research Group (gPRG) Light Microscopy Research Group (LMRG) Metabolomics Research Group (MRG) Metagenomics Research Group (MGRG) Molecular Interactions Research Group (MIRG) Nucleic Acids Research Group (NARG) Protein Expression Research Group (PERG) Protein Sequencing Research Group (PSRG) Proteomics Research Group (PRG) Proteome Informatics Research Group (iPRG) Proteomics Standards Research Group (sPRG) Resource Technologies Members of ABRF are involved in a broad spectrum of biomolecular technologies that are implemented in core facility settings: Automation: high throughput screening, LIMS, robotics. Protein/Peptide Chemistry: amino acid analysis, N- and C-terminal sequencing, peptide synthesis, peptide/protein arrays. Biophysics: calorimetry, CD, fluorescence, light scattering, SPR, ultracentrifugation. Flow Cytometry Fluorescence Activating Cell Sorting Protein Expression, Identification, and Profiling: differential fluorescence, conventional 2-D gel electrophoresis, disease biomarker discovery. Gene Expression and Profiling: gene arrays, real-time PCR. Mass Spectrometry: qualitative, quantitative, and structural analysis of proteins, carbohydrates, oligonucleotides, and lipids. Microscopy light microscopy and imaging, Confocal Microscopy Nucleic Acid Chemistry: DNA sequencing, DNA synthesis, RNA synthesis, genotyping. Separations: 1- and 2-D PAGE, capillary electrophoresis, chromatography. Quality Control: GLP, GMP, quality and compliance. Universal Proteomics Standard (UPS), a mixture of proteins used as reference standard in proteomics, introduced by the above-mentioned sPRG. This includes two sets: the original (UPS1, where all 48 proteins are at 48 pmol), and a dynamic range of concentrations (called UPS2), ranging from 500 amol to 50 pmol. Other: bioinformatics, carbohydrate analysis, differential display, recombinant protein production. Annual Conference Every year the Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities annual conference is held during the spring in a varying North American city. This international conference is used to expose members to new and emerging biotechnology through lectures, roundtables, Research Group presentations, poster sessions, workshops and technical exhibits. ABRF 2023, 7-10 May 2023, Boston, MA ABRF 2022, 27–30 March 2022, Palm Springs, CA ABRF 2021, 7–11 March 2021, virtual meeting due to COVID-19 ABRF 2020, 29 February - 3 March 2020, Palm Springs, CA ABRF 2019, 23–26 March, San Antonio, Texas; 30 Years of Challenging the Limits of Science and Technology, Opening Doors for the Future ABRF 2018, 22–25 April, Myrtle Beach, South Carolina; The Premier Conference for Core Services ABRF 2017, 25–28 March, San Diego, California; A Forum for Advancing Today's Core Technologies to Enable Tomorrow's Innovations ABRF 2016, 20–23 February, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida; Innovative Technologies Accelerating Discovery ABRF 2015, 28–31 March, St. Louis, Missouri; Integrative Technologies for Advancing Scientific Cores ABRF 2014, 23–25 March, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Team Science and Big Data: Cores at the Frontier ABRF 2013, 2–5 March, Palm Springs, California; Tools for the Advancement of Convergence Science ABRF 2012, 17–20 March, Orlando, Florida; Learning From Biomolecules ABRF 2011, 19–22 February, San Antonio, Texas; Technologies to Enable Personalized Medicine ABRF 2010, 20–23 March, Sacramento, California; Translating Basic Research With Advances in Biomolecular Technology ABRF 2009, 7–10 February, Memphis, Tennessee; Application and Optimization of Existing and Emerging Biotechnologies ABRF 2008, 9–12 February, Salt Lake City, Utah; Enabling Technologies in the Life Sciences ABRF 2007, 31 March- 3 April, Tampa, Florida; Creating the Biological Roadmap ABRF 2006, 11–14 February, Long Beach, California; Integrating Science, Tools and Technologies with Systems Biology ABRF 2005, 5–8 February, Savannah, Georgia; BioMolecular Technologies: Discovery to Hypothesis ABRF 2004, 28 February- 2 March, Portland, Oregon; Integrating Technologies in Proteomics and Genomics ABRF 2003, 10–13 February, Denver, Colorado; Translating Biology Using Proteomics and Functional Genomics ABRF 2002, 9–12 March, Austin, Texas; Biomolecular Technologies: Tools for Discovery in Proteomics and Genomics ABRF 2001, 24–27 February, San Diego, CA; The New Biology: Technology for resolving Macromolecular Communications ABRF 2000, 19–22 February, Bellevue, Washington; From Singular to Global Analyses of Biological Systems ABRF 1999, 19–22 March, Durham, North Carolina; Bioinformatics and Biomolecular Technologies: Linking Genomes, Proteomes and Biochemistry ABRF 1998, 21–24 March, San Diego, California; From Genomes to Function - Technical Challenges of the Post-Genome Era ABRF 1997, 9–12 February, Baltimore, Maryland; Techniques at the Genome-Proteome Interface ABRF 1996, 30 March- 2 April, San Francisco, California; Biomolecular Techniques ABRF Award The ABRF Award is presented at the annual ABRF meeting for outstanding contributions to Biomolecular Technologies. Past Award Winners (the years refer to the annual conference at which the award was presented): 2023 Christie G. Enke and Richard Yost for their development of the triple quadrupole mass spectrometer and the tremendous impact triple quads have made for a wide range of biomedical research applications. 2022 Jennifer Lippincott-Schwartz 2021 - 2020 George Church for his groundbreaking research in genomic sequencing and his leadership in the fields of gene therapy and synthetic biology technologies. 2019 Richard M. Caprioli for the discovery of temporal and spatial processing in biological systems using mass spectrometry. 2018 Amos Bairoch for the development of community resources such as UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot knowledgebase, PROSITE, ENZYME, and neXtProt. 2017 Sir Shankar Balasubramanian and David Klenerman for the invention of a method of next-generation DNA sequencing which is commonly known today as "sequencing by synthesis". 2016 Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna for the development of CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing Technologies. 2015 John G. White and William Bradshaw Amos for the development of high-resolution, laser scanning confocal microscope 2014 Patrick H. O'Farrell, for the development of 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis. 2013 Leonard Herzenberg and Leonore Herzenberg for the development of Flow Activated Cell Sorting (FACS). 2012 Alan G. Marshall for the development of Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance (FT-ICR) Mass Spectrometry. 2011 Sir Alec John Jeffreys: Developed techniques for DNA fingerprinting and DNA profiling 2010 Pat Brown: Pioneering work in the development of microarrays, and the diverse applications of this technology in genetic research. 2009 Mathias Uhlén 2008 Ruedi Aebersold 2007 Donald F. Hunt 2006 Roger Tsien 2005 Stephen Fodor 2004 Edwin Southern 2003 Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas 2002 John Fenn 2001 Csaba Horvath 2000 Leroy Hood 1999 Marvin H. Caruthers for pioneering contributions to the chemical synthesis of DNA and RNA 1998 Bruce Merrifield 1997 Lloyd M. Smith 1996 David Lipman 1995 Klaus Biemann 1994 Frederick Sanger Journal of Biomolecular Techniques The ABRF is the publisher of the Journal of Biomolecular Techniques. The journal is peer-reviewed and is published quarterly. The major focus of the journal is to publish scientific reviews and articles related to biomolecular resource facilities. The Research Group published reports include annual surveys. News and events, as well as an article watch focused on techniques used in typical core facility environments are also included. The current Editor-in-Chief is Ron Orlando, University of Georgia. ABRF Executive Board Kevin Knudtson, ABRF President, Genomics Division, University of Iowa Justine Kigenyi, Treasurer, KU Medical Center Marie Adams, Van Andel Institute Roxann Ashworth, Johns Hopkins University Kym Delventhal, Stowers Institute for Medical Research Sridar Chittur, SUNY Albany Nick Ambulos, University of Maryland School of Medicine Sue Weintraub, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio Magnus Palmblad, Leiden University Medical Center Ken Schoppmann, ABRF Executive Director References External links Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities ABRF Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology FASEB ABRF Discussion Forum Journal of Biomolecular Techniques ABRF at LinkedIn Leadership Scientific societies based in the United States Biotechnology organizations Professional associations based in the United States

James Tice Ellis (May 6, 1956June 28, 2001) was an American computer scientist best known as the co-creator of Usenet, along with Tom Truscott. Ellis was born in Nashville, Tennessee to Henry Ellis (an auditor and teacher) and Elsa Ellis. James Ellis grew up in Orlando, Florida. Before developing Usenet, Ellis attended Duke University. After graduating, Ellis worked for the Microelectronics Center of North Carolina in Research Triangle Park, N.C. He later worked as an Internet security consultant for Sun Microsystems. He was also Manager of Technical Development at CERT. He came up with the word Usenet. Ellis and Truscott were awarded the 1995 USENIX Lifetime Achievement Award. Personal life and death Ellis and his wife, Carolyn, had two children. He died of non-Hodgkin lymphoma, a form of blood cancer, at his home in Harmony, Pennsylvania on June 28, 2001. He was 45. References External links Usenet creator Jim Ellis dies, Associated Press, on USAToday.com, June 29, 2001, retrieved on December 22, 2006. Second Annual EFF Pioneer Awards 1956 births 2001 deaths Scientists from Nashville, Tennessee Duke University alumni American computer scientists Usenet people Deaths from non-Hodgkin lymphoma Deaths from cancer in Pennsylvania

A business cluster is a geographic concentration of interconnected businesses, suppliers, and associated institutions in a particular field. Clusters are considered to increase the productivity with which companies can compete, nationally and globally. Accounting is a part of the business cluster. In urban studies, the term agglomeration is used. Clusters are also important aspects of strategic management. Concept The term business cluster, also known as an industry cluster, competitive cluster, or Porterian cluster, was introduced and popularized by Michael Porter in The Competitive Advantage of Nations (1990). The importance of economic geography, or more correctly geographical economics, was also brought to attention by Paul Krugman in Geography and Trade (1991). Cluster development has since become a focus for many government programs. The underlying concept, which economists have referred to as agglomeration economies, dates back to 1890, and the work of Alfred Marshall. Michael Porter claims that clusters have the potential to affect competition in three ways: by increasing the productivity of the companies in the cluster, by driving innovation in the field, and by stimulating new businesses in the field. According to Porter, in the modern global economy, comparative advantage, whereby certain locations have special endowments (i.e., harbor, cheap labor) helping them overcome heavy input costs, has become less relevant. Now, competitive advantage, in which companies make productive use of inputs, requiring continual innovation, is more important. Porter argues that economic activities are embedded in social activities; that 'social glue binds clusters together'. This is supported by recent research showing that particularly in regional and rural areas, significantly more innovation takes place in communities which have stronger inter-personal networks. Put in another way, a business cluster is a geographical location where enough resources and competences amass reach a critical threshold, giving it a key position in a given economic branch of activity, and with a decisive sustainable competitive advantage over other places, or even a world supremacy in that field (e.g. Silicon Valley and Hollywood). A cluster is most of the time the result of initiatives, since it implies to convince current competitors to work jointly. The initiative usually comes from the political sphere (e.g. the different Singaporian clusters ), but it can also come from the industry itself (e.g. the initiative of Bart J. Groot, the director of Dow Olefinverbund GmbH, a major chemicals complex at the intersection of three Eastern German states (Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia after the reunification. The goal was to "encourage coordination among political and administrative officials" of Mitteldeutschland.) Types By composition Following development of the concept of inter organizational networks in Germany and practical development of clusters in the United Kingdom; many perceive there to be four methods by which a cluster can be identified: Geographical cluster – as stated above e.g. the California wine cluster or the flower cluster between Rotterdam and Amsterdam in the Netherlands. Sectoral clusters (a cluster of businesses operating together from within the same commercial sector e.g. marine (south east England; Cowes and now Solent) and photonics (Aston Science Park, Birmingham)) Horizontal cluster (interconnections between businesses at a sharing of resources level e.g. knowledge management, machinery, lab and test tools, material supply, professional employment) Vertical cluster (i.e. a supply chain cluster). It is also expected – particularly in the German model of organizational networks – that interconnected businesses must interact and have firm actions within at least two separate levels of the organizations concerned. By type of comparative advantage Several types of business clusters, based on different kinds of knowledge, are recognized: High-tech clusters – These clusters are high technology-oriented, well adapted to the knowledge economy, and typically have as a core renowned universities and research centers like Silicon Valley, the East London Tech City or Paris-Saclay. An exceptional example of a prominent high-tech cluster that does not include a university is the High Tech Campus Eindhoven, located in the Dutch city of Eindhoven. Historic know-how-based clusters – These are based on more traditional economic activities that maintain their advantage in know-how over the years, and for some of them, over many centuries. They are often industry-specific. An example is London as financial center. Factor endowment clusters – They are created because a comparative advantage they might have linked to a geographical position. For example, wine production clusters because of sunny regions surrounded by mountains, where good grapes can grow. This is like certain areas in France such as Burgundy and Champagne, as well as Lombardy, Spain, Chile and California. Low-cost manufacturing clusters – These clusters have typically emerged in developing countries within particular industries, such as automotive production, electronics, or textiles. Examples include electronics clusters in Mexico (e.g. Guadalajara) and Argentina (e.g. Córdoba). Cluster firms typically serve clients in developed countries. Drivers of cluster emergence include availability of low-cost labor, geographical proximity to clients (e.g. in the case of Mexico for U.S. clients; Eastern Europe for Western European clients). Knowledge services clusters – Like low-cost manufacturing clusters, these clusters have emerged typically in developing countries. They have been characterized by the availability of lower-cost skills and expertise serving a growing global demand for increasingly commoditized (i.e. standardized, less firm-specific) knowledge services, e.g. software development, engineering support, analytical services. Examples include Bangalore, India; Recife, Brazil; Shanghai, China. Multinational corporations have played an important role in "customizing" business conditions in these clusters. One example for this is the establishment of collaborative linkages with local universities to secure the supply of qualified, yet lower-cost engineers. Process The process of identifying, defining, and describing a cluster is not standardized. Individual economic consultants and researchers develop their own methodologies. All cluster analysis relies on evaluation of local and regional employment patterns, based on industrial categorizations such as NAICS or the increasingly obsolete SIC codes. Notable databases providing statistical data on clusters and industry agglomeration include: The Cluster Mapping Project (for the USA), conducted by the Institute for Strategy and Competitiveness at Harvard Business School The European Cluster Observatory (for Europe), managed by the Center for Strategy and Competitiveness at the Stockholm School of Economics An alternative to clusters, reflecting the distributed nature of business operations in the wake of globalization, is hubs and nodes. The Silicon Valley case In the mid- to late 1990s several successful computer technology related companies emerged in Silicon Valley in California. This led anyone who wished to create a startup company to do so in Silicon Valley. The surge in the number of Silicon Valley startups led to a number of venture capital firms relocating to or expanding their Valley offices. This in turn encouraged more entrepreneurs to locate their startups there. In other words, venture capitalists (sellers of finance) and dot-com startups (buyers of finance) "clustered" in and around a geographical area. The cluster effect in the capital market also led to a cluster effect in the labor market. As an increasing number of companies started up in Silicon Valley, programmers, engineers etc. realized that they would find greater job opportunities by moving to Silicon Valley. This concentration of technically skilled people in the valley meant that startups around the country knew that their chances of finding job candidates with the proper skill-sets were higher in the valley, hence giving them added incentive to move there. This in turn led to more high-tech workers moving there. Similar effects have also been found in the Cambridge IT Cluster (UK). The Digital Media City case In the late 1990s, the Seoul Metropolitan Government in South Korea developed the Digital Media City (DMC), a 135-acre complex, four miles outside of the city's central business district in the Sangam-dong district. With Seoul's rapidly growing cluster of multi-media, IT, and entertainment industries, the Digital Media City, through its vibrant agglomeration, helped to promote these industries and companies whose core business required use of information, communication, and media technologies. DMC grew and prospered as a global business environment, raising Seoul as an east-Asian hub of commerce. The cluster of its digital media-related, high-tech firms spawned partnerships which in turn leveraged both human and social capital in the area. Eventually, DMC fed the innovation of more than 10,000 small-scale Internet, game, and telecommunication firms located in Seoul. In development of DMC, the Seoul government leveraged initial funding by private technology partners and developers. It is also provided IT broadband and wireless networks to the area as well as needed infrastructure. The Seoul government even provided tax incentives and favorable land prices for magnet tenants who would attract other firms to the area due to established business relationships and through their presence which would in turn promote DMC as a prime location. With such a concentration of these entities, Seoul has become a major nexus of high-technology and digital media. It is home to digital media R&D firms across a range of types including cultural media creation, digital media technologies, digital broadcasting centers, technology offices, and entertainment firms. Just outside the DMC complex include international firm affiliates, schools, moderate to low income housing, commercial and convention facilities, entertainment zones, and the city's central rail station. The cohesive connection of industry, cultural centers, infrastructure, and human capital has fostered Seoul as a strong metropolitan economy and South Korea, the Miracle on the Han River, as a storied nation transitioning from a manufacturing to an innovation economy. Cluster effect The cluster effect can be more easily perceived in any urban agglomeration, as most kinds of commercial establishments will tend to spontaneously group themselves by category. Shoe shops (or cloth shops), for instance, are rarely isolated from their competition. In fact, it is common to find whole streets of them. The cluster effect is similar to (but not the same as) the network effect. It is similar in the sense that the price-independent preferences of both the market and its participants are based on each one's perception of the other rather than the market simply being the sum of all its participants actions as is usually the case. Thus, by being an effect greater than the sum of its causes, and as it occurs spontaneously, the cluster effect is a usually cited example of emergence. Governments and companies often try to use the cluster effect to promote a particular place as good for a certain type of business. For example, the city of Bangalore, India has utilized the cluster effect in order to convince a number of high-tech companies to set up shop there. Similarly, Las Vegas has benefited through the cluster effect of the gambling industry. In France, the national industrial policy includes support for a specific form of business clusters, called "Pôles de Compétitivité", such as Cap Digital. Another good example is the Nano/Microelectronics and Embedded Systems" or in short "mi-Cluster" that was facilitated by "Corallia Cluster Initiative" in Greece. Corallia introduced a bottom-up, 3-phase programme framework for facilitating cluster development, and was short-listed among the final classification (finalists) for the DG REGIO's RegioStars 2009 Awards in the category "Research, Technological Development and Innovation". Clusters, were proved to boost the innovative activity among firms of the same industry. One of the main causes that might be highlighted is the competition between the companies. Moreover, except of stimulating a favorable conditions for the exchange of ideas, industry-specific regional concentrations, also create a thick labor market input. Hence innovations increase the accumulation of the knowledge in the region which influences on the local internal economies. The cluster effect does not continue forever though. To sustain cluster performance in the long term, clusters need to manage network openness to business outside the cluster while facilitating strong inter-organisational relationships within the cluster. Its relative influence is also dictated by other market factors such as expected revenue, strength of demand, taxes, competition and politics. In the case of Silicon Valley as stated above for example, increased crowding in the valley led to severe shortage of office and residential space which in turn forced many companies to move to alternative locations such as Austin, Texas and Raleigh-Durham, North Carolina even though they would have liked to stay in the valley. Sometimes cluster strategies still do not produce enough of a positive impact to be justified in certain industries. For instance, in the case of Builders Square, the home improvement retailer could not compete with industry leaders such as Home Depot when it could not realize the same low costs and contracts. As a result, it was presented with an option to form a merger with another home improvement retailer, Hechinger to better improve their business clusters and compete with Home Depot and other industry leaders. However, when it failed to do so, it slowly began to fail and eventually fell into bankruptcy. Although the merger attempted to create geographic clusters to compete with the low costs of other firms, costs were not lowered enough and eventually the plan failed, forcing Hechinger into Chapter 7 liquidation and Builders Square out of the industry. Clusters can also fail if the regional economy does not adapt with the times. In Detroit, when the automotive industry declined, the cluster and the city declined with it. Clusters can fail if they do not use their position to reinvent themselves and move into other industries before the tipping point is reached. In terms of the level of cluster members' innovation performance this type of a system can be usually characterized by a low level of uptake of different technologies due to the limited contacts that actors have with industrial companies focusing mainly on the same areas of interests. See also Diamond District Economies of agglomeration Entrepreneurial ecosystem Economic restructuring Fashion Avenue Garment District Industrial district Living lab Meatpacking District Mega-Site Metropolitan economy Radio Row Restaurant Row Research-intensive cluster Theater District References Economic geography Administrative theory Planned industrial developments Michael Porter Regional economics

Origin is a proprietary computer program for interactive scientific graphing and data analysis. It is produced by OriginLab Corporation, and runs on Microsoft Windows. It has inspired several platform-independent open-source clones and alternatives like LabPlot and SciDAVis. Graphing support in Origin includes various 2D/3D plot types. Data analyses in Origin include statistics, signal processing, curve fitting and peak analysis. Origin's curve fitting is performed by a nonlinear least squares fitter which is based on the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm. Origin imports data files in various formats such as ASCII text, Excel, NI TDM, DIADem, NetCDF, SPC, etc. It also exports the graph to various image file formats such as JPEG, GIF, EPS, TIFF, etc. There is also a built-in query tool for accessing database data via ADO. Features Origin is primarily a GUI software with a spreadsheet front end. Unlike popular spreadsheets like Excel, Origin's worksheet is column oriented. Each column has associated attributes like name, units and other user definable labels. Instead of cell formula, Origin uses column formula for calculations. Recent versions of Origin have introduced and expanded on batch capabilities, with the goal of eliminating the need to program many routine operations. Instead the user relies on customizable graph templates, analysis dialog box Themes which save a particular suite of operations, auto recalculation on changes to data or analysis parameters, and Analysis Templates™ which save a collection of operations within the workbook. Origin also has a scripting language (LabTalk) for controlling the software, which can be extended using a built-in C/C++-based compiled language (Origin C). Other programming options include an embedded Python environment, and an R Console plus support for Rserve. Origin can be also used as a COM server for programs which may be written in Visual Basic .NET, C#, LabVIEW, etc. Older (.OPJ), but not newer (.OPJU), Origin project files can be read by the open-source LabPlot or SciDAVis software. The files can also be read by QtiPlot but only with a paid "Pro" version. Finally the liborigin library can also read .OPJ files such as by using the opj2dat script, which exports the data tables contained in the file. There is also a free component (Orglab) maintained by Originlab that can be used to create (or read) OPJ files. A free Viewer application is also available. Editions and support Origin is available in two editions, the regular version Origin and the pricier OriginPro. The latter adds additional data analysis features like surface fitting, short-time Fourier Transform, and more advanced statistics. Technical support is available to registered users via e-mail, online chat, and telephone. A user forum is also available. There are a few version types that have been offered from Origin and OriginPro as personal, academic, government and student versions. However, the student version is not available for Southeast Asian countries such as Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Laos. There is an origin file viewer to see data and charts made with origin. The actual software is Version 9.6.5. This software can convert newer OPJU files to older OPJ files for older versions of Origin. History Origin was first created for use solely with microcalorimeters manufactured by MicroCal Inc. (acquired by Malvern Instruments in 2014) The software was used to graph the instruments data, and perform nonlinear curve fitting and parameter calculation. The software was first published for the public in 1992 by Microcal Software, which later was renamed to OriginLab Corporation, located in Northampton, Massachusetts. Release history 2023/04/27 Origin 2023b: built-in LaTeX, Floating windows, Keep pinned windows when switching folders, Export to PDF via MS Print, Scale opju files properly on different resolutions, Duplicate Sheet with New Files, Browser Graph with gadgets, Set external image in graph as linked file, SVG drag & drop to graph, rotate, resize, etc. 2022/11/3 Origin 2023: Folder Notes, Seesaw Folders, Pin window, Banded Rows, Hide & Protect sheet, Better inserted sheet/table on graph, Graph export with internal preview, clickable export link, Improved Script window with Unicode support, auto fill and syntax coloring, 2022/5/12 Origin 2022b: Export SVG, GeoTIFF support, rich text in notes window, simpler symbol map, remove formula and links, customize gadget ROI label, distance annotation, arrange & snap windows, high resolution icons on 4K monitor, etc. 2021/11/16 Origin 2022: Add Notes to Cells, Named Range, Image on Graph as Linked Files, Mini Toolbars on Object Manager, Connect to OneDrive and Google Drive for data. 2021/4/30 Origin 2021b: Mini toolbar for 3D graph, built-in Shapefile support, insert maps to graphs, NetCDF climate data, SQLite import export 2020/10/27 Origin 2021. Fully integrated Python support with new originpro package. New formula bar, color manager, chord diagram. New Apps including TDMS Connector, Import PDF Tables. 2020/4/30 Origin 2020b. Mini toolbar for worksheet & matrix, data connector navigator panel, browser graphs. Worksheet cells no longer showing ####. New Apps such as Canonical Correlation Analysis, Correlation plot etc. 2019/10/25 Origin 2020. Only provides 64 bit Origin & OriginPro. Mini toolbars, much faster import and plotting of large dataset. Density dots, color dots, sankey diagram, improved pie and doughnut charts. Copy and Paste plot, Copy and Paste HTML or EMF table. 2019/04/24 Origin 2019b. HTML and Markdown reports. Web Data Connectors for CSV, JSON, Excel, MATLAB. Rug Plots, Split Heatmap Plot. Validation Reports using NIST data. New Apps for Quantile Regression, 2D Correlation, Isosurface Plot, etc. 2018/10/26 Origin 2019. Data Highlighter for data exploration, Windows-like search from Start menu, Conditional formatting of data cells, Violin plot, New apps like Stats Advisor, Image Object Counter, Design of Experiments, etc. 2018/4/24 Origin 2018b. Matrices embedded in workbook, Worksheet/matrix data preview, Dynamic graph preview in analysis, Distributed batch processing on multi-core CPU (app). 2017/11/9 Origin 2018. Cell formula, Unicode, Bridge chart, changed to a more compact file format (OPJU). 2016/11/10 Origin 2017. Trellis Plot, Geology fill patterns, JavaScript support from Origin C. 2015/10/23 Origin 2016. First version to support Apps in Origin, also added R support. 2014/10 Origin 2015 added graph thumbnail previews, project search, heat map, 2D kernel density plot and Python support. 2013/10 Origin 9.1 SR0 added support for Piper diagram, Ternary surface plot etc. 2012/10 Origin 9 with high performance OpenGL 3D Graphing, orthogonal regression for implicit/explicit functions 2011/11 Origin 8.6, first version in 64bit 2011/04 Origin 8.5.1 2010/09 Origin 8.5.0 2009/10 Origin 8.1 2009/08 Origin 8 SR6 2007/12 Origin 8 SR1 2007/10 Origin 8 2006/01 Origin 7.5 SR6 2003/10 Origin 7.5 2002/02 Origin 7.0 2000/09 Origin 6.1 1999/06 Origin 6.0 1997/08 Origin 5.0 1995/02 Origin 4.1 1994/07 Origin 3.5 1993/08 Origin 2.9 1993/?? Origin 2 References External links 1992 software Data analysis software Earth sciences graphics software Plotting software Regression and curve fitting software Windows software

The Electric VLSI Design System is an EDA tool written in the early 1980s by Steven M. Rubin. Electric is used to construct logic wire schematics and to perform analysis of integrated circuit layout. It can also handle hardware description languages such as VHDL and Verilog. The system has many analysis and synthesis tools, including design rule checking, simulation, routing, Layout vs. Schematic, logical effort, and more. Electric is written in Java, and was released as part of the GNU project in 1998 under the GNU General Public License. In 2017, Electric development ceased, but support and bug fixes continue. Alternative design style for integrated circuits Unlike other systems that design integrated circuits (ICs) by manipulating polygons on different layers of the wafer, Electric views IC layout as connected circuitry, similar to the way schematic capture systems work. In Electric, designers place nodes (transistors, contacts, etc.) and connect them with arcs (wires). This has advantages and disadvantages. One advantage is that circuits are always extracted, so analyses that need to know the topology (Layout vs. Schematic, simulation, etc.) can run faster. Also, by presenting a schematic-capture-like user interface, the system offers a uniform user experience for both IC layout and schematic design. And finally, the nodes-and-arcs view of a circuit makes it easy to add layout constraints to the arcs which allow the designer to "program" the layout so that it stays connected as changes are made. This style of design also has disadvantages. One disadvantage is that designers are not used to such an interaction and require training in order to use it. It has been observed that people with no previous experience in IC layout are comfortable with Electric's unusual style, but those who have done IC layout on other systems find Electric difficult to use. Another disadvantage is that it is hard to import polygons from traditional systems because they have to be node-extracted, and the polygons don't always match the set of nodes and arcs provided by Electric. Furthermore, it is not possible to execute polygon commands directly as a result of nodal interference caused within the software itself. History Originally written in C during the 1980s, Electric was distributed for free to universities and sold by Applicon as "Bravo3VLSI" during the mid 1980s. In 1988, Electric Editor Incorporated was founded to sell Electric, and starting in 1998 it is distributed as free software by the Free Software Foundation and by Static Free Software starting in 2000. In 1999, development moved to Sun Microsystems, and in 2003 the original C version of Electric was discontinued in favour of a Java version, which was completed in 2005. Active development of Electric stopped in 2017, but fixes and support continues. See also List of free electronics circuit simulators Comparison of EDA Software References External links Computer-aided design software Electronic design automation software for Linux Free computer-aided design software Free electronic design automation software Free software programmed in Java (programming language) GNU Project software Free simulation software Electronic circuit simulators

Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology and Sciences (ANITS), was established in the Academic Year 2001–02 with the approval of the All India Council for Technology Education (AICTE), New Delhi and the Government of Andhra Pradesh and is affiliated to Andhra University (AU), Visakhapatnam. All the eligible courses are Accredited by NBA in the year 2013. It is given Permanent Affiliation in the year 2010 by Andhra University. ANITS received autonomous status in the year 2015. The Institute is accredited by NAAC with A grade and valid up to 9 Dec 2019 with A grade. The institute CGPA is 3.01. Programmes Offered BTech Mechanical Engineering Chemical Engineering Civil Engineering Computer Science & Engineering Computer Science & Engineering  (Data Science) Computer Science & Engineering (Artificial Intelligence  & Machine Learning) Electrical & Electronics Engineering Electronics & Communication Engineering Information Technology MTech M.Tech. (Control Systems) M.Tech.(Computer Science & Technology) M.Tech. (Communication Systems) M.Tech. (Machine Design) M.Tech. (Soil Mechanics) M.Tech. (Biotechnology) Universities and colleges in Visakhapatnam Colleges affiliated to Andhra University Educational institutions established in 2001 2001 establishments in Andhra Pradesh

The today Technological University José Antonio Echeverría, in its beginnings the University City José Antonio Echeverría (CUJAE), whose old acronyms are still used for its popular recognition. With the triumph of the Revolution on January 1, 1959, a stage of revolutionary transformations at the national level began in Cuba and among the first were educational ones. Thus the conditions are created to initiate a true university reform, dreams until then unique of the great Cuban teachers: Varela, Martí, Mella, Varona and of all those who for years had fought and even given their lives to cement a worthy University that was only achieved with Fidel. It is attached to the Ministry of Higher Education of Cuba. On February 15, 2017, the National Accreditation Board awarded him the superior category of excellence, for his results in the comprehensive training of students, research and its impact on the municipality, the nation and abroad. History The history of CUJAE has its antecedents in the old School of Engineers, Electricians and Architects of the University of Havana, created on June 30, 1900, when the Military Orders for this purpose. At the beginning, it began in the old convent of San Agustín, today the Carlos J. Finlay Museum of the History of Medicine, and then moved on to La Colina, attached to the Faculty of Sciences and Letters of that University Center, with the careers of Civil Engineering and Electrical Engineering, adding that of Architecture, the first of October of the same year. As a result of the reform movement that began in 1923, there is a significant turnaround in the programs that had not been reviewed for some twenty years, causing changes in the curricula of the three aforementioned careers. In 1925 it became the School of Engineers and Architects, continuing within the Faculty of Letters and Sciences. When the teaching law of 1937 was promulgated, twelve Faculties were created at the University of Havana, among them the Faculty of Engineering and Architecture appears with new programs for Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Architecture, which remained in force with slight modifications until 1960. In January 1943 this Faculty is divided into two: Engineering, where they continue to study Civil Engineering and Electrical Engineering, and Architecture, with the degree of the same name. The incorporation of a broad student movement to the insurrectionary process organized at that time to overthrow the government of the day, caused the closure of the university in the year 1956, which did not reopen until after the revolutionary triumph of January 1, 1959. On November 18, 1961, the Faculty of Technology of the University of Havana was founded, and on January 10, 1962, it was officially ratified by the University Reform Law, being integrated again, with six Schools : Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Industrial Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering and Architecture. Later they would appear: Mining Engineering, Geophysical Engineering, Hydraulic Engineering, Sugar Engineering and the careers of medium technical level: Hydrotechnics and Topography. Construction In September 1960, the commander-in-chief Fidel Castro announced the purpose of building a university city; he name her José Antonio Echeverría. There were three possible places for its realization, and by consensus the neighboring Central Toledo, today Central Manuel Martínez Prieto, in the current municipality of Marianao was chosen. On March 13, 1961, in commemoration of the fourth anniversary of the assault on the Presidential Palace and the taking of Radio Reloj, the construction works were officially inaugurated. In the year of 1962 the construction work had advanced considerably but the urgent need for capital to subsidize the completion of the project remained. To this end, the engineer Altshuler prepared a report on the Request for Technical Assistance to the United Nations Special Fund, a request that met with the opposition of the representative of the United States, but since there were no strong reasons to reject it, they then looked for a way to obstruct it always postponing its treatment in the Assemblies of said Organization. Pressure from the Cuban diplomatic headquarters led to the organization of a mission in April 1965 made up of Messrs Didier Manheimer, Consulting Engineer, Director of the Societé Internacionale de Formation, of France, and Audun Ofjord, Director of Bergen Materials Test and Research Laboratory. The visit verified that the report sent had been fulfilled, and that the Faculty was a concrete reality, since the teaching staff and students had been developed and the facility was largely built. The project was approved in October of that same year, granting the figure of $2 007 600,00 USD. Finally on December 2, 1964, Fidel Castro inaugurated in this Capital, the University City José Antonio Echeverría, (CUJAE), occupying its facilities the Faculty of Technology of the University of Havana and the leveling courses, designed to properly train high school graduates who aspired to study engineering careers. Structural Changes On July 29, 1976, the José Antonio Echeverría Higher Polytechnic Institute was founded, by decision of the recently created Ministry of Higher Education (MES), which immediately promoted a national network of Higher Education Centers (CES), as a consequence of the growth in enrollment in the few existing universities and due to the justified need to improve the National System at that level. Thus, the Faculty of Technology is definitively separated from the University of Havana, becoming the José Antonio Echeverría CUJAE Higher Polytechnic Institute, being defined by Law as the Center in charge of the training of specialists in the field of technical sciences and it is conferred the responsibility of being the Rector Center of Architecture and engineering (Technical Sciences) taught in it, except those related to Mining Engineering and Agronomic Engineering that are no longer studied at the CUJAE and that transferred their rectories to the Higher Institute of Metallurgical Mining of Moa and the Agrarian University of Havana. With an independent structure, this university begins its teaching activities in the academic year 1976 - 1977 and with it is would also open a new faculty, the Azucarera, whose antecedents are embedded in the Branch created in 1972 in the Central "Camilo Cienfuegos". On June 30, 2016, the agreement No. 7943 of the executive committee of the Council of Ministers is taken, in which the integration of the universities in Cuba is concluded, where the approval of the change of name of Cuba is adopted in the sixth agreement. Higher Polytechnic Institute "José Antonio Echeverría", to Technological University of Havana "José Antonio Echeverría", with the acronym CUJAE, giving both national and international character of university. Facilities The CUJAE is made up of more than forty buildings and covers an area of 398 000 square meters where classrooms, laboratories, conference rooms, research centers, libraries, workshops, warehouses, dormitories, dining rooms, cafeterias, administrative offices, teaching offices are included, theaters, sports gyms, sports fields, medical dispensary, student recreation house, post office, publishing department, printing press, and all kinds of facilities that contribute to the correct preparation of students. Organization The CUJAE has 9 faculties where 13 careers are studied. It has 12 research centers, associated almost entirely to the faculties, they constitute the nucleus par excellence of scientific work, where the most relevant and most important groups of results are grouped. The faculties are: Faculty of Architecture Faculty of Automation and Biomedical Engineering Faculty of Civil Engineering Faculty of Electrical Engineering Faculty of Industrial Engineering Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Chemical Engineering Faculty of Computer Engineering Faculty of Telecommunications Engineering The programs are: Architecture Automation engineering Biomedical engineering Civil engineering Electric engineering Geophysical engineering Hydraulic engineering Industrial engineering Informatics engineering Mechanical engineering Metallurgy and materials engineering Chemical engineering Telecommunications and electronics engineering The Centers are: CIH, Center for Hydraulic Research (1969). CIME, Center for Microelectronics Research (1969). CETDIR, Center for Studies in Management Techniques (1987). CIPEL, Center for Electro-Energy Research and Tests (1988). CECAT, Center for Construction and Tropical Architecture (1989). CETER, Center for Studies on Renewable Energy Technologies (1992). CIPRO, Center for Process Engineering Studies (1994). CEIM, Center for Innovation and Maintenance Studies (1995). CREA, Reference Center for Advanced Education (1998). CEBIO Center for Biomedical Studies (2000). CITI, Complex of Integrated Technological Research (2000). CEMAT, Center for Mathematical Studies for Technical Sciences (2000). Throughout its history, Cujae has graduated more than fifty thousand professionals, of which two thousand have been foreign students, mainly from Latin American, African and Asian countries. The institute has also developed more than ninety international projects and maintains ties of friendship and academic exchange with more than two hundred universities in the world. Symbols The lyrics and music of the Cujae university anthem, Alma Cujae, was composed in 2014 by Israel Rojas Fiel, leader of the Duo Buena Fe, as a gift to the institute on its 50th Anniversary. Hymn, which was heard for the first time at the opening ceremony of the 2014–2015 academic year, exalts the values and pride of Cujaeños in belonging to this House of Higher Studies. Rectors Here is the list of deans and rectors that the Faculty of Technology and later the Higher Polytechnic Institute have had since its founding date: Deans of the Faculty of Technology (1961-1976) Ing. Diosdado Pérez Franco (1961-1965) Ing. Miguel Llaneras Rodríguez (1965-1966) Arq. Eduardo Granados Navarro (1966-1967) Arq. Gonzalo de Quesada Mesa (1967-1971) Ing. José Arañaburo García (1971-1973) Ing. José Lavandero García (1973-1976) Ing. Orlando Olivera Martín (1976) Rectors of the Cujae (1976-2021) Dr. Ing. Orlando Olivera Martín (1976-1979) Dr. Ing. Rodolfo Alarcón Ortiz (1979-1987) Dr. Ing. Antonio Romillo Tarke (1987-1998) Dr. Ing. Arturo Bada González (1998-2004) Dr. Ing. Gustavo Cobreiro Suárez (2004-2009) Dra. Ing. Alicia Alonso Becerra (2009-2019) Dr. Ing. Modesto Ricardo Gómez Crespo (2019) Doctors Honoris Causa Fidel Castro Ruz Eusebio Leal Spengler Diosdado Pérez Franco Fernando Carlos Vecino Alegret Mario Coyula Cowley José Bienvenido Martínez Rodríguez Roberto Segré Pando Vitervo O´Reilly Díaz José Altshuler Gutber Jorge Acevedo Catá Sixto Antonio Ruiz de Alejo Hugo Rafael Wainshtok Rivas Raúl González Romero Francisco Medinas Torri Luis Blanca Fernández Leonardo Ruiz Alejo José Lavandero García Norberto Marrero de León Gilda Vega Cruz Lourdes Zumalacárregui de Cárdenas Ruben Bancrofft Hernández Rafael Antonio Pardo Gómez Alcides Juan León Méndez Publications It currently has ten digital scientific journals, oriented to topics related to engineering, architecture and pedagogy: Cuban Journal of Engineering Journal Architecture and Urbanism Journal Hydraulic and Environmental Journal Mechanical Engineering Journal Electronic, Automatic and Communications Engineering Journal Energy Engineering Journal Industrial Engineering Journal Pedagogical Reference Journal Telematics Journal Science and Construction National Student Journal of Engineering and Architecture CUJAE Project The CUJAE is in a constructive process, which from 2017 to 2021 has as its objective the renovation of the center. The objective is to have the highest technology in each of its spaces: classrooms, laboratories, libraries, theaters, among others. The CUJAE Project has its antecedents in the act for the 50th anniversary of the institution chaired by Raúl Castro, president of the Councils of States and Ministers, who gave the orientation of "putting the school at the height of the times current ". Being a university of technical sciences and that prepares students in architecture and engineering who are capable of carrying out projects for production, it was decided that they could carry out the projects in the school, but based on the improvement of it. Red It has one of the most extensive intranets in the entire country with a network supported by a number of servers spread throughout the institution and managed by students and professors. In this network you can find material of all kinds that successfully supports education lacking physical books but extensive in virtual books and articles. Internet on the other hand is restricted by a proxy server Squid for linux that allows controlled access for its users (teachers and students of the CUJAE). It has recently increased its speed and types of access, now allowing remote telephone access and greater information traffic. See also Education in Cuba Havana List of universities in Cuba Education in Cuba External links Official page of the Cujae de-merit Doctors Hononis Causa Appointment of Excellence The University of 2021 Fifty years of a distinguished University Link to official page of the Ministry of Higher Education University Appointed new Rector in Cujae Universities in Cuba Education in Havana Educational institutions established in 1964 1964 establishments in Cuba

In computer science, the double dabble algorithm is used to convert binary numbers into binary-coded decimal (BCD) notation. It is also known as the shift-and-add-3 algorithm, and can be implemented using a small number of gates in computer hardware, but at the expense of high latency. Algorithm The algorithm operates as follows: Suppose the original number to be converted is stored in a register that is n bits wide. Reserve a scratch space wide enough to hold both the original number and its BCD representation; bits will be enough. It takes a maximum of 4 bits in binary to store each decimal digit. Then partition the scratch space into BCD digits (on the left) and the original register (on the right). For example, if the original number to be converted is eight bits wide, the scratch space would be partitioned as follows: Hundreds Tens Ones Original 0010 0100 0011 11110011 The diagram above shows the binary representation of 24310 in the original register, and the BCD representation of 243 on the left. The scratch space is initialized to all zeros, and then the value to be converted is copied into the "original register" space on the right. 0000 0000 0000 11110011 The algorithm then iterates n times. On each iteration, any BCD digit which is at least 5 (0101 in binary) is incremented by 3 (0011); then the entire scratch space is left-shifted one bit. The increment ensures that a value of 5, incremented and left-shifted, becomes 16 (10000), thus correctly "carrying" into the next BCD digit. Essentially, the algorithm operates by doubling the BCD value on the left each iteration and adding either one or zero according to the original bit pattern. Shifting left accomplishes both tasks simultaneously. If any digit is five or above, three is added to ensure the value "carries" in base 10. The double-dabble algorithm, performed on the value 24310, looks like this: 0000 0000 0000 11110011 Initialization 0000 0000 0001 11100110 Shift 0000 0000 0011 11001100 Shift 0000 0000 0111 10011000 Shift 0000 0000 1010 10011000 Add 3 to ONES, since it was 7 0000 0001 0101 00110000 Shift 0000 0001 1000 00110000 Add 3 to ONES, since it was 5 0000 0011 0000 01100000 Shift 0000 0110 0000 11000000 Shift 0000 1001 0000 11000000 Add 3 to TENS, since it was 6 0001 0010 0001 10000000 Shift 0010 0100 0011 00000000 Shift 2 4 3 BCD Now eight shifts have been performed, so the algorithm terminates. The BCD digits to the left of the "original register" space display the BCD encoding of the original value 243. Another example for the double dabble algorithm value 6524410. 104 103 102 101 100 Original binary 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111111011011100 Initialization 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001 1111110110111000 Shift left (1st) 0000 0000 0000 0000 0011 1111101101110000 Shift left (2nd) 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111 1111011011100000 Shift left (3rd) 0000 0000 0000 0000 1010 1111011011100000 Add 3 to 100, since it was 7 0000 0000 0000 0001 0101 1110110111000000 Shift left (4th) 0000 0000 0000 0001 1000 1110110111000000 Add 3 to 100, since it was 5 0000 0000 0000 0011 0001 1101101110000000 Shift left (5th) 0000 0000 0000 0110 0011 1011011100000000 Shift left (6th) 0000 0000 0000 1001 0011 1011011100000000 Add 3 to 101, since it was 6 0000 0000 0001 0010 0111 0110111000000000 Shift left (7th) 0000 0000 0001 0010 1010 0110111000000000 Add 3 to 100, since it was 7 0000 0000 0010 0101 0100 1101110000000000 Shift left (8th) 0000 0000 0010 1000 0100 1101110000000000 Add 3 to 101, since it was 5 0000 0000 0101 0000 1001 1011100000000000 Shift left (9th) 0000 0000 1000 0000 1001 1011100000000000 Add 3 to 102, since it was 5 0000 0000 1000 0000 1100 1011100000000000 Add 3 to 100, since it was 9 0000 0001 0000 0001 1001 0111000000000000 Shift left (10th) 0000 0001 0000 0001 1100 0111000000000000 Add 3 to 100, since it was 9 0000 0010 0000 0011 1000 1110000000000000 Shift left (11th) 0000 0010 0000 0011 1011 1110000000000000 Add 3 to 100, since it was 8 0000 0100 0000 0111 0111 1100000000000000 Shift left (12th) 0000 0100 0000 1010 0111 1100000000000000 Add 3 to 101, since it was 7 0000 0100 0000 1010 1010 1100000000000000 Add 3 to 100, since it was 7 0000 1000 0001 0101 0101 1000000000000000 Shift left (13th) 0000 1011 0001 0101 0101 1000000000000000 Add 3 to 103, since it was 8 0000 1011 0001 1000 0101 1000000000000000 Add 3 to 101, since it was 5 0000 1011 0001 1000 1000 1000000000000000 Add 3 to 100, since it was 5 0001 0110 0011 0001 0001 0000000000000000 Shift left (14th) 0001 1001 0011 0001 0001 0000000000000000 Add 3 to 103, since it was 6 0011 0010 0110 0010 0010 0000000000000000 Shift left (15th) 0011 0010 1001 0010 0010 0000000000000000 Add 3 to 102, since it was 6 0110 0101 0010 0100 0100 0000000000000000 Shift left (16th) 6 5 2 4 4 BCD Sixteen shifts have been performed, so the algorithm terminates. The decimal value of the BCD digits is: 6*104 + 5*103 + 2*102 + 4*101 + 4*100 = 65244. Parametric Verilog implementation of the double dabble binary to BCD converter // parametric Verilog implementation of the double dabble binary to BCD converter // for the complete project, see // https://github.com/AmeerAbdelhadi/Binary-to-BCD-Converter module bin2bcd #( parameter W = 18) // input width ( input [W-1 :0] bin , // binary output reg [W+(W-4)/3:0] bcd ); // bcd {...,thousands,hundreds,tens,ones} integer i,j; always @(bin) begin for(i = 0; i <= W+(W-4)/3; i = i+1) bcd[i] = 0; // initialize with zeros bcd[W-1:0] = bin; // initialize with input vector for(i = 0; i <= W-4; i = i+1) // iterate on structure depth for(j = 0; j <= i/3; j = j+1) // iterate on structure width if (bcd[W-i+4*j -: 4] > 4) // if > 4 bcd[W-i+4*j -: 4] = bcd[W-i+4*j -: 4] + 4'd3; // add 3 end endmodule Reverse double dabble The algorithm is fully reversible. By applying the reverse double dabble algorithm a BCD number can be converted to binary. Reversing the algorithm is done by reversing the principal steps of the algorithm: Reverse double dabble example The reverse double dabble algorithm, performed on the three BCD digits 2-4-3, looks like this: BCD Input Binary Output 2 4 3 0010 0100 0011 00000000 Initialization 0001 0010 0001 10000000 Shifted right 0000 1001 0000 11000000 Shifted right 0000 0110 0000 11000000 Subtracted 3 from 2nd group, because it was 9 0000 0011 0000 01100000 Shifted right 0000 0001 1000 00110000 Shifted right 0000 0001 0101 00110000 Subtracted 3 from 3rd group, because it was 8 0000 0000 1010 10011000 Shifted right 0000 0000 0111 10011000 Subtracted 3 from 3rd group, because it was 10 0000 0000 0011 11001100 Shifted right 0000 0000 0001 11100110 Shifted right 0000 0000 0000 11110011 Shifted right ========================== 24310 Historical In the 1960s, the term double dabble was also used for a different mental algorithm, used by programmers to convert a binary number to decimal. It is performed by reading the binary number from left to right, doubling if the next bit is zero, and doubling and adding one if the next bit is one. In the example above, 11110011, the thought process would be: "one, three, seven, fifteen, thirty, sixty, one hundred twenty-one, two hundred forty-three", the same result as that obtained above. See also Lookup table an alternate approach to perform conversion References Further reading Shift-and-add algorithms Articles with example C code Binary arithmetic

The Alvey Programme was a British government sponsored research programme in information technology that ran from 1984 to 1990. The programme was a reaction to the Japanese Fifth Generation project, which aimed to create a computer using massively parallel computing/processing. The programme was not focused on any specific technology such as robotics, but rather supported research in knowledge engineering in the United Kingdom. It has been likened in operations to the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and Japan's ICOT. Background During the early 1980s, Japan invited the United Kingdom to become a part of the Fifth Generation Project. In October 1981, a Department of Industry mission to Japan consisting of academics, civil servants and business representatives explored collaboration opportunities and attended the Fifth Generation conference. Informed by negotiations between ICL and Fujitsu conducted to "ensure the survival of ICL", suggesting that collaboration would only be possible in "very specific areas agreed upon by individual companies", it was concluded that an emulation of the Japanese approach would be preferable to any attempt at participating in the Japanese programme. In response, a committee was created and was chaired by John Alvey, a technology director at British Telecom. The report generated proposed a different course of action to the Japanese initiative and became the basis for the UK's rejection of the Fifth Generation and the creation of its own Alvey Programme. The programme's fundamental goal was the improvement of the advanced information technology in the UK to address the declining performance of this sector. It operated in 1984 until 1990. Alvey was not involved in the programme itself. The main focus areas of the Alvey Programme were as follows: Advanced Microelectronics and VLSI Intelligent Knowledge Based Systems (IKBS) or Artificial Intelligence (AI) Software Engineering Man-Machine Interaction (including Natural Language Processing) Alongside these areas, the provision of a communications infrastructure was a component of the programme. Various areas of endeavour were incorporated into the main focus areas. For example, systems architecture, specifically parallel processing, featured in the VLSI endeavour. References Brian Oakley and Kenneth Owen, Alvey: Britain's Strategic Computing Initiative, MIT Press, 1990. Chris Rigatuso, Takeshi Tachi, Dennis Sysvester & Mark Soper, Collaboration between Firms in Information Technology, Berkeley, EE 290X Group G. Richard Tyler, The Daily Telegraph, Feb 9th 2010. 1984 establishments in the United Kingdom 1990 disestablishments in the United Kingdom History of artificial intelligence History of computing in the United Kingdom Research and development in the United Kingdom Research projects

GNU Circuit Analysis Package (Gnucap) is a general purpose circuit simulator started by Albert Davis in 1993. It is part of the GNU Project. The latest stable version is 0.35 from 2006. The latest development snapshot (as of July 2023) is from June 2023 and is usable. It performs nonlinear DC and transient analysis, Fourier analysis, and AC analysis linearized at an operating point. It is fully interactive and command driven. It can also be run in batch mode or as a server. The output is produced as it simulates. With grant funding from Nlnet, the Gnucap project started to implement a first free/libre simulator with Verilog-AMS capabilities. As of July 2023 the model generator covers most of the analog subset and effectively replaces ADMS. See also Comparison of EDA Software List of free electronics circuit simulators References External links Old official website Circuit Analysis Package Electronic circuit simulators Electronic design automation software for Linux

I.M. Dharmadasa is Professor of Applied Physics and leads the Electronic Materials and Solar Energy (solar cells and other Semiconductor Devices) Group at Sheffield Hallam University, UK. Dharme has worked in semiconductor research since becoming a PhD student at Durham University as a Commonwealth Scholar in 1977, under the supervision of the late Sir Gareth Roberts. His interest in the electrodeposition of thin film solar cells grew when he joined the Apollo Project at BP Solar in 1988. He continued this area of research on joining Sheffield Hallam University in 1990. Career and research He has published over 200 refereed and conference papers, has six British patents on thin film solar cells and has made over 175 conference presentations. He has made five book contributions and is the author of the book Advances in Thin Film Solar cells, which was published in 2012. Dharmadasa has also successfully supervised 20 Ph.D. and M.Phil. candidates and 14 years of PDRA support. He has gained research council and international government funding, and was included in the 2001 Research Assessment Exercise for Metallurgy and Materials which gained the top rating of five. His recent scientific breakthroughs [1-2], which are fundamental to describing the photovoltaic activity of cadmium telluride/cadmium sulfide solar cells, were summarised in a "new theoretical model for CdTe”. Based on these novel ideas he has reported a higher efficiency of 18% for cadmium telluride/cadmium sulfide cell [3], compared with 16.5% reported by NREL in the United States in 2002. He currently focuses on low-cost methods to develop thin film solar cells based on electrodeposited copper indium gallium selenide materials, where he has reported efficiencies of 15.9% to date, compared with the highest value of 19.5% reported by NREL [4] using more expensive techniques. His article 'Fermi level pinning and effects on CuInGaSe2-based thin-film solar cells' was selected to be part of the Semiconductor Science and Technology Journal's Highlights of 2009. Social contribution In addition to his research and development programme, Dharmadasa is heavily involved in and passionate about promoting the use of renewable energy for the alleviation of poverty and economic development. He was one of the founding members of the South Asia renewable Energy programme which is now becoming an international programme for the promotion of renewables [5-7]. As a Sri Lankan from a rural village in the Kurunagala District, he has taken back his knowledge to his village, recently setting up machinery to provide several local villages with free drinking water by replacing an expensive diesel pump with a solar powered motor. He intends to extend this concept through his "Village Power" programme by setting up solar powered energy hubs in developing countries with the hope of empowering rural communities to grow and develop through education and commerce. Back home in the UK, he regularly gives guest lectures at secondary schools around Sheffield, with the hope of instilling the importance of renewable energy technologies in the minds of young students. Early career Earlier in his career, Dharmadasa graduated from the University of Peradeniya in Sri Lanka by completing two B.Sc. Honours degrees covering chemistry, physics and mathematics. He won the Dr. Hewavitharana Memorial Prize for best performance for his physics special degree in 1975, and joined the academic staff of the Physics Department in the Science Faculty at the University of Peradeniya. After winning an open commonwealth scholarship in 1977, he completed his Ph.D. thesis in 1980, under the supervision of the late Sir Gareth Roberts and M. Petty, at the University of Durham (UK), before returning to his post in Sri Lanka. A deep research interest generated by his Ph.D. thesis led to his return to the UK in 1984, where he was an active solar energy researcher at the University College Cardiff and the British Petroleum Company, before joining Sheffield Hallam University in 1990. Professional affiliations Dharmadasa is a fellow of the World Innovation Foundation and the UK Institute of Physics. He referees for over 12 international journals and currently serves as assessor/panel member for the UK funding council, Department of Trade and Industry, The European Commission, the British Council (BC) and the Commonwealth Scholarship Commission. Dharmadasa holds dual citizenship (Sri Lankan and British) and currently advising several Government Ministries for using renewable energy as a tool for social development and the empowerment of rural communities. Dharmadasa is one of the founding members of the Association of Professional Sri-Lankans UK, and has served as a vice president for five years and its president for two years (2009-2011). References 1. I.M. Dharmadasa, J. Young, A.P. Samantilleke. N.B. Chaure, and T. Delsol (i) Copper-indium based thin film PV devices and methods of making the same; WO 03/043096 (ii) Thin film PV devices and method of making the same; GB0405707.1-published as 2397944A (iii) Design of II-VI and III-V thin film PV devices; GB0405710.5 - published as 2397945A (iv) CdTe based multi-layer graded band gap PV devices; GB0405718.8 - published as 2397946A (v) Fabrication of Semiconductor Devices; GB0308826.7-published on 20 Oct. 2004 as GB2400725A (vi) Thin Film photovoltaic device and method of making the same, GB 0202007.1 2. IM Dharmadasa. Recent developments and progress on electrical contacts to CdTe, CdS and ZnSe with special reference to barrier contacts to CdTe. Prog. Crystal Growth and Charact. 36 (1998), pp. 249–290. 3. IM Dharmadasa, AP Samantilleke, J Young and NB Chaure. New ways of development of Glass/CG/CdS/CdTe/metal thin film solar cells based on a new model. Semicond. Sci. Technol. 17 (2002), pp. 1238–1248. ( http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0268-1242/17/12/306/ ) 4. X Wu, JC Keane, RG Dhere, C Dehart, DS Albin, A Duda, TA Gessert, S Asher, DH Levi and P Sheldon. Proc. of 17th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference. Munich, Germany, 22–26 October 2001, pp. 995–1000. 5. IM Dharmadasa. Photovoltaic technology for developing countries; The way forward. Proc. of the workshop on Low Cost Electronic Materials and Solar Cells, Colombo-Sri Lanka, 5–6 March 1997, pp. 1–9. 6. IM Dharmadasa. Clean Energy for the future; the role of photovoltaics as an energy source for the twenty first century. Proc. of the workshop on Renewable Energy Sources Colombo, Sri Lanka, 10–11 February 1998, pp. 1–6. 7. IM Dharmadasa. Solar Energy for a Healthy Society, Part I, Lanka Outlook, Winter (1997/98), pp. 36–37. 11. IM Dharmadasa. Solar Energy for a Healthy Society, Part II, Lanka Outlook, Spring (1998), pp. 36–38. Living people Academics of Sheffield Hallam University Semiconductor physicists Year of birth missing (living people) Alumni of Durham University Graduate Society

The German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence (German: Deutsches Forschungszentrum für Künstliche Intelligenz, DFKI) is one of the world's largest nonprofit contract research institutes for software technology based on artificial intelligence (AI) methods. DFKI was founded in 1988, and has facilities in the German cities of Kaiserslautern, Saarbrücken, Lübeck, Oldenburg, Osnabrück, Bremen, Darmstadt and Berlin. DFKI shareholders include Google, Microsoft, SAP and Daimler. The directors are Antonio Krüger (CEO) and Helmut Ditzer (CFO). Research DFKI conducts contract research in virtually all fields of modern AI, including image and pattern recognition, knowledge management, intelligent visualization and simulation, deduction and multi-agent systems, speech- and language technology, intelligent user interfaces, business informatics and robotics. DFKI led the national project Verbmobil, a project with the aim to translate spontaneous speech robustly and bidirectionally for German/English and German/Japanese. Branches There are different research departments. Kaiserslautern Embedded Intelligence (Paul Lukowicz) Augmented Vision (Didier Stricker) Innovative Factory Systems (Martin Ruskowski) Intelligent Networks (Hans Dieter Schotten) Smart Data & Knowledge Services (Andreas Dengel) Data Science & its Applications (Sebastian Vollmer) Saarbrücken Cognitive Assistants (Antonio Krüger) Institute for Information Systems (Peter Loos) Agents and Simulated Reality (Philipp Slusallek) Multilinguality and Language Technology (Josef van Genabith) Algorithmic Business and Production (Jana Koehler) Smart Service Engineering (Wolfgang Maaß) Bremen Robotics Innovation Center (Frank Kirchner) Cyber Physical Systems (Rolf Drechsler) Berlin Interactive Textiles (Gesche Joost) Intelligent Analytics for Massive Data - Smart Data (Volker Markl) Speech and Language Technology (Sebastian Möller) Educational Technology Lab (Niels Pinkwart) Osnabrück Plan-Based Robot Control (Joachim Hertzberg) Smart Enterprise Engineering (Oliver Thomas) Oldenburg Marine Perception (Oliver Zielinski) Interactive Machine Learning (Daniel Sonntag) Lübeck AI in Biomedical Signal Processing (Alfred Mertins) AI in Medical Imaging (Heinz Handels) Stochastic Relational AI in Healthcare (Ralf Möller) Darmstadt Systems Artificial Intelligence (Kristian Kersting) Systems AI for Robot Learning (Jan Peters) Systems AI for Decision Support (Carsten Binnig) See also CLAIRE, a European organization on artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence Glossary of artificial intelligence Notes External links Official website Professor Wolfgang Wahlster Profile Artificial intelligence laboratories Computer science institutes in Germany Laboratories in Germany Information technology research institutes

Linda G. Shapiro is a professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, a professor of electrical engineering, and adjunct professor of Biomedical Informatics and Medical Education at the University of Washington. Education and experience Shapiro graduated with a B.S. with highest distinction in mathematics and computer science from the University of Illinois in 1970. She completed her M.S. in computer science from University of Iowa in 1972 and her Ph.D. in computer science from University of Iowa in 1974. She was a faculty member in computer science at Kansas State University from 1974 to 1978 and at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University from 1979 to 1984. She then spent two years as director of intelligent systems at Machine Vision International in Ann Arbor, Michigan. She has been an IEEE Fellow since 1995, an IAPR fellow since 2000, and has been editor-in-chief of CVGIP: Image Understanding. Shapiro received the Pattern Recognition Society Best Paper Awards in 1989 and 1995. Research interests Shapiro's research interests include computer vision, medical image analysis, artificial intelligence, biomedical informatics, pattern recognition, and content-based image retrieval. According to her research laboratory website, her recent research projects include Efficient Convolutional Neural Networks for Mobile Devices, Expression Recognition using Deep Neural Nets, and Digital Pathology: Accuracy, Viewing Behavior and Image Characterization. Publications Haralock, Robert M. and L. Shapiro. “Computer and Robot Vision.” (1991). Robert M. Haralick, Linda G. Shapiro. "Image segmentation techniques." Computer Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing, Volume 29, Issue 1, 1985, Pages 100–132, ISSN 0734-189X, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0734-189X(85)90153-7. L. G. Shapiro and R. M. Haralick, "Structural Descriptions and Inexact Matching," in IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, vol. PAMI-3, no. 5, pp. 504–519, September 1981, References External links University of Washington, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Linda Shapiro homepage (accessed October 2013) Year of birth missing (living people) Living people University of Washington faculty Fellow Members of the IEEE Computer vision researchers American electrical engineers

The Khajeh Nasir Toosi University of Technology (KNTU; ) is a public research university in Tehran, Iran. It is named after medieval Persian scholar Khajeh Nasir Toosi. The university is considered one of the most prestigious institutions of higher education in Iran. Acceptance to the university is highly competitive, entrance to undergraduate and graduate programs typically requires scoring among the top 1% of students in the Iranian University Entrance Exam. History The university was founded in 1928, during the reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi, in Tehran and was named the "Institute of Communications" (). It is therefore considered to be the oldest surviving academic institution across the country. (Iran had universities 800 to 2000 years ago from which only the name, ruins and scientific history have survived.) This institute was later expanded with an Electronic and Electrical Power Engineering department. The 50th anniversary of the establishment of this academic institute was celebrated in 1978, and a commemorative stamp was published by the Post of Iran, before the Islamic Revolution of 1979 (see photo). The department of Civil Engineering was founded in 1955 as an Institute of Surveying. This institute was later joined by the Institutes of Hydraulic Engineering and Structural Engineering. The department of Mechanical Engineering was founded in 1973. These institutes of higher education were formally integrated in 1980 and named "Technical and Engineering University Complex". As a general practice of paying tribute to the scientific and scholastic figures of the nation, the university was renamed in 1984 "Khajeh Nassir-Al-Deen Toosi (K. N. Toosi) University of Technology". It is affiliated with the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology of Iran. As of 2012, the university is planning high-tech projects, including the production of a new satellite called 'Saar' (Starling) as well as radar-evading coatings for aircraft. The university's scientific board are also involved in many industrial projects, including the building of satellite carriers and an indigenous eight-seat helicopter. Notable alumni Hamidreza Zareipour professor at University of Calgary. Hadi Meidani assistant professor at University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. Hessam Mirgolbabaei assistant professor at University of Minnesota. Ashkan Ashrafi professor at university at San Diego State University. Danial Faghihi assistant professor at University at Buffalo. Sadegh Azizi lecturer at University of Leeds. Hossein Sayadi assistant professor at California State University, Long Beach. Ramtin Hadidi assistant professor at Clemson University. Amir AghaKouchak professor at University of California, Irvine. Farshid Vahedifard CEE Advisory Board Endowed Professor at Mississippi State University. Ehsan Ghazanfari associate professor at University of Vermont. Mohammad Amin Hariri-Ardebili Research associate at University of Colorado Boulder. Mahmood Yahyai adjunct professor at Morgan State University. Mohammad Moghimi assistant professor at Northern Illinois University. Farhad Jazaei assistant professor at University of Memphis. Omeed Momeni associate professor at University of California, Davis. Majid Beidaghi assistant professor at Auburn University. Mehdi Mortazavi assistant professor at Western New England University. Mohammad Ardakani who served as the minister of cooperatives and governor of the Qom province. Mohammad Aliabadi former vice president and Head of Physical Education Organization of Iran, was also President of the National Olympic Committee of Islamic Republic of Iran from 2008 to 2014. Ali Motahari Representative of Shabestar in the 8th elections of Islamic Consultative Assembly. Ali-Akbar Mousavi Khoeini he was elected as a Member of Parliament in the 6th Parliament of Iran. Farzad Hassani popular Iranian actor Aidin Bozorgi Iranian mountain climber, disappeared in Broad Peak Mahmoud Ghandi Rankings In the latest university rankings announced by the Times Higher Education Supplement in September 2016, K. N. Toosi University of Technology was ranked among the top 5 universities in Iran and in the range of 601 to 800 top universities in the world. Also ranked 400-450th in QS World University Rankings in the Electrical and Mechanical Engineering field. In 2020 Round University Ranking-Clarivate announced that K. N. Toosi University of Technology has achieved the 470th place in the world overall ranking. Faculties The faculties of this university were founded as follows : Faculty of Electrical Engineering (1928) Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (1973) Faculty of Civil Engineering (1955) Faculty of Industrial Engineering (1998) Faculty of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering (1955) Faculty of Aerospace Engineering (2006) Faculty of Computer Engineering Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering Faculty of Chemistry Faculty of Physics Faculty of Mathematics The E-Learning Center (2004) Due to the varied origins of K. N. Toosi University of Technology, the faculties are not concentrated in one campus. As a result, the university has five campuses and a central building. However, the plan for centralizing the university is underway. Each faculty has its own computer center, library and education services office. All libraries are attached to the Simorgh library network. Housing facilities are available for men, women and couples. There are sports facilities on all campuses. The university is programming the development of a branch in Venezuela and research centers in Tehran. The Central Building on Mirdamad Ave., Tehran, is the managing body of the university and the presidency, all vice presidencies, the central academic services and registrar's office are in this building. Management of education services happens through the Golestan education management system, while research is managed via the Sepid research management system. Programs The university offers Bachelor's (B.S.) degrees in more than 20 and Master's (M.S.) degrees in 50 academic fields. It also has 28 PhD programs. It hosts more than five joint educational programs at B.S. and M.S. levels. The courses have industrial orientation on a broad base. The university has 250 full-time faculty members. The total number of students is about 7,000. Faculty of Electrical & Computer Engineering Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering was founded in 1928. It is the main and the oldest faculty of K. N. Toosi University of Technology. It is also the first electrical engineering school in Iran. The faculty has more than 70 full-time faculty members. It is among the best electrical engineering schools in Iran, especially in graduate studies in the field of Communications, Controls, and Biomedical Engineering. The Faculty of Computer Engineering was founded in 2014 after separating from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering. It offers the following programs: These faculties are at Seyedkhandan Bridge, beside the Ministry of Communication. A recreational center is on this campus. Coordinates: Official website: www.ee.kntu.ac.ir, www.ce.kntu.ac.ir Faculty of Aerospace Engineering This is the youngest of the KNTU faculties. Its core was formed as Aerospace group in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in 2000. It provided MSc programs in aerodynamics, propulsion, flight dynamics and aerospace structures. In 2001, it launched the first MSc program in space machinery engineering in Iran. In 2004, the BSc joint aerospace engineering program with MATI (Moscow State Aviation Technological University) was launched. In 2006, the Faculty had officially become independent from the Mechanical Engineering faculty and the first group of BSc state students were admitted through the Iranian University Entrance Examinations. During the years 2000-2007 the faculty used the facilities of the Mechanical Engineering Faculty. In June 2007, the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering moved to its new campus, and the faculty became independent. Some of the facilities of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering (such as workshops) were kept on the Aerospace Engineering campus. The campus is on University Boulevard, Vafadar St., Tehranpars. It has a large library that is being equipped. The aerospace engineering student accommodation is just beside the faculty. The Nasir Gym (K. N. Toosi University of Technology's newest recreational building) is also beside the faculty. There are plans for building recreational facilities, including a gym, at this site. The workshop complex of the university is ont this campus. There are about 170 students studying at the faculty and there are 10 full-time faculty members. The faculty also uses many part-time professors, usually from the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. The first group of joint program students were sent to Russia in August 2007. The faculty is going to launch its P.H.D program in 2008. The faculty was the host of the sixth national and second international Conference of the Iranian Aerospace Society. A new research Center was established at the faculty in 2007, conducting industrial research in aerospace. There are research laboratories at the faculty, including: MDO Lab Control Lab Combustion and Propulsion Research Lab Aerodynamics Lab and Wind tunnel Parallel Processing Lab Space Research Lab The table below shows the programs available at the faculty: Faculty of Civil Engineering This faculty comprises six groups: Earthquake engineering-water engineering-soil engineering-structural engineering-transportation engineering-environmental engineering. It offers the following programs: The campus is jointly used by this faculty and the Faculty of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering. The library contains about 7,000 books in Persian, 6,000 books in English and other foreign languages, 130 journals in different languages, and 150 thesis and research reports. The university's bookshop is on this campus. There is a housing facility and some sport facilities. The faculty has several fully equipped labs used for research or teaching. The laboratories are as follows: Structural Engineering Laboratories: Concrete, Structures, Mechanics of Materials, Materials of Construction. Water Engineering Laboratories: Hydrology, Hydraulics, and Hydraulic Models. Road and Transportation Engineering Laboratories: Pavement Properties Soil and Foundation Engineering Laboratories: Soil Mechanics Laboratory Earthquake Engineering Laboratories: Structural Dynamics Laboratory, including ambient and forced vibration testing devices for the evaluation and measurement of the dynamic characteristics of the existing structures, as well as an earthquake computer site. Environmental Engineering Laboratories: Water and Waste Water Chemistry, Redundant Solid Materials, and Microbiology. This faculty is expert in concrete engineering and has won national and international awards for its achievements in this field. These include first place in 2002 and 2003, second place in 2001. and third place in 2004 in the cement competitions of the American Concrete Institute (ACI). They have been awarded third place in the bridge design and construction with Balsa wood competition in 2003. The students publish a scientific journal named Abanegan آبانگان dedicated to water engineering. The faculty has 28 full-time faculty members. It is at Valiasr St., opposite the Eskan towers. Student accommodation, a recreational center and the university's bookshop is on this campus. The E-Learning Center In 2004 K. N. Toosi University of Technology started its E-Learning programs. The following programs are available: Bsc in Industrial Engineering (system analysis) Bsc in IT Bsc in Computer Engineering Msc in Industrial Engineering (system analysis) Msc in IT (information systems engineering) This center is in the central building of the university (Mirdamad Ave.). Faculty of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering The educational activities of this faculty started in 1954 as Geomatics Institute. This was shortly after the establishment of the Geomatics Organization of Iran. The mission of the newly established Geomatics Institute was mainly to train professional geomatics workforce for governmental organizations. In 1980, this institute joined the newly established K. N. Toosi University of Technology. Initially it was known as the Faculty of Civil Engineering and the geodesy and geomatics engineering was one of the departments. With the expansion of the university, in 2001, this department made an independent faculty under the name of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering to meet the growing demand. As the first faculty of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering in Iran, this faculty is recognized as one of the leading educational and research centers of Iran in geodesy and geomatics engineering. With more than 20 full-time faculty members, this faculty offers programs in graduate and undergraduate levels. It offers the following programs: This faculty is located at Valiasr St., opposite the Eskan towers. Faculty of Industrial Engineering In 1993, the Department of Industrial Engineering was formed in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. In 1999, this department was separated from the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering to continue its activities as an independent Faculty. Programs and degrees presented at the Faculty of Industrial Engineering: Laboratories: precision measurement and quality control simulation information technology industrial systems and automation advanced design and production and robotics strategic intelligence (SIRLAB) time and motion study Research capabilities and interests: Air Traffic Flow Management & Ground Holding Problem Information technology: Electronic commerce Quality control systems in production processes Quality management systems Planning and production control Maintenance systems Industrial design based on human being factors Analysis of ergonomic problems Analysis of industrial systems using computer simulation Internet marketing ISCM e-CRM Commercial intelligence Decision making in trade and industry ERP This faculty is in the Mollasadra building, Pardis St., Mollasadra St., Vanak Sq. It also operates a building at Seyedkhandan Bridge, Dabestan Alley. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Mechanical Engineering was founded in 1973. In June 2007, the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering moved to its new campus. The faculty has 44 full-time faculty members. It offers the following programs: This faculty is in the Mollasadra building, Pardis St., Mollasadra St., Vanak Sq. Faculty of Science The ex-Faculty of Basic Sciences started its activities in 1980 by presenting basic science courses to engineering students of different disciplines. In 1987, the expansion of the Faculty allowed admission of undergraduate applied science students and the name was altered to Faculty of Science. The Faculty consists of four departments: Applied Chemistry, Applied Physics, Mathematics, and the Department of General Courses. The latter department provides courses in theology and ethics, Persian literature, English, and physical education. This faculty is at Kavian St., Jolfa St., Shariati St. A recreational center is on this campus. This faculty provides the following programs: Faculty of Materials science and engineering The K. N. Toosi University of Technology (KNTU) began its activities in the field of Materials Science and Engineering in 2001, with the establishment of a M.Sc. degree in Characterization and Selection of Engineering Materials Program, as a sub-branch of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. In 2010, the activities and scope of the Materials Program were expanded to offer a Ph.D. degree, followed in 2011 by another M.Sc. degree in Metals Forming and a B.Sc. degree in Industrial Metallurgy. In the year 2013, with the approval of KNTU as well as the Council for Promoting Higher Education in the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology, the Materials Program was promoted into the Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering. The faculty began its e-Learning Program, offering M.Sc. degrees in Characterization and Selection of Engineering Materials in 2013, and Metals Forming in 2016. Another M.Sc. degree in Nanomaterials was launched in 2017. The Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering now hosts 11 full-time faculty members. Joint international programs KNTU is collaborating in research and teaching programs with many universities around the world. In this regard, memoranda of understanding have been signed between KNTU and universities from Australia, Canada, Cyprus, France, Germany, Russia, and the United Kingdom. The courses in most international programs are offered in English. Admission to these programs is either through the National Entrance Exam (Konkoor) or through special exams conducted by KNTU. The tuition fee varies for each program. The following joint international programs are active: MSc program in Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems with the International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC), the Netherlands. MSc program in Automotive Engineering with Kingston University, London, UK. MSc program in Energy Systems with University of Manchester, Manchester, UK. BSc program in Aerospace Engineering with Moscow State University of Aerospace Technology (MATI), Moscow, Russia. Phd program in Aerospace Engineering with Moscow State University of Aerospace Technology (MATI), Moscow, Russia. Research K. N. Toosi University of Technology is known for its industrial relations. It conducts research for many companies such as Iran Khodro, Saipa, Aerospace Industries Organization. Research is conducted in all the KNTU laboratories and even research groups such as ARAS exist within faculties. The Launch Vehicle research center has started its work at the faculty of Aerospace Engineering, one of the first centers of its kind. There are several centers of excellence at this university including the following: Center of Excellence in liquid propellant launch vehicle design Center of excellence in space engineering Center of excellence in robotics and control Center of excellence in materials and modern structures Center of excellence in energy systems and fluids There are several research centers at this university including: Space Systems Research Center There are several research laboratories at this university including: Propulsion and Combustion Research laboratory (Faculty of Aerospace Engineering) MDO (multidisciplinary design optimization) Research laboratory (Faculty of Aerospace Engineering) Space Research laboratory (Faculty of Aerospace Engineering) Aerodynamics Research laboratory (Faculty of Aerospace Engineering) Subsonic wind tunnel (Faculty of Aerospace Engineering) Parallel processing Research laboratory (Faculty of Aerospace Engineering) Multiphase Flow Laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering) Actuators Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering) Vibrations and Automobiles Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering) Virtual Reality Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering) Composite Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering) Fracture Mechanics Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering) Instrumentation and Control Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering) Combustion Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering) Turbomachinery Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering) Nano and Materials Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering) Robotics Research laboratory (Faculty of Mechanical Engineering) Spread Spectrum and Wireless Communications laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Digital Control Systems Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Industrial Control Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Instrumentation Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Intelligent Systems Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Linear System Theory Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Adaptive Control Systems Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) System Identification Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Optimal Control Systems Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Nonlinear Control Systems Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Robust Control Systems Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Robotics Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Guidance and Navigation Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Automation Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Process Control Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Biomedical Engineering Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Biomedical Signal and Image Processing Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Bioelectric Artificial Organs Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Antenna Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Communication Circuits Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) DSP (Digital Signal Processing) Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Microwave Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Optical Fibers Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Logical circuits Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Microprocessor Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Computer Networks Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) FPGA Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Computer Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Parallel Prossesing Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Computer Architecture Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Digital Electronic Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Electronic Circuits Research laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) High Voltage Laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Power System Laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Relaying and Protection Laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Special Machines Laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Power Electronics Laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Electric Machinery Laboratory (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Exact Measurement and Quality Control Research laboratory (Faculty of Industrial Engineering) Simulation Research laboratory (Faculty of Industrial Engineering) IT (Information Technology) Research laboratory (Faculty of Industrial Engineering) Automation and Industrial Systems Research laboratory (Faculty of Industrial Engineering) Strategic Intelligence Research laboratory (Faculty of Industrial Engineering) Robotics and Design and Manufacturing Research laboratory (Faculty of Industrial Engineering) Numerical Computation Research laboratory (Faculty of Science) Laser Research laboratory (Faculty of Science) Solid-state Physics Research laboratory (Faculty of Science) There are workshops such as the following, in many of which research is conducted: Automechanic Workshop (on the Faculty of AE Eng. campus) Casting Workshop (on the Faculty of AE Eng. campus) Sheet-metal Workshop (on the Faculty of AE Eng. campus) Electrical Engineering Workshop (Faculty of Electrical Engineering) Department of applied chemistry The department has 12 full-time faculty members specialized in chemical physics, analytical chemistry, organic and inorganic chemistry, and electrochemistry. Besides the undergraduate program, the department offers an undergraduate program leading to BSc in applied chemistry and graduate programs leading to MSc and PhD degrees in related disciplines. See also List of Islamic educational institutions References External links 1928 establishments in Iran K. N. Toosi University of Technology Universities and colleges established in 1928 Engineering universities and colleges in Iran

Intel Quartus Prime is programmable logic device design software produced by Intel; prior to Intel's acquisition of Altera the tool was called Altera Quartus Prime, earlier Altera Quartus II. Quartus Prime enables analysis and synthesis of HDL designs, which enables the developer to compile their designs, perform timing analysis, examine RTL diagrams, simulate a design's reaction to different stimuli, and configure the target device with the programmer. Quartus Prime includes an implementation of VHDL and Verilog for hardware description, visual editing of logic circuits, and vector waveform simulation. Features Quartus Prime software features include: Platform Designer (previously QSys, previously SOPC Builder), a tool that eliminates manual system integration tasks by automatically generating interconnect logic and creating a testbench to verify functionality. SoCEDS, a set of development tools, utility programs, run-time software, and application examples to help you develop software for SoC FPGA embedded systems. DSP Builder, a tool that creates a seamless bridge between the MATLAB/Simulink tool and Quartus Prime software, so FPGA designers have the algorithm development, simulation, and verification capabilities of MATLAB/Simulink system-level design tools External memory interface toolkit, which identifies calibration issues and measures the margins for each DQS signal. Generation of JAM/STAPL files for JTAG in-circuit device programmers. Editions Lite Edition The Lite Edition is a free version of Quartus Prime that can be downloaded for free. This edition provided compilation and programming for a limited number of Intel FPGA devices. The low-cost Cyclone family of FPGAs is fully supported by this edition, as well as the MAX family of CPLDs, meaning small developers and educational institutions have no overheads from the cost of development software. Standard Edition The Standard Edition supports an extensive number of FPGA devices but requires a license. Pro Edition The Pro Edition supports only the latest FPGA devices. See also Xilinx ISE Xilinx Vivado ModelSim External links Intel Quartus Prime Software Intel FPGAs and Programmable Devices official website Quartus II Installation Tutorial on Ubuntu 8.04 Electronic design automation software Proprietary software that uses Qt Software that uses Qt

Settimo Milanese (Milanese: ) is a comune (municipality) in the Province of Milan in the Lombardy region of Italy. It is about west of the city centre of Milan. The industrial district of Castelletto is home to Italtel and STMicroelectronics. Settimo Milanese borders Rho, Milan, Cornaredo, and Cusago. Toponymy It's believed that the name comes from the distance between Settimo and Milan: it is in fact located near the seventh milestone of the road from Milan to Novara. The epythet "Milanese" was added after the Unità d'Italia to distinguish it from other towns with the same name. References External links Official website Cities and towns in Lombardy

The University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS; ) is a public university headquartered in Beijing, China. It is affiliated with the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The university is part of the Double First Class University Plan. The University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences operates its undergraduate and graduate programs on the university's Beijing campus. Moreover, the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) and UCAS serve as the two graduate degree-issuing institutions for all affiliated research institutes of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). Graduate students at most of the CAS research institutes have their student status registered at UCAS and are awarded UCAS degrees upon graduation. A small number of selected research institutes register their graduate students with USTC and the students are awarded USTC degrees upon graduation. Students at CAS research institutes do not need to be physically present at the degree-issuing universities' campus to be awarded the degrees. The Chinese Academy of Sciences determines which university awards degrees for which research institutes. UCAS requires all graduate students at the CAS institutes that UCAS is responsible for issuing the degrees to indicate their affiliation as the "University of Chinese Academy of Sciences" when they publish all their work, or their degree application will not be considered. UCAS also has colleges and schools nationwide co-existed and co-located with the CAS institutes, usually by adding extra nameplates to the institutes. Established in 1978 as the Graduate School of the University of Science and Technology of China, the institution is the first graduate school in China. It produced the first doctoral graduate in science, the first doctoral graduate in engineering, the first female doctoral graduate, and the first graduate with dual doctorate in China. The USTC Graduate School (Beijing) was renamed as the Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2000, and became an independent legal entity as the University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2012. In 2014, UCAS began to recruit undergraduate students. History In 1978, the Graduate School of the University of Science and Technology of China was founded in Beijing, as the first graduate school in China. In 1986, the USTC Graduate School was renamed the University of Science and Technology of China Graduate School (Beijing), as USTC established another graduate school on its main campus in Hefei, Anhui. In 2000, the USTC Graduate School (Beijing) was renamed the Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. In 2012, CAS Graduate School was renamed the University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. In 2014, UCAS began to recruit undergraduates. On November 7, 2014, the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences officially participated in the activities of the C9 League, an alliance of elite Chinese universities offering comprehensive and leading education. However, it was not an official member. Academics Academic organization School of Mathematical Sciences School of Physics School of Astronomy and Space Science College of Engineering Science School of Artificial Intelligence School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering College of Materials Science and Opto-Electronic Technology College of Earth and Planetary Sciences College of Resources and Environment College of Life Sciences Savaid Medical School School of Computer Science and Technology School of Cyber Security School of Electronic, Electric and Communication Engineering School of Microelectronics School of Economics and Management School of Public Policy and Management College of Humanities and Social Sciences Department of Foreign Languages Sino-Danish College / Sino-Danish Center for Education and Research International College Kavli Institute for Theoretical Sciences Research Center on Fictitious Economy and Data Science CAS Key Laboratory of Big Data Mining and Knowledge Management CAS Key Laboratory of Computational Geodynamics Center of Architecture Research and Design Research Center for Innovation Method Training Center Tsung-Dao Lee Center of Sciences and Arts Institutions Founded in 1978, UCAS is the first graduate school in China with the ratification of the State Council. Backed by more than 110 institutes of the CAS, which are located at more than 20 cities all over the country, UCAS is headquartered in Beijing with 4 campuses, and 5 branches in Shanghai, Chengdu, Wuhan, Guangzhou and Lanzhou. From UCAS, graduated China's first doctoral student in science, first doctoral student in engineering, first female doctoral student and first student with double doctoral degrees in China. On the 20th anniversary of UCAS in 1998, Chinese President and General Secretary of the Communist Party Jiang Zemin of the People's Republic of China wrote this inscription for the University: "Revitalizing China through science and education, and emphasizing the cultivation and nurturing of talented people." By 2004, 50,000 graduate students had graduated from UCAS, among whom there are nearly 20,000 PhD. students. UCAS offers programs in nine major academic fields: science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, philosophy, economics, literature, linguistics, education and management science. The university is authorized to grant advanced degrees in 26 primary academic disciplines which include master's degree conferring rights in 130 secondary disciplines, and Doctoral degree rights in 114 secondary disciplines. UCAS was the first university in China to start the master's degree program in English Applied Linguistics (with reference to TESOL in foreign countries). Since 1978, the program has educated more than 100 English teachers who are now working at various universities and graduate schools. UCAS has the leading position in English teaching and researching in China. Back in 1993, there were four teachers, who were also the UCAS graduates, joined the national team to set up China's first English Curriculum for Non-English Majored MS and PhD Students, issued by Chinese Commission of Education and published by Chongqing University Press. The faculty of the university is composed of over 300 members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and/or the Chinese Academy of Engineering. UCAS offers "General Scholarship for Graduate Students", "CAS Scholarship", "CAS President Scholarship" and various other sponsored scholarships. The financial aid system of "research assistantship", "administration assistantship" and "teaching assistantship" has been put into practice in UCAS. At present, with annual enrolments of more than 10,000 students, UCAS has over 30,000 ongoing students, among whom 51% are PhD students. UCAS offers programs for international students and students from Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan. It also provides financial aid for these students by setting up "UCAS International Students Scholarship" and "UCAS Scholarship for Students from Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan". Rankings and reputation UCAS is included in the Double First-Class University Plan designed by the central government of China. UCAS ranked 55th in CWUR World University Rankings 2023, placing it 3rd in China only after Tsinghua University and Peking University. UCAS is ranked 18th in NTU Rankings 2019, placing it 1st in China. Regarding scientific research output, the Nature Index 2023 ranks UCAS the No.1 university in China and the Asia Pacific region, and 2th in the world among the global universities (after Harvard). UCAS ranks 16th globally and 12th in Asia & China according to the CWTS Leiden Ranking 2023 based on the number of their scientific publications in the period 2018–2021. As of 2022, UCAS is ranked 112th globally, 16th in Asia and 7th in China by the U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking, with its "Artificial Intelligence", "Agricultural Science", "Biology and Biochemistry", "Biotechnology and Applied Microbiology", "Cell Biology", "Chemical Engineering", "Chemistry", "Civil Engineering", "Computer Science", "Condensed Matter Physics", "Electrical and Electronic Engineering", "Energy and Fuels", "Engineering", "Environment/Ecology", "Food Science and Technology", "Geoscience", "Material Science", "Mechanical Engineering", "Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences", "Microbiology", "Molecular Biology and Genetics", "Nanoscience and Nanotechnology", "Optics", "Pharmacology and Toxicology", "Physical Chemistry", "Physics", "Plant and animal science", "Polymer Science" and "Water resource" subjects, placed in the global top 100. Internationally, UCAS was regarded as one of the most reputable Chinese universities by the Times Higher Education World Reputation Rankings where, it ranked 71-80th globally. UCAS faculty are all based upon the research professors in the Chinese Academy of Sciences, which has been consistently ranked the No. 1 research institute in the world by Nature Index since the list's inception in 2014, by Nature Research. This makes UCAS arguably the best graduate school in China and one of the best in the world. Nature Index Nature Index tracks the affiliations of high-quality scientific articles and presents research outputs by institution and country on monthly basis. Center for World University Rankings (CWUR) Center for World University Rankings (CWUR) is a leading consulting organization providing policy advice, strategic insights, and consulting services to governments and universities to improve educational and research outcomes. Students Even though UCAS mainly caters to graduate education, the university started enrolling undergraduate students in 2014. In 2015, there are 44,464 graduate students and 664 undergraduates students attend the academy. UCAS, through its various departments and research institutes of the CAS across the country, offers the following programs to foreign students in a wide range of specialties and research fields: Master Program, PhD. Program, Program for Regular Visiting Students, and Program for Senior Visiting Students. Asteroid Asteroid 189018 Guokeda was named in honor of the university. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 25 September 2018 (). Global partner institutions Europe Denmark Sino-Danish Center for Education and Research Technical University of Denmark University of Copenhagen Aarhus University Aalborg University University of Southern Denmark Roskilde University IT University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Business School Italy POLIMI Graduate School of Management Netherlands University of Groningen North America Canada University of Toronto United States Tulane University Asia Hong Kong City University of Hong Kong Hong Kong Polytechnic University Malaysia Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman See also University of Science and Technology of China ShanghaiTech University University of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Science and technology in China List of universities and colleges in Beijing List of universities in China References University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences 1978 establishments in China Chinese Academy of Sciences Universities and colleges established in 1978 Universities and colleges in Beijing [[Category:Vice-ministerial universities in China]

San Diego State University College of Engineering provides San Diego State University students with undergraduate and graduate engineering education. The College of Engineering offers eight degree programs. The Aerospace Engineering, Civil Engineering, Computer Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Construction Engineering programs are accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Commission of ABET. Academics Degrees The degrees available through the College of Engineering are Bachelor of Sciences (BS), MA, Master of Engineering, MS, Ed.D, Ph.D. Special Degrees The Master of Engineering degree is an interdisciplinary program with the College of Engineering and the College of Business Administration. A joint doctoral program in Engineering Science/Applied Mechanics is available in conjunction with University of California, San Diego (UCSD). As of 2005, several new degree programs have been established in bioengineering and in construction engineering. Departments The College of Engineering includes eight academic departments: Aerospace Engineering, Bioengineering, Civil Engineering, Construction Engineering, Computer Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Environmental Engineering, and Mechanical Engineering. The aerospace engineering program was ranked #37 among graduate aerospace programs in the United States by the U.S. News & World Report in 2017. Institutes/Research Centers Communication Systems and Signal Processing Institute Concrete Materials Research Institute Energy Engineering Institute Center for Industrial Training and Engineering Research CITER Facilities Advanced Materials Processing Laboratory (AMPL) Combustion and Solar Energy Research Laboratory (CSEL) Energy Analysis Diagnostic Center Environmental Engineering Research Laboratories Experimental Mechanics Laboratory Facility for Applied Manufacturing Enterprise (FAME) Geo-Innovations Research Laboratory High Speed and Low Speed Wind Tunnels Powder Technology Laboratory Real-Time DSP and FPGA Development Laboratory See also List of engineering programs in the California State University References External links San Diego State University - College of Engineering Carnegie Foundation profile for SDSU SDSU's Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Chapter SDSU Racing (Society of Automotive Engineers) E Engineering universities and colleges in California

This is a compilation of initialisms and acronyms commonly used in astronomy. Most are drawn from professional astronomy, and are used quite frequently in scientific publications. A few are frequently used by the general public or by amateur astronomers. The acronyms listed below were placed into one or more of these categories: Astrophysics terminology – physics-related acronyms Catalog – collections of tabulated scientific data Communications network – any network that functions primarily to communicate with spacecraft rather than performing astronomy Data – astrophysical data not associated with any single catalog or observing program Celestial object – acronyms for natural objects in space and for adjectives applied to objects in space Instrumentation – telescope and other spacecraft equipment, particularly detectors such as imagers and spectrometers Meeting – meetings that are not named after organizations Observing program – astronomical programs, often surveys, performed by one or more individuals; may include the groups that perform surveys Organization – any large private organization, government organization, or company Person – individual people Publication – magazines, scientific journals, and similar astronomy-related publications Software – software excluding catalogued data (which is categorized as "catalog") and scientific images Spacecraft – any spacecraft except space telescopes Telescope – ground-based and space telescopes; organizations that operate telescopes (for example, the National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO)) are listed under "organization" 0–9 1RXH – (catalog) 1st ROSAT X-ray HRI, a catalog of sources detected by ROSAT in pointed observations with its High Resolution Imager 1RXS – (catalog) 1ROSAT X-ray Survey, a catalog of sources detected by ROSAT in an all-sky survey 2dF – (instrumentation) Two-degree field, spectrograph on the Anglo-Australian Telescope 2dFGRS – (observing program) Two-degree-Field Galaxy Redshift Survey 2D-FRUTTI – (instrumentation) Two dimensional photon counting system 2MASP – (catalog) Two-micron all sky survey prototype, an early version of the 2MASS catalog 2MASS – (observing program/catalog) Two-Micron All Sky Survey, an all-sky survey in the near-infrared; also, the catalog of sources from the survey 2MASSI – (catalog) Two-Micron All Sky Survey, Incremental release, one of the versions of the 2MASS catalog 2MASSW – (catalog) Two-Micron All Sky Survey, Working database, one of the versions of the 2MASS catalog 2SLAQ – (observing program) 2dF-SDSS LRG and QSO survey 6dF – (instrumentation) six-degree field, spectrograph on the UKST A A&A – (publication) Astronomy & Astrophysics, a European scientific journal AAA – (organization) Amateur Astronomers Association of New York AAO – (organization) Australian Astronomical Observatory (prior to 1 July 2010: Anglo-Australian Observatory) AAS – (organization) American Astronomical Society AAT – (telescope) Anglo-Australian Telescope AMBER – (telescope) a near-infrared interferometric instrument at VLTI AAVSO – (organization) American Association of Variable Star Observers ABBA – ADC Backend For Bolometer Array ABRIXAS – (observing program) A BRoadband Imaging X-ray All-sky Survey AC – (catalog) Catalogue Astrographique ACE – (spacecraft) Advanced Composition Explorer ACIS – (instrumentation) Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer, an instrument on the Chandra X-Ray Observatory ACM – (meeting) Asteroids, Comets, and Meteors ACP – (instrumentation) – Aerosol Collector and Pyrolyser, an instrument on the Huygens probe ACS – (instrumentation) Advanced Camera for Surveys, an instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope ACV – (celestial object) Alpha Canes Venatici, a class of rotating variable stars with strong magnetic fields named after Alpha Canum Venaticorum (Cor Caroli), the archetype for the class ACYG – (celestial object) Alpha CYGni, a class of rotating variable stars named after Alpha Cygni (Deneb), the archetype for the class ADAF – (astrophysics terminology) Advection Dominated Accretion Flow, a mechanism by which matter is slowly accreted onto a black hole ADC – (organization) Astronomical Data Center ADEC – (organization) Astrophysics Data Centers Executive Council, an organization that provides oversight for the Astrophysics Data and Information Services ADF – (organization) Astrophysics Data Facility ADS – (catalog) Aitken Double Stars ADS – (catalog) The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory/NASA astrophysics data system, an on-line database of almost all astronomical publications ADIS – (organization) Astrophysics Data and Information Services ADS – (organization) Astrophysics Data Service, an organization that maintains an online database of scientific articles AEGIS – (observing program) the All-wavelength Extended Groth strip International Survey AFGL – (organization) Air Force Geophysics Laboratory, a research laboratory now part of the United States Air Force Research Laboratory AFOEV – (organization) Association française des observateurs d'étoiles variables AG – (organization) Astronomische Gesellschaft AGAPE – (observing program) Andromeda Galaxy and Amplified Pixels Experiment, a search for microlenses in front of the Andromeda Galaxy AGB – (celestial object) asymptotic giant branch, a type of red giant star AGC – (catalog) Arecibo general catalog AGK – (catalog) Astronomische Gesellschaft Katalog AGN – (celestial object) Active galactic nucleus AGU – (organization) American Geophysical Union AIM – (spacecraft) Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere, a spacecraft that will study the Noctilucent clouds AIPS – (software) Astronomical Image Processing System AJ – (publication) Astronomical Journal ALaMO – (organization) Automated Lunar and Meteor Observatory ALEXIS – (instrumentation) Array of Low Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors ALMA – (telescope) Atacama Large Millimeter/Sub-millimeter Array ALPO – (organization) Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers AMANDA – (telescope) Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array, a neutrino telescope AMASE – (software) Astrophysics Multi-spectral Archive Search Engine AMS – (organization) American Meteor Society AN – (publication) Astronomische Nachrichten, a German scientific journal ANS – (telescope) Astronomical Netherlands Satellite ANS – (organization) Astro News Service ANSI – (organization) American National Standards Institute AO – (instrumentation) Adaptive optics AOR – (instrumentation) Astronomical observation request ApJ – (publication) Astrophysical Journal ApJL – (publication) Astrophysical Journal Letters ApJS – (publication) Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series APM – (instrumentation/catalog), Automatic plate measuring machine, a machine for making measurements from photographic plates; also, a catalog based on measurements by the machine APO – (organization) Apache Point Observatory APOD – (data) Astronomy Picture of the Day APT – (telescope) Automated Patrol Telescope ARC – (organization) Ames Research Center ARC – (organization) Astrophysical Research Consortium ARCADE – a balloon satellite experiment to measure the heating of the Universe by the first stars and galaxies after the Big Bang ASA – (organization) Astronomical Society of the Atlantic ASAS – All Sky Automated Survey ASCL – Astrophysics Source Code Library, a citable online registry of research source codes ASI – (organization) Agenzia Spaziale Italiana ASIAA – (organization) Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics ASKAP – (telescope) Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder, a next-generation radio telescope under construction in Western Australia. It differs from previous radio-telescopes in having many pixels at the focus of each antenna. ASP – (organization) Astronomical Society of the Pacific ASTRO – (spacecraft) Autonomous Space Transport Robotic Operations ATA – (telescope) Allen Telescope Array, a radio interferometer array developed by the SETI Institute to search for possible signals from extraterrestrial life ATCA – (telescope) Australia Telescope Compact Array ATLAS – (observing program) Australia Telescope Large Area Survey, a deep radio astronomical sky survey of two SWIRE fields covering a total of about 7 square degrees of sky. ATM – (person) hobbyist engaged in Amateur telescope making (may also refer to the book of the same title, Amateur Telescope Making) AU – (measurement) Astronomical Unit, the distance between the Earth and the Sun AUASS – (organization) Arab Union for Astronomy and Space Sciences AURA – (organization) Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy AWCA – (meeting) American Workshop on Cometary Astronomy, an older name for the International Workshop on Cometary Astronomy AXP – (celestial object) Anomalous X-Ray Pulsar AXAF – (telescope) Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility, an older name for the Chandra X-ray Observatory B B – (catalog) Barnard catalog BAA – (organization) British Astronomical Association BAAS – (publication) Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society BAC – (catalog) Bordeaux Astrographic Catalog BAO – (astrophysics terminology) baryon acoustic oscillations BAO – (organization) Beijing Astronomical Observatory BASIS – (observing program) Burst and All Sky Imaging Survey BAT – (instrumentation) Burst Alert Telescope, an instrument on SWIFT BATC – (observing program) Beijing-Arizona-Taiwan-Connecticut, the name of a multi-wavelength sky survey BATSE – (instrument) Burst and Transient Source Experiment, an instrument on the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory BATTeRS – (telescope) Bisei Asteroid Tracking Telescope for Rapid Survey BB – (astrophysics terminology) Black body BBXRT – (telescope) Broad Band X-Ray Telescope BCD – (celestial object) Blue compact dwarf BCD – (software) Basic calibrated data, data produced after basic processing BCEP – (celestial object) Beta CEPhei, a class of pulsating variable stars for which Beta Cephei is the archetypal object also BCE BCG – (celestial object) Blue compact galaxy, another name for a blue compact dwarf, also bright central galaxy BCG – (celestial object) Brightest Cluster Galaxy, the brightest galaxy in a cluster of galaxies BCVS – (catalog) Bibliographic Catalogue of Variable Stars BD – (catalog) Bonner Durchmusterung BD – (celestial object) Brown dwarf BEN – (catalog) Jack Bennett catalog, a catalog of deep-sky objects for amateur astronomers BEL – (celestial object) broad emission line clouds in Active galactic nucleus BF – (astrophysics terminology) Broadening function BH – (celestial object) Black hole BHB – (celestial object) Blue horizontal branch, a type of luminous star BHC – (celestial object) Black hole candidate BHXRT – (celestial object) Black hole x-ray transient also BHXT BICEP2 – (telescope) Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization 2 BIMA – (organization & telescope) Berkeley-Illinois-Maryland Association, and also B-M-I Array, microwave telescope it operated BIS – (organization) British Interplanetary Society BITP – (organization) – Bogolyubov Institute for Theoretical Physics, a Ukrainian research institute BLAGN – (celestial object) Broad-Line AGN, based on classification of spectral line widths BLLAC – (celestial object) BL LACertae, a class of active galaxies for which BL Lacertae is the archetypal object also BLL BLAST – (telescope) – Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope BLR – (astrophysics term) the broad line region of the AGN BNSC – (organization) British National Space Centre, the older name for UKSA BOAO – (observatory) Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory, in Korea BOOMERanG – (telescope) Balloon Observations of Millimetric Extragalactic Radiation and Geophysics BPM – (catalog) Bruce proper motion BSG – (celestial object) Blue super giant BSS – (celestial object) Blue straggler star also BS BSS – (observing program) Bigelow Sky Survey BY – (celestial object) BY Draconis, a class of rotating variable stars for which BY Draconis is the archetypal object C C – First Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources, 2C (Second Cambridge Catalog), 3C (Third Cambridge Catalog)... CADC – (organization) Canadian Astronomy Data Centre CAHA – (organization) Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán, a German-Spanish Astronomical Centre CANDELS – (survey) Cosmic Assembly Near-Infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey or Cosmic Assembly and Dark Energy Legacy Survey CAPS – (instrumentation) Cassini Plasma Spectrometer, an instrument on the Cassini spacecraft CARA – (organization) California Association for Research in Astronomy CANGAROO – Collaboration between Australian and Nippon for a Gamma Ray Observatory CARA – (organization) Center for Astrophysical Research in Antarctica CASCA – (organization) Canadian Astronomical Society / Société canadienne d'astronomie (the name is officially bilingual) CARMA – an array CASS – (organization) Center for Advanced Space Studies CASS – (organization) Center for Astrophysics and Space Sciences, an interdisciplinary research unit at UC San Diego CBAT – (organization) Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams CBE – Collisionless Boltzmann Equation CBR – (celestial object) cosmic background radiation CC – (celestial object) candidate companion, a newly detected observed object that initially appears to orbit another celestial object CCD – (instrumentation) Charge-coupled device CCD – (astrophysics terminology) – Color–color diagram, a plot that compares the differences between magnitudes in different wave bands CCDM – (catalog) Catalog of Components of Double and Multiple Stars CCO – (catalog) Catalogue of Cometary Orbits CCO – (celestial object) central compact object, a compact star in the center of a planetary nebula CCS – (celestial object) cool carbon star CCSFS – Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, a United States Space Force launch base CD – (catalog) Cordoba Durchmusterung CDFS – Chandra Deep Field South CDIMP – (catalog) Catalogue of Discoveries and Identifications of Minor Planets CDM – (astrophysics terminology) Cold Dark Matter, any model for structure formation in the universe that characterize "cold" particles such as WIMPs as dark matter CDS – (organization) Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg CELT – (telescope) – California Extremely Large Telescope, an older name for the Thirty Meter Telescope CEMP – (celestial object) Carbon-enhanced metal-poor, a type of carbon star CEMP-no – (celestial object) Carbon-enhanced metal-poor star with no enhancement of elements produced by the r-process or s-process nucleosynthesis CEMP-r – (celestial object) Carbon-enhanced metal-poor star with an enhancement of elements produced by r-process nucleosynthesis CEMP-s – (celestial object) Carbon-enhanced metal-poor star with an enhancement of elements produced by s-process nucleosynthesis CEMP-r/s – (celestial object) Carbon-enhanced metal-poor star with an enhancement of elements produced by both r-process and s-process nucleosynthesis CEP – (celestial object) CEPheid, a type of pulsating variable star CEPS – (organization) Center for Earth and Planetary Studies CfA – (organization) Center for Astrophysics CFHT – (telescope) Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope CFRS – (observing program), Canada–France Redshift Survey CG – (astrophysics terminology) Center of gravity CG – (celestial object) Cometary Globule, a Bok globule that show signs of a tail-like extension CG – (celestial object) Compact galaxy CGCS – (celestial object) Cool galactic carbon star CGRO – (telescope) Compton Gamma Ray Observatory CGSS – (catalog) Catalogue of Galactic S Stars CHARA – (organization) Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy CHeB – (celestial object) Core Helium Burning CHIPSat – Cosmic Hot Interstellar Plasma Spectrometer satellite CIAO – (software) Chandra Interactive Analysis of Observations, software for processing Chandra X-ray Observatory data CIAO – (instrumentation) Coronagraphic Imager with Adaptive Optics, an instrument for the Subaru Telescope CIBR – (celestial object) Cosmic infrared background radiation also CIB CIDA – (instrumentation) Cometary Interplanetary Dust Analyzer, an instrument on the Stardust spacecraft CINDI – Coupled Ion-Neutral Dynamics Investigation CINEOS – (observing program) Campo Imperatore Near-Earth Object Survey CIO – (catalog) Catalog of Infrared Observations CISCO – (instrumentation) Cooled Infrared Spectrograph and Camera for OHS, an instrument for the Subaru Telescope CM – (astrophysics terminology) center of mass CMB – (celestial object) cosmic microwave background radiation also CMBR, CBR, MBR CMC – (catalog) Carlsberg Meridian Catalogue CMD – (astrophysics terminology) color–magnitude diagram, the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram or similar diagrams also CM CME – coronal mass ejection CNB – (celestial object) cosmic neutrino background CNES – (organization) Centre Nationale d'Etudes Spatiales, the French Space Agency CNO – (astrophysics terminology) Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen, a sequence of nuclear fusion processes CNR – (organization) Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche CNSR – (spacecraft) Comet nucleus sample return COBE – (telescope) Cosmic Background Explorer, a space telescope used to study the cosmic microwave background radiation COHSI – (instrumentation) Cambridge OH-Suppression Instrument Col – (catalog) Collinder catalog COMICS – (instrumentation) COoled Mid-Infrared Camera and Spectrometer, an instrument for the Subaru Telescope CGRO – (telescope) COMPton TELescope, another name for the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory COROT – (telescope) COnvection ROtation and planetary Transits, a space telescope for detecting extrasolar planets COSMOS – (observing program) Cosmic Evolution Survey COSPAR – (organization) COmmittee on SPAce Research COSTAR – (instrumentation) Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement, corrective optics for the Hubble Space Telescope CP – (astrophysics terminology) Chemically peculiar, stars with peculiar chemical compositions CPD – (catalog) Cape Photographic Durchmusterung CRAF – (spacecraft) Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby CRRES – Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite CSA – (organization) Canadian Space Agency CSBN – (organization) Committee for Small-Body Nomenclature CSE – (celestial object) circumstellar envelope, a roughly spherical planetary nebula formed from dense stellar wind if not present before the formation of a star. CSI – (catalog) Catalog of Stellar Identification, a compilation of the catalogs, BD, CD, and CPD CSO – (telescope) Caltech Submillimeter Observatory CSP – (astrophysics terminology) composite stellar population CSPN – (celestial object) central star of planetary nebula also CSPNe (plural form of CSPN) CSS – (observing program) Catalina Sky Survey CST – (astrophysics terminology) ConStanT, non-variable stars CSV – (catalog) Catalog of Suspected Variables CTIO – (telescope/organization) Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory CTTS – (celestial object) Classical T-Tauri Star CV – (celestial object) cataclysmic variable, a type of variable binary star system that contains a white dwarf and a companion star that changes CW – (celestial object) Cepheid W Virginis, a class of Cepheids named after W Virginis, the archetype for the class CWA – (celestial object) Cepheid W Virginis A, a subclass of CW stars that vary in brightness on timescales of less than 8 days CWB – (celestial object) Cepheid W Virginis B, a subclass of CW stars that vary in brightness on timescales greater than 8 days CXBR – (celestial object) Cosmic x-ray background radiation CXO – (catalog) Chandra X-ray Observation, a catalog based from the Chandra space telescope D DAO – (organization) Dominion Astrophysical Observatory DCEP – (celestial object) Delta CEPhei, a class of Cepheids named after Delta Cephei, the archetype for the class DDEB – (celestial object) double-lined eclipsing binary DENIS – (observing program/catalog) DEep Near Infrared Survey DENIS-P – (catalog) DEep Near Infrared Survey, Provisory designation [or also known as DNS]. DES – (observing program) Dark Energy Survey DESI - (observing program) Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument DEC – Declination DES – (observing program) Deep Ecliptic Survey DIB – (celestial object) diffuse interstellar band, an absorption feature in stellar spectra with an interstellar origin DIRBE – (instrumentation) Diffuse InfraRed Background Experiment, a multiwavelength infrared detector used to map dust emission DISR – (instrumentation) – Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer, an instrument on the Huygens probe DMR – (instrumentation) Differential Microwave Radiometer, a microwave instrument that would map variations (or anisotropies) in the CMB DM – dark matter, the unidentified non-baryonic matter DN – (celestial object) Dwarf nova DNS – (celestial object) double neutron star, another name for a binary neutron star system. [Caution: Do not confuse with DNS relating to DENIS – Deep Near Infrared Survey]. DOG – (celestial object) dust-obscured galaxy, a galaxy with an unusually high ratio of infrared-to-optical emission, implying strong dust absorption and re-emission. DPOSS – (data) Digitized Palomar Observatory Sky Survey DRAGN (celestial object) Double Radio Source Associated with a Galactic Nucleus DS – (celestial object) dwarf star DSCT – Delta SCuTi, a class of pulsating variable stars named after Delta Scuti, the archetype for the class DSN – (communications network) Deep Space Network, a network of radio antennas used for communicating to spacecraft DSS – (data) Digitized Sky Survey DSFG - (celestial object) Dusty Star Forming Galaxy DWE – (instrumentation) – Doppler Wind Experiment, an instrument on the Huygens probe E E – (celestial object) Eclipsing, a binary star system with variable brightness in which the stars eclipse each other EA – (celestial object) Eclipsing Algol, a class of eclipsing binary stars named after Algol, the archetype for the class EB – (celestial object) Eclipsing Beta Lyrae, a class of eclipsing binary stars named after Beta Lyrae, the archetype for the class EW – (celestial object) Eclipsing W Ursa Majoris, a class of eclipsing binary stars named after W Ursa Majoris, the archetype for the class EAAE – (organization) European Association for Astronomy Education EACOA – (organization) – East Asian Core Observatories Association EAO – (organization) – East Asian Observatory, operates the JCMT E-ELT – (telescope) – European Extremely Large Telescope EAPSNET – (organization) – East-Asian Planet Search Network EC – (celestial object) Embedded Cluster, a star cluster that is partially or fully embedded in interstellar gas or dust ECA – (celestial object) Earth-crossing asteroid EGG – (celestial object) evaporating gaseous globule EGGR – (catalog) Eggen & Greenstein, a catalog of mostly white dwarfs EGP – (celestial object) extrasolar giant planet EGRET – (telescope) Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope, another name for the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory EGS – Extended Groth Strip, a deep field EHB – (celestial object) extreme horizontal branch, a type of hot, evolved star EJASA – (publication) Electronic Journal of the Astronomical Society of the Atlantic EKBO – (celestial object) Edgeworth–Kuiper belt object, an alternative name for Kuiper belt objects ELAIS – ESO large-area infrared survey – a survey ELAIS – (observing program) European Large Area ISO Survey, a survey of high redshift galaxies performed with the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) ELF – extremely luminous far-infrared galaxy, a synonym for Ultra-Luminous infrared galaxy ELT – (telescope) Extremely Large Telescope EMP – (catalog) Ephemerides of Minor Planets EMP – (celestial object) extremely metal-poor, a star with few elements other than hydrogen and helium EMU – Evolutionary Map of the Universe ENACS – (observing program) ESO Nearby Abell Cluster Survey, a survey of galaxy clusters EPIC – (celestial object) stars and exoplanets, associated with the K2 "Second Light" plan of the Kepler space telescope ERO – (celestial object) extremely red object, a name applied to galaxies with red spectra ESA – (organization) European Space Agency ESO – (organization) European Southern Observatory ESTEC – (organization) European Space research and TEchnology Centre ESTRACK – (communications network) European Space TRACKing, a network of radio antennas used for communicating to spacecraft ETC – exposure time calculator EUV – (astrophysics terminology) Extreme ultraviolet EUVE – (telescope) Extreme UltraViolet Explorer, an ultraviolet space telescope EVN – (organization) European VLBI Network F FAME – (telescope) Full-sky Astrometric Mapping Explorer FASTT – (telescope) Flagstaff Astrometric Scanning Transit Telescope FCC – (catalog) Fornax Cluster Catalog, a catalog of galaxies in the Fornax Cluster FEB – (celestial object) falling-evaporating body, a solid planetary object that is being evaporated by the stellar wind FGS – (instrumentation) fine guidance sensors, an instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope FHST – (instrumentation) Fixed Head Star Trackers, an instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope FIR – (astrophysics terminology) far infrared FIRST – (observing program) Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty-Centimeters, a radio survey of the sky with the Very Large Array FIRST – (telescope) Far InfraRed and Submillimeter Space Telescope, an older name for the Herschel Space Observatory FIRAS – (Instrumentation) Far-InfraRed Absolute Spectrophotometer FIRE – (simulation project) Feedback in Realistic Environments, a project to simulate galaxy formation with detailed feedback processes included FITS – (software) Flexible Image Transport System, the format commonly used for scientific astronomy images FLAMES – (instrumentation) Fibre Large Array Multi Element Spectrograph, instrument on the VLT FLOAT – (telescope) Fibre-Linked Optical Array Telescope FLWO – (telescope) Fred L. Whipple Observatory FMO – (celestial object) fast moving object, an asteroid so close to the Earth that it appears to be moving very fast FOC – (instrumentation) Faint Object Camera, a camera formerly on the Hubble Space Telescope FOCAS – (instrumentation) Faint Object Camera And Spectrograph, an instrument for the Subaru Telescope FoM – (terminology) Figure of Merit. Used to indicate the performance of a method or device. FORTE – Fast On-orbit Rapid Recording of Transient Events FOS – (instrumentation) Faint Object Spectrograph, a spectrometer formerly on the Hubble Space Telescope FOV – (instrumentation) field of view FRB – (celestial object) fast radio burst FRED – (astrophysics terminology) fast rise exponential decay, the variations in the luminosity of gamma ray bursts over time FSC – (catalog) Faint Source Catalogue, one of the catalogs produced using Infrared Astronomical Satellite data FSRQ – (celestial object) Flat Spectrum Radio Quasars FTL – (astrophysics terminology) faster than light FUOR – (celestial object) FU Orionis objects, a class of variable pre–main sequence stars named after FU Orionis, the archetype for the class also FU FUSE – (telescope) Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer, an ultraviolet space telescope FUVITA – (instrumentation) Far UltraViolet Imaging Telescope Array, an ultraviolet imager for the Spectrum-Roentgen-Gamma mission FWHM – (instrumentation) full width at half maximum, a telescope resolution FWZI – (instrumentation) full width at zero intensity, a telescopes resolution G G – (catalog) Giclas, a catalog of nearby stars GAIA – (telescope) Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics, a space telescope that is used to make high-precision measurements of stars GALEX – (telescope) Galaxy Evolution Explorer, an ultraviolet space telescope GALEXASC – GALaxy Evolution eXplorer all-sky catalog GASP – (software) Guide star Astrometric Support Package GAT – (catalog) AO (Gatewood+), catalog of G. Gatewood's observations GBM – (instrumentation) Gamma-Ray Burst Monitor, a set of gamma ray detectors on the Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope GBT – (telescope) Green Bank Telescope GC – (catalog) General Catalog, a catalog of clusters, nebulae, and galaxies created by John Herschel and now superseded by the New General Catalogue, also globular cluster GCAS – (celestial object) Gamma CASsiopeiae, a class of eruptive variable stars named after Gamma Cassiopeiae, the archetype for the class GCMS – (instrumentation) – Gas Chromatograph and Mass Spectrometer, an instrument on the Huygens probe also GC/MS GCN – (organization) GRB Coordinates Network GCR – (astrophysics terminology) galactic cosmic rays GCVS – (catalog) the General Catalog of Variable Stars GD – (catalog) Giclas Dwarf, a catalog of white dwarf GDS – (celestial object) Great Dark Spot, a transient feature in the clouds of Neptune GEM – (observing program) Galactic Emission Mapping GEM – (observing program) Galileo Europa Mission, the science observation program of Europa performed by the Galileo spacecraft GEM – (observing program) Giotto Extended Mission, the extended operations of the Giotto spacecraft GEMS – (organization) Group Evolution Multi-wavelength Study GEMS – (survey) Galaxy Evolution from Morphology and Spectral energy distributions GEMSS – (organization) Global Exoplanet M-dwarf Search-Survey, a search for exoplanets around m-dwarf stars GEODDS – (telescope) Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance, a network of telescopes used in a United States Air Force program for observing space junk GEOS – (organization) Groupe Européen Observations Stellaires, an amateur and professional association for study of variable stars. GERLUMPH – (instrumentation) GPU-Enabled, High Resolution MicroLensing Parameter survey, where GPU is an acronym for Graphics Processing Unit. GH – (catalog) Giclas Hyades, a catalog of stars in the Hyades cluster GHRS – (instrumentation) Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph, a spectrograph on the Hubble Space Telescope also HRS GIA – (organization) Gruppo Italiano Astrometristi GIMI – (instrumentation) Global Imaging Monitor of the Ionosphere, an ultraviolet imager on the Advanced Research and Global Observation Satellite GJ – (catalog) Gliese & Jahreiß/Jahreiss nearby star catalog GL – (catalog) Gliese nearby star catalog GLAST – (telescope) Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope GLIMPSE – (observing program) Galactic Legacy Infrared Mid-Plane Survey Extraordinaire GMC – (celestial object) Giant molecular cloud GMF – (celestial object) Galactic magnetic field GMRT – (telescope) – Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope - Pune, India GMT – (telescope) – Giant Magellan Telescope, a telescope being built by a US-Australian collaboration GONG – (organization) Global Oscillation Network Group, an organization that monitors oscillations in the Sun GOLD – Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk GOODS – (survey) Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey a survey of various redshifts to study galactic formation and evolution GP – (astrophysics terminology) giant pulses, a type of observed pulse emission from pulsars GPS – (astrophysics teminology) GHz-peaked spectrum, the radio or microwave spectra of some galaxies GR – (astrophysics terminology) general relativity GR – (catalog) Giclas Red dwarf, a catalog of red dwarfs GRB – (celestial object) gamma ray burst GRO – (telescope) Gamma Ray Observatory, another name for the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory GROSCE – (telescope) Gamma Ray Burst Optical Counterparts Search Experiment, an automated telescope used to detect the optical counterparts to gamma ray bursts GRS – (instrumentation) Gamma Ray Spectrometer, an instrument on the Mars Observer GRS – (celestial object) Great Red Spot, a feature in the clouds of Jupiter GSC – (catalog) Guide Star Catalog, a catalog of stars used for pointing the Hubble Space Telescope GSC2 – (catalog) Guide Star Catalog version 2, a catalog of stars used for pointing the Hubble Space Telescope also GSC II GSFC – (organization) Goddard Space Flight Center, a NASA institution GSPC – (catalog) Guide Star Photometric Catalog, a catalog of stars with precisely measured fluxes used to calibrate the Guide Star Catalog GTC – (telescope) Gran Telescopio Canarias, the 10.4 m reflecting telescope on the island of La Palma, Canary Islands, Spain GW – (celestial object) – Gravitational Wave. H HAeBe – (celestial object) Herbig AeBe star, a type of pre-main-sequence star with strong spectral emission lines HAe – (celestial object) Herbig Ae star HBe – (celestial object) Herbig Be star HALCA – (telescope) Highly Advanced Laboratory for Communications and Astronomy, a satellite that is part of the VLBI Space Observatory Program, a Japanese radio astronomy project HAO – (organization) high-altitude observatory HARPS – (instrumentation) High Accuracy Radial velocity Planet Searcher, a high-precision spectrograph installed on the ESO 3.6 m Telescope HASI – (instrumentation) Huygens Atmosphere Structure Instrument, an instrument on the Huygens probe HB – (celestial object) horizontal branch, a type of evolved red giant star in which helium is burned in the core and hydrogen is burned in a shell around the core HBRP – (celestial object) High-magnetic field radio pulsar HBV – (catalog) Hamburg–Bergedorf Variables, a catalog of variable stars HBMM – (astrophysics terminology) Hydrogen-burning minimum mass HCG – Hickson Compact Group HCO – (organization) Harvard College Observatory HCS – (celestial object) heliospheric current sheet, the boundary where the polarity of the Sun's magnetic field changes direction HD – (catalog) Henry Draper, a catalog of stars HDE – (catalog) Henry Draper Extension, a catalog of stars HDF – (data/celestial object) Hubble Deep Field, an area of the sky with little foreground obscuration that was observed deeply with the Hubble Space Telescope; also the name for the data product itself HDFS – Hubble Deep Field South HDM – (astrophysics terminology) hot dark matter, any model for structure formation in the universe that characterizes neutrinos as dark matter HDS – (instrumentation) High Dispersion Spectrograph, a spectrograph on the Subaru Telescope HE – (catalog) Hamburg/ESO Survey HEAO – (telescope) High Energy Astronomical Observatory, a series of X-ray and gamma ray space telescopes HEASARC – (organization) High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center, a NASA organization that deals with X-ray and gamma ray telescope data HerMES - (observing program) Herschel Multitiered Extragalactic Survey, a legacy survey of star forming galaxies using the SPIRE and PACS instrument of Herschel HESS – (telescope) High Energy Stereoscopic System, a telescope for detecting cosmic rays HET – Hobby–Eberly Telescope HETE – (telescope) High Energy Transient Explorer, a space telescope that performs multi-wavelength observations of gamma-ray bursts HF – (astrophysics terminology) High frequency HGA – (instrumentation) High gain antenna HH – (celestial object) Herbig–Haro object, objects formed when the ejecta from new stars collides with the interstellar medium also HHO HIC – (catalog) HIPPARCOS Input Catalog, a catalog of data for the first target stars selected for observation by the Hipparcos HICAT – (catalog) HIPASS catalog, a catalog of HI sources, see also NHICAT HID – (astrophysics terminology) – hardness–intensity diagram, a type of color–magnitude diagram used in X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy HIP – (catalog) HIPPARCOS, the catalog of data produced by Hipparcos HIPASS – (Observing program) HI Parkes All-Sky Survey, survey of HI sources HIPPARCOS – (telescope) HIgh Precision PARallax COllecting Satellite, a space telescope specifically designed to measure distances to stars using parallax HISA – (astrophysical terminology) HI self-absorption region HIRAX – (telescope) Hydrogen Intensity and Real-time Analysis eXperiment, an interferometric array of 1024 6-meter (20ft) diameter radio telescopes to be built in South Africa HK – (catalog) Survey for metal-poor stars based on the strength of CaII H and K absorption lines HLIRG – (celestial object) Hyperluminous infrared galaxy, a galaxy that is brighter than 1013 solar luminosities in the infrared HMC – (instrumentation) Halley Multicolor Camera, an instrument on the Giotto spacecraft HMGB – (celestial object) High-mass gamma-ray binary, a Gamma ray-luminous binary system consisting of a compact star and a massive star HMPO – (celestial object) High-mass proto-stellar object HMXB – (celestial object) High-mass x-ray binary, an X-ray-luminous binary system consisting of a compact star and a massive star HOPS – The H2O southern Galactic Plane Survey HPMS – (celestial object) high proper motion star, a star with high proper motion HR – (catalog) Hoffleit Bright Star HR – (astrophysics terminology) Hertzsprung–Russell, a diagram that compares stars' colors to their luminosities HRC-I – (instrumentation) High Resolution Camera, an instrument on the Chandra X-ray Observatory HRD – (instrumentation) High Rate Detector, an instrument on the Cassini spacecraft HRMS – (observing program) High Resolution Microwave Survey, a survey for microwave signals from extraterrestrial intelligence HRI – (instrumentation) High Resolution Imager, an instrument on the ROSAT telescope HSP – (instrumentation) High Speed Photometer, an instrument formerly on the Hubble Space Telescope HST – (telescope) Hubble Space Telescope HTRA – (astrophysics terminology) High time-resolution astrophysics, the observations of phenomena that vary on timescales of one second or less HUT – (telescope) Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope, an ultraviolet telescope that operated from the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle HVC – (celestial object) high-velocity cloud, an interstellar cloud with a velocity that is too high to be explained by galactic rotation HXD – (instrumentation) Hard X-ray Detector, an instrument on the Suzaku space telescope HVS – (celestial object) hypervelocity star or high velocity star I IAC – (organization) Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias IAPPP – (organization) International Amateur/Professional Photoelectric Photometry IAS – (organization) Istituto di Astrofisica Spaziale IASY – (observing program) International Active Sun Year, the name given to a series of coordinated Sun-related observational programs performed in 1969 and 1971 IAU – (organization) International Astronomical Union IAUC – (publication) IAU Circular IAYC – (meeting) International Astronomical Youth Camp IBAS – (instrumentation) – INTEGRAL Burst Alert System, an instrument on the INTEGRAL satellite IBIS – (instrumentation) – Imager on Board the INTEGRAL Satellite, an instrument on the INTEGRAL satellite IBVS – (publication) Information Bulletin on Variable Stars IC – (catalog) Index Catalog IC – (celestial object) Intracluster, either the regions between stars in star clusters or the region between galaxies in galaxy clusters ICE – (spacecraft) International Comet Explorer ICM – (celestial object) intracluster medium, is the superheated gas present at the center of a galaxy cluster ICQ – (publication) International Comet Quarterly ICRF – (astrophysics terminology) International Celestial Reference Frame, a coordinate system based on radio sources used to define the locations of objects in the sky ICRS – (astrophysics terminology) International Celestial Reference System, a coordinate system based on Hipparcos observations used to define the locations of objects in the sky IDA – (organization) International Dark-Sky Association, an organization that seeks to control light pollution IDP – (celestial object) Interplanetary Dust Particle, dust particles around planets or planetary bodies IDS – (catalog) Index Catalog of Double Stars IEO – (astrophysics terminology) inner-Earth object, the orbits of asteroids IERS – (organization) International Earth Rotation geophysical Service or International Earth rotation and Reference systems Service, an organization that monitors the Earth's orientation with respect to the radio sources used to define the ICRF IfA: either Institute for Astronomy (Hawaii) or Institute for Astronomy, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Scotland IFN – (celestial object) integrated flux nebulae, dust and gas outside the plane of the Milky Way, which are thus illuminated by the entire galaxy as opposed to a nearby star or stars IGM – (celestial object) intergalactic medium IGR – (catalog) Integral Gamma-Ray source, a catalog based on observations by the INTEGRAL telescope IGY – (observing program) International Geophysical Year, the name given to a series of coordinated geophysical and astronomical observation programs performed in 1957 and 1958 IHW – (organization) International Halley Watch, an organization created to coordinate observations of Halley's Comet in 1986 ILOM – (spacecraft) In-situ Lunar Orientation Measurement, a mission to measure variations in the orientation of the Moon from the Moon's surface IMAGE – Imager for Magnetopause-to-Aurora Global Exploration IMBH – (celestial object) intermediate mass black hole IMF – (astrophysics terminology) initial mass function, the relative numbers of stars of different masses that form during star formation IMO – (organization) International Meteor Organization IMPACT – (meeting) International Monitoring Programs for Asteroid and Comet Threat IMPS – (observing program) IRAS Minor Planet Survey INAG – (organization) Institut National d'Astronomie et de Geophysique ING – (organization) Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes INS – (celestial object) Isolated Neutron Star INT – (telescope) Isaac Newton Telescope INTEGRAL – (telescope) INTErnational Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory, a gamma-ray space telescope IoA – (organization) Institute of Astronomy, an astronomy research department at Cambridge University IOTA – (telescope) Infrared Optical Telescope Array IOTA – (organization) International Occultation Timing Association, an organization for monitoring occultations IPAC – (organization) Infrared Processing & Analysis Center IPMO – (celestial object) Isolated Planetary Mass Objects, another name for isolated planemos or sub-brown dwarfs IQSY – (observing program) International Quiet Sun Year, the name given to a series of coordinated Sun-related observational programs performed in 1964 and 1965 IR – (astrophysics terminology) InfraRed IRAC – (instrumentation) Infrared Array Camera, a mid-infrared imager on the Spitzer Space Telescope IRAF – (software) Image Reduction and Analysis Facility, a general-purpose professional data-processing package IRAIT – (telescope) – International Robotic Antarctic Infrared Telescope IRAM – (organization) Institut de Radio Astronomie Millimetrique IRAS – (telescope/catalog) InfraRed Astronomical Satellite, an infrared space telescope; also the catalog produced using the telescope's data IRCS – (instrumentation) InfraRed Camera and Spectrograph, an instrument on the Subaru Telescope IRDC – (celestial object) Infrared Dark Cloud IRS – (instrumentation) InfraRed Spectrograph, an infrared spectrometer on the Spitzer Space Telescope IRSA – (organization) Infrared Science Archive IRTF – (telescope) InfraRed Telescope Facility IRX – (astrophysical terminology) InfraRed Excess ISAS – (organization) Institute of Space and Astronautical Science ISAS – (organization) Institute of Space and Atmospheric Studies, a research unit at the University of Saskatchewan ISCO – (astrophysical terminology) Innermost Stable Circular Orbit ISEE – (spacecraft) International Sun-Earth Explorer, a series of spacecraft designed to study the effects of the Sun on the Earth's space environment and magnetosphere ISGRI – (instrumentation) – INTEGRAL Soft Gamma-Ray Imager, an instrument on the INTEGRAL satellite ISM – (celestial object) InterStellar Medium ISN – (organization) International Supernovae Network ISO – (telescope) Infrared Space Observatory ISON – International Scientific Optical Network ISPM – (spacecraft) International Solar Polar Mission, another name for the Ulysses spacecraft ISRO – (organization) Indian Space Research Organisation ISSA – (data) Infrared Sky Survey Atlas, an atlas compiled from Infrared Astronomical Satellite data ISTeC – (organization) International Small Telescope Cooperative ISY – (observing program/meeting) International Space Year, the name given to a celebration of space exploration as well as a series of coordinated astronomical observations and a series of meetings to plan future astronomy research efforts ITA – (organization) Institute of Theoretical Astronomy, one of three organizations that was combined to form the Institute of Astronomy IUCAA – (organization) Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics - Pune, India IUE – (telescope) International Ultraviolet Explorer, an ultraviolet space telescope IUEDAC – (organization) IUE satellite Data Analysis Center IWCA – (meeting) International Workshop on Cometary Astronomy J Janskys – (publication) Green Bank Observatory JAC – (publication) Japan Astronomical Circular JAC – (organization) Joint Astronomy Centre, the organization that operates the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope and the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope JAPOA – (organization) Japan Amateur Photoelectric Observers Association JAXA – (organization) Japan Aerospace eXploration Agency JBO – Jodrell Bank Observatory, a radio observatory in England. JCMT – (telescope) James Clerk Maxwell Telescope JD – (astrophysics terminology) Julian Date, an alternative time commonly used in astronomy JET-X – (telescope) Joint European Telescope for X-ray astronomy JGR – (publication) Journal of Geophysical Research JILA – (organization) formerly Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics JIVE – Joint Institute for VLBI in Europe JKT – (telescope) Jacobus Kapteyn Telescope JPL – (organization) Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a research center associated with NASA JSGA – (telescope/organization) Japan SpaceGuard Association, a Japanese telescope used to track near-Earth asteroids and space junk JWST – (telescope) James Webb Space Telescope, an infrared space telescope K KAIT – (telescope) Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope KAO – (telescope) Kuiper Airborne Observatory KBO – (celestial object) Kuiper belt object KCAO – (organization) Kumamoto Civil Astronomical Observatory KIC – (catalog) Kepler Input Catalog, a catalog of stars with potential extrasolar planets to be observed by the Kepler Mission KPNO – (organization) Kitt Peak National Observatory KS – (astrophysics terminology) Kennicutt-Schmidt relation L L – (astrophysics terminology) Lagrange, Lagrange points L – (catalog) Luyten, a catalog of proper motion measurements of stars LAD-C – (instrumentation) Large Area Debris Collector, a canceled program that was to collect and catalog low orbital dust on the International Space Station LAEFF – (organization) Laboratorio de Astrofisica Espacial y Fisica Fundamental, a Spanish astronomy research organization LAL – (catalog) LALande, a historical catalog of stars LAMOST – (telescope) Large sky Area Multi-Object fiber Spectroscopic Telescope LANL – (organization) Los Alamos National Laboratory LASCO – (instrumentation) Large Angle and Spectrometric COronagraph, an instrument on the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory Laser – (instrumentation) light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation LAT – (instrumentation) Large Area Telescope, on the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope LBN – (catalog) Lynds Bright Nebula, a catalog of bright nebulae LBG - (celestial object) Lyman Break Galaxy, a galaxy identified using the Lyman-break selection technique LBNL – (organization) Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory LBT – (telescope) Large Binocular Telescope LBV – (celestial object) luminous blue variable, a type of very bright variable star LCDM – (astrophysics terminology) Lambda cold dark matter, any model for structure formation in the universe that includes dark energy also ΛCDM LCO — (observatory) Las Campanas Observatory, Atacama Region in Chile LCOGT – network of autonomous robotic telescopes (2m, 1m and 40 cm) at 7 sites in both hemispheres LCROSS – (spacecraft) Lunar CRater Observation and Sensing Satellite LCRS – (observing program) Las Campanas Redshift Survey LDN – (catalog) Lynds Dark Nebula, a catalog of dark nebulae LDN – (celestial object) large dark nebula, a large, wispy nebula made of neutral brown hydrogen gas. LDS – (catalog) Luyten Double Star LDSS3 — (spectrograph) Low Dispersion Survey Spectrograph, from Magellan 2 Clay Telescope at LCO. LEO – (astrophysics terminology) low Earth orbit LEST – (telescope) large Earth-based solar telescope LETGS – (instrumentation) Low Energy Transmission Gratings Spectrometer, an instrument on the Chandra X-Ray Observatory also LETG LF – (astrophysics terminology) luminosity function, the spatial density of objects such as star clusters and galaxies as a function of their luminosity LFT – (catalog) Luyten Five-Tenths, a catalog of stars with proper motions exceeding 0.5" LGA – (instrumentation) low-gain antenna LGM – (celestial object) Little Green Men, a humorous name applied to pulsars soon after their discovery LHEA – (organization) Laboratory for High Energy Astrophysics LHS – (catalog) Luyten Half-Second, a catalog of stars with proper motions exceeding 0.5" LIC – (celestial object) Local Interstellar Cloud, the cloud in the interstellar medium through which the Solar System is currently moving LIGO – (telescope) Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory, an instrument for detecting gravitational waves LINEAR – (observing program) Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research LINER – (celestial object) low-ionization nuclear emission region, a galactic nucleus that is characterized by spectral line emission from weakly ionized gas LIRG – (celestial object) luminous infrared galaxy, a galaxy that is between 1011 and 1012 solar luminosities in the infrared LISA – (telescope) Laser Interferometer Space Antenna, a series of spacecraft that can be used to detect gravitational waves LLAGN – (celestial object) low-luminosity active galactic nucleus, an active galactic nucleus with a low luminosity LLNL – (organization) Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory LMC – (celestial object) Large Magellanic Cloud, an irregular galaxy near the Milky Way LMS – (celestial object) Lower main sequence star, the less massive hydrogen-burning main-sequence stars LMXB – (celestial object) low-mass x-ray binary, an X-ray-luminous binary star system in which one of the stars is a neutron star or black hole that is stripping material away from the other star in the system LN2 – (instrumentation) liquid nitrogen LOAN – Longitude of ascending node LOFAR – (telescope) LOw Frequency ARray, for radio astronomy LONEOS – (observing program) Lowell Observatory Near-Earth Object Search LOSS – (observing program) Lick Observatory Supernova Search LOTIS – (telescope) Livermore Optical Transient Imaging System, a telescope designed to find the optical counterparts of gamma ray bursts LOTOSS – (observing program) Lick Observatory and Tenagra Observatory Supernova Searches LP – (catalog) Luyten Palomar, a catalog of proper motion measurements of stars LPI – (organization) Lunar and Planetary Institute LPL – (organization) Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, the planetary science department of the University of Arizona LPV – (celestial object) Long Period Variable, a type of variable star that changes in brightness slowly over time LRG – (celestial object) luminous red galaxy, a dataset of galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey that were selected on the basis of their red colors LRO – (spacecraft) Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter LSR – (astrophysics terminology) local standard of rest, the frame of reference with a velocity equal to the average velocity of all the stars in the solar neighborhood, including the Sun LSST – (telescope) Legacy Survey of Space and Time LST – (astrophysics terminology) local sidereal time, the right ascension that is currently at the zenith LT – (telescope) Liverpool Telescope LTE – (astrophysics terminology) Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium, a state where variations in temperature, pressure, etc. do not vary on small scales LTP – (astrophysics terminology) Lunar Transient Phenomenon, an observed event (such as a flash of light) on the surface of the Moon LTT – (catalog) Luyten Two-Tenths, a catalog of proper motion measurements for stars LWS - (instrumentation) Long Wavelength Spectrometer, a spectrometer on the ISO M MARVEL – (project) Multi-object Apache Point Observatory Radial Velocity Exoplanet Large-area Survey, a NASA-funded project to search for exoplanets M – (catalog) Messier M – (celestial object) Mira, a class of long period pulsating variable stars named after Mira, the archetype for the class MAC – (observing program) Multi-instrument Aircraft Campaign, a program to study the cometary dust from the Leonids meteor showers MACHO – (celestial object/observing program/catalog) MAssive Compact Halo Object, an object in the Milky Way's halo thought to comprise part of the galaxy's dark matter; also a survey to detect these sources through gravitational lensing and the catalog of sources detected by the survey MACS – (catalogue) Magellanic Catalogue of Stars MAGIC – (telescope) Major Atmospheric Gamma-ray Imaging Cherenkov telescope MALT – Millimetre Astronomy Legacy Team – including and MALT45 MAP – (telescope) Microwave-background Anisotropy Probe, an older name for the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe MASER – (astrophysics terminology) microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, microwave emission that is similar to the optical emission from a laser MAVEN – Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN MBA – (celestial object) main belt asteroid MBH – (celestial object) massive black hole MCG – (catalog) Morphological Catalog of Galaxies MCMC - (astrophysics terminology) Markov chain Monte Carlo MCO – (spacecraft) Mars Climate Orbiter MDS – (observing program) Medium Deep Survey, a survey of high-redshift galaxies with the Hubble Space Telescope MECO – (celestial object) magnetospheric eternally collapsing object, a type of object proposed as an alternative to supermassive black holes as the central compact source within active galactic nuclei MEPAG – (organization) Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group MEPCO – (meeting) Meeting of European Planetary and Cometary Observers MER – (spacecraft) Mars Exploration Rover MERLIN – Multi Element Radio Linked Interferometer. A seven-telescope radio interferometer MESSENGER – MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry and Ranging MGC – (catalog/observing program) Millennium Galaxy Catalogue MGS – (spacecraft) Mars Global Surveyor MHD – (astrophysics terminology) MagnetoHydroDynamic MICO – (software) Multi-year Interactive Computer Almanac, astronomy almanac software created by the United States Naval Observatory MIDI – MID-Infrared instrument. A mid-infrared instrument of the VLTI MIPS – (instrumentation) Multi-band Imaging Photometer, an instrument on the Spitzer Space Telescope MIRI – (instrumentation) Mid-Infrared Instrument, an instrument on the James Webb Telescope MJD – (astrophysics terminology) Modified Julian Date, the Julian date minus 2400000.5 MLO – (organization) MMO – (spacecraft) Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter, JAXA space probe to Mercury MMR – (astrophysics terminology) Mean-Motion Resonance MMS – Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission MMSN – Minimum Mass Solar Nebula MMT – (telescope) Multiple Mirror Telescope MNRAS – (publication) Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society MO – (spacecraft) Mars Observer MOA – (observing program) Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics, a survey searching for gravitational lenses MOC – (instrumentation) Mars Observer Camera, an instrument on the Mars Observer MOID – (astrophysics terminology) minimum orbit intersection distance, the minimum distance between two objects' orbital paths MOLA – (instrumentation) Mars Observer Laser Altimeter, an instrument on the Mars Observer used to study Mars's topology MOND – (astrophysics terminology) modified Newtonian dynamics MONS – (telescope) Measuring Oscillations in Nearby Stars, a Danish space telescope that was proposed and designed but not built MOST – (telescope) Microvariability and Oscillations of STars, a space telescope designed to detect oscillations in the atmospheres of stars and extrasolar planetss in orbit around other stars MOST – (telescope) Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope, an Australian radio telescope MOTIF – (telescope) Maui Optical Tracking and Identification Facility MOXE – (instrumentation) Monitoring X-ray Experiment, an X-ray all-sky monitor designed for the Spectrum-X-Gamma satellite MPC – (publication) Minor Planet Circulars (also called Minor Planets and Comets) MPEC – (publication) Minor Planet Electronic Circular MPF – (spacecraft) Mars PathFinder MPL – (spacecraft) Mars Polar Lander MPO – (space craft) Mercury Planetary Orbiter, ESA space craft to Mercury MPP – (instrumentation) Multi-Pinned-Phase, CCD technology that reduces dark current noise MPCS – (publication) Minor Planet Circulars Supplement MPS – (observing project) Microlensing Planet Search, a program designed that detect extrasolar planets using a gravitational lensing technique MRI – (astrophysics term) magnetorotational instability, a local instability in the accretion disks which only requires weak magnetic field and dΩ2/dR<0 MRK – Markarian galaxies MRO – (spacecraft) Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter MSL – Mars Science Laboratory MSP – (celestial object) millisecond pulsar MSSS – (organization) Maui Space Surveillance Site MSX – (telescope) Midcourse Space EXperiment, an infrared space telescope MSSSO – (organization) Mount Stromlo and Siding Spring Observatories MUNICS – (observing program) MUnich Near-Infrared Cluster Survey MUSES – (spacecraft) MU Space Engineering Spacecraft, a Japanese science-related spacecraft launched in a Mu rocket MUSTANG – (instrumentation) Multiplexed SQUID TES Array at Ninety GHz, A bolometer camera on the Green Bank Telescope. MUSYC – (observing program) Multi-wavelength Survey by Yale-Chile MW – (celestial object) Milky Way MWD – (celestial object) magnetic white dwarf MXRB – (celestial object) massive x-ray binary, an x-ray-luminous binary system consisting of a compact star and a very massive star MYSO – (celestial object) massive young stellar object N N – (celestial object) nova NACA – (organization) National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics, the older name for NASA NAMN – (organization) North American Meteor Network NAOJ – (organization) National Astronomical Observatory of Japan NAS – (organization) Norsk Astronomisk Selskap, the Norwegian name for the Norwegian Astronomical Society NASA – (organization) National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASDA – (organization) NAtional Space Development Agency NBS – (organization) National Bureau of Standards, an older name for the National Institute of Standards and Technology NCT – (telescope) Nuclear Compton Telescope – a balloon-borne soft gamma-ray (0.2-15 MeV) telescope. NEAP – (spacecraft) Near Earth Asteroid Prospector, a space probe used to study a near-Earth asteroid NEAR – (spacecraft) Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous, a space probe used to study a near-Earth asteroid NEAT – (observing program) Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking NED – (software) NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database NEO – (celestial object) Near-Earth object also NEA – (celestial object) Near-Earth asteroid NEMP – (celestial object) nitrogen-enhanced metal-poor star, a type of carbon star with high amounts of nitrogen NEODyS – (organization) Near Earth Objects Dynamic Site, an Italian web-based service that provides information on near-Earth asteroids NEOIC – (organization) Near Earth Object Information Center, a United Kingdom organization that provides information on near-Earth asteroids NEOWISE – Near-Earth Object WISE NESS – (telescope) Near Earth Space Surveillance, a telescope for observing near-Earth asteroids NESSI – (organization) Near Earth Space Surveillance Initiative, a collaboration planning to use a ground-based telescope to observe near-Earth asteroids NGC – (catalog) New General Catalog NGS-POSS – National Geographic Society – Palomar Observatory Sky Survey NGST – (telescope) Next Generation Space Telescope, an older name for the James Webb Space Telescope ngVLA – (telescope) Next-Generation Very Large Array NHICAT – (catalog) Northern HIPASS CATalog, the northern extension of the HIPASS catalogue NICMOS – (instrumentation) Near Infrared Camera / Multi Object Spectrometer, an infrared instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope NIMS – (instrumentation) Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer, an instrument on the Galileo spacecraft NIR – (astrophysics terminology) near-infrared NIRCam – (Instrument), Near-Infrared Camera, an instrument on James Webb Telescope NIRSpec – (instrument) Near-Infrared Spectrograph, an instrument on James Webb Telerscope NIST – (organization) National Institute of Standards and Technology NLAGN – (celestial object) Narrow-Line AGN, classified based on lack of broadened emission or absorption lines in spectra NLR – (astrophysics term) the Narrow Line Region of the AGN NLTE – (astrophysics terminology) non-local thermodynamic equilibrium, situations where the temperature, pressure, etc. of a system are not in equilibrium NLTT – (catalog) New Luyten Two-Tenths, a catalog of stars with high proper motions NNVS – Nizhny Novgorod, Veränderliche Sterne; a variable star publication of the Nizhny Novgorod Society of Physics and Astronomy Amateurs NOAA – (organization) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NOAO – (organization) National Optical Astronomy Observatories NODO – (telescope) NASA Orbital Debris Observatory, a now-defunct telescope used to observe space junk and other objects NOT – (telescope) NOrdic Telescope NPS – (celestial object) North Polar Sequence, a series of stars near the north celestial pole once used as standards for measuring magnitudes NRAL – Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratory, the former name for Jodrell NRAO – (organization) National Radio Astronomy Observatory NRL – (organization) Naval Research Laboratory NS – (celestial object) neutron star NSF – (organization) National Science Foundation NSO – (organization) National Solar Observatory NSSDC – (organization) National Space Science Data Center NSV – (catalog) New Suspected Variable, a catalog of variable stars NT – (astrophysics terminology) Non-Thermal, radiation that is not related to the emission source's temperature (such as synchrotron radiation) NTT – (telescope) New Technology Telescope, a telescope operated by the European Southern Observatory NuSTAR – Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array NVSS – NRAO VLA Sky Survey, a major survey O OAO – (observatory) Okayama Astrophysical Observatory, in Japan OAO – (telescope) Orbiting Astronomical Observatory, a series of satellites with astronomical instruments that operated in the 1970s OC – (celestial object) open cluster, a cluster of stars OCA – (organization) Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur OCO – (celestial object) Oort Cloud Object, an object (usually a comet) in the Oort cloud OGLE – (observing program/catalog) Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment, an observing program to survey the sky for microlensing events; also the catalog of sources produced by the project BLG – (catalog) BuLGe, used to designate a source detected in the direction of the bulge of the Milky Way TR – (catalog) TRansit, used to designate a potential observation of a microlensing event caused by a transiting star OPAG – (organization) Outer Planets Assessment Group, a group established by NASA that provides advice on Solar System exploration ORFEUS – (telescope) Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer, an ultraviolet space telescope that could be released and later retrieved by the Space Shuttle OSIRIS-REx – Origins Spectral Interpretation Resource Identification Security Regolith Explorer OSS – (observing program) Ohio Sky Survey OSSE – (instrumentation) Oriented Scintillation Spectrometer Experiment, an instrument on the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory OTA – (instrumentation) Optical Telescope Assembly, the optics of the Hubble Space Telescope OVV – (celestial object) an optically violent variable quasar. OWL – (telescope) orbiting wide-angle light-collectors, two satellites that will work together to observe cosmic rays hitting the Earth's atmosphere OWL – (telescope) OverWhelmingly Large Telescope, a proposed telescope with a primary mirror with a width of 100 m P P60 – (telescope) Palomar 60-inch telescope PA – (astrophysics terminology) Position Angle PACS - (instrumentation) Photodetecting Array Camera and Spectrometer, a Herschel imaging camera and low resolution spectrometer PAH – (astrophysics terminology) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon PAMELA – (telescope) Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics, a space telescope used to study cosmic rays Pan-STARRS – (telescope) Panoramic Survey Telescope And Rapid Response System PASJ – (publication) Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan PASP – (publication) Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific PCA – (instrumentation) Proportional Counter Array, an X-ray detector on the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer PCAS – (observing program) Planet-Crossing Asteroid Survey PDBI – (telescope) Plateau de Bure Interferometer, a radio telescope PDR – a photodissociation region or photon-dominated region (both terms are used synonymously); a region in the neutral ISM in which far-ultraviolet photons dominate the heating and chemistry PDS – is a distributed data system that NASA uses to archive data collected by Solar System missions. PEP – (instrumentation) PhotoElectric Photometry, an observing technique using photometers PEPE – (instrumentation) Plasma Experiment for Planetary Exploration, an instrument on Deep Space 1 PGC – Principal Galaxies Catalogue PHA – (celestial object) Potentially Hazardous Asteroid PI – (person) Principal Investigator, the person who leads a scientific project PK – (catalog) Perek-Kohoutek, a catalog of planetary nebulae PKS – (Telescope) Refers to Parkes Observatory, a radio telescope in Australia Planemo – (celestial object) planetary mass object PLANET – (observing program) Probing Lensing Anomalies NETwork, a program to search for microlensing events PLS – (observing program) Palomar-Leiden Survey, a program to search for asteroids PMPS – (observing program) Parkes Multibeam Pulsar Survey PMS – (celestial object) pre-main sequence, young stars that are still in the process of formation also pre-MS PMT – (instrumentation) photomultiplier tube P-L – a set of asteroid discoveries in the 1960s PN – (celestial object) planetary nebula also PNe (plural form of planetary nebula) PNG – (catalog) Galactic Planetary Nebula PNLF – (astrophysics terminology) Planetary Nebula Luminosity Function, the density of planetary nebula as a function of their luminosity PNN – (celestial object) planetary nebula nucleus, the central star in a planetary nebula PNNV – (celestial object) planetary nebula nucleus variable, a variable star in the center of a planetary nebula POSS – (observing program) Palomar Observatory Sky Survey POSSUM – Polarisation Sky Survey of the Universe's Magnetism PPARC – (organization) Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council, a major government-sponsored science agency in the United Kingdom, merged into the Science and Technology Facilities Council in 2007 PPM – (catalog) Positions and Proper Motions, a catalog of the positions and proper motions of stars PPN – (celestial object) proto-planetary nebula, an object that has partially evolved from a red giant to a planetary nebula PRE – (astrophysics terminology) photospheric radius expansion PRIMUS – Prism Multi-Object Survey, a large [spectroscopsurvey] Proplyd – (celestial object) protoplanetary disk PSC – (catalog) Point Source Catalog, a catalog of point-like infrared sources detected with the Infrared Astronomy Satellite PSF – (instrumentation) Point Spread Function, a function that describes the blurring of a point source that is caused by the optics of the telescope and instrument (as well as other effects) PSI – (organization) Planetary Science Institute PSR – (celestial object) Pulsar PVO – (spacecraft) Pioneer Venus Orbiter PVTEL – (celestial object) PV TELescopii, a class of pulsating variable stars named after PV Telescopii, the archetype for the class PWD – (celestial object) pre-white dwarf, a star that no longer creates energy through fusion that will eventually evolve into a white dwarf PWN – (celestial object) pulsar wind nebula PZT – (telescope) photographic zenith tube, a general name for any telescope designed to observe objects passing at the zenith Q QBO – (astrophysics terminology) quasi-biennial oscillation, a type of season variation in the Earth's atmosphere QGP - Quark-Gluon Plasma QE – (instrumentation) quantum efficiency, the sensitivity of CCDs QPO – (astrophysics terminology) quasi-periodic oscillation QSO – (celestial object) quasi-stellar object Quasar – (celestial object) quasi-stellar radio source R RAPTOR – Rapid Telescopes for Optical Response project RA – (astrophysics terminology) Right ascension RAFGL – See AFGL. RAMBO – (celestial object) An association of brown dwarfs or white dwarfs form a dark cluster. RAS – (organization) Royal Astronomical Society RASC – (organization) Royal Astronomical Society of Canada RASS – (observing program/catalog) ROSAT All-Sky Survey, used as both a name for a survey with ROSAT and the catalogs produced from the survey RC – (celestial object) Red Clump, a type of metal-rich red giant star also RCG – red clump giant RC – (catalog) Reference Catalogue, a catalog of nearby galaxies RC2 – Reference Catalogue, 2nd edition RC3 – Reference Catalogue, 3rd edition RC – (organization/telescope) Ritchey Chretien, a manufacturer of amateur and professional telescope equipment; also the telescopes themselves RCB – (celestial object) R Coronae Borealis, a class of eruptive variable stars named after R Coronae Borealis, the archetype for the class RDI – (astrophysics terminology) radiation-driven implosion RECONS – (organization) Research Consortium on Nearby Stars, a survey of nearby stars RGB – (celestial object) red-giant branch, a star that is evolving from a main-sequence star into a red giant Can also refer to the ROSAT-Green Bank Catalog RGO – (organization) Royal Greenwich Observatory RLOF – (astrophysics terminology) Roche Lobe Overflow, the result of when an object in a binary system is larger than its roche lobe (i.e. when an object in a binary system expands to a radius where tidal forces become stronger than gravitational forces) RLQ – (celestial object) radio loud quasar, a quasar that produces strong radio emission RNGC – (catalog) Revised New General Catalog RORF – (astrophysics terminology) radio/optical reference frame, an inertial reference frame based on extragalactic radio sources ROSAT – (telescope) ROentgen SATellite, an X-ray space telescope ROTSE – (observing program/telescope) Robotic Optical Transient Search Experiment, an observing program for detecting the optical counterparts of gamma ray bursts; also the telescopes used in this program RQQ – (celestial object) radio-quiet quasar a quasar that produces weak radio emission RRAT – (celestial object) rotating radio transient, a population of rotating neutron stars that produce periodic bursts of emission that are separated by intervals of minutes or hours RRL – (celestial object) RR Lyrae, a class of pulsating variable stars named after RR Lyrae, the archetype of the class also RR RSA – (catalog) Revised Shapley-Ames, a catalog of nearby galaxies RSA – (organization) Russian Space Agency RSAA – (organization) Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics, part of the Institute of Advanced Studies at the Australian National University RSG – (celestial object) red super giant RSN – (celestial object) radio supernova RTG – (instrumentation) Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator, a type of power generator used in spacecraft that travel far from the Sun RV – (astrophysics terminology) radial velocity, the velocity along the line of sight RX – (catalog) ROSAT X-ray, a catalog of sources detected by ROSAT RXTE – (telescope) Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer, a space telescope designed to observe variability in X-ray emission S S82 – Stripe 82 S&T – (publication) Sky & Telescope SAAO – (organization) South African Astronomical Observatory SALT – (telescope) Southern African Large Telescope SAF – (organization) Société astronomique de France (French Astronomical Society) SAM – (astrophysics terminology) Semi-Analytic Modeling, models that draw on numerical and analytical methods to model dark matter evolution in galaxies SAO – (organization/catalog) Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, the name of astrophysics research organization associated with Harvard University; also a catalog of stars SARA – (organization) Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers SAS – (software) Science Analysis Software, a software package used for processing data from the XMM-Newton Observatory SAT – (telescope) synthetic aperture telescope SAVAL – (organization) Sociedad Astronómica de Valparaíso y Viña del Mar, Chile. Amateur Astronomy. Founded in 1956. SB – (celestial object) spectroscopic binary SB1 – spectroscopic binary, single-lined spectra SB2 – spectroscopic binary, double-lined spectra SB – (astrophysics terminology) surface brightness SBIG – (organization/instrumentation) Santa Barbara Instrument Group, the name of both a company that manufactures telescope equipment and the company's products SBNC – (organization) Small Bodies Names Committee, an older name for the Committee for Small Body Nomenclature SCP – (observing program) Supernova Cosmology Project, a project to measure the expansion of the universe using supernovae at high redshifts SCR – (observing program) SuperCOSMOS-RECONS, a survey that measured the proper motions of stars SCT – (telescope) Schmidt–Cassegrain telescope, a general name for a type of compact telescope that uses both lenses and mirrors SCUBA – (instrumentation) Submillimetre Common User Bolometer Array, a submillimeter imager formerly at the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope SCUBA-2 – (instrumentation) Submillimetre Common User Bolometer Array 2, a submillimeter imager that will replace SCUBA sd – (celestial object) subdwarf, stars fainter than main-sequence stars with the same colors; often used as a prefix to a star's spectral type SDO – (celestial object) scattered disk object, Kuiper belt objects with highly eccentric, highly inclined orbits also SKBO – Scattered Kuiper belt object SDOR – (celestial object) S DORadus, a class of eruptive variable stars named after S Doradus, the archetype for the class SDSS – (observing program/catalog) Sloan Digital Sky Survey, a large imaging and spectroscopic survey; also the catalog of sources from the survey SDSSp – (catalog) Sloan Digital Sky Survey provisory / preliminary SEAAN – (organization) Southeast Asia Astronomy Network, astronomy research and education among Southeast Asian countries SED – (astrophyics terminology) Spectral Energy Distribution SEDS – (organization) Students for the Exploration and Development of Space SERC – (organization) Science and Engineering Research Council SEST – (telescope) Swedish–ESO Submillimetre Telescope SETI – (observing program) Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence SF – (astrophysics terminology) star formation SFH – (astrophysics terminology) star formation history SFR – (astrophyics terminology) star formation rate SGF – (organization) – SpaceGuard Foundation, an organization that tracks near-Earth asteroids SGR – (celestial object) – soft gamma repeater, a type of neutron star with strong magnetic fields that produces very large bursts of energy SGRB – (celestial object) – Short Gamma-Ray Burst. SHOES-Supernovae, HO, for the Equation of State of Dark energy SID – (astrophysics terminology) Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance, a disturbance in the Earth's ionosphere caused by the Sun SIDC – (organization) Sunspot Index Data Center SIM – (telescope) Space Interferometry Mission, a planned optical space telescope that will be used to measure distances to stars SIMBAD – (software) Set of Identifications, Measurements, and Bibliography for Astronomical Data, a website that provides catalog data on astronomical objects SINGG – (observing program) Survey of Ionization in Neutral Gas Galaxies, a survey of star formation in nearby galaxies selected by gas rich galaxies using H-alpha and ultraviolet observations SINGS – (observing program) Spitzer Infrared Nearby Galaxies Survey SIPS – (observing program/catalog) Southern Infrared Proper Motion Survey, a program to identify stars with high proper motions at infrared wavelengths SIRTF – (telescope) Space InfraRed Telescope Facility or Shuttle InfraRed Telescope Facility, older names for the Spitzer Space Telescope SIS – (Instrumentation) Superconductor-Isolator-Superconductor SKA – (telescope) Square Kilometre Array SL – (catalog) Shoemaker–Levy, the comets discovered by Shoemaker and Levy, particularly Shoemaker–Levy 9 SL – (spacecraft) SpaceLab SLED - (astrophysics terminology) Spectral Line Energy Distribution, a description of the relative strength of CO emission lines SLS – (launch vehicle) American Space Shuttle-derived super heavy-lift expendable launch vehicle. SMA – (telescope) Submillimeter Array SMART – (spacecraft) Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology SMARTS – (organization) Small and Moderate Aperture Research Telescope System at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory SMBH – (celestial object) super massive black hole SMC – (celestial object) Small Magellanic Cloud SME – (spacecraft) Solar Mesosphere Explorer, a spacecraft used to study the Earth's ozone layer SMEX – (spacecraft) SMall EXplorers, the name of a series of small astronomical spacecraft; also the program to develop the spacecraft SMG - (celestial object) submillimeter galaxy SMM – (telescope) Solar Maximum Mission, a solar space telescope SN – (instrumentation) signal-to-noise, the ratio of the signal from an object to the noise from the detector that measured the signal also SNR – Signal-to-nosie ratio SN – (celestial object) supernova also SNe (plural form of SN) SNAP – (telescope) SuperNova Acceleration Probe, proposed space telescope SNR – (celestial object) supernova remnant SNU – (astrophysics terminology) solar neutrino units SOARD – (software) Steward Observatory Asteroid Relational Database SOFIA – (telescope) Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy, an infrared telescope currently under construction that will fly inside a modified Boeing 747 aircraft SOHO – (telescope) SOlar and Heliospheric Observatory, a solar space telescope SONEAR – Southern Observatory for Near Earth Asteroids Research SOLO – Solar Orbiter SPARTAN – (telescope) Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy, an ultraviolet space telescope that can be released and retrieved by the Space Shuttle SPHERE – (instrumentation) Spectro-Polarimetric High-Contrast Exoplanet Research, VLT SPIRE - (instrumentation) Spectral and Photometric Imaging Receiver, a Herschel imaging camera and low-resolution spectrometer SPIRIT – (instrument) SPace InfraRed Imaging Telescope, an infrared instrument on the Midcourse Space Experiment spacecraft SPS – (spacecraft) solar power satellite, a general name for proposed satellites that would convert solar power into energy and then beam the energy to the surface of a planet (such as Earth) in the form of microwaves SPS – (astrophysical terminology) stellar population synthesis SPT – (telescope) South Pole Telescope SQIID – (instrumentation) Simultaneous Quad Infrared Imaging Device SQM – (celestial object) strange quark matter SR – (astrophysics terminology) Special Relativity SRON – (organization) Space Research Organization of the Netherlands SS – (celestial object) Symbiotic Star, a type of binary star system containing a red giant and a hot dwarf star that generate a cone-shaped nebula SSI – (instrumentation) Solid-State Imager, an instrument on the Galileo spacecraft SSI – (organization) Space Studies Institute SSP – (instrumentation) Surface Science Package, on board the Huygens probe SSP – (astrophysics terminology) simple stellar population SSRQ – (celestial object) Steep Spectrum Radio Quasars SSS – (observing program) SuperCOSMOS Sky Surveys SSSPM – (catalog) SuperCOSMOS Sky Survey Proper Motion SST – (telescope) Spectroscopic Survey Telescope SST – (telescope) Spitzer Space Telescope, a space telescope STARSMOG – (observing program) STarlight Absorption Reduction through a Survey of Multiple Occulting Galaxies, a survey using Hubble Space Telescope imaging STEPS – (observing program) STEllar Planet Survey STEREO – Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory STIS – (instrumentation) Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph, an instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope STS – (vehicle) Shuttle Transport System or Space Transportation System STScI – (organization) Space Telescope Science Institute STSDAS – (software) Space Telescope Science Data Analysis System SUGRA – (astrophysics terminology) supergravity SUPRIME – (instrumentation) SUbaru PRIME focus CAMera, an instrument on the Subaru Telescope SUSI – (telescope) Sydney University Stellar Interferometer, an optical interferometer SWAN – (instrumentation) Solar Wind ANisotropy, an instrument on SOHO SWAS – (telescope) Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite, a submillimeter space telescope SWEEPS – (observing program) – Sagittarius Window Eclipsing Extrasolar Planet Search, a survey of a subsection of the plane of the Milky Way performed with the Hubble Space Telescope SWIRE – (observing program) Spitzer Wide-area InfraRed Extragalactic survey SwRI – (organization) Southwest Research Institute SXARI – (celestial object) SX ARIetis, a class of rotating variable stars named after SX Arietis, the archetype for the class SXPHE – (celestial object) SX PhoEnicis, a class of pulsating variable stars named after SX Phoenicis, the archetype for the class T T-1 – (observing program) First Jupiter Trojan survey at Mount Palomar, part of the P–L survey T-2 – (observing program) Second Jupiter Trojan survey at Mount Palomar, part of the P–L survey T-3 – (observing program) Third Jupiter Trojan survey at Mount Palomar, part of the P–L survey TABLEAUX – International Conference on Automated Reasoning with Analytic Tableaux and Related Methods TAC – (organization) Time Allocation Committee or Telescope Allocation Committee, a general name for a committee that awards telescope observing time TAC – (catalog) Twin Astrograph Catalog TAI – (astrophysics terminology) International Atomic Time TAMS – (astrophysics terminology) terminal-age main sequence, stars at the point in their lifetimes where they have finished burning hydrogen in their cores TAROT – (telescope) Télescope à Action Rapide pour les Objets Transitoires TASS – (observing program) The Amateur Sky Survey TAU – (spacecraft) Thousand Astronomical Unit, a spacecraft mission proposed in the 1980s that would reach 1000 AU in 50 years TCB – (astrophysics terminology) Barycentric Coordinate Time TCC – Theory of Cryptography Conference TCG – (astrophysics terminology) Geocentric Coordinate Time TDB – (astrophysics terminology) Barycentric Dynamical Time TDRSS – (communications network) Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System, an array of satellites used by NASA to communicate with many spacecraft in low Earth orbit TES – (instrumentation) Thermal Emission Spectrometer, a spectrometer on the Mars Observer TESS - (spacecraft) Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite, NASA: an all-sky survey mission that will discover thousands of exoplanets around nearby bright stars. TESS launched 18 April 2018 aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket TEP – (organization) Transits of Extrasolar Planets TGF – (celestial object) – Terrestrial gamma-ray flash, gamma rays emitted from Earth's lightning storms THEMIS – (instrumentation) Thermal Emission Imaging System, a camera on the Mars Odyssey spacecraft TIC – (catalog) Tycho Input Catalog, a predecessor of the Hipparcos Input Catalog TIFR – (organization) – Tata Institute of Fundamental Research - India TIR – (astrophysics terminology) total infrared TIMED – (spacecraft) thermosphere ionosphere mesosphere energetics and dynamics TIE – (organization) Telescopes In Education TLP – (astrophysics terminology) Transient Lunar Phenomenon, an unexplained flash of light observed from the Moon TMC – (celestial object) Taurus Molecular Cloud TMT – (telescope) – Thirty Meter Telescope, formerly known as California Extremely Large Telescope TN – (person) telescope nut, nickname for an amateur telescope maker TNO – (celestial object) trans-Neptunian object, any object that orbits the Sun at a distance greater than that of Neptune TO – (person) telescope operator, the technician who assists in operating a telescope during astronomical observations TOPS – (meeting) Toward Other Planetary Systems, a series of educational astronomy workshops TPF – (telescope) Terrestrial Planet Finder, a planned space telescope that will be used to find extrasolar Earth-like planets TPHOLs – Theorem Proving in Higher-Order Logics TRACE – Transition Region and Coronal Explorer, a solar space telescope TrES – (telescope) Transatlantic Exoplanet Survey TT – (astrophysics terminology) Terrestrial Time also TDT – terrestrial dynamical time TTS – (celestial object) T-Tauri star TWA – (celestial object) TW Hydrae Association TYC – (catalog) Tycho, a catalog that was the predecessor of the Hipparcos (HIP) Catalogue TZO – (celestial object) Thorne–Żytkow object, the object that forms when a neutron star merges with a red giant U UAI – Union Astronomique Internationale UARS – (spacecraft) Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite, a satellite used to study the Earth's upper atmosphere UCAC – (catalog) USNO CCD Astrometric Catalog UESAC – (observing program) Uppsala-ESO Survey of Asteroids and Comets UFO – (astrophysics terminology) unidentified flying object UG – (celestial object) U Geminorum, a class of cataclysmic variable stars (also known as dwarf novae) that are named after U Geminorum, the archetype for the class UGSS – (celestial object) UG SS Cygni, a subclass of UG-type stars named after SS Cygni, the archetype for the subclass UGSU – (celestial object) UG SU Ursae Majoris, a subclass of UG-type stars named after SU Ursae Majoris, the archetype for the subclass UGWZ – (celestial object) UG WZ Sagittae, a subclass of UG-type stars named after WZ Sagittae, the archetype for the subclass UGZ – (celestial object) UG Z Camelopardalis, a subclass of UG-type stars named after Z Camelopardalis, the archetype for the subclass UGC – (catalog) Uppsala General Catalogue, a catalog of galaxies UIT – (telescope) Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope, an ultraviolet telescope that was operated from the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle UKIDSS – (observing program/catalog) UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey UKIRT – (telescope) United Kingdom Infrared Telescope UKSA – (organization) UK Space Agency UKST – (telescope) United Kingdom Schmidt Telescope ULIRG – (celestial object) UltraLuminous InfraRed Galaxy, a galaxy that is brighter than 1012 solar luminosities in the infrared ULX – (celestial object) ultraluminous x-ray source UMS – (celestial object) Upper Main Sequence, the more massive hydrogen-burning main-sequence stars USAF – (organization) United States Air Force USGS – (organization) United States Geological Survey USNO – (organization) United States Naval Observatory UT – (astrophysics terminology) Universal Time UTC – (astrophysics terminology) Coordinated Universal Time UV – (astrophysics terminology) ultraviolet UVS – (instrumentation) UltraViolet Spectrometer, the name of instruments on the Voyager and Galileo spacecraft UXOR – (celestial object) UX ORionis objects, a class of variable pre–main sequence stars named after UX Orionis, the archetype for the class UZC – Updated Zwicky Catalogue V VBO – (organization) Vainu Bappu Observatory, located in India VBT – (telescope) Vainu Bappu Telescope, located at Vainu Bappu Observatory VCC – (catalog) Virgo Cluster Catalog, a catalog of galaxies in the Virgo Cluster VdS – (organization) Vereinigung der Sternfreunde, the German amateur astronomers society VEEGA – (astrophysics terminology) Venus-Earth-Earth Gravity Assist, the path taken by the Galileo spacecraft to reach Jupiter VeLLO – (celestial object) very-low-luminosity object VERITAS – (telescope) Very Energetic Radiation Imaging Telescope Array System, gamma-ray telescope in Arizona sensitive to GeV/TeV gamma rays VERA – (telescope) VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry, a Japanese radio telescope designed for studying objects in the Milky Way VHE – (astrophysics terminology) Very High Energy, gamma rays with high energies VIMOS – (instrumentation) VIsible Multi-Object Spectrograph, instrument on the VLT VIPERS – VIMOS Public Extragalactic Redshift Survey an ESO Large Program VISTA – (telescope) Visible and Infrared Survey Telescope for Astronomy VLA – (telescope) Very Large Array, a radio telescope in New Mexico operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory VLBA – (telescope) Very Long Baseline Array, a radio telescope operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory with antennas spread across the United States VLBI – (instrumentation) very long baseline interferometry, combining signals from multiple telescopes/radio antennas that are separated by large distances VLM – (astrophysics terminology) very low mass, objects (usually stars) that have relatively low masses VLT – (telescope) Very Large Telescope, four 8.2 meter telescopes in Chile that operate either independently as individual telescopes or together as an interferometer VLT-SPHERE – (instrumentation) Spectro-Polarimetric High-Contrast Exoplanet Research; istalled at VLT's UT3 VMO – (software) The Virtual Meteor Observatory is an activity of the International Meteor Organization together with the Research and Scientific Support Department of the European Space Agency to store meteor data from observers all over the world. VO – (software) Virtual Observatory VOIR – (spacecraft) Venus Orbiting Imaging Radar, a spacecraft for mapping Venus that was canceled and then superseded by the Magellan spacecraft VRM – (spacecraft) Venus Radar Mapper, an older name for the Magellan spacecraft VSOLJ – (organization) Variable Star Observers League in Japan VSOP – (organization) VLBI Space Observatory Program, a project to use both satellites and ground-based radio telescopes as an interferometer VST – (telescope) VLT Survey Telescope VV – Vorontsov-Vel'yaminov Interacting Galaxies VVDS – (observing program) VIMOS-VLT Deep Survey W WALLABY – a survey of neutral hydrogen in galaxies WD – (celestial object) white dwarf WDM – (astrophysics terminology) warm dark matter, any model for structure formation in the universe that characterizes "hot" particles such as neutrinos as dark matter WDS – (catalog) Washington Double Star, a catalog of double stars WEBT – (organization) Whole Earth Blazar Telescope, a network of observers across the Earth who work together to perform continuous observations of blazars WET – (organization) Whole Earth Telescope, a network of astronomers spread across the Earth who work together to perform continuous observations of variable stars WFCAM – (instrumentation) Wide Field Camera, a camera on the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope WFIRST - (telescope) Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope, former name of the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope scheduled for launch in 2025 WFMOS – (instrumentation) Wide-Field Multi-Object Spectrograph, proposed instrument for the Gemini telescopes WFPC – (instrumentation) Wide Field and Planetary Camera, a camera formerly on the Hubble Space Telescope that was replaced with WFPC2 WFPC2 – (instrumentation) Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2, a camera on the Hubble Space Telescope WFC – (instrumentation) Wide-Field Channel, one of the detectors in the Advanced Camera for Surveys on the Hubble Space Telescope WGPSN – (organization) Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature WHT – (telescope) William Herschel Telescope WIMP – (celestial object) Weakly Interacting Massive Particle, a hypothetical subatomic particle that may comprise most of the dark matter in the universe WIRCam – (instrumentation) Wide-field InfraRed Camera, instrument on the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope WIRE – Wide Field Infrared Explorer WISARD – (software) Web Interface for Searching Archival Research Data WISE – (observing program) Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer WIYN – (telescope) Wisconsin-Indiana-Yale-NOAO, the name of a telescope at Kitt Peak operated by the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Indiana University, Yale University, and the National Optical Astronomy Observatory WLM – (celestial object) Wolf-Lundmark-Melotte, a nearby dwarf galaxy in the constellation Cetus WMAP – (telescope) Wilkinson Microwave Anisotrophy Probe, a space telescope used to study the cosmic microwave background radiation WR – (celestial object) Wolf–Rayet, a type of hot, luminous star with strong stellar winds WC – (celestial object) carbon-rich Wolf–Rayet, a Wolf–Rayet star with strong carbon spectral line emission WN – (celestial object) nitrogen-rich Wolf–Rayet, a Wolf–Rayet star with strong nitrogen spectral line emission WNE – (celestial object) early-type nitrogen-rich wolf–rayet, a wn star without hydrogen spectral line emission WNL – (celestial object) late-type nitrogen-rich Wolf–Rayet, a WN star with hydrogen spectral line emission WO – (celestial object) oxygen-rich Wolf–Rayet, a Wolf–Rayet star with strong oxygen spectral line emission WSRT – (telescope) an aperture synthesis interferometer that consists of a linear array of 14 antennas WTTS – (celestial object) weak-line t-tauri star, a type of young star with weak spectral line emission X XCS – (observing program) XMM Cluster Survey XIS – (instrumentation) X-ray imaging spectrometer, an instrument on the Suzaku space telescope XMM – (telescope) X-ray Multi-Mirror, the XMM-Newton earth-orbiting X-ray-sensitive telescope XN – (celestial object) x-ray nova XRF – (celestial object) x-ray flash Y Ys – (celestial object) yellow straggler YSG – (celestial object) yellow super giant star YSO – (celestial object) young stellar object Z ZAHB – (celestial object) "zero-age" horizontal branch, horizontal branch stars that have just begun burning helium in their cores and hydrogen in a shell around the cores ZAMS – (celestial object) zero age main sequence, a star that has just become a main-sequence star (i.e. a star that has begun burning hydrogen in its core) ZAND – (celestial object) Z ANDromedae, a class of eruptive variable stars named after the binary star system Z Andromedae, the archetype for the class ZANDE – (celestial object) Z ANDromedae with eclipses, a subclass of ZAND stars where the stars eclipse each other ZEPLIN – (instrumentation) ZonEd proportional scintillation in liquid noble gases, a dark matter detector ZHR – (astrophysics terminology) zenith hourly rate, the maximum number of meteors per hour that may be observed during a meteor shower Z-FOURGE – (survey) The FourStar Galaxy Evolution Survey ZOA – Zone of Avoidance See also List of common astronomy symbols List of astronomical catalogues Glossary of astronomy Modern constellations References AAVSO Type List. Information retrieved on 2006-09-10 – 2006-09-11 Abbreviations and acronyms frequently used in astronomy. Information retrieved on 2006-08-28 – 2006-09-12 The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight. Information retrieved on 2006-08-27 – 2006-09-12 Frequently Seen Space/Astronomy Acronyms. Information retrieved on 2006-08-27 – 2006-09-12 External links The Canonical Astronomy Abbreviations/Acronyms List Astronomy Acronyms and Astronomy Abbreviations Acronyms Astronomy

IEBus (Inter Equipment Bus) is a communication bus specification "between equipments within a vehicle or a chassis" of Renesas Electronics. It defines OSI model layer 1 and layer 2 specification. IEBus is mainly used for car audio and car navigations, which established de facto standard in Japan, though SAE J1850 is major in United States. IEBus is also used in some vending machines, which major customer is Fuji Electric. Each button on the vending machine has an IEBus ID, i.e. has a controller. Detailed specification is disclosed to licensees only, but protocol analyzers are provided from some test equipment vendors. Its modulation method is PWM (Pulse-Width Modulation) with 6.00 MHz base clock originally, but most of automotive customers use 6.291 MHz, and physical layer is a pair of differential signalling harness. Its physical layer adopts half-duplex, asynchronous, and multi-master communication with carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) for medium access control. It allows for up to fifty units on one bus over a maximum length of 150 meters. Two differential signalling lines are used with Bus+ / Bus− naming, sometimes labeled as Data(+) / Data(−). It is sometimes described as "IE-BUS", "IE-Bus," or "IE Bus," but these are incorrect. In formal, it is "IEBus." IEBus® and Inter Equipment Bus® are registered trademark symbols of Renesas Electronics Corporation, formerly NEC Electronics Corporation, (JPO: Reg. No.2552418 and 2552419, respectively). History In the middle of '80s, semiconductor unit of NEC Corporation, currently Renesas Electronics, started the study for increasing demands for automotive audio systems. IEBus is introduced as a solution for the distributed control system. In the late 1980s, several similar specifications, including the Domestic Digital Bus (D2B), the Japanese Home Bus (HBS), and the European Home System (EHS) are proposed by different companies or organizations. These were once discussed as IEC 61030, but it was withdrawn in 2006. IEBus is also a similar specification (refer to "Transfer signal format" section), but not listed in this criteria. As the result, IEBus becomes a de facto standard of car audio in Japan. Regarding the Domestic Digital Bus (D2B), it is re-defined as D2B Optical by Mercedes-Benz independently. As for Japanese Home Bus System (HBS), it is defined in 1988 as Home Bus System Standard Specification, ET-2101 by JEITA and REEA (Radio Engineering & Electronics Assiation) in Japan. It is being used by several Japanese air conditioner manufacturers (for example, M-Net from Mitsubishi and the P1/P2 or F1/F2 bus from Daikin). Fujitsu provided HBPC (Home Bus Protocol Controller) chip as MB86046B. But it is unclear whether Fujitsu (currently, Cypress) still manufactures this HBPC LSI as of 2018. Mitsumi Electric provides the MM1007 and MM1192 driver ICs for HBS. The HBS specification is also discussed in the Echonet Consortium. In 2014, a utility model patent for protocol converter from HBS to RS-485 is granted in China as "CN204006496U." Regarding the replacement of IEBus, a paper by Hyundai Autonet, currently Hyundai Mobis, describes as follows. "In communication methods for digital input capable amplifiers, Inter Equipment Bus (IEBus) was used in early times, but for now, Controller Area Network (CAN) is mainly used." Protocol overview A master talks to a slave. Each unit has a master and a slave address register. Only one device can talk on the bus at any given time. There is a pecking order for the types of communications which will take precedence over another. Each communication from master to slave must be replied to by the slave going back to the master with acknowledge bits each of those show ACK or NAK. If the master does not receive the ACK within a predefined time allowance for a mode, it drops the communication and returns to its standby (listen) mode. Detailed specification of OSI model layer 2 is disclosed to licensees only, but protocol analyzers are provided from some test equipment vendors. In 2012, one of Chinese manufacturer's patent is granted as "CN202841169U". An open-source software emulator called "IEBus Studio" exists on a repository of SourceForge, but the last update was on 2008-02-24. Another open-source analyzer software called "IEBusAnalyzer" is available on GitHub repository. Some hobbyist made some tools also. Physical layer (OSI model layer 1) specification overview From µPD6708 data sheet. and µPD78098B Subseries user's manual, hardware. Communication system Half-duplex asynchronous communication Multi-master system All the units connected to the IEBus can transfer data to the other units. Broadcast communication function (communication between one unit and multiple units) Normally, communication is individually carried out from one unit to another. By using the broadcast communication function, however, communication can be executed from one unit to plural units as follows: Group broadcast communication: Broadcast communication to group units Simultaneous broadcast communication: Broadcast communication to all units Effective transmission rate The effective transmission rate can be selected from the following three communication modes: Mixture of the plural of modes in the same bus line is not allowed. Correct communication between different base clock is not possible. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;font-size: 90%" |- ! Mode !! Maximum Number of Transfer Bytes(bytes/frame) !! 6.000000 MHzbase clock !! 6.291456 MHzbase clock |- | 0 || 16 || Approx. 3.9 kbit/s || Approx. 4.1 kbit/s |- | 1 || 32 || Approx. 17 kbit/s || Approx. 18 kbit/s |- | 2 || 128 || Approx. 26 kbit/s || Approx. 27 kbit/s |- |} Access control CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) The priority of occupying IEBus is as follows: «1» Broadcast communication takes precedence over individual communication. «2» The lower the master address, the higher the priority. Communication scale Number of units: 50 MAX. Cable length: 150 m MAX. (when a twisted pair cable is used) Load capacity:  MAX. 8000 pF; between Bus+ and Bus−, (6.000000 MHz base clock)  MAX. 7100 pF; between Bus+ and Bus−, (6.291456 MHz base clock) Terminating resistor: 120 Ω Logic level Logic 1: Low level. Voltage difference between Bus+ and Bus− is under 20mV Logic 0: High Level. Voltage difference between Bus+ and Bus− is over 120mV In-phase input voltage high: Bus+ ≤ (VDD-1.0) V, Bus− ≥ 1.0 V Transfer signal format From µPD6708 data sheet. and µPD78098B Subseries user's manual, hardware. This frame format is much similar to that of Domestic Digital Bus (D2B). All fields are MSB first. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;font-size: 85%" |- ! rowspan="2" | Field name !! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Header !! rowspan="2" colspan="2"| Masteraddressfield !! rowspan="2" colspan="3" | Slaveaddressfield !! rowspan="2" colspan="3" | Controlfield !! rowspan="2" colspan="3" | Messagelengthfield ! colspan="7" | Data fields |- ! colspan="3" | Data 1 !!  ···  !! colspan="3" | Data N |- | Number of bits || 1 || 1 || 12 || 1 || 12 || 1 || 1 || 4 || 1 || 1 || 8 || 1 || 1 || 8 || 1 || 1 ||  ···  || 8 || 1 || 1 |- | Signal format | style="border: 2px solid black" | Startbit | style="border: 2px solid black" | Broad-castbit | style="border: 2px solid black" | Masteraddress | style="border: 2px solid black" | P | style="border: 2px solid black" | Slaveaddress | style="border: 2px solid black" | P | style="border: 2px solid black" | A | style="border: 2px solid black" | Controlbit | style="border: 2px solid black" | P | style="border: 2px solid black" | A | style="border: 2px solid black" | Messagelengthbit | style="border: 2px solid black" | P | style="border: 2px solid black" | A | style="border: 2px solid black" | Databit | style="border: 2px solid black" | P | style="border: 2px solid black" | A | style="border: 2px solid black" |  ···  | style="border: 2px solid black" | Databit | style="border: 2px solid black" | P | style="border: 2px solid black" | A |- | || colspan="13" | || colspan="7" | |- ! Transfer time !! colspan="13" | At 6.000 MHz base clock !! colspan="7" | ← |- | Mode 1 || colspan="13" | Approx. 7370 μs || colspan="7" | Approx. 1590×N μs |- | Mode 2 || colspan="13" | Approx. 2090 μs || colspan="7" | Approx. 410×N μs |- | Mode 3 || colspan="13" | Approx. 1590 μs || colspan="7" | Approx. 300×N μs |- | || colspan="13" | || colspan="7" | |- | colspan="1" | Remark || colspan="20" style="text-align:left"| P: Parity bit (1 bit); Even parity A: Acknowledge bit (1 bit)     When A = 0: ACK     When A = 1: NAK     In broadcast communication, the value of the acknowledge bit is ignored. N: Number of data bytes |} Functions of Control bits {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;font-size: 85%" |- ! Hex !! Bit 3 !! Bit 2 !! Bit 1 !! Bit 0 !! Function !! Remark |- | 0x0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || style="text-align:left" | Reads slave status || |- | 0x3 || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || style="text-align:left" | Reads data and locks unit || style="text-align:left" | Locking unit |- | 0x4 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || style="text-align:left" | Reads lock address (lower 8 bits) || |- | 0x5 || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1 || style="text-align:left" | Reads lock address (higher 4 bits) || |- | 0x6 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 0 || style="text-align:left" | Reads slave status and unlocks unit || style="text-align:left" | Unlocking unit |- | 0x7 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 1 || style="text-align:left" | Reads data || |- | || colspan="4" | || || |- | 0xA || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 || style="text-align:left" | Writes command and locks unit || style="text-align:left" | Locking unit |- | 0xB || 1 || 0 || 1 || 1 || style="text-align:left" | Writes data and locks unit || style="text-align:left" | Locking unit |- | 0xE || 1 || 1 || 1 || 0 || style="text-align:left" | Writes command || |- | 0xF || 1 || 1 || 1 || 1 || style="text-align:left" | Writes data || |- | colspan="5" | || || |- | colspan="5" | Other than above || style="text-align:left" | Undefined || No acknowledge bit returned |- |} Bit format Each IEBus bit consists of four periods. Preparation period: The first or subsequent low-level (logic "1") period Synchronization period: Next high-level (logic "0") period Data period: Period indicating value of bit; ether low-level (logic "1") or high-level (logic "0") Stop period: The last low-level (logic "1") period Synchronization is done by each bit. Time lengths of the synchronization period and data period are almost the same. The time of the entire bits' and each bit's specification, related to the time of each period allocated to it, differ depending both on the type of the transmit bit and on whether the unit is the master or a slave unit. Automotive manufacturers using IEBus Each manufacturer has its own name, but it is not an alias of IEBus. Those are specifications of wire harness which comprise control cables based on IEBus, OSI model layer 3 and above communication protocol, audio cables, interconnection couplers, and so on. Pioneer Pioneer Corporation employed IEBus for its original branded car audio in early '90s. In its earlier stage, it was used just for control bus between the head unit in dashboard and the CD changer usually placed in trunk room. Nowadays, the specification includes connection between head units, navigation systems, rear speaker systems, and so on. IP-Bus: Wire harness specification. Toyota Pioneer Corporation pushed Toyota Motor Corporation to adopt IEBus as the genuine parts. In 1994, Toyota decided to employ IEBus for its genuine specification, but it is slightly different from that of Pioneer. It is named as AVC-LAN. AVC-LAN: Wire harness specification, based on mode 2. Honda/Acura Pioneer Corporation also pushed Honda Motor. Honda also decided to adopt IEBus as its genuine parts specification just after Toyota do so. GA-NET II: Wire harness specification. Honda Music Link: Honda genuine gadget to connect Apple Inc. products. A hobbyist made touch screen controller on Acura TSX for a Car PC installed in the trunk. Sirius XM Satellite Radio Sirius XM Satellite Radio is a satellite broadcasting radio operator in US. Its digital media receiver equipment utilizes IEBus. Evaluation boards SAKURA board GR-SAKUKRA board and GR-SAKURA-FULL board are Renesas official promotion boards of RX63N chip, which enables IEBus mode 0 and 1, but not mode 2, i.e. not available for Toyota AVC-LAN. They are an Arduino pin compatible low-price ones, suitable for hobbyists. Their color of printed circuit board is SAKURA in Japanese, which means cherry blossom. To evaluate IEBus, an external 5V bus interface transceiver (driver/receiver) IC extension is required. The transceiver needs to correspond to 3.3V microcontroller (TTL logic voltage level) interface, otherwise 3.3V ↔ 5.0V level shifter is required. Dedicated terminals of RX63N chip themselves are 5V tolerant. For further information, refer to external links. IEBus IP core Semiconductor intellectual property core of IEBus is available via IP core Exchange. IEBus-enabled ICs Most of IEBus controller LSIs require external dedicated bus interface transceivers (driver/receiver ICs). In its earlier stage, bus interface transceiver is included in the device, but it raised some restrictions to users. As is described in Pioneer's paper, external bus interface transceiver seems much stable. Some people tried to use TI's SN75176B for this purpose, but the result seems not to be reported. Each IEBus controller may have different implementation as long as the specification can be kept. As the result, host CPU load for each IEBus controller implementation differs. Nowadays, there are thousands of microcontroller products to be list up, those which incorporate various different IEBus controller implementations. The following list is historically notable example. Independent protocol controller products µPD6708 (obsoleted); by Renesas, formerly NEC Electronics µPD6708; the world's first "IEBus protocol controller" is usually thought as the golden protocol reference LSI. This device supports full specification of IEBus mode 0, 1, and 2. It processes all the layer 1 and 2 of IEBus protocol by itself. It is connected to a host microcontroller via 3-line serial interface. 6.291 MHz base clock is generated from 12.582 MHz external resonator. This product contains IEBus interface transceiver. µPD72042B (obsoleted); by Renesas, formerly NEC Electronics µPD72042B; the second generation of IEBus controller supports mode 0 and 1. This device performs all the processing required for layers 1 and 2 of IEBus protocol. The device incorporate large transmission and reception buffers, allowing host microcontroller to perform IEBus operations without interruption. It also contain an IEBus interface transceiver which allow the device to connect directly to the IEBus interface. It is connected to a host microcontroller via 3-line or 2-line serial interface. 6.291 MHz base clock is generated from 6.291 MHz or 12.782 MHz external resonator. This product contains IEBus interface transceiver. bus interface transceiver ICs Each external bus transceiver (driver/receiver) IC is recommended to connect via 180 Ω protection resistors against both Bus+ and BUS- line. R2A11210SP (non promotion); by Renesas R2A11210SP is a bus interface transceiver (driver/receiver) IC for IEBus with typically 30 mV hysteresis comparator input. HA12187FP (non promotion); by Renesas, formerly Hitachi HA12187FP is a bus interface transceiver (driver/receiver) IC suitable for IEBus. HA12240FP (current, as of 2018); by Renesas, formerly Hitachi HA12240FP is a bus interface transceiver (driver/receiver) IC for IEBus with hysteresis comparator input. SN75176B; by Texas Instruments SN75176B is a general purpose bus transceiver with 50mV typically hysteresis comparator input. It looks like suitable for IEBus, but the result by a person is not reported. Microcontrollers incorporates IEBus controller 78K/0 Series μPD78098 Subseries (obsoleted); by Renesas, formerly NEC Electronics μPD78P098A is an 8-bit single-chip microcontroller with on-chip 60K bytes UV-EPROM, 2K bytes RAM, and IEBus controller, which supports mode 0, 1, and 2, with full data link layer protocol support. This is the world's first microcontroller which incorporates IEBus controller. Its IEBus controller function is almost the same as that of µPD72042B, but is located as memory mapped I/O called SFR (special function registers). 6.291 MHz base clock is generated from 6.291 MHz external resonator, while host CPU core and watch timer works 8.388 MHz generated from the same external resonator. External bus interface transceiver is required. For programming, UV-EPROM erasor, UV-EPROM writer (27C1001A compatible), and writer adapter module are required. 78K/0 Series μPD78098B Subseries (obsoleted); by Renesas, formerly NEC Electronics μPD78P098B is an 8-bit single-chip microcontroller with on-chip 60K bytes UV-EPROM, 2K bytes RAM, and IEBus controller, which supports mode 0, 1, and 2, with full data link layer support. It is probably a low noise variant of μPD78098 Subseries. Documents are refined. 17K Series μPD178098A Subseries (obsoleted); by Renesas, formerly NEC Electronics μPD178F098 is an 8-bit single-chip microcontroller for DTS (Digital Tuning System) of car radio, which incorporate simplified IEBus controller, 60K bytes Flash ROM, and 3K bytes RAM. It does not support mode 0 and 2, but support mode 1 only. 6.291 MHz base clock is generated from 6.291 MHz external resonator, while host CPU core and watch timer works 8.388 MHz generated from the same external resonator. External bus interface transceiver is required. 78K/4 Series µPD784938 Subseries (obsoleted); by Renesas, formerly NEC Electronics µPD78F4938 is a 16-bit single-chip microcontroller for car audio, which incorporate simplified IEBus controller, 256K bytes Flash ROM, and 10K bytes RAM. It does not support mode 0 and 2, but support mode 1 only. 6.291 MHz base clock is generated from 6.291 MHz external resonator. External bus interface transceiver is required. V850 Family: V850/SB2 (non promotion); by Renesas, formerly NEC Electronics V850/SB2 is a long running 32-bit microcontroller employs IEBus controller with the 1st generation V850 CPU core. Its IEBus controller is simplified from previous ones. It does not support mode 0 and 2, but support mode 1 only. 6.291 MHz base clock is generated from 6.291, 12.582, or 18.873 MHz external resonator. This source clock is shared in the whole system in the chip including watch timer. A 32.768 kHz external crystal resonator is not used usually to reduce total BOM cost. External bus interface transceiver is required, but external 5V I/O power supply is internally regulated to 3.3V or 3.0V, which enables same voltage supply with external bus interface transceiver. In addition, this product intended to design for ultra low-noise, which enables high RF receiving sensitivity for car radio. In addition, starter motor mask time and electrical current amplitude is well balanced. LoL: on 03/23/2017 Rensas Electronics said "An external differential driver is required on the transmit/receive data line (not manufactured by NEC Electronics)," but NEC Electronics is currently Renesas Electronics, and Renesas Electronics (formerly Hitachi) had been manufacturing "an external differential driver" named HA12240FP. In Japanese, it is said as "当社" which means Renesas Electronics itself. V850 Family: V850E/Sx3-H (current, as of 2018); by Renesas, formerly NEC Electronics V850E/SJ3-H and V850E/SK3-H are 2nd generation V850 (E1 core) 32-bit microcontrollers. Its IEBus controller is simplified, but supports both mode 1 and mode 2, not for mode 0. External bus interface transceiver is required. These products includes the V850E1 CPU core and peripheral functions. As for automotive network, these are equipped with IEBus and CAN (Controller Area Network) controllers. V850 Family: V850ES/Sx2 (non promotion); by Renesas, formerly NEC Electronics V850ES/SG3 and V850ES/SJ3 are 3rd generation V850 (ES core) 32-bit microcontrollers those contain IEBus controller. V850 Family: V850ES/Sx3 (current, as of 2018); by Renesas, formerly NEC Electronics V850ES/SG3 and V850ES/SJ3 are 3rd generation V850 (ES core) 32-bit microcontrollers. Its IEBus controller is simplified, but supports both mode 1 and mode 2, not for mode 0. External bus interface transceiver is required. These products includes the V850ES CPU core and peripheral functions. As for automotive network, these are equipped with IEBus and CAN (Controller Area Network) controllers. V850 Family: V850E2/Sx4-H (non promotion); by Renesas, formerly NEC Electronics V850E2/SG4-H, V850E2/SJ4-H, and V850E2/SK4-H are 5th generation V850 (E2v3 core) 32-bit microcontrollers. Its IEBus controller is simplified, but supports mode 1 and 2 with 32-byte buffers both for transmission and for reception. It also has automatic mechanism both for reissuing master requests when arbitration loss occurs; and for responding to slave status requests. Its supply clock is 8.000 MHz, which might not have compatibility with 6.291456 MHz base clock systems, almost all of car audio customer uses. It should be 8.388 MHz or nearest. External bus interface transceiver is required. These products includes the V850E2M CPU core and peripheral functions. As for automotive audio network, these are equipped with IEBus, CAN (Controller Area Network), LIN, PCM interface, MediaLB, and Ethernet controllers. F2MC-16LX: MB90580C Series (current, as of 2018); by Cypress, formerly Fujitsu Microelectronics MB90580C Series; F2MC-16LX 16-bit microcontroller of Cypress Semiconductor (formerly Fujitsu Microelectronics) has IEBus controller. It supports full feature of IEBus mode 0, 1, and 2, with 8-byte FIFO both for transmission and reception. Embedded peripheral resources performs data transmission with an intelligent I/O service function without the intervention of the CPU, enabling real-time control in various applications. External bus interface transceiver is required. M16C Family: M16C/50 Series (current, as of 2018); by Renesas, formerly Mitsubishi Electric M16C/5L Group and M16C/56 Group is a 16-bit microcontroller with M16C/60 Series CPU Core. UART2 can be used for IEBus controller as special mode 3 (IE mode). External bus interface transceiver is required. H8S Family: 2258 Group (current, as of 2018); by Renesas, formerly Hitachi H8S/2258 and H8S/2256 is a long running microcontroller comprised internal 32-bit configuration H8S/2000 CPU core with 16-bit external bus controller. Its IEBus controller supports mode 0, 1, and 2 with 1 byte data buffer both for transfer and reception. External bus interface transceiver is required. RX Family: RX63N Group (current, as of 2018); by Renesas RX63N is a recent 32-bit microcontroller. Its IEBus controller supports mode 0, and 1 (not 2). Arduino pin compatible low-price evaluation board, called SAKURA, is available for hobbyists. See also 78K RL78 V850 H8 Family References External links General information InterfaceBus.com - Simple and sweet, but might be a little bit wrong. Embedded Linux Wiki: AVC-LAN General information by controller LSI manufacturer Renesas official: Display Audio / Connectivity Audio Renesas official: H8S IEBus Renesas official: H8S Family: Master Transmission/Slave Reception Example Using IEBus Controller Renesas official: H8S Family: On-Board Reprogramming Example Using IEBus Protocol analyzer open-source software GitHub: IEBus Analyzer S/W SourceForge: IEBus Studio S/W Protocol analyzer hardware TSSR Technology: IEBus protocol analyzer H/W Independent protocol controller products (Host MCU required) Renesas official: μPD6708 data sheet (discontinued): This is a quarter century old EOL product. Renesas official: μPD72042B data sheet (discontinued): This is also a quarter century old EOL product. Microcontroller devices (bus interface transceiver required) Renesas official: μPD78098B Subseries user's manual (discontinued). Refined golden document. Renesas official: H8S/2552 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: H8S/2258 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: M16C/5L, M16C/56L (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: M16C/5LD, M16C/56D (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: M16C/5M, M16C/57 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: M16C/62P (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: M16C/80 (non promotijon) Renesas official: M32C/80 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: M32C/81 (non promotion) Renesas official: M32C/82 (non promotion) Renesas official: M32C/83 (non promotion) Renesas official: M32C/84 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: M32C/85 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: M32C/86 (non promotion) Renesas official: M32C/87B (non promotion) Renesas official: M32C/88 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: M32C/8A (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: M32C/8B (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: R32C/111, (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: R32C/118 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: RL78/F15, (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: RX63N, RX631, (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: RZ/A1H (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: RZ/A1L (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: RZ/A1M (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: R-Car E1 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: R-Car H1 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: R-Car M1A, R-Car M1S (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: R-Car M2 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: SH2A SH7261 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: SH2A-FPU SH7262 , SG7264 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: SH2A-FPU SH7263 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: SH2A SH7266, SH7267 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: SH2A-FPU SH7268, SH7269 (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: SH2A-FPU SH726A , SH726B (current, as of 2018) Renesas official: V850/SB2 (non promotion) Renesas official: V850ES/SG2, V850ES/SJ2 (non promotion) Renesas official: V850ES/SG2-H, V850ES/SJ2-H (non promotion) Renesas official: V850ES/SG3, V850ES/SJ3 (current as of 2018) Renesas official: V850E/SJ3-H, V850E/SK3-H (current as of 2018) Renesas official: V850E2/SG4-H, V850E2/SJ4-H, V850E2/SK4-H (non promotion) Cypress official: MB90580C Manual (current, as of 2018) Panasonic official: MN103L Series Panasonic official: MN1M0 Series Bus interface transceiver (driver/receiver) ICs Renesas official: HA12187FP-E (non-promotion) Renesas official: HA12240FP-E (non-promotion) Renesas official: HA12241FP Renesas official: R2A11210SP TI official: SN75176B: feasibility unclear Evaluation boards Renesas official: GA-SAKURA and GA-SAKURA-FULL: Arduino pin compatible for hobbyists. SAKURA board project: Detailed specification Renesas Rulz: GR-SAKURA: Hobbyists' community forum. Renesas official: Renesas Peripheral Driver Library for RX63N, RX631 Group Note on using IEBus of RX630 Group MCUs GNU Tools for Renesas RX: Built GCC (GNU Compiler Collection) binaries. Renesas official: YRDKRX63N for RX63N (obsoleted on DigiKey) Renesas official: M3A-HS64G01 An extender board of SH7262 CPU board (M3A-HS62G50 ) / SH7264 CPU board (M3A-HS64G50) IEBus connector: B4B-XH-A (JST) IEBus transceiver: HA12187FP Renesas official: M3A-HS64G02 An extender board of SH7264 CPU board (M3A-HS64G50) IEBus connector: B4B-XH-A (JST) IEBus transceiver: HA12187FP Renesas official: GENMAI Optional Board (RTK7721000B00000BR) An extender board of RZ/A1H (GENMAI) CPU Board (RTK772100BC00000BR) IEBus connector: S4B-XH-A (JST) IEBus transceiver: R2A11210SP EB-V850ES/SG2-EE (adopts μPD70F3281GC) TSSR Technology vakatech Broken links, but may become some hints AcuraZine.com Forums - (dead thread) Some results in recording data from the IEBus in an Acura TSX. Marcin's Site - This site is great for learning more about the IEBus! He has really done a great job researching this protocol as well as developing one of the first boards that can talk on the bus using an ATMEGA8. (there are active forums on his site too, here). Louis Frigon (SigmaObjects.com) - A great write-up with schematics and source code that interfaces with the IEBus to trick the stock head unit into enabling aux input as it would for a CD changer. It is a great learning tool for how the IEBus protocol works just by looking through the well commented firmware source code. (Adapted from work done by Marcin at his site). (Broken link, please remove) Computer networks Serial buses Industrial computing Industrial automation

Earl Floyd Kvamme (born 1938) is an American engineer, venture capitalist, and government advisor. Early life The son of Norwegian immigrant parents, Kvamme grew up in Northern California graduating from Jefferson High School of Daly City in 1955. He earned a BS in Electrical Engineering from the University of California, Berkeley in 1959 and an MS in Semiconductor Materials Science and Engineering from Syracuse University in 1962. Career In 1967, Kvamme was one of the original members of a team to establish new National Semiconductor headquarters in Silicon Valley. In 1982, Kvamme became Executive Vice President of Sales and Marketing for Apple Computer. While at Apple, he was instrumental in deciding to air the 1984 advertisement. He has been a director (and later Partner Emeritus) at venture capital firm Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield & Byers since March 1984. In the corporate world he has served on the boards of Brio Technology, Gemfire, Harmonic, National Semiconductor, Photon Dynamics, Power Integrations, and Silicon Genesis. In the public realm, he is best known for his appointment by President George W. Bush to be Co-Chairman of the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) in 2001; Kvamme has also advised every president from Ronald Reagan to George W. Bush. Kvamme previously served as Chairman of advocacy group Empower America. He serves on the board of the National Venture Capital Association. In 1998, Kvamme served as Chairman of the California State Electronic Commerce Advisory Council for Governor Pete Wilson's administration. Kvamme came out in support of Rudy Giuliani in his 2008 US Presidential Campaign. In 2012, Kvamme supported Rick Perry in his US Presidential Campaign, and was a member of his California finance team. Bibliography 'Chapter 19: How Technology Can Lead a Boom', in The 4% Solution: Unleashing the Economic Growth America Needs, Brendan Miniter (ed.), George W. Bush Institute, New York: Crown Business, 2012, pp 261–278. References External links 1938 births American people of Norwegian descent Engineers from New York (state) Jefferson High School (Daly City, California) alumni Kleiner Perkins people Living people San Jose Sharks owners Syracuse University alumni UC Berkeley College of Engineering alumni

In applied mathematics, Gabor atoms, or Gabor functions, are functions used in the analysis proposed by Dennis Gabor in 1946 in which a family of functions is built from translations and modulations of a generating function. Overview In 1946, Dennis Gabor suggested the idea of using a granular system to produce sound. In his work, Gabor discussed the problems with Fourier analysis. Although he found the mathematics to be correct, it did not reflect the behaviour of sound in the world, because sounds, such as the sound of a siren, have variable frequencies over time. Another problem was the underlying supposition, as we use sine waves analysis, that the signal under concern has infinite duration even though sounds in real life have limited duration – see time–frequency analysis. Gabor applied ideas from quantum physics to sound, allowing an analogy between sound and quanta. He proposed a mathematical method to reduce Fourier analysis into cells. His research aimed at the information transmission through communication channels. Gabor saw in his atoms a possibility to transmit the same information but using less data. Instead of transmitting the signal itself it would be possible to transmit only the coefficients which represent the same signal using his atoms. Mathematical definition The Gabor function is defined by where a and b are constants and g is a fixed function in L2(R), such that ||g|| = 1. Depending on , , and , a Gabor system may be a basis for L2(R), which is defined by translations and modulations. This is similar to a wavelet system, which may form a basis through dilating and translating a mother wavelet. When one takes one gets the kernel of the Gabor transform. See also Gabor filter Gabor wavelet Fourier analysis Wavelet Morlet wavelet References Further reading Hans G. Feichtinger, Thomas Strohmer: "Gabor Analysis and Algorithms", Birkhäuser, 1998; Hans G. Feichtinger, Thomas Strohmer: "Advances in Gabor Analysis", Birkhäuser, 2003; Karlheinz Gröchenig: "Foundations of Time-Frequency Analysis", Birkhäuser, 2001; External links NuHAG homepage [Numerical Harmonic Analysis Group] Wavelets Fourier analysis

H&Q Asia Pacific (H&QAP) is an Asian private equity firm founded in 1986 by Ta-lin Hsu as a branch of the investment bank Hambrecht & Quist. It is one of the oldest and most established private equity firms in the Asia-Pacific region. It has offices located in Silicon Valley, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Taipei, Tokyo, Seoul, Manila, and Singapore. It was founded by Dr. Ta-lin Hsu as a division of U.S. investment banking firm Hambrecht & Quist. H&QAP is now an independent organization that conducts later-stage control investments and earlier-stage venture capital investments. It focuses on growth sectors including technology, technology manufacturing, consumer brands and financial services. In 2006, Ta-lin Hsu was ranked on the Forbes magazine Midas List of Top 25 best dealmakers in high-tech and life sciences. In September 2015, the firm invested in and launched its Global Innovation Center (GIC) for $100-million. Investments Starbucks Beijing - China Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC) - China Gonzo Digimation Holding Company - Japan MTV Japan - Japan Array Networks - Silicon Valley Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (TSMC) - Taiwan KSNET - Korea Jobkorea.com- Korea References External links Company Homepage Private equity firms of Asia-Pacific Financial services companies established in 1986 Investment banking private equity groups Private equity firms of Hong Kong

Andrew S. Rappaport (born 1957; New York City), also known as Andy Rappaport, is an American venture capitalist partner, and philanthropist. He is a partner emeritus at August Capital, a Silicon Valley information technology venture capital firm where he worked from 1996 until 2013. Rappaport and his wife founded the Minnesota Street Project in 2016, an arts complex in the Dogpatch neighborhood of San Francisco. Early life and education Andrew S. Rappaport was born in 1957 in New York City, New York. He attended Princeton University in the early 1970s, but dropped out in the second year. Rappaport was Senior Editor of EDN Magazine. He was also a research physicist with Panametrics, Inc. In his early 20s he was founder and president of his own audiophile consumer-electronics company. Career In 1984, he founded a strategic consulting firm in Boston, the Technology Research Group (TRG). For over thirteen years he was the president of TRG. Rappaport was also a founder of the Massachusetts Center for Technology Growth, a private economic-development organization and a director of the Massachusetts Microelectronics Center. He has lectured and written on the economics of changing technology. The Computerless Computer Company, which he wrote together with Shmuel Halevi, won the McKinsey award for Harvard Business Review article of the year in 1991. He also holds a US patent. Prior to joining August Capital, he was involved in more than a dozen venture capital-backed start-ups since 1985 including Actel, Atheros Communications, Genoa Corp, MMC networks, Silicon Architects (acquired by Synopsys), Silicon Image, Viewlogic, and Transmeta. Andy Rappaport joined August Capital in 1996, which prompted his family's moved to California. His expertise is in the areas of technology and finance related to open-source software, broadband communications, semiconductors, and computer systems. He has more than 15 years of experience as a founder, investor, and/or director of venture-backed start-ups. He has served on more than 30 public and private company boards. In December 2013, he left August Capital. Andy is a guitarist, composer, and guitar collector. Since 2017, he has collaborated in making video art with Deborah Oropallo. He has three daughters. Philanthropy He and his wife, Deborah Rappaport, are the founders of the Rappaport Family Foundation, and Skyline Public Works that funds a variety of non-profit organizations and some commercial ventures too. One of the commercial ventures they sponsor is Huffington Post. They also fund the Participatory Culture Foundation, an open-source video-based browser developer. The Rappaport's founded the Minnesota Street Project (MSP) in 2016, a dual for-profit/foundation model art space with gallery space, event space, and subsidized artist studios. Additionally they invested in both restaurants connected to the MSP complex, the shuttered Daniel Patterson "Alta MSP" and the replacement Heena Patel's "Besharam". In 2021, the Rappaport's helped fund the opening of the Institute of Contemporary Art San Francisco (ICA SF), alongside funds from Pamela and David Hornik; and Kaitlyn and Mike Krieger. References Sources Skyline Public Works biography on the Rappaports American venture capitalists 1957 births Living people Princeton University alumni People from Woodside, California Philanthropists from California Businesspeople from New York City

In bioinformatics, MAFFT (for multiple alignment using fast Fourier transform) is a program used to create multiple sequence alignments of amino acid or nucleotide sequences. Published in 2002, the first version of MAFFT used an algorithm based on progressive alignment, in which the sequences were clustered with the help of the Fast Fourier Transform. Subsequent versions of MAFFT have added other algorithms and modes of operation, including options for faster alignment of large numbers of sequences, higher accuracy alignments, alignment of non-coding RNA sequences, and the addition of new sequences to existing alignments. History There have been many variations of the MAFFT software, some of which are listed below: MAFFT: The first version of MAFFT, created by Kazutaka Katoh in 2002, used an algorithm based on progressive alignment, in which the sequences were clustered with the help of the Fast Fourier Transform. MAFFT v5: The second generation of the MAFFT software was released in 2005 and was a rewrite of the original MAFFT software. This generation introduced a simplified scoring system that performs well for reducing CPU time and increasing the accuracy of alignments even for sequences having large insertions or extensions as well as distantly related sequences of similar length. MAFFT v6: The third generation, released in 2006, again improved upon the previous versions. It implemented group-to-group alignment, guide trees which had an approximate but faster O(N log N) tree-building algorithm, as well as making the version applicable to larger datasets with ~50,000 sequences. MAFFT v7: The fourth generation, released in 2012, improved the speed and accuracy of MAFFT substantially. MAFFT v7.511: The most recent version of MAFFT, released in December of 2022, improved upon MAFFT v7 with various bug fixes. One of the most notable being an overhaul to the --merge option, which now includes, enabling iterative refinement, creating a single MSA from multiple sub-MSAs, as well as the combination of --merge and --seed. There were also several minor enhancements to the speed and accuracy of MAFFT v7. Algorithm The MAFFT algorithm works following these 5 steps Pairwise Alignment, Distance Calculation, Guide Tree Construction, Progressive Alignment, Iterative Refinement. Pairwise Alignment: This step is used to identify the regions that are similar between the sequences inputted. The algorithm starts by using the inputted sequences executing pairwise alignments across all the sequences. This step's time complexity is O(L^2) where L is the sequence. Distance Matrix: Using the calculated pairwise alignments, a distance matrix calculation is done to evaluate the dissimilarity between the alignments based on their alignment scores. The distance calculation step helps organize the sequences based on their similarity. The Distance Matrix's time complexity is O(N^2L^2) where N is the number of sequences and L is the length of the sequence. This time complexity is due to the fact that the distance calculation between pairs of sequences requires comparing every position of each sequence. Guide Tree: Using the distance matrix a guide tree is constructed where there is a hierarchical representation of the clusters (each node is a cluster) and the branches included are the distance between the clusters. O(N^2L) is the time complexity for the guide tree construction, where N is the number of sequences. Progressive Alignment: Using the guide tree progressive alignment is performed from the leaves to the root. The algorithm uses the inputted sequences and aligns the child nodes to calculate a consensus alignment for the parent node. This step is done until the entire tree is traversed to result a final multiple sequence alignment. The progressive alignment method's time complexity is O(N^2L) + O(NL^2). This is because the first term corresponds to the guide tree calculation stated earlier along with the second term that corresponds to group to group alignment. Iterative Alignment: The iterative refinement step repeats the entire process with adjustments to the positions of gaps and insertions to improve the alignment accuracy. The time complexity of the iterative alignment depends on the number of iterations that occur. But generally the time complexity of this method is O(N2L) + O(NL2) where N is the number of sequences, and L is the length of the sequence. Input/Output Web Form Input This program can take in multiple sequences as input, which can be entered in two ways: Sequence Input Window   The user can directly enter three or more sequences in the input window in any of the following formats: GCG, FASTA, EMBL (nucleotide only), GenBank, PIR, NBRF, PHYLIP, or UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot (protein only). It is important to note that partially formatted sequences are not accepted, and adding a return to the end of the sequence may help certain applications understand the input. It is also advised to avoid using data from word processors as hidden/control characters may be present. Sequence File Upload   The user can upload a file containing three or more valid sequences in any format mentioned above. Word processor files may yield unpredictable results due to the presence of hidden/control characters, so it is best to save files with the Unix format option to avoid hidden Windows characters. Once the file is uploaded, it can be used as input for multiple sequence alignment. Text files saved on DOS/Windows format have different line endings than those saved on Unix/Linux. DOS/Windows uses a combination of carriage return and line feed characters ("\r\n") to indicate the end of a line, while Unix/Linux systems use only a line feed character ("\n"). When transferring files between Windows and Unix-based systems, it's important to be aware of these differences to ensure that the line endings are correctly translated. Otherwise, the hidden carriage return characters in the Windows-formatted files may cause issues when viewed or edited on Unix-based systems, and vice versa. Output The user will have the option to request the Multiple Sequence Alignment (MSA) to be generated in one of the two available formats: Default value is: Pearson/FASTA [fasta] Settings There are many settings that affect how the MAFFT algorithm works. Adjusting the settings to your needs is the best way to get accurate and meaningful results. The most important settings to understand are: the Scoring Matrix, Gap Open Penalty, and Gap Extension Penalty. Scoring Matrix: "Protein sequence similarity searching programs like BLASTP, SSEARCH (UNIT 3.10), and FASTA use scoring matrices that are designed to identify distant evolutionary relationships (BLOSUM62 for BLAST, BLOSUM50 for SEARCH and FASTA). Different similarity scoring matrices are most effective at different evolutionary distances. “Deep” scoring matrices like BLOSUM62 and BLOSUM50 target alignments with 20 – 30% identity, while “shallow” scoring matrices (e.g. VTML10 – VTML80), target alignments that share 90 – 50% identity, reflecting much less evolutionary change." In original MAFFT the scoring equation is shown below. Gap Open Penalty: A gap penalty is a negative score assigned to a gap in an alignment. It can be constant, where a fixed cost is charged for the gap, or linear, where a fixed cost is charged for each symbol inserted or deleted. An affine gap penalty combines the two by charging a constant penalty for the first symbol of a gap and another constant penalty for each additional symbol inserted or deleted. Gap Extension Penalty: Gap extension penalty is a cost score assigned for each additional gap symbol in a gap region in sequence alignment. It is used to discourage the formation of long gap regions. It is typically smaller than the gap opening penalty. Accuracy and Results MAFFT is widely considered to be one of the most accurate and versatile tools for multiple sequence alignment in bioinformatics. In fact, studies have shown that MAFFT performs exceptionally well when compared to other popular algorithms such as ClustalW and T-Coffee, particularly for larger datasets and sequences with high degrees of divergence.For example, in a study comparing the performance of various alignment algorithms on increasing sequence lengths, MAFFT's FFT-NS-2 algorithm was found to be the fastest program for all tested sequence sizes. This is due to its use of fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms, which enable rapid and accurate alignment of even highly divergent sequences. Because of the use of fast Fourier transform(FFT) the algorithm runs in either O(n^2) or O(n) depending on the given data set. MAFFT takes less CPU runtime than other algorithms that have the same or similar accuracies especially T-Coffee, ClustalW, and Needleman-Wunsch. Subsequent versions of MAFFT have added other algorithms and modes of operation, including options for faster alignment of large numbers of sequences, higher accuracy alignments, alignment of non-coding RNA sequences, and the addition of new sequences to existing alignments. MAFFT stands out among other popular algorithms such as ClustalW and T-Coffee due to its high accuracy, versatility, and range of features. It offers various alignment methods and strategies, including iterative refinement and consistency-based approaches, that further enhance the accuracy and robustness of the alignments. As a result, MAFFT is widely recognized as a powerful tool for multiple sequence alignment and is highly appreciated by the scientific community. See also Sequence alignment software Clustal References External links MAFFT Online Server MAFFT server at EBI ClustalW / MAFFT / PRRN at GenomeNet ClustalW / TCoffee / MAFFT in MyHits, SIB Phylogenetics software

NXP Semiconductors N.V. (NXP) is a Dutch semiconductor designer and manufacturer with headquarters in Eindhoven, Netherlands. The company employs approximately 31,000 people in more than 30 countries. NXP reported revenue of $11.06 billion in 2021. Originally spun off from Philips in 2006, NXP completed its initial public offering, on August 6, 2010, with shares trading on Nasdaq under the ticker symbol NXPI. On December 23, 2013, NXP Semiconductors was added to the Nasdaq-100 index. On March 2, 2015, it was announced that NXP would merge with Freescale Semiconductor. The merger was closed on December 7, 2015. On October 27, 2016, it was announced that Qualcomm would try to buy NXP. Because the Chinese merger authority did not approve the acquisition before the deadline set by Qualcomm, the attempt was effectively cancelled on July 26, 2018. Description NXP provides technology solutions targeting the automotive, industrial, IoT, mobile, and communication infrastructure markets. The company owns over 9,500 patent families. NXP is the co-inventor of near field communication (NFC) technology along with Sony and Inside Secure and supplies NFC chip sets that enable mobile phones to be used to pay for goods, and store and exchange data securely. NXP manufactures chips for eGovernment applications such as electronic passports; RFID tags and labels; and transport and access management, with the chip set and contactless card for MIFARE used by many major public transit systems worldwide. In order to protect against potential hackers, NXP offers gateways to automotive manufacturers that prevent communication with every network within a car independently. Worldwide sites NXP Semiconductors is headquartered in Eindhoven, Netherlands. The company has operations in more than 30 countries. Wafer fabs Chandler, Arizona, United States Austin, Texas, United States Nijmegen, Netherlands Singapore (SSMC) Test and assembly Bangkok, Thailand Kaohsiung, Taiwan Petaling Jaya, Malaysia Tianjin, China Joint ventures Systems on Silicon Manufacturing Company (SSMC) Pte. Ltd. (61%) Datang NXP Semiconductors Co., Ltd. (49%) Advanced Semiconductor Manufacturing Co. Ltd. (27%) Cohda Wireless Pty Ltd. (23%) History Within Philips In 1953 Philips started a small scale production facility in the center of the Dutch city Nijmegen as part of its main industry group "Icoma" (Industrial Components and Materials), followed by the opening of a new factory in 1955. In 1965 Icoma became part of a new Philips main industry group: "Elcoma" (Electronic Components and Materials). In 1975 Silicon Valley–based Signetics was acquired by Philips. Signetics claimed to be the "first company in the world established expressly to make and sell integrated circuits" and inventor of the 555 timer IC. At the time, it was claimed that with the Signetics acquisition, Philips was now number two in the league table of semiconductor manufacturers in the world. In 1987, Philips was ranked Europe's largest semiconductor maker. The year after, all Philips semiconductor subsidiaries, including Signetics, Faselec (in Switzerland) and Mullard (in the UK), were merged in the newly formed product division Components. The semiconductor activities were split off from Components in 1991 under the name Philips Semiconductors. In June 1999, Philips acquired VLSI Technology, at the time making Philips the world's sixth largest semiconductor company. Independent company In December 2005, Philips announced its intention to divest Philips Semiconductors into an independent legal entity. In September 2006, Philips completed the sale of an 80.1% stake in Philips Semiconductors to a consortium of private equity investors consisting of KKR, Bain Capital, Silver Lake Partners, Apax Partners and AlpInvest Partners. The new company name NXP (from Next eXPerience) was announced on August 31, 2006, and the company was officially launched during the Internationale Funkausstellung (IFA) consumer electronics show in Berlin. The newly independent NXP was ranked as one of the world's top 10 semiconductor companies. In February 2007, when NXP announced that it would acquire Silicon Laboratories’ AeroFONE single-chip phone and power amplifier product lines to strengthen its Mobile and Personal business. The next year, NXP announced that it would transform its Mobile and Personal business unit into a joint venture with STMicroelectronics, which in 2009 became ST-Ericsson, a 50/50 joint venture of Ericsson Mobile Platforms and STMicroelectronics, after ST purchased NXP's 20% stake. In April 2008, NXP announced it would acquire the set-top box business of Conexant to complement its existing Home business unit. In September 2008, NXP announced that it would restructure its manufacturing, R&D and back office operations, resulting in 4,500 job cuts worldwide. In October 2009, NXP announced that it would sell its Home business unit to Trident Microsystems. Before the divestiture of Nexperia in June 2016, NXP was a volume supplier of discrete and standard logic devices, celebrating its 50 years in logic (via its history as both Signetics and Philips Semiconductors) in March 2012. NXP's first CEO was Frans van Houten; he was succeeded by Richard L. Clemmer on January 1, 2009. Since May 2020, Kurt Sievers serves as president and CEO. Freescale acquisition In March 2015, a merger agreement was announced through which NXP would merge with competitor Freescale Semiconductor. In view of this merger, NXP's RF Power activities were sold to JAC Capital for US$1.8 billion and rebranded as Ampleon, in a transaction closed in November 2015. Both NXP and Freescale had deep roots stretching back to when they were part of Philips (NXP), and Motorola (Freescale) respectively. Both had similar revenue; US$4.8 billion and US$4.2 billion in 2013 for NXP and Freescale, respectively with NXP primarily focusing on near field communication (NFC) and high-performance mixed signal (HPMS) hardware, and Freescale focusing on its microprocessor and microcontroller businesses, and both companies possessing roughly equal patent portfolios. On December 7, 2015, NXP completed the merger with Freescale Semiconductor; the merged company continued its operation as NXP Semiconductors N.V. Notable events On July 26, 2010, NXP announced that it had acquired Jennic based in Sheffield, UK, which now operates as part of its smart home and energy product line, using Zigbee and JenNet-IP. On August 6, 2010, NXP announced its initial public offering at Nasdaq, with 34 million shares, pricing each $14. In December 2010, NXP announced that it would sell its Sound Solutions business to Knowles Electronics, part of Dover Corporation, for $855 million in cash. The acquisition was completed as of July 5, 2011. In April 2012, NXP announced its intent to acquire electronic design consultancy Catena to work on automotive applications. In July 2012, NXP sold its high-speed data converter assets to Integrated Device Technology. In 2012, revenue for NXP's Identification business unit was $986 million, up 41% from 2011, in part due to growing sales of NFC chips and secure elements. On January 4, 2013, NXP and Cisco announced their investment in Cohda Wireless, an Australian company focused on car-to-car and car-to-infrastructure communications. In January 2013, NXP announced 700-900 redundancies worldwide in an effort to cut costs related to "support services". In May 2013, NXP announced that it acquired Code Red Technologies, a provider of embedded software development such as the LPCXpresso IDE and Red Suite. In July 2014, NXP was reported to have sacked union organizers. A campaign was started for their reinstatement. In August 2015, a joint-venture with the Beijing JianGuang Asset Management Co. Ltd. was registered in Shanghai, China under the name WeEn Semiconductors. On June 14, 2016, it was announced that Nexperia would be divested from NXP to a consortium of financial investors consisting of Beijing Jianguang Asset Management Co., Ltd (“JAC Capital”) and Wise Road Capital LTD (“Wise Road Capital”). WeEn Semiconductors started delivery of bipolar and SiC power semiconductors, TRIACs, IGBT modules, etc. In April 2017, Qualcomm received approval from U.S. antitrust regulators for the acquisition of NXP for $47 billion. However, the acquisition has not received approval from Chinese authorities and Qualcomm has refiled an antitrust application and request to purchase with the PRC Ministry of Commerce. In September 2018, NXP announced that it acquired OmniPHY, a provider of automotive Ethernet subsystem technology. On December 6, 2019, NXP announced the completion of the acquisition of the wireless connectivity assets from Marvell. On May 27, 2020, NXP announced that at its Annual General Meeting of Shareholders (“AGM”) that shareholders overwhelmingly approved the appointment of Kurt Sievers as an executive director and the company's chief executive officer effective immediately thereby replacing Richard Clemmer, who previously led the company for 11 years. In this capacity Mr. Sievers will also remain President of NXP, a role he has held since 2018. On June 18, 2020, NXP announced HoverGames Challenge 2: Help Drones Help Others On July 21, 2020, NXP delivered secure and scalable edge-connected platforms based on its i.MX RT crossover processors and Wi-Fi/Bluetooth solutions On August 11, 2020, NXP's industry-first solution to combine UWB fine-ranging, NFC, Secure Element, and embedded SIM (eSIM) was included in Samsung's new Galaxy Note20 Ultra Controversies In March 2013, NXP locked out workers at its plant in Bangkok, Thailand. The reason was stalled negotiations over a new work schedule with their trade union, which was affiliated with the Confederation of Thai Electrical Appliances, Electronic Automobile & Metalworkers (TEAM). Management then called in small groups of workers, asked them if they agreed with the union's demands, and told them to leave if they did. They were not able to enter the factory the next day. In response, TEAM staged protests outside the factory and on March 13 outside the Dutch embassy and also filed a complaint with the National Human Right Commission. On April 29, mediation by the Ministry of Labour led to the signing of a memorandum that passed the decision over the work schedule to the Labour Relations Committee. The committee decided on June 20 that the new work schedule did not violate Thai labour law; however, the National Human Rights Committee decided otherwise and recommended the factory should revert to the old schedule. NXP continues to demand regular 12-hour shifts. In May 2014, the company fired 24 workers at its plant in the special economic zone in Cabuyao, The Philippines. The workers were all officials of a trade union affiliated with the Metal Workers Alliance of the Philippines (MWAP). Reports said they were fired due to their union functions in negotiations for a new collective bargaining agreement. Factory owners claimed the workers were fired after refusing to work on April 9, while workers said they had not been paid for two months. IndustriALL and its affiliated unions in the Philippines condemned the dismissals. In September, MWAP and NXP reached an agreement by which 12 of the fired workers were reinstated and the other 12 received separation packages. NXP also committed itself to a long-term wage increase. In the summer of 2015, a member of the Dutch parliament questioned trade minister Lilianne Ploumen regarding NXP's behaviour. See also NXP MIFARE contactless smart cards and proximity cards NXP LPC microcontrollers NXP QorIQ microprocessors NXP GreenChip Lansheng Technology References External links Semiconductor companies of the Netherlands Radio-frequency identification companies Multinational companies headquartered in the Netherlands Companies based in Eindhoven Electronics companies established in 1953 2006 mergers and acquisitions Private equity portfolio companies 2010 initial public offerings Apax Partners companies Bain Capital companies Kohlberg Kravis Roberts companies Philips Silver Lake (investment firm) companies Companies listed on the Nasdaq Dutch brands Corporate spin-offs Dutch companies established in 1953

Lin Yi-bing or Jason Lin () ( Born: October 26, 1961 ) is a Taiwanese academic who has served as the Chair Professor of the Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering (CSIE) at National Chiao Tung University (NCTU) since 1995, and since 2002, the Chair Professor of the Department of Computer Science and Information Management (CSIM), at Providence University, a Catholic university in Taiwan. He also serves as Vice President of the National Chiao Tung University. Brief biography Lin entered the National Cheng Kung University in 1980 and graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering (BSEE) in 1983. In 1985, he undertook a doctorate program at the University of Washington (Advisor: Ed Lazowska), and graduated with a Ph.D. in Computer Science in 1990. His research interests include personal communications, mobile computing, intelligent network signaling, computer telephony integration, and parallel simulation. He has developed an Internet of Things (IoT) platform called IoTtalk. This platform has been used for sustainable applications including AgriTalk for intelligent agriculture, EduTalk for intelligent education, CampusTalk for intelligent university campus, and so on. Career chronology 1983 - 1985: Second Lieutenant Instructor, Communication and Electronics School of Chinese Army, Taiwan, R.O.C. 1990 - 1995: Research Scientist, Applied Research Area, Bell Communications Research, Morristown, New Jersey 1995 - 1996: TRB Review Committee Member for Telecommunication Laboratories (TL), Chunghwa Telecom Co., Ltd. 1995–present: Professor, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Chiao Tung University 1996: Deputy Director, Microelectronics and Information Systems Research Center, (MIRC), NCTU 1996 - 1997: Consultant, Computer & Communication Research Laboratories, Industrial Technology Research Institute (CCL/ITRI) 1997 - 1999: Chairman, Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Chiao Tung University 1999–present: Adjunct Research Fellow, Academia Sinica 2002–present: Chair Professor, Department of Computer Science and Information Management, Providence University, Shalu, Taiwan 2004 - 2006: Dean, Office of Research and Development, National Chiao Tung University 2006 - 2011: Dean, College of Computer Science, National Chiao Tung University Member of the International Advisory Board, Alpine Research and Development Lab for Networks and Telematics, University of Trento, Italy. 2009–present: Member, Board of Directors, Chunghwa Telecommunications 2011–present: Vice President, National Chiao Tung University Source: Chiao Tung University webpage Publications Lin is the co-author of three books Wireless and Mobile Network Architecture (co-author with Imrich Chlamtac; published by John Wiley, 2001), Wireless and Mobile All-IP Networks (co-author with Ai-Chun Pang, John Wiley, 2005), and Charging for Mobile All-IP Telecommunications (John Wiley, 2008). Chiou, T., Tsai, S., & Lin, Y. (2014). Network security management with traffic pattern clustering. SOFT COMPUTING. Yang, S., Lin, Y., Gan, C., Lin, Y., & Wu, C. (2014). Multi-link Mechanism for Heterogeneous Radio Networks. Wireless Personal Communications. Lin, Y., Liou, R., Sung, Y. Coral, & Cheng, P. (2014). Performance Evaluation of LTE eSRVCC with Limited Access Transfers. IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications. Lin, P., & Lin, Y. (2014). An IP-Based Packet Test Environment for TD-LTE and LTE FDD. IEEE Communications Magazine. Hung, H., Lin, Y., & Luo, C. (2014). Deriving the distributions for the numbers of short message arrivals. Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing. Liou, R., Lin, Y., Chang, Y., Hung, H., Peng, N., & Chang, M. (2013). Deriving the Vehicle Speeds from a Mobile Telecommunications Network. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems. Lin, Y., Liou, R., Chen, Y., & Wu, Z. (2013). Automatic event-triggered call-forwarding mechanism for mobile phones. Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing. Fu, H., Lin, P., & Lin, Y. (2013). Reducing Signaling Overhead for Femtocell/Macrocell Networks. IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing. Sanchez-Esguevillas, A., Carro, B., Camarillo, G., Lin, Y., Garcia-Martin, M. A., & Hanzo, L. (2013). IMS: The New Generation of Internet-Protocol-Based Multimedia Services. Proceedings of the IEEE. Yang, S., Cheng, W., Hsu, Y., Gan, C., & Lin, Y. (2013). Charge scheduling of electric vehicles in highways. Mathematical and Computer Modeling. Lin, Y., Huang-Fu, C., & Alrajeh, N. (2013). Predicting Human Movement Based on Telecom's Handoff in Mobile Networks. IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing. Lin, Y., Lin, P., Sung, Y. Coral, Chen, Y., Chen, W., Alrajeh, N., Lin, B. Paul, & Gan, C. (2013). Performance Measurements of TD-LTE, Wimax and 3G Systems. IEEE Wireless Communications. Chuang, C., Lin, Y., & Ren, Z. Julie (2013). chapter preloading mechanism for e-reader in mobile environment. Information Sciences. Yang, S., Wang, H., Gan, C., & Lin, Y. (2013). Mobile charging information management for smart grid networks. International Journal of Information Technology. Liou, R., & Lin, Y. (2013). Mobility management with the central-based location area policy. Computer Networks. 鄭., Cheng, P., 林., 陳., Lin, Y., & Chen, R. (2013). 長期演進技術之加強單一無線語音通話連續性的限制通話轉移次數研究. 林., Lin, P., 林., 陳., Lin, Y., & Chen, W. (2013). 行動電信網路之IP封包量測. 劉., Liou, R., 林., & Lin, Y. (2013). LTE 移動管理及其對通話控制影響之研究. 羅., Luo, C., 林., 蘇., Lin, Y., & Sou, S. (2013). 簡訊傳送模型之研究. 吳., Wu, C., 林., & Lin, Y. (2013). 以多重無線存取技術強化高速列車無線傳輸之研究. Awards 1997, 1999 and 2001 Distinguished Research Awards from National Science Council, ROC 1998 Outstanding Youth Electrical Engineer Award from CIEE, ROC 2003 IEEE Fellow for contributions to the design and modeling of mobile telecommunications networks and leadership in personal communications services education. 2003 ACM Fellow 2004 AAAS Fellow 2004 K.-T. Li Outstanding Award 2005 IET/IEE Fellow 2005 Pan WY Distinguished Research Award 2005 Teco Award 2005 Medal of Information, IICM 2006 Best Impact Award, IEEE Taipei Section 2006 ISI Highly Cited Scholar (Author Publication Number: A0096-206-L) 2006 Academic Publication Award of The Sun Yat-Sen Cultural Foundation 2006 Academic Award of the Ministry of Education 2007 KT Hou Honored Award 2007 HP Technology for Teaching Higher Education Grant Award 2007 YZ Hsu Technology Cathedra Award 2008 Award for Outstanding contributions in Science and Technology, Executive Yuen, ROC. 2009 IBM Shared University Research Award 2010 IBM Faculty Award 2010 IEEE Region 10 Academia-Industry Partnership Award 2010 IEEE Vehicular Technology Society "Top Associate Editor" 2011 TWAS Prize in Engineering Sciences 2011 National Chair Award, Ministry of Education, ROC. References External links Jason Yi-Bing Lin's home page. Yi-Bing Lin's blog Academic staff of the National Chiao Tung University Taiwanese computer scientists Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery Living people Fellow Members of the IEEE TWAS laureates Ministers of Science and Technology of the Republic of China 1961 births

Arun N. Netravali (born 26 May 1945 in Mumbai, India) is an Indian–American computer engineer credited with contributions in digital technology including HDTV. He conducted research in digital compression, signal processing and other fields. Netravali was the ninth President of Bell Laboratories and has served as Lucent's Chief Technology Officer and Chief Network Architect. He received his undergraduate degree from IIT Bombay, India, and an M.S. and a Ph.D. from Rice University in Houston, Texas, all in electrical engineering. Several global universities, including the Ecole Polytechnique Federale in Lausanne, Switzerland, have honored him with honorary doctorates. Netravali led Bell Labs research and development of high definition television (HDTV) and is widely acknowledged as a pioneer in the development of digital video technology. He is the author of over 170 technical papers, 70 patents, and three books in the areas of picture processing, digital television, and computer networks. Netravali is a member of Tau Beta Pi and Sigma Xi. He is also an IEEE fellow. He has received awards including the Marconi Prize, the Padma Bhushan Award from the Indian government, the National Medal of Technology from President George W. Bush, the Computers & Communications Prize, the Alexander Graham Bell Medal, the IEEE Kilby Medal, the IEEE Frederik Philips Award, and the National Association of Software and Services Companies in India Medal. Prior to joining Bell Labs, Netravali was an adjunct professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. While at Bell Labs, he taught at City College of New York, Columbia University, and Rutgers University. He was a resident of Westfield, NJ. Awards and honors Netravali has received numerous awards and honorary degrees, including the IEEE Jack S. Kilby Signal Processing Medal in 2001 (together with Thomas S. Huang) the IEEE Frederik Philips Award in 2001 the U.S. National Medal of Technology the Padma Bhushan from the Government of India the IEEE Alexander Graham Bell Medal in 1991 (together with C. Chapin Cutler and John O. Limb) elected to member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1989 elected to IEEE Fellow in 1985 the IEEE Donald G. Fink Prize Paper Award in 1982 (together with John O. Limb) Selected writing Arun N. Netravali and Barry G. Haskell, Digital Pictures: Representation, Compression and Standards (Applications of Communications Theory), Springer (second edition, 1995), References External links Laureate profile at The Spirit of American Innovation Columbia University faculty American people of Indian descent Rice University alumni Living people Indian emigrants to the United States National Medal of Technology recipients Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in science & engineering 1946 births IIT Bombay alumni Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering American chief technology officers Businesspeople from Mumbai Fellow Members of the IEEE Bell Labs

Events from the year 1929 in the United States. Incumbents Federal government President: Calvin Coolidge (R-Massachusetts) (until March 4), Herbert Hoover (R-California) (starting March 4) Vice President: Charles G. Dawes (R-Illinois) (until March 4), Charles Curtis (R-Kansas) (starting March 4) Chief Justice: William Howard Taft (Ohio) Speaker of the House of Representatives: Nicholas Longworth (R-Ohio) Senate Majority Leader: Charles Curtis (R-Kansas) (until March 4), James Eli Watson (R-Indiana) (starting March 4) Congress: 70th (until March 4), 71st (starting March 4) Events January–March January 1 – In college football, California loses to the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets in the 27th Rose Bowl by a score of 8–7. January 29 – The Seeing Eye is established with the mission to train guide dogs to assist the blind, by Dorothy Harrison Eustis and Morris Frank in Nashville, Tennessee. February 11 – Eugene O'Neill's Dynamo premieres in New York. February 14 – St. Valentine's Day Massacre: Seven gangsters, rivals of Al Capone, are murdered in Chicago. February 26 – The Grand Teton National Park in Wyoming is established by Congress. March 2 – The longest bridge in the world, the San Francisco Bay Toll-Bridge, opens. March 4 – Herbert Hoover is sworn in as the 31st president of the United States, and Charles Curtis is sworn in as the 31st vice president. March 16 – A part-talkie film version of Show Boat, based on Edna Ferber's novel rather than the musical, premieres in Palm Beach (starring Laura La Plante and Joseph Schildkraut). It is critically panned and not successful at the box office. April–June April 2-6 – The Bombing of Naco by Irish pilot Patrick Murphy, the first aerial assault on the United States by a foreign combatant May 13 – The National Crime Syndicate is founded in Atlantic City. May 15 – Cleveland Clinic Fire of 1929 A leak and explosion of methyl chloride refrigerant in a Cleveland hospital kills one hundred and twenty-eight and becomes regarded as the catalyst for the development of chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants. May 16 – The 1st Academy Awards are presented at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel in Hollywood, California, with William A. Wellman's Wings winning Academy Award for Best Picture. Joseph W. Farnham wins the only award ever given for Best Writing, Title Writing. Frank Borzage's 7th Heaven received the most nominations with five, while both it and F. W. Murnau's Sunrise jointly received the most awards with three. May 17 – Al Capone and his bodyguard are arrested for concealing deadly weapons. May 20 – The Wickersham Commission begins its investigation of alcohol prohibition in the United States. May 27 – United States v. Schwimmer decided in the Supreme Court affirms that pacifism is sufficient ground to deny an applicant citizenship of the United States. June 12 – Lou Hoover has tea at the White House with Jessie De Priest, wife of Oscar De Priest, the first black congressman of the 20th century. June 16 – Otto E. Funk, 62, ends his marathon walk (New York City to San Francisco, 4,165 miles in 183 days). June 21 – An agreement brokered by U.S. Ambassador Dwight Whitney Morrow ends the Cristero War in Mexico. June 27 – The first public demonstration of color television is held, by H. E. Ives and his colleagues at Bell Telephone Laboratories in New York City. The first images are a bouquet of roses and an American flag. A mechanical system is used to transmit 50-line color television images between New York and Washington, D.C. July–September August 11 – The first Bud Billiken Parade and Picnic, the oldest and largest US African-American parade, is held in Chicago. August 19 – The radio comedy show Amos and Andy makes its debut, starring Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll. August 31 – The Young Plan, which sets the total World War I reparations owed by Germany at US$26,350,000,000 to be paid over a period of 58½ years, is finalized. September 3 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) peaks at 381.17, a height it will not reach again until November 1954. October–December October 11 – J. C. Penney opens Store #1252 in Milford, Delaware, making it a nationwide company with department stores in all 48 states. October 14 – The Philadelphia Athletics defeat the Chicago Cubs, 4 games to 1, to win their 4th World Series Title. October 24–October 29 – Wall Street Crash of 1929: Three multi-digit percentage drops wipe out more than $30 billion from the New York Stock Exchange (10 times greater than the annual budget of the federal government). October 24 – The Mount Hope Bridge, connecting Portsmouth to Bristol in Rhode Island, opens to traffic. October 25 – Former U.S. Interior Secretary Albert B. Fall is convicted of bribery for his role in the Teapot Dome scandal, becoming the first presidential cabinet member to go to prison for actions in office. November 7 – The Museum of Modern Art in New York City opens to the public. November 15 – The Ambassador Bridge, connecting Detroit, Michigan, to Windsor, Ontario, opens to traffic. November 29 – Bernt Balchen, U.S. Admiral Richard Byrd, Captain Ashley McKinley, and Harold June, become the first to fly over the South Pole. December 3 – Great Depression: U.S. President Herbert Hoover announces to the U.S. Congress that the worst effects of the recent stock market crash are behind the nation, and that the American people have regained faith in the economy. Undated Sunglasses mass-produced from celluloid are first made by Foster Grant for sale in Austin Texas Ongoing Lochner era (c. 1897–c. 1937) On the roof gang, group of cryptologists and radiomen during World War II (1928–1941) U.S. occupation of Haiti (1915–1934) Prohibition (1920–1933) Roaring Twenties (1920–1929) Sport March 29 - For the first time in Stanley Cup history two American teams face off for hockey's ultimate prize when the Boston Bruins defeat the New York Rangers 2 games to 0 for the Bruins first Stanley Cup victory. The deciding game is played in New York City's Madison Square Garden. Births January January 1 – Joseph Lombardo, American mafioso (d. 2019) January 3 Marilyn Lloyd, American politician and businesswoman (d. 2018) Gordon Moore, American computing entrepreneur and benefactor, inventor of Moore's Law (d. 2023) January 4 – Darrell Mudra, American football coach (d. 2022) January 5 Wilbert Harrison, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1994) Robert K. Massie, American journalist and historian (d. 2019) January 9 – Tom Riley, American lawyer and politician (d. 2011) January 13 Joe Pass, American jazz guitarist (d. 1994) Moe Savransky, American baseball player (d. 2022) January 14 – Billy Walker, American country music singer (d. 2006) January 15 – Martin Luther King Jr., African-American civil rights leader, Nobel laureate (d. 1968) January 17 Eilaine Roth, American professional baseball player (d. 2011) Elaine Roth, American professional baseball player (d. 2007) January 19 – Red Amick, American race car driver (d. 1995) January 20 January 20 Jimmy Cobb, American jazz drummer (d. 2020) Arte Johnson, American comedian and actor (d. 2019) Frank Kush, American football player and coach (d. 2017) January 21 – Rolando Hinojosa-Smith, American writer and literary scholar (d. 2022) January 27 – Richard Ottinger, American politician February February 1 – Stuart Whitman, American film, television actor (d. 2020) February 2 – John Henry Holland, American computer scientist (d. 2015) February 3 – Huntington Hardisty, American admiral (d. 2003) February 4 Jerry Adler, American actor Stanley Drucker, American clarinetist (d. 2022) Thomas H. Paterniti, American politician (d. 2017) February 5 – Hal Blaine, American drummer and session musician (d. 2019) February 6 – Chuck Nergard, American politician (d. 2017) February 10 Jerry Goldsmith, American composer and conductor (d. 2004) Jim Whittaker, mountaineer Lou Whittaker, mountaineer February 14 Vic Morrow, American actor, director (d. 1982) James Nelligan, American politician February 15 – James Schlesinger, American politician (d. 2014) February 22 James Hong, Chinese-American actor, director Rebecca Schull, American actress February 28 – Hayden Fry, American football player and coach (d. 2019) March March 1 – Lynwood E. Clark, American Air Force lieutenant general March 6 – Gale McArthur, American basketball player (d. 2020) March 7 – Marion Marlowe, American singer and actress (d. 2012) March 8 Elaine Edwards, American politician (d. 2018) Nicodemo Scarfo, American mafioso (d. 2017) March 9 – Jay Weston, American film producer and restaurant critic (d. 2023) March 11 – Hugh Newell Jacobsen, American architect (d. 2021) March 13 Peter Breck, American actor (d. 2012 in Canada) Joseph Mascolo, American musician, actor (d. 2016) March 14 Michael D. Coe, archaeologist, anthropologist, epigrapher and author (d. 2019) Bob Goalby, golfer (d. 2022) March 16 – Betty Johnson, singer March 17 – Howie Winter, gang boss (d. 2020) March 19 – Michael M. Ryan, American actor (d. 2017) March 25 Harris W. Fawell, American politician (d. 2021) Cecil Taylor, African-American jazz pianist, composer, and poet (d. 2018) March 26 – Edward Sorel, American illustrator and caricaturist March 27 Rita Briggs, American baseball player (d. 1994) Don Warden, American country musician and manager (d. 2017) March 29 – Richard Lewontin, American biologist, geneticist and academic March 31 – Bert Fields, American lawyer and author April April 1 Jane Powell, actress, singer, dancer (d. 2021) Bo Schembechler, American football player and coach (d. 2006) April 2 Ed Dorn, poet (d. 1999) Frank Farrar, governor of South Dakota (d. 2021) April 4 William F. Clinger Jr., politician (d. 2021) John Dee Holeman, Piedmont Blues musician (d. 2021) April 5 – Richard Jenrette, businessman (d. 2018) April 8 – Morton B. Panish, physical chemist April 9 – Paule Marshall, born Valenza Pauline Burke, novelist (d. 2019) April 12 Tony Douglas, country music singer (d. 2013) Dale Haupt, American football coach (d. 2018) April 13 – Yvonne Clark, engineer (d. 2019) April 16 Dorne Dibble, American football player (d. 2018) Roy Hamilton, African-American singer (d. 1969) April 20 – John Andreason, politician (d. 2017) April 27 – Michael Harner, anthropologist, author (d. 2018) April 29 Tom Cornsweet, psychologist (d. 2017) Billy Mize, steel guitarist, band leader, vocalist, songwriter, TV show host (d. 2017) April Stevens, singer (d. 2023) May May 2 – Link Wray, rock and roll musician (d. 2005) May 3 Denise Lor, popular music singer, actress (d. 2015) Emily Anne Staples, politician (d. 2018) May 4 Audrey Hepburn, Belgian-born actress and humanitarian (d. 1993 in Switzerland) Sydney Lamb, American linguist Paige Rense, American writer and editor (d. 2021) May 5 – Ilene Woods, American singer, actress (d. 2010) May 6 – Paul Lauterbur, American chemist, Nobel laureate (d. 2007) May 7 Sally Liberman Smith, educator (d. 2007) Dick Williams, American baseball player (d. 2011) May 8 Ethel D. Allen, African-American Secretary of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and physician (d. 1981) John C. Bogle, American investor (d. 2019) Jane Roberts, American writer (d. 1984) May 10 – Betty Foss, American female professional baseball player (d. 1998) May 11 – Margaret Kerry, American actress, dancer, and motivational speaker May 15 – Frank Heart, American computer engineer (d. 2018) May 16 Betty Carter, African-American jazz singer (d. 1998) John Conyers, African-American politician (d. 2019) Adrienne Rich, American poet, essayist (d. 2012) May 18 – Walter Pitman, American educator, politician (d. 2018) May 22 – Neave Brown, American-British architect (d. 2018) May 25 – Beverly Sills, American operatic soprano, director of the New York City Opera (d. 2007) May 27 – Thomas E. Brennan, American jurist (d. 2018) May 29 – Harry Frankfurt, American philosopher (d. 2023) May 30 – Marshall Loeb, American business journalist (d. 2017) June June 1 James H. Billington, American academic and author (d. 2018) Chuck Ortmann, American football player (d. 2018) June 2 – Norton Juster, American writer and academic (d. 2021) June 3 – Chuck Barris, American television game show host, producer (d. 2017) June 6 – Mary Hatcher, American soprano, actress (d. 2018) June 8 – Marion Marshall, American actress (d. 2018) June 9 – Johnny Ace, African-American rhythm and blues singer (d. 1954) June 10 James McDivitt, American astronaut (d. 2022) Grace Mirabella, American fashion journalist (d. 2021) E. O. Wilson, American biologist (d. 2021) June 11 – Frank Thomas, American baseball player (d. 2023) June 16 – Paul Cain, American Pentecostal Christian evangelist (d. 2019) June 20 – Bonnie Bartlett, American actress June 21 Bob Gain, American football player (d. 2016) Stephen B. Wiley, American politician (d. 2015) June 22 – Alex P. Garcia, American politician (d. 1999) June 23 June Carter Cash, American singer (d. 2003) Gail Peters, American competition swimmer Gerald Eustis Thomas, American naval officer, diplomat and academic (d. 2019) June 24 Vic Carrabotta, American comic-book artist, advertising art director (d. 2022) Connie Hall, American country music singer (d. 2021) Carolyn S. Shoemaker, American astronomer June 25 – Eric Carle, American designer, illustrator and writer (d. 2021) June 26 – Milton Glaser, American graphic designer, illustrator and teacher (d. 2020) June 27 – J. C. Duncan, politician June 28 – Glenn D. Paige, political scientist (d. 2017) June 29 Pat Crawford Brown, actress (d. 2019) Pete George, weightlifter July July 1 – Gerald Edelman, American biologist, Nobel laureate (d. 2014) July 3 Joanne Herring, American socialite, businesswoman, political activist, philanthropist, diplomat, and former television talk show host Lavelle White, American Texas blues and soul blues singer, songwriter July 4 Peter Angelos, American trial lawyer Bill Tremel, American professional baseball player (d. 2013) July 5 – Katherine Helmond, American actress (d. 2019) July 6 – Angelo LiPetri, American former professional baseball player (d. 2016) July 8 – Shirley Ann Grau, American writer (d. 2020) July 9 – Jesse McReynolds, American bluegrass musician July 11 – Sandy Frank, American television producer, distributor, and marketer of TV shows July 14 – Pat Scott, American pitcher (d. 2016) July 15 – Walter Hirsch, American basketball player (d. 2022) July 17 – Arthur Frommer, American writer, publisher and consumer advocate July 18 – Dick Button, American figure skater July 19 – Alice Pollitt, American female professional baseball player (d. 2016) July 21 Antonia Handler Chayes, American lawyer, educator Paul V. Gadola, American judge (d. 2014) July 23 – Robert Quackenbush, American author and children's illustrator (d. 2021) July 26 – Patrick Flores, American Roman Catholic prelate (d. 2017) July 28 – Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, American socialite, conservationist, 35th First Lady of the United States (d. 1994) July 31 – Don Murray, American actor August August 1 – Samuel Charters, American writer, music historian and record producer (d. 2015) August 2 – Irwin Fridovich, American biochemist (d. 2019) August 4 – Joe Pignatano, American baseball player and coach (d. 2022) August 7 Jo Baer, American artist Don Larsen, American baseball player (d. 2020) Richard T. Schulze, politician August 9 – Fred Fredericks, cartoonist (d. 2015) August 10 – Vincent McEveety, director, producer (d. 2018) August 12 – Buck Owens, singer, bandleader, and TV host (d. 2006) August 13 – Pat Harrington Jr., voice actor (d. 2016) August 14 Thomas Meehan, playwright (d. 2017) Louise Slaughter, politician (d. 2018) August 15 Louise Shivers, writer (d. 2014) Marcia Hafif, painter (d. 2018) August 16 – Fritz Von Erich, wrestler (d. 1997) August 17 – Francis Gary Powers, U-2 spy plane pilot (d. 1977) August 21 John McMartin, American actor (d. 2016) Marie Severin, comics artist and colorist (d. 2018) August 23 – Vera Miles, American actress August 24 – Betty Dodson, American sex educator (d. 2020) August 26 – Chuck Renslow, American businessman, LGBT activist (d. 2017) August 27 – Ralph T. Coe, American art historian of Native American art (d. 2010) August 28 – Roxie Roker, African-American actress (d. 1995) August 29 – Yale Kamisar, American legal scholar (d. 2022) August 31 – C. C. Torbert Jr., American jurist (d. 2018) September September 1 – Murray Fromson, American journalist (d. 2018) September 2 – Hal Ashby, American film director and editor (d. 1988) September 3 – Whitey Bulger, Irish-American gangster and multiple murderer (d. 2018) September 4 – Thomas Eagleton, American politician (d. 2007) September 5 – Bob Newhart, American comedian, actor September 6 – Dow Finsterwald, American professional golfer (d. 2022) September 9 – Stanford Parris, American lawyer and politician (d. 2010) September 10 – Arnold Palmer, American professional golfer (d. 2016) September 11 Eve Brent, American actress (d. 2011) David S. Broder, American journalist (d. 2011) September 12 – Harvey Schmidt, American composer (d. 2018) September 14 Larry Collins, American writer (d. 2005) John Gutfreund, American banker, businessman and investor (d. 2016) Mel Hancock, American politician (d. 2011) September 15 – Murray Gell-Mann, American physicist, Nobel laureate (d. 2019) September 16 Dale Kildee, American politician Maxine Kline, American female professional baseball player September 19 Marge Roukema, American politician (d. 2014) Mel Stewart, African-American actor (d. 2002) September 20 – Anne Meara, American actress, comedian (d. 2015) September 22 – William E. Dannemeyer, American politician September 25 Barbara Walters, American television journalist (d. 2022) Kevin White, American politician (d. 2012) September 26 – Meredith Gourdine, American athlete (d. 1998) September 28 – Skip Bafalis, American politician September 30 – Helen M. Marshall, American politician (d. 2017) October October 2 – Moses Gunn, African-American actor (d. 1993) October 4 Scotty Beckett, American actor (d. 1968) Leroy Van Dyke, American country music singer and guitarist Judith Jarvis Thomson, American moral philosopher (d. 2020) October 5 – Richard F. Gordon Jr., American astronaut (d. 2017) October 8 – Arthur Bisguier, American chess Grandmaster, chess promoter, and writer (d. 2017) October 15 – Hubert Dreyfus, American philosopher (d. 2017) October 18 – Jay Last, American physicist (d. 2021) October 21 – Ursula K. Le Guin, American science fiction and fantasy author (d. 2018) October 22 – Patsy Elsener, American diver (d. 2019) October 24 Jim Brosnan, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2014) George Crumb, American composer and educator (d. 2022) Gustav Ranis, American economist and academic (d. 2013) Ronald E. Rosser, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2020) October 25 LaDell Andersen, American college and basketball coach (d. 2019) David McReynolds, American political activist (d. 2018) October 26 – Roland Hemond, American baseball executive (d. 2021) October 28 – Mitchell Torok, American country music singer November November 1 – Nicholas Mavroules, American politician (d. 2003) November 2 Rachel Ames, American actress Harold Farberman, American conductor, composer and percussionist (d. 2018) Lee Hedges, American football coach (d. 2023) November 6 – June Squibb, American actress November 8 Bert Berns, American songwriter, record producer (d. 1967) Bobby Bowden, American football player and coach (d. 2021) November 9 – Severn Darden, American comedian, actor (d. 1995) November 11 – LaVern Baker, American singer (d. 1997) November 12 – Grace Kelly, American actress (d. 1982) November 13 – Fred Phelps, American pastor, activist (Westboro Baptist Church) (d. 2014) November 14 – Jimmy Piersall, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2017) November 15 Ed Asner, American actor (d. 2021) Joe Hinton, African-American soul music singer (d. 1968) November 23 Hal Lindsey, Christian evangelist Gloria Lynne, American jazz singer (d. 2013) Shirley Palesh, baseball player (d. 2017) November 24 Marvin Kitman, author and television critic (d. 2023) George Moscone, attorney, politician (d. 1978) November 26 – Betta St. John, actress, singer and dancer November 28 Berry Gordy, African-American record producer, songwriter Frederick D. Reese, African-American civil rights activist (d. 2018) November 30 Dick Clark, American television entertainer (d. 2012) Joan Ganz Cooney, television producer December December 1 – David Doyle, American actor (d. 1997) December 2 Dan Jenkins, American journalist and author (d. 2019) Leon Litwack, American historian and author December 9 – John Cassavetes, American actor (d. 1989) December 17 – William Safire, American author, columnist, journalist, and presidential speechwriter (d. 2009) December 20 – David H. Gambrell, politician December 21 – Newton Morton, geneticist (d. 2018) December 23 – Chet Baker, jazz musician (d. 1988) December 26 – Kathleen Crowley, actress (d. 2017) December 29 Theodore V. Buttrey Jr., American educator, classicist and numismatist (d. 2018) Susie Garrett, African-American actress (d. 2002) Matt "Guitar" Murphy, American blues musician (d. 2018) December 31 – Robert B. Silvers, American literary editor (d. 2017) Undated David Fintz Altabé, scholar and poet (d. 2008) Deaths January 5 – Marc McDermott, actor (born 1871) January 13 Wyatt Earp, gunfighter (born 1848) Emil Fuchs, sculptor and painter (born 1866 in Austria) January 15 Leonard Cline, novelist, poet and journalist (born 1893; heart failure) George Cope, painter (born 1855) January 21 – Maria Taylor Beale, author (born 1849) January 30 – Franklin J. Drake, admiral (born 1846) February 4 – William Rankin Ballard, businessman (born 1847) February 11 – Frank Putnam Flint, U.S. Senator from California from 1905 to 1911 (born 1862) February 14 – Thomas Burke, sprinter (born 1875) February 18 – William Russell, silent film actor (born 1884) February 22 – Louise Upton Brumback, landscape painter (born 1867) February 24 Adaline Hohf Beery, songbook compiler (born 1859) Frank Keenan, actor (born 1858) February 27 – Briton Hadden, co-founder of Time magazine (born 1898) March 1 – Royal Hurlburt Weller, politician (born 1881) March 5 – David Dunbar Buick, inventor (born 1854 in Scotland) March 6 – Moses E. Clapp, politician (born 1851) March 12 – Asa Griggs Candler, businessman and politician (born 1851) March 15 – Pinetop Smith, blues pianist (born 1904; shot in dancehall brawl) March 18 – William P. Cronan, Naval Governor of Guam (born 1879) March 28 – Katharine Lee Bates, librettist, author of "America the Beautiful" (born 1859) April 4 – William Michael Crose, United States Navy Commander and 7th Governor of American Samoa (born 1867) April 28 – May Jordan McConnel, Australian trade unionist and suffragist (born 1860) June 2 – Don Murray, jazz clarinettist (born 1894; auto accident) June 4 – Harry Frazee, Broadway producer and baseball owner (born 1881) June 5 – Adolph Coors, brewer (born 1847 in Prussia; suicide) June 9 – murder–suicide Louis Bennison, silent Western film actor (born 1884) Margaret Lawrence, actress (born 1889) June 11 – William D. Boyce, entrepreneur and founder of the Boy Scouts of America (born 1858) July 2 – Gladys Brockwell, film actress (born 1894; auto accident) July 3 – Dustin Farnum, silent Western film actor (born 1874) July 9 – Cack Henley, baseball player (born 1884) July 12 – Robert Henri, painter (born 1865) July 20 – Noble Drew Ali, prophet (born 1886) August 3 Emile Berliner, inventor (born 1851 in Hanover) Thorstein Veblen, economist (born 1857) August 19 – Chris Kelly, jazz trumpeter (born c.1890) August 27 – James Knox Taylor, official architect (born 1857) September 2 – Paul Leni, filmmaker (born 1885 in Germany) September 4 – Frederick Freeman Proctor, vaudeville impresario (born 1851) September 25 – Miller Huggins, baseball manager (born 1879) October 3 – Jeanne Eagels, actress (born 1890; addiction) October 15 – Annie Lowrie Alexander, physician and educator (born 1864) November 14 – Joe McGinnity, baseball player (born 1871) November 17 – Herman Hollerith, businessman and inventor (born 1860) November 24 – Raymond Hitchcock, actor and producer (born 1865) December 10 – Harry Crosby, publisher and poet (born 1898; suicide) December 19 – Blind Lemon Jefferson, blues musician (born 1893; heart failure) December 21 – I. L. Patterson, politician, 18th Governor of Oregon (born 1859) Undated Timothy Francis Donovan Aaron, New Jersey politician (born 1853) Adelaïde Alsop Robineau, ceramicist (born 1865) Dallas Lore Sharp, nature writer (born 1870) See also 1929 in American television List of American films of 1929 Timeline of United States history (1900–1929) References External links 1920s in the United States United States United States Years of the 20th century in the United States

A computer liquidator buys computer technology and related equipment that is no longer required by one company, and resells ("flips") it to another company. Computer liquidators are agents that act in the computer recycling, or electronic recycling, business. There are several reasons why companies will sell, or liquidate, used Information Technology (I.T.) equipment: bankruptcy, downsizing and expanding, or technological advancement. Technological advancement is the most common reason, as the equipment is no longer performing the tasks required of it, usually because it has been rendered obsolete by more advanced technology coming on to the market. This used or obsolete technology is often referred to as electronic waste. Equipment designated as outdated for one company is still viable for another company, whose operations may not require advanced solutions. Often, an information technology audit will be performed to help a company decide if their equipment needs updating, and if so, what the requirements are. Reasons for Liquidation Computer liquidation is a sustainable solution and is environmentally friendly. Rapid technology change, low initial cost, and planned obsolescence have resulted in a fast-growing surplus of computers and other electronic components around the globe. The purpose of computer liquidators is to keep as many computers and electronic parts out of landfills. As newer and better technology replaces hardware at an ever-increasing speed, the amount of technical trash increases as the technology is being replaced. The speed at which hardware changes and innovates in the last few years follows, to some degree, Moore's Law. Predictions were made that every landfill would soon be overflowing with discarded computer screens and computers, along with associated equipment such as keyboards and mouses and all the other hardware associated with use of the Internet. Most electronic waste is sent to landfills or incinerated, which releases toxic materials such as lead, mercury, or cadmium into the soil, groundwater, and atmosphere, thus having a negative impact on the environment. The best liquidating companies have clearly outlined policies regarding the disposal of dangerous substances which are often an issue with information technology. The act of liquidation avoids the possible toxins and pollution that comes with putting electronic waste in landfills and also avoids the extra costs that go into recycling. For example, New York passed a law in 2015 that banned putting electronic devices in landfills. Now waste facilities in rural counties are being forced to either turn people away or eat the cost of recycling cathode ray tubes. Outside New York City, counties are spending from $6 million to $10 million a year to deal with the problem, according to Stephen Acquario, executive director of the New York State Association of Counties. The option of liquidation actually incentivizes people to get rid of their electronic waste in a safer way, since recycling actually costs the owner money, so there are cases where people would rather throw it out to avoid the recycling fee. Computer liquidators effectively create a secondary market to meet the demand of those who are looking for a cheaper solution and do not require cutting edge technology. It is important to note that the IT equipment being liquidated ranges from new technology to old technology. Because of the relatively lower price for secondary market equipment, some companies may even purchase tech devices from the secondary market to use as backups, stocking the equipment themselves preemptively so that a replacement is always on hand in the event of trouble. Product availability is also another reason for buyers to buy in this market. Manufacturers generally refresh their product line every 12 to 24 months, typically liquidating older products. But networking hardware can often see service lives of five years or more, and resellers and computer liquidators might carry products that are upwards of a decade old. End users that use a particular product may find it much easier and cheaper to add/replace an older device rather than take on the costs, business disruptions, and knowledge gaps that occur when upgrading to new products. When newer products are adopted, the used equipment is inevitably liquidated, thrown out or sold back, which creates a robust marketplace. Process There are typically three agents in the computer liquidation process: the seller, the computer liquidator, and the buyer. The sellers are companies who are bankrupt and need to sell their assets, companies who are downsizing or expanding, and companies who are upgrading their technology. Usually, companies who are looking to sell their equipment will first conduct an information technology audit to review their systems and equipment. The process is generally fueled by the supply side, as computer liquidators rely on what is available on the market for them to liquidate and resell. Thus, there nearly always exists a shortage for buyers. Oceantech, for example, buys up computers, laptops, tablets and other such electronics from companies who no longer need the technology. They then conduct certified data destruction on the appliances. Technicians will then perform a thorough check of the systems and confirm that the devices are functional then they are stored into a warehouse. If only certain parts, like the motherboard or hard drives, are able to be used, these are stripped off of the machine and put into a warehouse to store. Then, the devices or parts are resold to smaller companies and places like school districts, who are in need of these products. Most of the companies involved in the computer liquidation business are also heavily involved in the computer and electronic recycling industry which takes on a similar process of disassembling and testing. This process theoretically benefits both ends of the exchange, the seller gets money for equipment they no longer needs and the buyer gets cheap equipment that is necessary for their work. Resources A number of organizations have sprung up that provide technical guidelines to those handling or dealing in eWaste. References Electronic waste

Al's Big Deal – Unclaimed Freight is a compilation album by American musician Al Kooper. It was released as a double-LP in 1975. Background After seven years in the music industry, Columbia Records released a retrospective compilation of Kooper's music from 1968-1975. The two-disc set includes five songs from the first Blood, Sweat and Tears album, Child Is Father to the Man; two from Super Session with Mike Bloomfield and Stephen Stills; a cut from Bob Dylan's New Morning album which Kooper produced and played piano; two cuts from The Live Adventures of Mike Bloomfield and Al Kooper; a long jam with guitarist Shuggie Otis from Kooper Session and six titles from four of his first six solo albums. It does not include any cuts from his 1966 album with The Blues Project. The album was released in the midst of Kooper's involvement with Lynyrd Skynyrd, during which time he did no solo recording. This album was Kooper's last Columbia release until Championship Wrestling in 1982. Track listing "I Can't Quit Her" (Al Kooper, Bob Brass, Irwin Levine) – 3:37 "I Love You More Than You'll Ever Know" (Kooper) – 5:56 "My Days Are Numbered" (Kooper) – 3:17 "Without Her" (Harry Nilsson) – 2:41 "So Much Love/Underture" (Gerry Goffin, Carole King) – 4:42 "Albert's Shuffle" (Kooper, Mike Bloomfield) – 6:51 "Season of the Witch" (Donovan Leitch) – 11:02 "If Dogs Run Free" (Bob Dylan) – 3:38 "The 59th Street Bridge Song (Feelin' Groovy)" (Paul Simon) – 5:31 "The Weight" (Robbie Robertson) – 3:56 "Bury My Body" (Traditional, arranged by Kooper) – 8:50 "Jolie" (Kooper) – 3:47 "I Stand Alone" (Kooper) – 3:37 "Brand New Day" (Kooper) – 5:08 "Sam Stone" (John Prine) – 4:41 "New York City (You're a Woman)" (Kooper) – 5:14 "I Got a Woman" (Ray Charles, Renald Richard) – 5:11 An alternate listing is presented on the 1989 CD release, with only 14 tracks, in different order and with the notable change of "I Got A Woman" into "The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter", which was released on the 1982 album Championship Wrestling. This release is the same as can be found on streaming services Spotify and Apple Music. "New York City (You're a Woman)" - 5:10 "I Can't Quit Her" - 3:27 "I Stand Alone" - 3:42 "Brand New Day" - 5:09 "The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter" - 4:19 "Sam Stone" - 4:40 "Jolie" - 3:45 "I Love You More Than You'll Ever Know" - 5:54 "Bury My Body" - 8:46 "Albert's Shuffle" - 6:54 "The Weight" - 4:03 "The 59th Street Bridge Song (Feelin' Groovy) - Live at Bill Graham's Fillmore Auditorium, San Francisco, CA - September 1968" - 5:37 "If Dogs Run Free" - 3:37 "Season of the Witch" - 11:09 Notes The 1989 single-CD version of the album omitted the Blood, Sweat and Tears tracks "My Days Are Numbered", "Without Her", "So Much Love/Underture" and the solo track "I Got a Woman", and added a remixed version of "The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter" from his 1982 album Championship Wrestling. It also contained a completely different track order from the original LP. Personnel Patti Austin - Background vocals Barry Bailey - Electric guitar Michael Bloomfield - Guitar The Blossoms - Background vocals Randy Brecker - Flugelhorn, Horn, Trumpet Harvey Brooks - Bass Kenny Buttrey - Drums Charles Calello - Horn Arrangements, String Arrangements Fred Catero - Engineer J.R. Cobb - Guitar Bobby Colomby - Drums, Background vocals Ron Cornelius - Guitar Charlie Daniels - Bass, Guitar Dean Daughtry - Piano Bob Dylan - Acoustic guitar, Vocals Emerson-Loew - Photography Hugh Fielder - Liner Notes Jim Fielder - Bass Herbie Flowers - Bass Eileen Gilbert - Background vocals Paul Goddard - Bass Barry Goldberg - Electric piano Al Gorgoni - Gut-string Guitar Dick Halligan - Horn, Trombone Hilda Harris - Background vocals "Fast" Eddie Hoh - Drums John Kahn - Bass Steve Katz - Electric guitar Wells Kelly - Drums Jerry Kennedy - Guitar Al Kooper - 6-String Bass, Arranger, Guitar, Horn Synthesizer, Keyboards, Mellotron, Organ, Synthesizer Strings, Vibraphone, Vocals Russ Kunkel - Drums Tim Langford - Engineer Arthur Levy - Liner Notes Fred Lipsius - Arranger, Alto Saxophone Phil Macy - Engineer Rick Marotta - Drums Jim Marshall - Photography Charlie McCoy - Harmonica Rodney Mills - Engineer Melba Moore - Background vocals Wayne Moss - Guitar Gary Nichamin - Design, Layout Design Robert Nix - Drums Linda November - Background vocals Shuggie Otis - Guitar Roger Pope - Drums Skip Prokop - Drums Don Puluse - Engineer Albertine Robinson - Background vocals Joe Scott - Horn Arrangements Ken Scott - Unknown Contributor Role Roy Segal - Engineer John Simon - Piano Paul Simon - Vocal Harmony Valerie Simpson - Background vocals Maretha Stewart - Scat Stephen Stills - Guitar Tasha Thomas - Background vocals Jerry Weiss - Flugelhorn, Horn, Trumpet Stu Woods - Bass References 1975 compilation albums Al Kooper albums Columbia Records compilation albums albums arranged by Charles Calello

An autoencoder is a type of artificial neural network used to learn efficient codings of unlabeled data (unsupervised learning). An autoencoder learns two functions: an encoding function that transforms the input data, and a decoding function that recreates the input data from the encoded representation. The autoencoder learns an efficient representation (encoding) for a set of data, typically for dimensionality reduction. Variants exist, aiming to force the learned representations to assume useful properties. Examples are regularized autoencoders (Sparse, Denoising and Contractive), which are effective in learning representations for subsequent classification tasks, and Variational autoencoders, with applications as generative models. Autoencoders are applied to many problems, including facial recognition, feature detection, anomaly detection and acquiring the meaning of words. Autoencoders are also generative models which can randomly generate new data that is similar to the input data (training data). Mathematical principles Definition An autoencoder is defined by the following components: Two sets: the space of decoded messages ; the space of encoded messages . Almost always, both and are Euclidean spaces, that is, for some . Two parametrized families of functions: the encoder family , parametrized by ; the decoder family , parametrized by .For any , we usually write , and refer to it as the code, the latent variable, latent representation, latent vector, etc. Conversely, for any , we usually write , and refer to it as the (decoded) message. Usually, both the encoder and the decoder are defined as multilayer perceptrons. For example, a one-layer-MLP encoder is: where is an element-wise activation function such as a sigmoid function or a rectified linear unit, is a matrix called "weight", and is a vector called "bias". Training an autoencoder An autoencoder, by itself, is simply a tuple of two functions. To judge its quality, we need a task. A task is defined by a reference probability distribution over , and a "reconstruction quality" function , such that measures how much differs from . With those, we can define the loss function for the autoencoder asThe optimal autoencoder for the given task is then . The search for the optimal autoencoder can be accomplished by any mathematical optimization technique, but usually by gradient descent. This search process is referred to as "training the autoencoder". In most situations, the reference distribution is just the empirical distribution given by a dataset , so that where and is the Dirac measure, and the quality function is just L2 loss: . Then the problem of searching for the optimal autoencoder is just a least-squares optimization: Interpretation An autoencoder has two main parts: an encoder that maps the message to a code, and a decoder that reconstructs the message from the code. An optimal autoencoder would perform as close to perfect reconstruction as possible, with "close to perfect" defined by the reconstruction quality function . The simplest way to perform the copying task perfectly would be to duplicate the signal. To suppress this behavior, the code space usually has fewer dimensions than the message space . Such an autoencoder is called undercomplete. It can be interpreted as compressing the message, or reducing its dimensionality. At the limit of an ideal undercomplete autoencoder, every possible code in the code space is used to encode a message that really appears in the distribution , and the decoder is also perfect: . This ideal autoencoder can then be used to generate messages indistinguishable from real messages, by feeding its decoder arbitrary code and obtaining , which is a message that really appears in the distribution . If the code space has dimension larger than (overcomplete), or equal to, the message space , or the hidden units are given enough capacity, an autoencoder can learn the identity function and become useless. However, experimental results found that overcomplete autoencoders might still learn useful features. In the ideal setting, the code dimension and the model capacity could be set on the basis of the complexity of the data distribution to be modeled. A standard way to do so is to add modifications to the basic autoencoder, to be detailed below. History The autoencoder was first proposed as a nonlinear generalization of principal components analysis (PCA) by Kramer. The autoencoder has also been called the autoassociator, or Diabolo network. Its first applications date to early 1990s. Their most traditional application was dimensionality reduction or feature learning, but the concept became widely used for learning generative models of data. Some of the most powerful AIs in the 2010s involved autoencoders stacked inside deep neural networks. Variations Regularized autoencoders Various techniques exist to prevent autoencoders from learning the identity function and to improve their ability to capture important information and learn richer representations. Sparse autoencoder (SAE) Inspired by the sparse coding hypothesis in neuroscience, sparse autoencoders are variants of autoencoders, such that the codes for messages tend to be sparse codes, that is, is close to zero in most entries. Sparse autoencoders may include more (rather than fewer) hidden units than inputs, but only a small number of the hidden units are allowed to be active at the same time. Encouraging sparsity improves performance on classification tasks. There are two main ways to enforce sparsity. One way is to simply clamp all but the highest-k activations of the latent code to zero. This is the k-sparse autoencoder. The k-sparse autoencoder inserts the following "k-sparse function" in the latent layer of a standard autoencoder:where if ranks in the top k, and 0 otherwise. Backpropagating through is simple: set gradient to 0 for entries, and keep gradient for entries. This is essentially a generalized ReLU function. The other way is a relaxed version of the k-sparse autoencoder. Instead of forcing sparsity, we add a sparsity regularization loss, then optimize forwhere measures how much sparsity we want to enforce. Let the autoencoder architecture have layers. To define a sparsity regularization loss, we need a "desired" sparsity for each layer, a weight for how much to enforce each sparsity, and a function to measure how much two sparsities differ. For each input , let the actual sparsity of activation in each layer bewhere is the activation in the -th neuron of the -th layer upon input . The sparsity loss upon input for one layer is , and the sparsity regularization loss for the entire autoencoder is the expected weighted sum of sparsity losses:Typically, the function is either the Kullback-Leibler (KL) divergence, as or the L1 loss, as , or the L2 loss, as . Alternatively, the sparsity regularization loss may be defined without reference to any "desired sparsity", but simply force as much sparsity as possible. In this case, one can sparsity regularization loss as where is the activation vector in the -th layer of the autoencoder. The norm is usually the L1 norm (giving the L1 sparse autoencoder) or the L2 norm (giving the L2 sparse autoencoder). Denoising autoencoder (DAE) Denoising autoencoders (DAE) try to achieve a good representation by changing the reconstruction criterion. A DAE is defined by adding a noise process to the standard autoencoder. A noise process is defined by a probability distribution over functions . That is, the function takes a message , and corrupts it to a noisy version . The function is selected randomly, with a probability distribution . Given a task , the problem of training a DAE is the optimization problem:That is, the optimal DAE should take any noisy message and attempt to recover the original message without noise, thus the name "denoising". Usually, the noise process is applied only during training and testing, not during downstream use. The use of DAE depends on two assumptions: There exist representations to the messages that are relatively stable and robust to the type of noise we are likely to encounter; The said representations capture structures in the input distribution that are useful for our purposes. Example noise processes include: additive isotropic Gaussian noise, masking noise (a fraction of the input is randomly chosen and set to 0) salt-and-pepper noise (a fraction of the input is randomly chosen and randomly set to its minimum or maximum value). Contractive autoencoder (CAE) A contractive autoencoder adds the contractive regularization loss to the standard autoencoder loss:where measures how much contractive-ness we want to enforce. The contractive regularization loss itself is defined as the expected Frobenius norm of the Jacobian matrix of the encoder activations with respect to the input:To understand what measures, note the factfor any message , and small variation in it. Thus, if is small, it means that a small neighborhood of the message maps to a small neighborhood of its code. This is a desired property, as it means small variation in the message leads to small, perhaps even zero, variation in its code, like how two pictures may look the same even if they are not exactly the same. The DAE can be understood as an infinitesimal limit of CAE: in the limit of small Gaussian input noise, DAEs make the reconstruction function resist small but finite-sized input perturbations, while CAEs make the extracted features resist infinitesimal input perturbations. Minimal description length autoencoder Concrete autoencoder The concrete autoencoder is designed for discrete feature selection. A concrete autoencoder forces the latent space to consist only of a user-specified number of features. The concrete autoencoder uses a continuous relaxation of the categorical distribution to allow gradients to pass through the feature selector layer, which makes it possible to use standard backpropagation to learn an optimal subset of input features that minimize reconstruction loss. Variational autoencoder (VAE) Variational autoencoders (VAEs) belong to the families of variational Bayesian methods. Despite the architectural similarities with basic autoencoders, VAEs are architecture with different goals and with a completely different mathematical formulation. The latent space is in this case composed by a mixture of distributions instead of a fixed vector. Given an input dataset characterized by an unknown probability function and a multivariate latent encoding vector , the objective is to model the data as a distribution , with defined as the set of the network parameters so that . Advantages of depth Autoencoders are often trained with a single-layer encoder and a single-layer decoder, but using many-layered (deep) encoders and decoders offers many advantages. Depth can exponentially reduce the computational cost of representing some functions. Depth can exponentially decrease the amount of training data needed to learn some functions. Experimentally, deep autoencoders yield better compression compared to shallow or linear autoencoders. Training Geoffrey Hinton developed the deep belief network technique for training many-layered deep autoencoders. His method involves treating each neighboring set of two layers as a restricted Boltzmann machine so that pretraining approximates a good solution, then using backpropagation to fine-tune the results. Researchers have debated whether joint training (i.e. training the whole architecture together with a single global reconstruction objective to optimize) would be better for deep auto-encoders. A 2015 study showed that joint training learns better data models along with more representative features for classification as compared to the layerwise method. However, their experiments showed that the success of joint training depends heavily on the regularization strategies adopted. Applications The two main applications of autoencoders are dimensionality reduction and information retrieval, but modern variations have been applied to other tasks. Dimensionality reduction Dimensionality reduction was one of the first deep learning applications. For Hinton's 2006 study, he pretrained a multi-layer autoencoder with a stack of RBMs and then used their weights to initialize a deep autoencoder with gradually smaller hidden layers until hitting a bottleneck of 30 neurons. The resulting 30 dimensions of the code yielded a smaller reconstruction error compared to the first 30 components of a principal component analysis (PCA), and learned a representation that was qualitatively easier to interpret, clearly separating data clusters. Representing dimensions can improve performance on tasks such as classification. Indeed, the hallmark of dimensionality reduction is to place semantically related examples near each other. Principal component analysis If linear activations are used, or only a single sigmoid hidden layer, then the optimal solution to an autoencoder is strongly related to principal component analysis (PCA). The weights of an autoencoder with a single hidden layer of size (where is less than the size of the input) span the same vector subspace as the one spanned by the first principal components, and the output of the autoencoder is an orthogonal projection onto this subspace. The autoencoder weights are not equal to the principal components, and are generally not orthogonal, yet the principal components may be recovered from them using the singular value decomposition. However, the potential of autoencoders resides in their non-linearity, allowing the model to learn more powerful generalizations compared to PCA, and to reconstruct the input with significantly lower information loss. Information retrieval and Search engine optimization Information retrieval benefits particularly from dimensionality reduction in that search can become more efficient in certain kinds of low dimensional spaces. Autoencoders were indeed applied to semantic hashing, proposed by Salakhutdinov and Hinton in 2007. By training the algorithm to produce a low-dimensional binary code, all database entries could be stored in a hash table mapping binary code vectors to entries. This table would then support information retrieval by returning all entries with the same binary code as the query, or slightly less similar entries by flipping some bits from the query encoding. The encoder-decoder architecture, often used in natural language processing and neural networks, can be scientifically applied in the field of SEO (Search Engine Optimization) in various ways: Text Processing: By using an autoencoder, it's possible to compress the text of web pages into a more compact vector representation. This can help reduce page loading times and improve indexing by search engines. Noise Reduction: Autoencoders can be used to remove noise from the textual data of web pages. This can lead to a better understanding of the content by search engines, thereby enhancing ranking in search engine result pages. Meta Tag and Snippet Generation: Autoencoders can be trained to automatically generate meta tags, snippets, and descriptions for web pages using the page content. This can optimize the presentation in search results, increasing the Click-Through Rate (CTR). Content Clustering: Using an autoencoder, web pages with similar content can be automatically grouped together. This can help organize the website logically and improve navigation, potentially positively affecting user experience and search engine rankings. Generation of Related Content: An autoencoder can be employed to generate content related to what is already present on the site. This can enhance the website's attractiveness to search engines and provide users with additional relevant information. Keyword Detection: Autoencoders can be trained to identify keywords and important concepts within the content of web pages. This can assist in optimizing keyword usage for better indexing. Semantic Search: By using autoencoder techniques, semantic representation models of content can be created. These models can be used to enhance search engines' understanding of the themes covered in web pages. In essence, the encoder-decoder architecture or autoencoders can be leveraged in SEO to optimize web page content, improve their indexing, and enhance their appeal to both search engines and users. Anomaly detection Another application for autoencoders is anomaly detection. By learning to replicate the most salient features in the training data under some of the constraints described previously, the model is encouraged to learn to precisely reproduce the most frequently observed characteristics. When facing anomalies, the model should worsen its reconstruction performance. In most cases, only data with normal instances are used to train the autoencoder; in others, the frequency of anomalies is small compared to the observation set so that its contribution to the learned representation could be ignored. After training, the autoencoder will accurately reconstruct "normal" data, while failing to do so with unfamiliar anomalous data. Reconstruction error (the error between the original data and its low dimensional reconstruction) is used as an anomaly score to detect anomalies. Recent literature has however shown that certain autoencoding models can, counterintuitively, be very good at reconstructing anomalous examples and consequently not able to reliably perform anomaly detection. Image processing The characteristics of autoencoders are useful in image processing. One example can be found in lossy image compression, where autoencoders outperformed other approaches and proved competitive against JPEG 2000. Another useful application of autoencoders in image preprocessing is image denoising. Autoencoders found use in more demanding contexts such as medical imaging where they have been used for image denoising as well as super-resolution. In image-assisted diagnosis, experiments have applied autoencoders for breast cancer detection and for modelling the relation between the cognitive decline of Alzheimer's disease and the latent features of an autoencoder trained with MRI. Drug discovery In 2019 molecules generated with variational autoencoders were validated experimentally in mice. Popularity prediction Recently, a stacked autoencoder framework produced promising results in predicting popularity of social media posts, which is helpful for online advertising strategies. Machine translation Autoencoders have been applied to machine translation, which is usually referred to as neural machine translation (NMT). Unlike traditional autoencoders, the output does not match the input - it is in another language. In NMT, texts are treated as sequences to be encoded into the learning procedure, while on the decoder side sequences in the target language(s) are generated. Language-specific autoencoders incorporate further linguistic features into the learning procedure, such as Chinese decomposition features. Machine translation is rarely still done with autoencoders, due to the availability of more effective transformer networks. See also Representation learning Sparse dictionary learning Deep learning References Neural network architectures Unsupervised learning Dimension reduction

In telecommunication, a measuring receiver or measurement receiver is a calibrated laboratory-grade radio receiver designed to measure the characteristics of radio signals. The parameters of such receivers (tuning frequency, receiving bandwidth, gain) can usually be adjusted over a much wider range of values than is the case with other radio receivers. Their circuitry is optimized for stability and to enable calibration and reproducible results. Some measurement receivers also have especially robust input circuits that can survive brief impulses of more than 1000 V, as they can occur during measurements of radio signals on power lines and other conductors. Applications Measuring receivers are used with calibrated antennas to determine the signal-strength and standards-compliance of broadcast signals, investigate and quantify radio-frequency interference, determine compliance of a device with electromagnetic interference and TEMPEST standards and regulations. Measuring receivers are also used without antennas to calibrate RF attenuators and signal generators. Measuring receivers are widely used in metrology and calibration lab environments, spectrum monitoring and electromagnetic-compatibility facilities. Types Depending on the intended application area, several types of measuring receivers can be distinguished: Spectrum analyzers are intended to graphically display the amplitude spectrum of a radio signal on a logarithmic scale. Modulation analyzers are intended to accurately measure not only the signal power level, but also the degree of modulation (such as AM depth, FM/PM deviations), and modulation distortions. EMI receivers are designed to comply with the detailed equipment requirements of measurement standards for radio interference, such as the civilian specification CISPR 16-1-1 or the military specification MIL-STD 461. The EMI receiver has defined IF-Bandwidths (typically 200 Hz, 9 kHz, 120 kHz, 1 MHz) and standardized detector modes (peak, quasipeak, average, rms, CISPR-AV and CISPR-RMS, RMS-Average). They use a preselection for an improved dynamic range. Rohde & Schwarz holds the German Patent DE10126830B4 for RMS-Average Detector, which describes an implementation that allows to fulfill CISPR 16-1-1. Gauss Instruments builds EMI receivers that combine the novel technology of time-domain EMI measurement systems with traditional EMI Receivers. Time-domain EMI measurement systems and real-time EMI receiver are systems that perform a baseband sampling and simulate all the IF-Bandwidths and detectors digitally. Typically this is done via Short Time Fast Fourier Transform (STFFT). Such measurement systems emulate several thousand EMI receivers digitally in parallel. The most advanced instruments allow to speed up the measurement by a factor of 4000. Measurements can be performed according to the standards CISPR 16-1-1, MIL-STD 461 and DO-160. The benefit are extremely fast full compliance measurements. The measurements are performed with defined IF Bandwidths according to CISPR or MIL-STD 461F as well as DO160 and the detector modes (peak, quasipeak, average, rms, CISPR-AV and CISPR-RMS, RMS-Average). They use a preselection for an improved dynamic range. Gauss Instruments provides full compliance EMI Receivers with a real-time analysis bandwidth of 645 MHz with 2 parallel CISPR Detectors. Real-time Scanning over several GHz is also available on selected products. TEMPEST receivers are designed to comply with the requirements of measurement standards for compromising-emanations such as SDIP-27 or NSTISSAM TEMPEST/1-92. For example, their frequency range extends down to acoustic frequencies (typically 100 Hz), their bandwidth can be adjusted in 1-2-5 steps from a few hertz to more than 100 MHz, and their sensitivity and noise figure aims to be close to what is technically feasible. Some measuring receivers (such as Agilent’s N5531S and MXE or Rohde & Schwarz's FSMR and ESU) also include a signal analyzer, power meter, and a sensor module to allow the instruments to be used together or individually for general-purpose measurement tasks. The time-domain EMI measurement systems show additional features like weighted spectrogram mode, oscilloscope mode as well as measurement of discontinuous disturbance according to CISPR 14-1. Requirements for Compliance Testing Receivers that are used for compliance testing have to fulfill the basic emc standard CISPR 16-1-1. CISPR 16-1-1 defines requirements for indication of CW Signals and pulses. The amplitude range where these requirements are met is called CISPR indication range. Within this range the receiver can be used for compliance tests. Usually EMI receivers have a CISPR indication range that starts about 6dB above the noise floor. The performance usually demonstrated by a linearity check for sinusoidal signals and broadband pulses. This linearity check is performed over the amplitude range starting from typical levels of 10dBuV. Some EMI receivers, even if called full compliant have a CISPR indication range that starts at higher levels e.g. 40dBuV. Typically for such a receivers only one level e.g. 60dBuV is presented. A demonstration of CISPR compliance at lower levels cannot be demonstrated. See also Network analyzer (electrical) References External links Multi-page spectrum analyzer tutorial covering superheterodyne or swept frequency and FFT analyzers. Spectrum Analyzer / Measuring Receiver Tutorial and Basics Requirements of CISPR 16-1-1 Test Receivers, Spectrum Analyzers and FFT-Based Measuring Instruments Practical Approach to EMI Diagnostics EMI Test Receiving System - Lisun Electronic test equipment Receiver (radio) de:Messempfänger#Messempf.C3.A4nger

Train of Thought is the debut album of American hip hop duo Reflection Eternal, released October 17, 2000, on Rawkus Records. Collaborating as a duo, rapper Talib Kweli and DJ and hip hop producer Hi-Tek recorded the album during 1999 to 2000, following their individual musical work that gained notice in New York's underground scene during the late 1990s. Kweli had previously worked with rapper Mos Def as the duo Black Star, and Hi-Tek had served as producer on the duo's debut album. Critical reception Train of Thought was well received by music critics. Chicago Sun-Times writer Kyla Kyles said, "With a flurry of metaphors and below-the-basement underground beats, this train is on the right track. This disc proves that Kweli is a deep-thinking, gifted MC, and Hi Tek is an emerging wax master." AllMusic's Matt Conaway compared Reflection Eternal's music to the work of the Native Tongues collective, while writing that the album "houses enough merit to establish Talib as one of this generation's most poetic MCs". PopMatters writer Dave Heaton described Talib Kweli as "a hyper-articulate MC with a revolutionary's mind and a sensitive poet's heart, but he's also a world-class battle MC, able to rip other MCs' rhymes apart in a quick second". Kathryn Farr of Rolling Stone called Train of Thought "the rare socially aware hip-hop record that can get fists pumping in a rowdy nightclub". Pitchfork critic Sam Eccleston wrote of Kweli's boastful lyrics, "Kweli uses the rhythm as a foundation, building rambling, baroque rhyme structures on top of them, exhibiting his cock-eyed 'skills'. This kind of braggadocio doesn't weaken the effort in the same way his moralizing self-canonization does, if only because he can often back those claims up". Noah Callahan-Bever of Vibe shared a similar sentiment, writing "Reflection Eternals great weakness is Kweli's excessive preaching about the state of hip hop, but at least he cares". In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide (2004), Jon Caramanica called it "thick with fierce street raps ('Down for the Count' and 'Ghetto Afterlife'), maudlin soul ('Love Language'), and the type of insightful versifying Kweli has made his stock-in-trade ('Memories Live' and 'This Means You')". Track listing Sample credits Sample information for Train of Thought. Move Something "Shaft's Mama" by Charlie Whitehead This Means You "Cloud in My Sunshine" by Redbone Too Late "Reverie" by Tomita "Passepied" by Tomita Memories Live "I Can't Stand the Rain" by Ann Peebles "Carol Ann" by Soft Machine Ghetto Afterlife "Tomorrow I May Not Feel the Same" by Gene Chandler Love Language "Welcome" by Norman Connors Love Speakeasy "Welcome" by Norman Connors Soul Rebels "Funky Music" by Patti LaBelle Eternalists "Follow the Leader" by Eric B. & Rakim Big Del from Da Natti "Divided Reality" by Bo Hansson Good Mourning "Dizzy" by Hugo Montenegro "C.R.E.A.M." by Wu-Tang Clan Personnel Rick James - Producer Hi-Tek - Producer, Engineer, Executive Producer, Mixing Weldon Irvine - Keyboards, Producer Tracie - Background Vocals Owen Brown - Fiddle De La Soul - Performer Derrick Gardner - Trumpet Troy Hightower - Engineer, Mixing Kool G Rap - Performer Guy Snider - Engineer Teodross Avery - Saxophone Ken Ifill - Mixing Vinia Mojica - Vocals Les Nubians - Performer Xzibit - Performer Steve Souder - Mixing Chris Athens - Mastering Mos Def - Performer Talib Kweli - Vocals, Producer, Executive Producer Monique Walker - Background Vocals Carlisle Young - Mixing Rah Digga - Performer Asi - Design, Layout Design Rikki Stein - Liner Notes Bassi Kolo Percussion Group - Percussion Big Del - Background Vocals Crossfader Chris - Cutting Engineer Dave Dar - Engineer, Mixing Darcel - Background Vocals Donte - Background Vocals Katushia - Background Vocals Jerome Lagarrigue - Illustrations, Cover Illustration Little Tone - Background Vocals Neb Luv - Background Vocals Nonye - Vocals Tiye Phoenix - Vocals, Background Vocals Kendra Ross - Vocals, Background Vocals Imani Uzuri - Background Vocals, Vocal Arrangement Tiyi Willingham - Background Vocals Willo - Design, Layout Design Album singles Chart history Album Singles Notes References External links Reflection Eternal: Train of Thought at Discogs Album Review at RapReviews 2000 debut albums Talib Kweli albums Hi-Tek albums Rawkus Records albums Albums produced by Hi-Tek Albums recorded at Electric Lady Studios

The XAP processor is a RISC processor architecture developed by Cambridge Consultants since 1994. XAP processors are a family of 16-bit and 32-bit cores, all of which are intended for use in an application-specific integrated circuit or ASIC chip design. XAP processors were designed for use in mixed-signal integrated circuits for sensor or wireless applications including Bluetooth, Zigbee, GPS, RFID or Near Field Communication chips. Typically, these integrated circuits are used in low-cost, high-volume products that are battery-powered and must have low energy consumption. There are other applications where XAP processors have been used to good effect, such as wireless sensor networks and medical devices, e.g. hearing aids. The XAP soft microprocessor has been implemented in several on-chip design styles, including self-timed asynchronous circuit, 1-of-4 encoding, fully synchronous circuit, and FPGA. This makes it useful for making fair comparisons between on-chip design styles. History XAP1 The first XAP processor was XAP1, designed in 1994 and used for a number of wireless and sensor ASIC projects at Cambridge Consultants. It was a very small, 3,000-gate, Harvard architecture, 16-bit processor with a 16-bit data bus and an 18-bit instruction bus intended for running programs stored in on-chip read-only memory or ROM. Data and instructions were each addressed by separate 16-bit address bus. XAP2 A more powerful XAP2 was developed and used from 1999. It also had a Harvard architecture and 16-bit data, and it adopted a more conventional 16-bit instruction width suitable for program storage in Flash or other off-chip memories. Large programs were accommodated by a 24-bit address bus for instructions and there was a 16-bit address bus for data. XAP2 was a 12,000-gate processor with support for interrupts and a software tool chain including a C compiler and the XAPASM assembler for its assembly language. XAP2 was also used in Cambridge Consultants' ASIC designs, and it was also provided to other semiconductor companies as a semiconductor intellectual property core, or IP core. XAP2 was adopted by three fabless semiconductor companies that emerged from Cambridge Consultants: CSR plc (Cambridge Silicon Radio) is the main provider of Bluetooth chips for mobile phones and headsets; Ember Corporation is a leading supplier of Zigbee chips; and Cyan Technology supplies XAP2-powered microcontrollers. As a consequence and combined with other licensees and Cambridge Consultants’ ASIC projects, there are now over one billion (1,000 million) XAP processors in use worldwide. XAP3 XAP3 was an experimental 32-bit processor designed at Cambridge Consultants in 2003. It was optimised for low cost, low energy ASIC implementations using modern CMOS semiconductor process technologies. The instruction set was optimised for GNU GCC to achieve high code density. The XAP3 was the first of Cambridge Consultants’ processors to use a Von Neumann architecture with a logically shared address space for Program and Data. The physical program memory could be Flash or one-time programmable EPROM or SRAM. ASIC design was simplified by using a single memory where there was no need to pre-determine the split between Program (instructions) and Data at design time. The XAP3's instruction set with the GCC compiler produced very high code density. This reduced the size of the program memory, which reduced the chip unit cost and reduced the energy consumption. XAP4 In 2005, further project requirements saw a new 16-bit processor, the XAP4, designed to supersede the XAP2 taking into account the experience gained on XAP3 and the evolving requirements of ASIC designs. XAP4 is a very small, 12,000-gate, Von Neumann bus, 16-bit processor core capable of addressing a total of 64 Kbytes of memory for programs, data and peripherals. It offers high code density combined with good performance in the region of 50 Dhrystone MIPS when clocked at 80 MHz XAP4 was designed for use in modern ASIC or microcontroller applications capable of processing real-world data captured by an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) or similar sources. The processor's 16-bit integer word supports the precision of most ADCs without carrying the overhead of a 32-bit processor. XAP4 also offers a migration path from 8-bit processors, such as 8051, in applications that need increased performance and program size, but cannot justify the cost and overhead of a 32-bit processor. The XAP4 registers (all 16-bit) are; 8 General Purpose, Program Counter, Vector Pointer, FLAGS, INFO, BRKE, 2 Breakpoint. The XAP4 instructions are 16 and 32-bit. The XAP4 compile chain is based on GNU GCC and Binutils. XAP5 Development of an extended version of this architecture commenced in 2006 and resulted in the XAP5, which was announced in July 2008. XAP5 is a 16-bit processor with a 24-bit address bus making it capable of running programs from memory up to 16 MBytes. XAP4 and XAP5 are both implemented with a two-stage instruction pipeline, which maximises their performance when clocked at low frequencies. This is tailored to the requirements of small, low-energy ASICs as it minimises processor hardware size (the XAP5 core uses 18,000-gates), and it fits designs that are clocked relatively slowly to reduce an ASIC's dynamic power consumption and run programs direct from Flash or OTP memory that has a slow access time. Typical clock speeds for XAP5 are in the range of 16 to 100 MHz on a 0.13 process. XAP5 has particular design features making it suitable for executing programs from Flash including a Vector Pointer and an Address Translation Window, which combine to allow in-place execution of programs and relocation of programs regardless of where they are stored in physical memory. The XAP4 registers (16 and 24-bit) are; 8 General Purpose, Program Counter, Vector Pointer, FLAGS, INFO, BRKE, 4 Breakpoint. The XAP5 instructions are 16, 32 and 48-bit. The XAP5 compile chain is based on GNU GCC and Binutils. XAP6 XAP6 is a 32-bit processor and was launched in 2013. It has the same type of load-store architecture as the XAP4 and XAP5, but has 32-bit registers and 32-bit buses for Data and Address. The XAP6a implementation has a three-stage instruction pipeline. Like all the XAP processors, the XAP6 has been optimised for low-cost, low-energy and easy verification. XAP6 is tailored for small low-energy ASICs and minimises processor hardware size (the XAP6 core uses 30,000-gates). The XAP6 registers (all 32-bit) are; 8 General Purpose, Program Counter, Vector Pointer, Global Pointer, FLAGS, INFO, BRKE, 4 Breakpoint. The XAP6 instructions are 16, 32 and 48-bit. The XAP6 compile chain is based on GNU GCC and Binutils. Features XAP4, XAP5 and XAP6 are all designed with a load-store RISC architecture that is complemented with multi-cycle instructions for multiplication, division, block copy/store and function entry/exit for maximum efficiency. Cambridge Consultants’ engineers recognised the requirement for these processors to run real-time operating systems capable of handling pre-emptive events and with a fast interrupt response. Consequently the processors are designed with hardware and instruction set support for protected software operating modes that partition user code from privileged operating system and interrupt handler code. The XAP processor hardware manages the mode transitions and call stack in response to events and this approach ensures a fast and deterministic interrupt response. The protected operating modes enable a system on a chip to be designed that is a secure or trustworthy system and offers high availability. The current XAP processors are designed using the Verilog hardware description language and provided as RTL code ready for logic simulation and logic synthesis with a test bench. They are supported with Cambridge Consultants’ xIDE software development tools and SIF debug technology. These processors and tools enable functional verification and software verification that reduces the project risk, accelerates time-scales and cuts cost of ownership, especially for software engineering. References External links Cambridge Consultants homepage XAP information from Cambridge Consultants Embedded microprocessors

The Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing (, abbr: FER) is a faculty of the University of Zagreb. It is the largest technical faculty and the leading educational as well as research-and-development institution in the fields of electrical engineering and computing in Croatia. FER owns four buildings situated in the Zagreb neighbourhood of Martinovka, Trnje. The total area of the site is . , the Faculty employs more than 160 professors and 210 teaching and research assistants. In the academic year 2010/2011, the total number of students was about 3,800 in the undergraduate and graduate level, and about 450 in the PhD program. As of academic year 2004./2005., when the implementation of the Bologna process started at the University of Zagreb, the faculty has two baccalaureus programmes (each lasting 3 years): Electrical engineering and information technology Computing After receiving a bachelor's degree, students can take part in one of three master's programmes: Electrical engineering and information technology, with the following profiles: Audio Technologies and Electroacoustics Electrical Power Engineering Electronic and Computer Engineering Electronics Electric Machines, Drives and Automation Information and communication technology, with the following profiles: Control System and Robotics Information and Communication Engineering Communication and Space Technologies Computing, with the following profiles Software Engineering and Information Systems Computer Engineering Computational Modelling in Engineering Computer Science Network Science Data Science Organisation The Faculty comprises 12 academic departments: Applied Physics Applied Computing Applied Mathematics Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Measurements Electric Machines, Drives and Automation Energy and Power Systems Telecommunications Electronic Systems and Information Processing Control and Computer Engineering in Automation Electroacoustics Electronics, Microelectronics, Computer and Intelligent Systems Communication and Space Technologies History The Faculty of Electrical Engineering (, abbr: ETF) was formed on 1 July 1956 when the College of Engineering of the University of Zagreb was divided into ETF and three other new faculties. The faculty existed under this name until 7 February 1995 when it was renamed to its current name. In 1956, the first curriculum was formed, offering students programme called "Study of Electrical Engineering". The faculty was divided into two departments, one for weak current (Odjel za slabu struju) and another for the strong current (Odjel za jaku struju). This was later referred to as the ETF-1 programme. The Faculty changed its curriculum in 1967, when the ETF-2 curriculum introduced a division of studies into electrical power systems, electronics, electrical machinery and automation. In 1970, the ETF-3 curriculum introduced further specializations, such as nuclear power systems and computing. There was also an ETF-4 curriculum later. In 1994 name of the faculty changed, and the curriculum was changed from ETF-4 to FER-1. A separate study called "Study of Computing" was formed, so the faculty from then on offered two different degrees - one was the existing diplomirani inženjer elektrotehnike, or graduate engineer of electrical engineering, and the new one was diplomirani inženjer računarstva, or graduate engineer of computing. In 2004 FER-1 was transformed to FER-2, to conform to the Bologna process. This involved, among other things, changing the length of the essential course set from four semesters to two semesters, the renaming of the first study program to include the term information technology, and the reworking of the program subdivisions so that they each include five specialized modules. Starting with the academic year 2018./2019. the curriculum was changed from FER-2 to FER-3 and is mandatory for new students. Deans Anton Dolenc (1956–1957) Danilo Blanuša (1957–1958) Božidar Stefanini (1958–1959) Vatroslav Lopašić (1959–1960) Hrvoje Požar (1960–1962) Vladimir Matković (1962–1964) Radenko Wolf (1964–1966) Vladimir Muljević (1966–1968) Hrvoje Požar (1968–1970) Vojislav Bego (1970–1972) Zlatko Smrkić (1972–1974) Zvonimir Sirotić (1974–1976) Uroš Peruško (1976–1978) Ante Šantić (1978–1980) Berislav Jurković (1980–1982) Milan Šodan (1982–1984) Nedžat Pašalić (1984–1986) Leo Budin (1986–1988) Vladimir Naglić (1988–1990) Ivan Ilić (1990–1992) Danilo Feretić (1992–1994) Stanko Tonković (1994–1996) Stanko Tonković (1996–1998) Slavko Krajcar (1998–2000) Slavko Krajcar (2000–2002) Mladen Kos (2002–2004) Mladen Kos (2004–2006) Vedran Mornar (2006–2010) Nedjeljko Perić (2010–2014) Mislav Grgić (2014–2018) Gordan Gledec (2018–2022) Vedran Bilas (2022-current) Notable alumni Ante Marković, last prime minister of SFRJ Branko Jeren, Croatian minister of Science and Technology 1993-1995 Damir Boras, Rector of University of Zagreb since 2014- Vedran Mornar, Croatian minister of Science, Education and Sport 2013-2015 Notable professors Danilo Blanuša, a mathematician, inventor of second and third known snark (was dean of FER 1957-1958) KSET The Electrical Engineering Student Club (Croatian: Klub studenata elektrotehnike, abbr: KSET) is a student association founded by students of the Croatian Faculty of Electrical Engineering, and plays an active role in the social life of the University of Zagreb and Zagreb in general. The club is part of a larger building complex of its native faculty. References External links Homepage Homepage History and organization of ETF Electrical Engineering Engineering universities and colleges in Croatia Computer science departments Science and technology in Croatia Universities and colleges established in 1956 1950s establishments in Croatia 1956 establishments in Yugoslavia University and college buildings completed in 1956 Modernist architecture in Croatia Electrical engineering departments Electrical and computer engineering departments

is a Japanese chemical engineering and manufacturing company headquartered in Anan, Japan with global subsidiaries. It specializes in the manufacturing and distribution of phosphors, including light-emitting diodes (LEDs), laser diodes, battery materials, and calcium chloride. The Nichia Corporation comprises two divisions — Division 1, responsible for phosphors and other chemicals, and Division 2, responsible for LEDs. In the field of phosphors the company has 50% of the Japanese market and 25% of the world market. Nichia designs, manufactures, and markets LEDs for display, LCD backlighting, automotive and general lighting applications with the many different leds across the entire visible spectrum. Nichia’s invention and development of white LEDs have spanned several accomplishments throughout the history of the company. History The Nichia Corporation was founded in 1956 by Nobuo Ogawa (小川 信雄, 1912-2002) at Aratano-cho, Anan, Tokushima to produce calcium phosphate for fluorescent lamp phosphors. The majority ownership is still held by the Ogawa family today. In 1966, Nichia began production of phosphors for fluorescent lamps. In 1971, Nichia began production of phosphors for color TVs. In 1977, Nichia began the production of tri-color phosphors for fluorescent lamps. One of Nobuo Ogawa's more well-known decisions was to support Shuji Nakamura to do research on gallium nitride light-emitting diodes, when it was generally considered a very risky business. The research turned out to be a great success; however, the company received scrutiny for the small size of the ¥20,000 (US$180) bonus initially awarded to Nakamura for his 1993 invention of the first high brightness blue-light LED, which was based on gallium nitride. Nichia later settled out of court with Nakamura for ¥840 million (US$7 million), in what was then the highest bonus ever awarded by a Japanese company. Nichia supports financially a Polish company Ammono, which is the current (as of 2011) world leader in bulk Gallium Nitride (GaN) manufacturing of 2-inch diameter high quality bulk c-plane GaN substrates as well as non-polar M-plane, A-plane and semi-polar GaN wafer. Nichia funds a joint research project with Ammono to develop ammonothermal gallium nitride growth, and in return Nichia took a stake in Ammono’s intellectual property, as well as access to the crystals that were made. Several of Nichia's innovations have won awards, such as the Nikkei Best Products Award. Major competitors Nichia Corporation's competitors include Seoul Semiconductor, Cree, Everlight Electronics, Lumileds, Epistar and Osram. Litigation In January 2006, Nichia launched a lawsuit against rival LED manufacturer Seoul Semiconductor Co., Ltd., alleging design patent infringement. Nichia and Seoul Semiconductor announced that they have settled all litigation on patent and other issues as well as other legal disputes currently pending between them in the United States, Germany, Japan, United Kingdom, and Korea. The settlement includes a cross license agreement covering LED and laser diode technologies, which will permit the companies to access all of each other's patented technologies. In accordance with the settlement terms, all litigations are to be terminated by mutual withdrawal, with the exception of litigation in Germany involving patent DE 691-07-630 T2 of EP 0-437-385 B1, which was resolved following a February 2009 hearing. References External links Millennium Prize - Top prize for 'light' inventor Chemical companies of Japan Electronics companies of Japan Light-emitting diode manufacturers Companies based in Tokushima Prefecture Chemical companies established in 1956 Japanese brands Electronics companies established in 1956 Japanese companies established in 1956

The .NET Micro Framework (NETMF) is a .NET Framework platform for resource-constrained devices with at least 512 kB of flash and 256 kB of random-access memory (RAM). It includes a small version of the .NET Common Language Runtime (CLR) and supports development in C#, Visual Basic .NET, and debugging (in an emulator or on hardware) using Microsoft Visual Studio. NETMF features a subset of the .NET base class libraries (about 70 classes with about 420 methods), an implementation of Windows Communication Foundation (WCF), a GUI framework loosely based on Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF), and a Web Services stack based on Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) and Web Services Description Language (WSDL). NETMF also features added libraries specific to embedded applications. It is free and open-source software released under Apache License 2.0. The Micro Framework aims to make embedded development easier, faster, and less costly by giving embedded developers access to the modern technologies and tools used by desktop application developers. Also, it allows desktop .NET developers to use their skills in embedded systems, enlarging the pool of qualified embedded developers. The Micro Framework is part of the .NET Foundation. Announced at the Build 2014 conference, the foundation was created as an independent forum to foster open development and collaboration around the growing set of open-source technologies for .NET. Features Relative to other .NET platforms, the unique features of the Micro Framework are: Memory needs of about 300 kB; in contrast, the next smallest .NET implementation, the .NET Compact Framework running on Windows CE, needs about 12 MB Can run directly on a bare machine with no operating system, or can run on an operating system (OS) Supports common embedded peripherals and interconnects, including flash memory, EEPROM, GPIO, I2C, Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI), serial port, USB Optimized for energy-efficiency in battery-powered devices Needs no memory management unit Provides multithreading support even when running on single-threaded operating systems A hardware abstraction layer allows porting to other architectures A managed device driver model allows drivers for many devices to be written in C# Execution constraints to catch device lockups and crashes Transparent support for storing objects in non-volatile memory Due to the constraints under which it operates, the Micro Framework does have some limits beyond those imposed by its slimmed-down libraries. For example, the platform does not support symmetric multiprocessing, multidimensional arrays, machine-dependent types, or unsafe instructions. The CLR is an interpreter rather than a just-in-time compiler, and uses a simpler mark-and-sweep garbage collector instead of a generational method. An ahead-of-time compiler is being developed using a modified LLVM compiler. Interoperation between managed and native code currently has several limitations. As of 2011, Micro Framework supported two .NET languages: C# and Visual Basic. Support As of 2013, the .NET Micro Framework was supported on ARM architecture processors (including ARM7, ARM9, and Cortex-M) and has been supported on Analog Devices Blackfin in the past. The Porting Kit is now available along with the source code as a free download under the Apache License 2.0 at the Microsoft Download Center. The Micro Framework has its roots in Microsoft's Smart Personal Objects Technology (SPOT) initiative and was used in MSN Direct products such as smart watches before being made available to third-party developers early in 2007. It is a common platform for Windows SideShow devices and has been adopted in other markets, such as energy management, healthcare, industrial automation, and sensor networks. Microsoft allows developers to create applications using the Micro Framework without charge, and makes a software development kit (SDK) available for free download that can be used with all versions of Visual Studio, including the free Express editions. History In November 2009, Microsoft released the source code of the Micro Framework to the development community as free and open-source software under the Apache License 2.0. In January 2010, Microsoft launched the netmf.com community development site to coordinate ongoing development of the core implementation with the open-source community. On 9 January 2010, GHI Electronics announced FEZ Domino, the first member of the product line called FEZ (Freakin' Easy!), a combination of open-source hardware with a proprietary closed-source version of .NET Micro Framework. On 3 August 2010, Secret Labs announced the Netduino, the first all-open-source electronics platform using the .NET Micro Framework. In February 2011, Novell posted a preview of the Mono 2.12 C# compiler, the first open-source compiler for .NET Micro Framework. On 23 January 2017, after numerous attempts ( and ) to revive .NET Microframework project and bring it to community governance and a period of work "in the dark", a group of embedded systems developers publicly announced .NET nanoFramework as spin-off of .NET Micro Framework. A major rework on the build system, an easier way of adding new targets, a modernized API following UWP, a Visual Studio extension with all the tools required for managing targets, full development experience from coding to debugging on the native code and support for ARM Cortex-M and ESP32 were the key differences at that time. On 12 October 2018 the first official release of the class libraries and firmware images was announced. On 2020-06-17 the developers announced release of nanoFramework On 16 December 2016, GHI Electronics announced their own implementation of Micro Framework called TinyCLR OS, citing lack of maintenance of NETMF by Microsoft. On 7 July 2017 GHI announced 5th preview of TinyCLR OS. On 2 February 2018 GHI announced 8th preview of TinyCLR OS. On 5 April 2018 GHI announced 10th preview of TinyCLR OS. As of 2023, only nanoFramework and TinyCLR OS continue development of a framework that can run .NET code on a microcontroller. Hardware Multiple vendors make chips, development kits, and more that run the Micro Framework. Netduino by Wilderness Labs Netduino is an open-source electronics platform using the Micro Framework. Originally created by Secret Labs, but now manufactured and maintained by Wilderness Labs Inc. Based on 168Mhz Cortex-M4 (STM32F4) with up to 1,408 KB of code storage and 164 KB of RAM. On-board USB, Ethernet, Wifi, SD card slot. Development environment is MS Visual Studio and C#. Pin compatible with Arduino shields although drivers are required for some shields. GHI Electronics GHI Electronics makes several modules that support the Micro Framework: EMX Module ChipworkX Module USBizi144 Chipset and USBizi100, whose only difference is the lack of USB host support in the USBizi100 GHI Electronics also makes the .NET FEZ line of very small open-source hardware boards with proprietary firmware, targeted for beginners. They are based on the USBizi chipset and all its features. The FEZ Domino board offers USB host. Even though FEZ is for beginners, it is also a low-cost starting point for professionals wanting to explore NETMF. Some of these boards are physically compatible with the Arduino. GHI Electronics does not recommend to use its Micro Framework-based devices for new designs and instead recommends its TinyCLR-based devices. Mountaineer boards Mountaineer boards, part of the Mountaineer Group, used to make a small range of open-source open-hardware boards that make use of the Micro Framework. Mountaineer have ported the Micro Framework for use on the STM32 family of microcontrollers featured on their Mountaineer boards and elsewhere. STMicroelectronics STMicroelectronics, creators of the microcontroller family STM32, make low-cost discovery boards to showcase the controllers, and provides ports of the Micro Framework to run on them. Netmfdevices Netmfdevices was an open-source electronics platform using FEZHacker and .NET Micro Framework. Micromint The Micromint Bambino 200 is the first multi-core processor SBC compatible with the .NET Gadgeteer framework. The model 200 is powered by an NXP LPC4330, the first dual-core ARM Cortex-M microcontroller. Its Cortex-M4 and Cortex-M0 cores are both capable of 204 MHz. It has 264 KB SRAM onboard and 4 MB of flash. The model 200E has all the same features as the model 200, and increased flash memory to 8 MB, 10 Gadgeteer sockets, an Ethernet port, microSD socket, and other features. .NET Gadgeteer devices Several manufacturers make boards and modules compatible with the .NET Gadgeteer rapid-prototyping standard for the framework. See also DirectBand .NET Compact Framework .NET Framework References External links Micro Framework Free computer libraries Microsoft free software Software using the Apache license 2007 software Windows-only free software

was a pioneering Japanese photographer, artist, lithographer and teacher. Yokoyama was born Yokoyama Bunroku () in Iturup (then under Japanese control) on 10 October 1838. Early in his life, Yokoyama and his family moved to Hakodate, where in 1854 he was first exposed to photography on seeing daguerreotypes by Eliphalet Brown, Jr. and A. F. Mozhaiskii. At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to a kimono dealer, and during this time developed an interest in painting. A few years later, as an assistant to the Russian painter Lehman, he was exposed to Western painting styles and helped sketch the surroundings of the Russian Consulate in Hakodate. With a view to improving his landscape painting, Yokoyama started to learn photography. He travelled to Yokohama and studied photography under Shimooka Renjō, then returned to Hakodate and studied under the Russian consul, I. A. Goshkevich. In 1868 Yokoyama opened his own commercial photographic studio in Yokohama. That same year he moved his studio to Ryōgoku (in Tokyo), naming it Tsūten-rō (); some time later, he moved Tsūten-rō a short distance to Ueno Ikenohata). In 1868, Yokoyama met Ninagawa Noritane, an official in the Meiji government, who commissioned him to photograph Edo Castle, before its imminent reconstruction, and the Imperial treasures housed in the Shōsōin. The project was completed between 1871 and 1872 and some of the resulting work was published in 1872 as an album of 64 photographs titled Kyū-Edo-jō Shashin-chō (, Photograph Album of the former Edo Castle) and republished as an album of 73 photographs in 1878 under the title Kanko Zusetsu, Jokakau-no-bu (History and description of Japanese arts and industries, part one, the castle). Some of Yokoyama's photographs of Japanese art works were presented at the 1873 Vienna Exposition. Yokoyama was the first Japanese photographer to seriously pursue stereographic photography. An early photograph of his studio equipment shows seven cameras, of which two are stereographic. By 1869 Yokoyama, accompanied by friends and students, was travelling throughout Japan to make stereoviews. He produced at least three series of views that were published at the time, but that are now very hard to find. According to photography historian Rob Oechsle, Yokoyama's are the only notable Japanese-made stereographic series from the early Meiji period; they were taken from 1869 through the 1870s. In 1870, Shimooka Renjō invited Yokoyama to join him in photographing Mount Nikkō-Shirane. The resulting photographs, under both their names, were subsequently presented to the Tokugawa clan. Yokoyama opened an art school in 1873 whose students included such painters as Kamei Shiichi, Kamei Takejiro and Yamada Nariaki, and such photographers as Azusawa Ryōichi, Kikuchi Shingaku, Nakajima Matsuchi, and Suzuki Shin'ichi. In 1876, he gave the rights to his studio to his assistant Oda Nobumasa and became a lecturer at the Japanese Military Academy, lecturing on photography and lithography. In 1881, a recurrence of his tuberculosis, first caught around the age of fifteen, forced him to leave his post at the Military Academy. Nevertheless, he then founded the Shashin Sekiban-sha (Photolithography Company), he continued to paint, and about this time he created what he called shashin abura-e ( in the orthography of the time, now) or "photographic oil-paintings", in which the paper support of a photograph was cut away and oil paints then applied to the remaining emulsion. Yokoyama produced a number of works using this technique. Yokoyama died in Tokyo on 15 October 1884. In addition to his landscapes and portraits, Yokoyama is noted for his self-portraits, and his works include paintings, large format albumen prints (monochrome and hand-coloured), and shashin abura-e. He produced studio souvenir albums, some of which have survived to this day. A biography of Yokoyama was written in 1887. Notes References Bennett, Terry. Photography in Japan: 1853–1912. Rutland, Vt: Charles E. Tuttle, 2006. (hard) Nihon no shashinka () / Biographic Dictionary of Japanese Photography. Tokyo: Nichigai Associates, 2005. . Despite the English-language alternative title, all in Japanese. Oechsle, Rob. 'Stereoviews—Index of Japan–Related Stereoview Photographers and Publishers, 1859–1912'. In Bennett, Terry. Old Japanese Photographs: Collector's Data Guide London: Quaritch, 2006. (hard) Union List of Artist Names, s.v. "Yokoyama, Matsusaburo". Accessed 10 September 2006. Yokoe, Fuminori. 'Part 3-3. Yokoyama Matsusaburo (1838-1884).' In The Advent of Photography in Japan/Shashin torai no koro, Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography, and Hakodate Museum of Art, Hokkaido, eds. (Tokyo: Tokyo Metropolitan Foundation for History and Culture; Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography; Hokkaido: Hakodate Museum of Art, 1997), 182-183. Yokoe, Fuminori. 'Yokoyama Matsusaburō'. Nihon shashinka jiten () / 328 Outstanding Japanese Photographers. Kyoto: Tankōsha, 2000. . P.327. Despite the English-language alternative title, all in Japanese. 1838 births 1884 deaths Architectural photographers Japanese lithographers Japanese portrait photographers

Transform, clipping, and lighting (T&L or TCL) is a term used in computer graphics. Overview Transformation is the task of producing a two-dimensional view of a three-dimensional scene. Clipping means only drawing the parts of the scene that will be present in the picture after rendering is completed. Lighting is the task of altering the colour of the various surfaces of the scene on the basis of lighting information. Hardware Hardware T&L had been used by arcade game system boards since 1993, and by home video game consoles since the Sega Genesis's Virtua Processor (SVP), Sega Saturn's SCU-DSP and Sony PlayStation's GTE in 1994 and the Nintendo 64's RSP in 1996, though it wasn't traditional hardware T&L, but still software T&L running on a coprocessor instead of the main CPU, and could be used for rudimentary programmable pixel and vertex shaders as well. More traditional hardware T&L would appear on consoles with the GameCube and Xbox in 2001 (the PS2 still using a vector coprocessor for T&L). Personal computers implemented T&L in software until 1999, as it was believed faster CPUs would be able to keep pace with demands for ever more realistic rendering. However, 3D computer games of the time were producing increasingly complex scenes and detailed lighting effects much faster than the increase of CPU processing power. Nvidia's GeForce 256 was released in late 1999 and introduced hardware support for T&L to the consumer PC graphics card market. It had faster vertex processing not only due to the T&L hardware, but also because of a cache that avoided having to process the same vertex twice in certain situations. While DirectX 7.0 (particularly Direct3D 7) was the first release of that API to support hardware T&L, OpenGL had supported it much longer and was typically the purview of older professionally oriented 3D accelerators which were designed for computer-aided design (CAD) instead of games. S3 Graphics launched the Savage 2000 accelerator in late 1999, shortly after GeForce 256, but S3 never developed working Direct3D 7.0 drivers that would have enabled hardware T&L support. Usefulness Hardware T&L did not have broad application support in games at the time (mainly due to Direct3D games transforming their geometry on the CPU and not being allowed to use indexed geometries), so critics contended that it had little real-world value. Initially, it was only somewhat beneficial in a few OpenGL-based 3D first-person shooter titles of the time, most notably Quake III Arena. 3dfx and other competing graphics card companies contended that a fast CPU would make up for the lack of a T&L unit. ATI's initial response to GeForce 256 was the dual-chip Rage Fury MAXX. By using two Rage 128 chips, each rendering an alternate frame, the card was able to somewhat approach the performance of SDR memory GeForce 256 cards, but the GeForce 256 DDR still retained the top speed. ATI was developing their own GPU at the time known as the Radeon which also implemented hardware T&L. 3dfx's Voodoo5 5500 did not have a T&L unit but it was able to match the performance of the GeForce 256, although the Voodoo5 was late to market and by its release it could not match the succeeding GeForce 2 GTS. STMicroelectronics' PowerVR Kyro II, released in 2001, was able to rival the costlier ATI Radeon DDR and NVIDIA GeForce 2 GTS in benchmarks of the time, despite not having hardware transform and lighting. As more and more games were optimised for hardware transform and lighting, the KYRO II lost its performance advantage and is not supported by most modern games. Futuremark's 3DMark 2000 heavily utilized hardware T&L, which resulted in the Voodoo 5 and Kyro II both scoring poorly in the benchmark tests, behind budget T&L video cards such as the GeForce 2 MX and Radeon SDR. Industry standardization By 2000, only ATI with their comparable Radeon 7xxx series, would remain in direct competition with Nvidia's GeForce 256 and GeForce 2. By the end of 2001, all discrete graphics chips would have hardware T&L. Support of hardware T&L assured the GeForce and Radeon of a strong future, unlike its Direct3D 6 predecessors which relied upon software T&L. While hardware T&L does not add new rendering features, the extra performance allowed for much more complex scenes and an increasing number of games recommended it anyway to run at optimal performance. GPUs that support T&L in hardware are usually considered to be in the DirectX 7.0 generation. After hardware T&L had become standard in GPUs, the next step in computer 3D graphics was DirectX 8.0 with fully programmable vertex and pixel shaders. Nonetheless, many early games using DirectX 8.0 shaders, such as Half-Life 2, made that feature optional so DirectX 7.0 hardware T&L GPUs could still run the game. For instance, the GeForce 256 was supported in games up until approximately 2006, in games such as Star Wars: Empire at War. References 3D rendering Clipping (computer graphics)

Indian Institute of Technology Madras (popularly known as IITM or IIT Madras) is a public technical university located in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. It is selected as one of the 8 public Institutes of Eminence of India. As one of the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), it is recognized as an Institute of National Importance. Founded in 1959 with technical and financial assistance from the former government of West Germany, it was the third Indian Institute of Technology established by the Government of India. IIT Madras is ranked the top engineering institute in India by the Ministry of Education's National Institutional Ranking Framework since its inception in 2016. IIT Madras secured the first spot with a score of 90.04 in the National Institute Ranking Framework. History In 1956, the West German Government offered technical assistance for establishing an institute of higher education in engineering in India. The first Indo-German agreement was signed in Bonn, West Germany in 1959 for the establishment of the Indian Institute of Technology at Madras. IIT Madras was started with technical, academic and financial assistance from the Government of West Germany and was at the time the largest international educational project sponsored by the West German government. The Government of the Federal Republic of Germany has agreed to provide the following assistance in the establishment of a higher technological institute at Madras: A workshop, laboratory equipment, and a library whose total value does not exceed ₹1.8 crore (equivalent to ₹166 crores or $20 million in 2023) . Twenty German professors to serve at the Institute for a period of four to five years Four German foremen for the workshops of the Institute for 2 years Facilities for the training of twenty Indian teachers in German institutions This has led to several collaborative research efforts with universities and institutions in Germany over the years. Although official support from the German government has ended, several research efforts involving the DAAD programme and Humboldt Fellowships still exist. The Indian Institute of Technology, Madras started functioning with the first batch of 120 students being admitted in July 1959 to the first year of the Engineering Course. The institute was inaugurated in 1959, by the then Union Minister for Scientific Research and Cultural Affairs. The first batch had an overall strength of 120 students from across India. In 1961, the IITs were declared to be Institutes of National Importance. The first convocation ceremony was held on 11 July 1964, with Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, then the President of India, delivering the convocation address and awarding the degrees to the inaugural batch of students. The institute got its first women students in the BTech batch of 1966. IIT Madras celebrated its Golden Jubilee in 2009, and its Diamond Jubilee in 2019. Campus The main entrance of IIT Madras is on Sardar Patel Road, flanked by the residential districts of Adyar and Velachery. The campus is close to the Raj Bhavan, the official seat of the Governor of Tamil Nadu. Other entrances are located in Velachery (near Anna Garden MTC bus stop, Velachery Main Road), Gandhi Road and Taramani gate (close to Ascendas Tech Park). The campus is located from the Chennai Airport, from the Chennai Central Railway station, and is connected by city buses. Kasturba Nagar is the nearest station on the Chennai MRTS line. Two parallel roads, Bonn Avenue and Delhi Avenue, cut through the faculty residential area before they meet at the Gajendra Circle, near the Administrative Block. Buses regularly ply between the Main Gate, Gajendra Circle, the Academic Zone, and the Hostel Zone. It is likely to set up an offshore campus in Tanzania in Africa as part of the Central govt's IIT expansion plans in abroad. In July 2023, education officials of India and Tanzania said that an IIT Madras satellite campus in the Tanzanian autonomous territory of Zanzibar would begin offering classes in October 2023. Student Hostels Most students at IIT Madras reside in hostels, where extracurricular activities complement the academic routine. The campus has 20 hostels, of which four, Sharavati, Sarayu, Sabarmati and the recently constructed Tunga are exclusively for women. In earlier times, each hostel had attached dining facilities but all of them have since been closed down. Dining facilities are provided in three centralised halls: Nilgiri, Vindhya and Himalaya. Students are assigned to hostels upon matriculation, where they usually reside for the entire duration of their course of study. The halls of IITM are: International hostel under construction, name to be announced Sindhu, Pampa, Mahanadhi and Tamiraparani are seven-storeyed whereas all the other hostels are three or four storeyed. These four hostels can accommodate more than 1,200 students. The older hostels were all three-storeyed till the early 2000s when extra rooms were added. An additional new floor in the three-storeyed hostels which generally house the undergraduate students and a new block in place of the mess halls of these hostels have been constructed to accommodate for the increased intake of the students. These new blocks could be used as entrances for these hostels. As of 2022, old Mandakini has been demolished and a new multi-storey block opened, with provision to accommodate approximately 1200 students. Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) will open its first-ever overseas campus in Tanzania's Zanzibar in October 2023 with a batch of 50 undergraduate students and 20 master's students. Facilities IIT Madras provides residential accommodation for its students, faculty, administrative and supporting staff, and their families. The residential houses employ private caterers. The self-contained campus includes two schools (Vanavani and Kendriya Vidyalaya), three temples (Jalakanteshwara, Durga Peliamman and Ganapathi), three bank branches (SBI, ICICI, Canara Bank), a hospital, shopping centres, food shops, a gym, sleeping room and cricket, football, hockey and badminton stadiums. Internet is available in the academic zone and the faculty and staff residential zone. Earlier Internet was limited in hostel-zone from 2:00 pm till midnight and from 5:00 am to 8:00 am, but increasing demand during academic semester led to round-the-clock Internet service. IIT Madras also has supercomputing capability, with the IBM Virgo Super Cluster with 97 teraflops worth of computational power. Organisation and administration Governance IIT Madras is an autonomous statutory organisation functioning within the Institutes of Technology Act. The twenty three IITs are administered centrally by the IIT Council, an apex body established by the Government of India. The Minister of Human Resources and Development is the chairman of the council. Each institute has a Board of Governors responsible for its administration and control. The Finance Committee advises on matters of financial policy, while the Building and Works Committee advises on buildings and infrastructure. The Senate comprises all professors of the Institute and decides its academic policy. It controls and approves the curriculum, courses, examinations, and results. It appoints committees to examine specific academic matters. The Director of the institute serves as the Chairman of the Senate. The current director (appointed in 2022) is Kamakoti Veezhinathan, who obtained his Ph.D. and M.S in CSE from IIT Madras. Three Senate Sub-Committees – The Board of Academic Research, The Board of Academic Courses and The Board of Students – help in academic administration and in the operations of the institute. The Board of Industrial Consultancy and Sponsored Research addresses industrial consultancy and the Library Advisory Committee oversees library matters. Departments IIT Madras has the following departments Aerospace Engineering Applied Mechanics Biotechnology(Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences) Chemical Engineering Chemistry Civil Engineering Computer Science and Engineering (CSE) Electrical Engineering (EE) Engineering Design Humanities and Social Sciences (HSS) Management Studies (DOMS) Mathematics (MA) Mechanical Engineering (ME) Medical Science and Technology (MST) Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Ocean Engineering Physics Academics IIT Madras offers undergraduate, postgraduate and research degrees across 17 disciplines in Engineering, Science, Humanities and Management. About 600 faculty belonging to science and engineering departments and centres of the Institute are engaged in teaching, research and industrial consultancy. The institute has 16 academic departments and advanced research centres across disciplines of engineering and pure sciences, with nearly 100 laboratories. The academic calendar is organised around the semester. Each semester provides a minimum of seventy days of instruction in English. Students are evaluated on a continuous basis throughout the semester. Evaluation is done by the faculty, a consequence of the autonomous status granted to the institute. Research work is evaluated on the basis of the review thesis by peer examiners both from within the country and abroad. Ordinances that govern the academic programme of study are prepared by the Senate, the highest academic body within the institute. IITM is also gearing up to launch a new and completely online BEd degree programme in Maths and Computing to improve maths teaching in schools, as said by the Director at the G20 seminar at IIT Madras. Grading System and Student Evaluation The Indian Institutes of Technology have strict rules for grading. Depending on the course the evaluation is based on participation in class, attendance, quizzes, exams and/or papers. Continuous evaluation is done by course instructors. The Evaluation System of IIT Madras which is also used in other IITs is the Cumulative Grade Point Average with a scale from 0 to 10 which is converted to letters: CGPA then gets calculated as the cumulative credit-weighted average of the grade points: CGPA = (Σ Ci • GPi) / (Σ Ci) where: N is the number of courses Ci is credits for the ith course GPi is grade points for the ith course CGPA is the cumulative grade point average The CGPA is not the same as the one commonly used in the United States. In India some credits might be awarded during Bachelor studies for Co-curricular and Extra-curricular Activities, while during the Master Programme this is not allowed. Through agreements with numerous international organisations, IIT grades are accepted from many international organisations like NTU, NUS and DAAD. Additionally, the attendance of the students is evaluated with VG for very good (always present), G for good (not present every lecture) and P for poor (student was present less than 85% of lectures). Admission tests For the undergraduate curriculum, admission to the BTech and Dual Degree (BSc + MSc or BTech + MTech) programme is done through the Joint Entrance Examination – Advanced (JEE-Advanced). IIT Madras conducted JEE Advanced in 2017. Admission criteria to the five-year integrated Master of Arts (MA) programme is changed as Humanities and Social Sciences Entrance Examination (HSEE), an IIT Madras specific exam is not conducted from 2023. Admissions to the 4 year BS degree programme for in Data Science and Applications are done through 2 channels: JEE and their own entrance test (which is held in CBT mode across various TCS exam centres, same as any other competitive exam is held in India) called the Qualifier exam which includes questions from Computational Thinking, Mathematics, Statistics and English. For the postgraduate curriculum, admission to the MTech and MS programmes are through the Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE); after 2022, with the discontinuation of 5 year integrated MA program and the same becoming a 2-year PG program, admissions is through GATE for the MA program also. The Joint Admission Test to MSc (JAM) is the entrance exam for the two-year MSc programme, and other post BSc programmes. MBA candidates are accepted through the Common Admission Test (CAT). Academic research programmes The institute has departments and advanced research centres across the disciplines of engineering and the pure sciences, and nearly 100 laboratories. Research programmes concern work undertaken by faculty members or specific research groups within departments that award an MS or PhD degree. Research is carried out by scholars admitted into these departmental programmes, under the guidance of their faculty. Each department makes known its areas of interest to the academic community through handbooks, brochures and bulletins. Topics of interest may be theoretical or experimental. IIT Madras has initiated 16 inter-disciplinary research projects against identified focus areas. Partnership with other universities The institute maintains academic friendship with educational institutes around the world through faculty exchange programmes. The institute has signed Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) with foreign universities, resulting in cooperative projects and assignments. The list of partners includes Auckland University of Technology, Massey University, Durham University, Sydney University, University of Colombo and other prestigious universities around the world. Rankings Internationally, IIT Madras was ranked 250 in the QS World University Rankings of 2023 and 53 in Asia. It was ranked 701–800 in the world by the Academic Ranking of World Universities of 2022. IIT Madras was also ranked 1st in the overall category, 2nd among research institutions, 1st among engineering colleges and 15th among management schools in India by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2023. Outlook India ranked IIT Madras 1st among government engineering colleges in 2022. IIT Madras was ranked 4th in the QS India Rankings of 2020. IIT Madras BS in Data Science won Silver in the Wharton (University of Pennsylvania) - QS Reimagine Education Awards Industrial Consultancy and Sponsored Research (ICSR) Through industrial consultancy, faculty and staff undertake industry assignments that may include project design, testing and evaluation, or training in new areas of industrial development. Industries and organisations like the Indian Ordnance Factories, reach out to the IIT faculty to undertake assignments channeled through the Centre For Industrial Consultancy and Sponsored Research (ICSR). National organisations sponsor programmes of research by funding projects undertaken by the faculty. Such research is time bound and allows project participants to register for a degree. Project proposals are usually prepared by the IIT faculty and forwarded to interested organisations, based on the nature of their research and their interest to fund such projects. Sponsored projects are often vehicles for new resources within departments, and often permit their project staff to register for academic degrees in the institute. All sponsored research activities at the institute are coordinated by ICSR. National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL) To improve the quality of higher education in India, IIT Madras came up with an initiative called NPTEL (National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning) in the year 2003. As per this initiative, all the IITs, along with the IISc Bangalore would come up with a series of video lecture based courses across all the streams of engineering. This initiative has gained wide popularity in India and the lectures are being used by several engineering students from across India. It is the largest online repository in the world of courses in engineering, basic sciences and selected humanities and social sciences subjects. IITM Research Park IITM Research Park is India's first university-based research park. The Research Park functions to promote innovation in established companies and provide a nurturing ecosystem to startups through incubation efforts and technical infrastructure. Following its success, 50 research parks were planned as part of the Start Up India initiative of the Central Government of India. Corporate clients of IIT Madras Research park include Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Saint-Gobain and Forbes Marshall. Ather Energy, Hyperverge, Gyandata and Healthcare Technology Innovation Centre(Sponsored by Department of Biotechnology, Government of India) are some of the startups and centers incubated at the Research Park. The Research Park is a prime driver for the very large number of startups incubated at IIT Madras. IOE-IITM Research Initiatives As an Institute of Eminence, IITM has opened various research centres that include important domains like artificial intelligence and data sciences, big networks, complex systems, chemistry, earth sciences, math and cyber security, ocean technology, quantum science and technology and sensing and vision, etc. Pravartak IITM Pravartak is funded by the Department of Science and Technology, GOI, under its National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems, and it's hosted as a Technology Innovation Hub (TIH) by IIT Madras. It focuses on Technology, Entrepreneurship and Human resource skill development through various initiatives. It provides hands on programmes, hybrid courses like Out of the Box thinking in Maths, Winter school on Advanced Quantum Computing, Wireless Networks, Blockchains and others. Modern and Advanced Courses BS Degree in Data Science and Applications The institute launched the world's first 4-year full time UG Bachelor of Science degree (BS) program in Data Science and Applications in 2022 (which is one of the best & quality under-grad degrees in the field of AI/ML/DS in the world) with unique flexible exit options as per the NEP, which was earlier a virtual 3 year BSc degree programme in Programming and Data science (POD) (in 2020). The program is rigorous in its delivery, just as any other program from IIT Madras. The 142 credit program consists of three levels - Foundation (32 credits), Diploma (54 credits), and Degree (56 credits). and a total of 36 theory courses and 4 project courses. The degree programme is currently being run in a hybrid mode with the course-wise best of the faculty members across India. The renowned faculty from the 1st year of this Data science dept. include faculty Madhavan Mukund (Director, Chennai Mathematical Institute), Rajesh Kumar (Professor, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, IIT Madras), Andrew Thangaraj (Professor, Electrical Engineering Department, IIT Madras), Sudarshan Iyengar (Associate Professor & HOD, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, IIT Ropar), and several more faculty, instructors and mentors from IITs and other renowned and eminent institutions. The IIT Madras BS in DSA currently follows a tri-mester academic system, where each academic year is divided into 3 terms (i.e. 3 semesters) each of 4 months duration: Jan-April (Winter), May–August (Spring) and Sept-Dec (Fall) Every semester, there are 3 exams which include the Quiz1, Quiz2 (similar to mid-sem) and finally the End sem/end term exams all of which are conducted offline at designated examination centres. The CGPA calculation and grading patterns are similar to the BTech system as mentioned above. However, to add to the difficulty, there's a unique concept of CCC (Credit Clearing Capacity). Based on the academic performance of a student during the previous term, CCC is decided for every student. The CCC decides the maximum number of courses a student can opt for, during semester/term registration. IIT Madras has also opened study-rooms on campus for the DS students to come, study and access all the opportunties of the institute. Presently, this day-scholar kind of opportunity is mostly used by the students residing in Chennai. The latest change is that students will be accommodated at IITM campus hostels and they can study offline from any Engineering dept/ on-campus courses at the degree levels of Data Science. In additional to a challenging and difficult academic curriculum, the students are also encouraged to participate in various professional development, seminars, research activities, internship, apprenticeship opportunities, skill development, training and social activities organized by the institute, faculty and the official societies & clubs. IIT Madras BS in Data Science won Silver in the Wharton (University of Pennsylvania) - QS Reimagine Education Awards Robert Bosch Centre for Data Science and AI (RBCDSAI) The RBCDSAI was set up in 2017 with a funding from the institute to encourage interdisciplinary research. In the last 5 years, it has grown to be the pre-eminent interdisciplinary research centre for Data Science and AI in India and is one of the country's largest groups in network analytics and deep reinforcement learning. Google has granted IIT Madras $1 million for setting up India's first multidisciplinary centre for Responsible AI. The official IITM approved societies and clubs under the BS in DS branch include: Ramanujan Society For Research (RaSoR), Pravaha (Dance society), Anime society, Adhyay (civil services society), Raahat (Mental health and wellness society), Cosmos (Tech society), Erudite (Oratory society), Art Society, Sahityika (Literary society), Film society, Heighters (esports club), WYZ Kids (Quiz club), Akord (Music society), Aayam (Drama society) and Shah Maat (Chess society) The Upper House Council (UHC) is the ultimate student body elected by the students that consists of 36 representatives from the students, 3 from each house who are elected as the Secretary, Deputy Secretary and the Web Admin from the pool of Group Leaders. The 12 houses of the degree, named after the forests in India. include Bandipur, Corbett, Gir, Kanha, Kaziranga, Nallamala, Namdapha, Nilgiri, Pichavaram, Saranda, Sundarbans and Wayanad. In April 2021, the BS program department organized the Cricket Hackathon 2021 for students, professionals, and data science enthusiasts. The academic competition was designed for beginners to learn and compete, as well as for professionals to showcase their capabilities in programming, data science, and analytics. IIT Madras BS in Data Science won the Wharton-QS Reimagine Education Awards (Silver). BS DSA Stats-Maths Academic Cell The IITM BS Stats-Maths academic cell was officially inaugurated on 12 November 2022, in presence of the eminent mathematicians Dr. Ritabrota Munshi, Head of Theoritical statistics and maths unit, Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) Kolkata and Dr. Saket Saurabh, professor of Theoretical Computer Science from IMSc. Scholarships at IITM BS Students at IITM pursuing BS in DS get income based (who have low family income) fee-waivers each term. Also students belonging to EWS, SC/ST, OBC and PwD categories get these waivers. Verizon India, L&T Technology Services provide scholarship to IIT Madras BS Degree Students. Recently, Cargill, a US-global food and agriculture corporation, in partnership with IIT Madras has announced Merit-cum-Means Scholarship. The Cargill Scholarship enables over 100 students from low-income background to fulfil their dream by pursuing higher education at IITM. Diploma Courses at IITM IITM also offers Diploma in Programming and Diploma in Data Science separately. Students who've completed a UG degree or have completed at least two years of an undergrad degree are eligible to sit for the DAD qualifier exam (duration: 3 hours for Diploma in programming and 4 hours for that of Data science) which serves as the entrance test for these programmes. BS Degree in Electronic Systems (ES) IITM launched the 4-yr BS undergrad degree in Electronic Systems (ES) in March 2023 to meet the significant and growing demand for skilled graduates in the electronics and embedded systems sector in India. This programme would also run in hybrid mode. The faculty coordinators of this dept. include Dr Aniruddhan and Dr Boby George from Dept. of Electrical Engineering at IITM. Students need to have Physics and Maths in class 12 as mandatory requirements to apply for the degree. Students can apply through JEE channel or their own entrance or qualifier examination. Unlike the BS in DSA which follows a tri-mester curriculum, this will follow a semester system (2 semesters per year) with the same concept of 2 in-centre quizzes and an end term exam in each semester. Keeping in line with the new NEP, IITM has provided a flexibility to exit earlier with a Foundation Certificate or Diploma. However, one needs to complete 142 credits to achieve the BS degree in ES. IIT Madras Zanzibar Campus IIT Madras established a new Campus in Zanzibar (Tanzania) IITM Zanzibar Campus in July 2023 to provide quality education in Tanzania. IIT Madras is the first IIT to establish a campus outside India. Offered Degrees - BS in Data Science and Artificial Intelligence MTech in Data Science and Artificial Intelligence Student activities Festivals E-Summit IIT Madras E-Summit by the Entrepreneurship Cell E-Cell of IIT Madras, is IITM's annual flagship event and only ISO 9001:2015 certified entrepreneurship summit focusing on young entrepreneurs and their ventures. Shaastra Shaastra is the annual technical festival of IIT Madras. It is typically held in the second week of January and is the first ISO 9001:2015 certified student organised festival in the world. It is known for its organisation and activities. Forums include the symposia, workshops, video conferences, lectures, demonstrations, and technical exhibitions. Competitive activities cover design events, programming, simulations, quizzes, applied engineering, speedcubing, robotics, and junk-yard wars. Saarang Saarang is the annual social and cultural festival of IIT Madras. It is a five-day-long event held in early January every year and attracts a crowd of 70,000 students and young people from across the country, making it the largest student-run fest in India. Saarang events include speaking, dancing, thespian, quizzing and word games, professional shows (nicknamed proshows) and workshops on music, fashion, art, and dance. Paradox Paradox is the fest organized for the IIT Madras Bachelor of Science degree students. It is held 3 times a year. Paradox in Saavan and Paradox in Margazhi are held hybrid around August and December respectively and consist of various cultural, sports, professional events, hackathons. The main annual fest is held at the IITM campus. It's the biggest gathering of IITM students that happens in the month of May every year. Department festivals Several departments organise department festivals. Samanvay, Biofest, ExeBit, Wavez, Mechanica, CEA Fest, ChemPlus, Amalgam and Forays are some of the festivals organised by the Department of Management Studies, Computer Science and Engineering, Ocean Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Metallurgical and Materials Engineering and Maths departments respectively. Department of Humanities and Social Sciences hosts Annual Academic Conference. The Entrepreneurship Cell The Entrepreneurship Cell at IIT Madras believes that entrepreneurship is not just about starting companies and building businesses but a pathway towards India's socio-economic development. E-Cell was earlier known as C-TIDES, and was rechristened in 2015 as the entrepreneur. E-Cell IIT Madras is an active non-profit, a completely student-run organization to help encourage entrepreneurship. Centre For Innovation (CFI) Centre For Innovation is a Student Lab set up in 2008. The annual flagship event of CFI, the Open House displays the projects of all CFI clubs, along with the works of the Competitive Teams. Extra Mural Lectures (EML) Launched in 1980 by a group of students with support from the then Director of IIT Madras, the late Prof. P.V. Indiresan, the main aim of the Extra Mural Lectures series is to expose the IIT Madras community to the ideas and experiences of eminent personalities from diverse backgrounds. Over the years, lectures included the late former President of India A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, Nobel Laureate The 14th Dalai Lama, Nobel Peace Laureate Kailash Satyarthi, Chess Grandmaster Vishwanathan Anand, Filmmaker S.S. Rajamouli, Honorable Governor Shri. E.S.L. Narasimhan, Honorable Minister of Railways Shri. Suresh Prabhu, current Vice President of India Shri. M.Venkaiah Naidu, Music Composer Ilayaraja, co-founder of Infosys Shri. Kris Gopalakrishnan and Ambassador of Japan to India H.E. Mr. Kenji Hiramatsu have been hosted at IIT Madras for Extra Mural Lectures, to motivate the students and broaden their perspectives. Extracurricular activities The Sustainability Network (S-Net) is an alumni-student-faculty initiative launched in May 2009 to help preserve the unique niche of one of the best educational campus in India. S-Net was envisioned to work towards developing and deploying solutions for making a self-sustaining campus (focusing on energy/electricity, water, and waste management), which could eventually be replicated across the country through tie-ups with other educational institutions. The Fifth Estate is the official media body of IIT Madras and gives an insight into the happenings inside the campus and important news related to the institute. The Open Air Theatre hosts the weekly movie, a Saturday night tradition, besides other activities. It seats over 7,000. The National Service Scheme (Nss Iitm) . Nss Iitm. Retrieved on 9 October 2013.</ref> (NSS) in IIT Madras has been noted for taking up socially relevant initiatives, taken up as individual projects to create an impact on the society as well as the students. The wing of NSS at IITM has over 400 students every year, contributing to the cause of the scheme. Since its inception, NSS at IITM has achieved many milestones in its history as a unique, student-run organisation. Linked with several NGOs and social organisations both within and outside Chennai. By working out projects from Braille magazines to technology interventions, from teaching children in urban slums to educational video content, NSS (IITM) seeks to challenge the mediocre thinking, and reach out into the darkness, to pull a hand into the light. Hobby clubs include the speaking club, the astro club, dramatics, music and robotics. Student bodies such as Vivekananda Study Circle (VSC), Islamic Study Circle, IIT Christian Fellowship, Genesis and Reflections focus on spiritual discussions. The campus has evolved a slang, attracting a published Master's thesis at a German University. A mix of English, Hindi, Telugu (Gult), Malayalam (Mallu) and Tamil (Tam), aspects of the campus slang have been adopted by some other Chennai colleges. Unlike its sister institutions, IIT Madras has no single Indian language used among its students: Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Marathi, Kannada, English and Hindi are all very commonly used. All student participatory activities like debating, dramatics, short-film making, and others are held in English. This is even reflected in the slang that uses more of English and other Indian regional languages than Hindi, unlike in IIT-M's northern counterparts. IIT Madras Heritage Centre The Heritage Centre was formally inaugurated by Dr Arcot Ramachandran, former Director IIT Madras on 3 March 2006. The centre is located on the ground floor of the administration building. The actual idea of a Heritage Centre was mooted in the year 2000 and has become a reality due to the efforts of the Professor-in-charge Dr. Ajit Kumar Kolar and his team. The centre will function as a repository of material of heritage value and historical significance of various facets of the institute. The exhibits include photographs, documents, publications, paintings, portraits, products developed and other articles. Information regarding important events, laboratory development, visits of important dignitaries, Indo-German cooperative activities, and academic achievements of faculty and students also are included. Aspects of IITM campus features and development, campus life and student activities are also included, thus broadening the scope of the centre in the future to non-academic activities also. Controversies Several members of the Hindu Munnani were arrested in November 2014 for organising a "spitting protest" outside the IIT-Madras after the institute played host to the ‘Kiss of Love’ campaign. The members of the group gathered and started spitting at the pictures of students kissing and hugging at the kiss of love campaign the past week. Additionally, they also hurled abuse at the students. Notable alumni Arumugam Manthiram, director, Texas Materials Institute, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin Anand Rajaraman, founder of Junglee; Currently Heading Kosmix.com with Venky Harinarayan Anant Agarwal, professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT Anima Anandkumar, Bren Professor of Computing at California Institute of Technology. She is a director of Machine Learning research at NVIDIA. Arun Sundararajan, professor at Stern School of Business, New York University Atul Chokshi, materials engineer, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureate B. N. Suresh, director of IIST B. Muthuraman, managing Director of Tata Steel Balaji Sampath, founder of Ahaguru Bhaskar Ramamurthi, director, IIT Madras (20112022) Gururaj Deshpande, founder of Sycamore Networks T. V. Rajan Babu, professor of chemistry at Ohio State University G. K. Ananthasuresh, professor at Indian Institute of Science Hari Balakrishnan, Fujitsu Chair Professor in the EECS Department at MIT Jai Menon, IBM Fellow, CTO and VP, Technical Strategy – IBM Systems and Technology Group B. Jayant Baliga, inventor of the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) Jayaraman Chandrasekhar, computational chemist, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureate Kris Gopalakrishnan, co-chairman and co-founder of Infosys Krishna Bharat, creator of Google News, principal scientist, Google L. Mahadevan, FRS, de Valpine Professor of Applied Mathematics, Physics and Biology, Harvard University, MacArthur Fellow 2009 K. Mani Chandy, former chair of Engineering and Applied Science at Caltech Marti G. Subrahmanyam, professor of finance, Stern School of Business at New York University Murali Sastry, nanotechnologist, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureate Mas Subramanian, Milton Harris Chair Professor of Materials Chemistry at Oregon State University Narayanan Chandrakumar, chemical physicist, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureate Neelesh B. Mehta, communications engineer, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureate Prabhakar Raghavan, vice president of Engineering, Google and Consulting Professor at Stanford University R. Prasanna, guitarist / carnatic musician Pinaki Majumdar, condensed matter physicist, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureate Prem Watsa, billionaire; founder, chairman, and chief executive of Fairfax Financial Holdings, which owns BlackBerry Radha Vembu, co-founder, Zoho Corporation. Ramanathan V. Guha, inventor of RSS feed technology, computer scientist at Google; won the Distinguished Alumnus award from IIT Madras in 2013 Ramesh Govindan, Northrop Grumman Chair in Engineering and Professor of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering at the University of Southern California; won the Distinguished Alumnus award from IIT Madras in 2014 Raghu Ramakrishnan, technical fellow and CTO, Information Services Microsoft Raju Narayana Swamy, IAS Officer Ramayya Krishnan, dean of the Heinz College at Carnegie Mellon University S. Sowmya, carnatic vocalist Timothy A. Gonsalves, computer scientist and first Director of IIT Mandi Shashi Nambisan, director of the Centre for Transportation Research and Education at Iowa State University Sridhar Tayur, Ford Distinguished Research Chair and Professor of Operations Management at Carnegie Mellon University; founder, SmartOps and OrganJet Sridhar Vembu, founder and CEO of Zoho Corporation Subra Suresh, former president of Carnegie Mellon University, former director of the National Science Foundation, former dean of the MIT School of Engineering Venkat Rangan, co-founder and CTO at Clearwell Systems Venkatesan Guruswami, associate professor, Department of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University Venky Harinarayan, co-founder Kosmix Vic Gundotra, former senior vice president Google, creator of Google plus and MIT technology Review top innovators in world Vinay Nair, visiting professor at The Wharton School and founding principal of Ada Investments Viswanathan Kumaran, chemical engineer, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar laureate Companies run by IIT Madras alumni Zoho Corporation, Indian Multinational Technology Company Ather Energy, Indian Electric Two Wheeler Manufacturer AgniKul Cosmos, an Indian Aerospace Manufacturer Avishkar Hyperloop Saaf Water See also Education in India Institutes of National Importance List of institutions of higher education in India List of universities in India References External links Madras Institutes of Eminence Engineering colleges in Chennai Universities and colleges established in 1959 1959 establishments in Madras State Education in Chennai

Charge trap flash (CTF) is a semiconductor memory technology used in creating non-volatile NOR and NAND flash memory. It is a type of floating-gate MOSFET memory technology, but differs from the conventional floating-gate technology in that it uses a silicon nitride film to store electrons rather than the doped polycrystalline silicon typical of a floating-gate structure. This approach allows memory manufacturers to reduce manufacturing costs five ways: Fewer process steps are required to form a charge storage node Smaller process geometries can be used (therefore reducing chip size and cost) Multiple bits can be stored on a single flash memory cell Improved reliability Higher yield since the charge trap is less susceptible to point defects in the tunnel oxide layer While the charge-trapping concept was around earlier, it wasn't until 2002 that AMD and Fujitsu produced high-volume charge-trapping flash memory. They began the commercial production of charge-trapping flash memory with the introduction of the GL NOR flash memory family. The same business, now operating under the Spansion name, has produced charge trapping devices in high volume since that time. Charge trapping flash accounted for 30% of 2008's $2.5 billion NOR flash market. Saifun Semiconductors, who licensed a large charge trapping technology portfolio to several companies, was acquired by Spansion in March 2008. From the late 2000s, CTF became a core component of 3D V-NAND flash memory developed by Toshiba and Samsung Electronics. Origins The original MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by Egyptian engineer Mohamed M. Atalla and Korean engineer Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, and demonstrated in 1960. Kahng went on to invent the floating-gate MOSFET with Simon Min Sze at Bell Labs, and they proposed its use as a floating-gate (FG) memory cell, in 1967. This was the first form of non-volatile memory based on the injection and storage of charges in a floating-gate MOSFET, which later became the basis for EPROM (erasable PROM), EEPROM (electrically erasable PROM) and flash memory technologies. The charge-trapping concept was first presented by John Szedon and Ting L. Chu in 1967. In late 1967, a Sperry research team led by H.A. Richard Wegener invented the metal–nitride–oxide–semiconductor transistor (MNOS transistor), a type of MOSFET in which the oxide layer is replaced by a double layer of nitride and oxide. Nitride was used as a trapping layer instead of a floating gate, but its use was limited as it was considered inferior to a floating gate. The MNOS transistor device could be programmed through the application of a 50-volt forward or reverse bias between the gate and the channel to trap charges that would impact the threshold voltage of the transistor. Charge trap (CT) memory was introduced with MNOS devices in the late 1960s. It had a device structure and operating principles similar to floating-gate (FG) memory, but the main difference is that the charges are stored in a conducting material (typically a doped polysilicon layer) in FG memory, whereas CT memory stored charges in localized traps within a dielectric layer (typically made of silicon nitride). Charge trap EEPROM By 1974, charge trap technology was used as a storage mechanism in electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), and was an alternative to the standard floating-gate MOSFET technology. In 1977, P.C.Y. Chen of Fairchild Camera and Instrument published a paper detailing the invention of SONOS, a MOSFET technology with far less demanding program and erase conditions and longer charge storage. This improvement led to manufacturable EEPROM devices based on charge-trapping SONOS in the 1980s. Charge trap flash experiments In 1991, Japanese NEC researchers including N. Kodama, K. Oyama and Hiroki Shirai developed a type of flash memory that incorporated a charge trap method. In 1998, Israeli engineer Boaz Eitan of Saifun Semiconductors (later acquired by Spansion) patented a flash memory technology named NROM that took advantage of a charge trapping layer to replace the floating gate used in conventional flash memory designs. Two important innovations appear in this patent: the localization of the injected negative and positive charges close to the cell's drain/source terminals, and utilizing a reverse read concept to detect the cell's stored data on either end of the charge trap. These two new ideas enabled high cycling thus allowing reliable charge trap flash products to be produced for the first time since the charge trapping concept was invented 30 years earlier. Furthermore, using these concepts it is possible to create two separate physical bits per cell, doubling the capacity of stored data per cell. In 2000, an Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) research team led by Richard M. Fastow, Egyptian engineer Khaled Z. Ahmed and Jordanian engineer Sameer Haddad (who later joined Spansion) demonstrated a charge trap mechanism for NOR flash memory cells. These innovations were further improved at AMD and Fujitsu in 2002 (and later by Spansion), and first put into volume production by these companies in what was called “MirrorBit Flash memory.” Spansion MirrorBit Flash memory Charge trapping flash (CTF) was commercialized by AMD and Fujitsu in 2002. That year, AMD (in a division later spun off as Spansion) announced a new flash memory technology it called "MirrorBit". Spansion used this product to reduce manufacturing costs and extend the density range of NOR Flash memory past that of conventional NOR flash and to match the cost of the multi-level cell NOR flash being manufactured by Intel. The MirrorBit cell uses a charge trapping layer not only as a substitute for a conventional floating gate, but it also takes advantage of the non-conducting nature of the charge storage nitride to allow two bits to share the same memory cell. Shown in Figure 1 the bits reside at opposite ends of the cell and can be read by running a current through the channel in different directions. Products have been successfully made to combine this approach with multilevel cell technology to contain four bits on a cell. Charge trapping operation Like the floating gate memory cell, a charge trapping cell uses a variable charge between the control gate and the channel to change the threshold voltage of the transistor. The mechanisms to modify this charge are relatively similar between the floating gate and the charge trap, and the read mechanisms are also very similar. Charge trapping vs floating gate mechanisms In a charge trapping flash, electrons are stored in a trapping layer just as they are stored in the floating gate in a standard flash memory, EEPROM, or EPROM. The key difference is that the charge trapping layer is an insulator, while the floating gate is a conductor. High write loads in a flash memory cause stress on the tunnel oxide layer creating small disruptions in the crystal lattice called "oxide defects". If a large number of such disruptions are created a short circuit develops between the floating gate and the transistor's channel and the floating gate can no longer hold a charge. This is the root cause of flash wear-out (see Flash memory#Memory wear), which is specified as the chip's “endurance.” In order to reduce the occurrence of such short circuits, floating gate flash is manufactured using a thick tunnel oxide (~100Å), but this slows erase when Fowler-Nordheim tunneling is used and forces the design to use a higher tunneling voltage, which puts new burdens on other parts of the chip. A charge trapping cell is relatively immune to such difficulties, since the charge trapping layer is an insulator. A short circuit created by an oxide defect between the charge trapping layer and the channel will drain off only the electrons in immediate contact with the short, leaving the other electrons in place to continue to control the threshold voltage of the transistor. Since short circuits are less of a concern, a thinner tunnel oxide layer can be used (50-70Å) increasing the trapping layer's coupling to the channel and leading to a faster program speed (with localized trapped charges) and erasing with lower tunneling voltages. The lower tunneling voltages, in turn, place less stress on the tunnel oxide layer, leading to fewer lattice disruptions. Another important benefit of using a charge trapping cell is that the thin charge trapping layer reduces capacitive coupling between neighboring cells to improve performance and scalability. Getting the charge onto the charge trapping layer Electrons are moved onto the charge trapping layer similarly to the way that floating gate NOR flash is programmed, through channel hot electron (CHE) injection mechanism also known as Hot-carrier injection. In brief, a high voltage is placed between the control gate while a medium-high voltage is applied on the source and the drain while a current is induced from the source to the drain. Those electrons that have gained sufficient energy in traversing through the high-field region near the drain will boil off from the channel to be injected into the charge trapping layer where they come to rest. Removing a charge from the charge trapping layer Charge Trapping flash is erased via hot hole injection (see Hot-carrier injection) as opposed to the Fowler–Nordheim tunneling approach used in both NAND and NOR flash for erasure. This process uses a field, rather than the current used in FN, to move holes toward the charge trapping layer to remove the charge. Manufacturing charge trapping flash Charge trapping flash is similar in manufacture to floating gate flash with certain exceptions that serve to simplify manufacturing. Materials differences from floating gate Both floating gate flash and charge trapping flash use a stacked gate structure in which a floating gate or charge trapping layer lies immediately above the channel, and below a control gate. The floating gate or charge trapping layer is insulated from the channel by a tunnel oxide layer and from the control gate by a gate oxide layer. Materials for all of these layers are the same with the exception of the storage layer, which is conductive polysilicon for the floating gate structure and is typically silicon nitride for the charge trap. Relationship of charge trapping to silicon nanocrystals Freescale Semiconductor manufactures a somewhat similar technology the company calls "Thin Film Storage" in its microcontroller or MCU line. The Freescale approach uses silicon nanocrystals as conductive islands in a nonconductive layer of silicon oxide. Like the more conventional silicon nitride charge trap, electrons do not flow from one side of the floating gate to the other, extending the cell's wear. This nanocrystal approach is being manufactured in volume by Freescale and charge trapping storage in general is in development at ST Microelectronics, Philips, Renesas, Samsung, Toshiba, Atmel, and Spansion. Process differences from Floating Gate Since the nitride charge trapping layer is nonconductive, it does not need to be patterned – all the charge traps are already insulated from each other. This can be used to simplify manufacturing. Floating gate structures have required more elaborate gate dielectrics for the past few process generations and today commonly use an ONO (oxide-nitride-oxide) structure which is more complex to manufacture and is unnecessary in a charge-trapping flash. One advantage of the nitride layer is that it is less sensitive to high temperature fabrication processing than is the polysilicon used in a floating gate. This simplifies processing of the layers above the charge trap. In a marketing brochure Spansion has claimed that the processing cost of a MirrorBit NOR flash wafer is lower than that of a conventional floating gate wafer since there are 10% fewer photolithography mask steps, and 40% fewer "critical" steps (those requiring the finest resolution, and therefore the most expensive photolithographic equipment). Infineon's marketing materials showed that 15% fewer mask steps were required to make charge trapping NAND flash than to manufacture the equivalent floating gate product. MirrorBit Flash memory Spansion's MirrorBit Flash and Saifun's NROM are two flash memories that use a charge trapping mechanism in nitride to store two bits onto the same cell effectively doubling the memory capacity of a chip. This is done by placing charges on either side of the charge trap layer. The cell is read by using forward and reverse currents through the channel to read either side of the charge trap. MirrorBit operation – getting 2 bits onto the cell During CHE programming (figure 2) the hot electrons are injected from the channel into the charge trapping layer toward the biased drain end of the channel, but not from the floating source end of the channel. By allowing the transistor's source and drain to switch from one end of the channel to the other, charges can be injected and stored into the charge trapping layer over either end of the channel. In a similar way, one end of the charge trapping cell can be erased by placing the erasing field at one end or the other of the channel, allowing the other end to float as shown in figure 3. Band-to-band Hot Hole Erase creates holes that are trapped locally some of which recombine with electrons to remove the charge from that end of the charge trap. Reading 2 bits from the cell The MirrorBit read is performed very simply by reversing the source and drain contacts. The junction depletion region extending from the drain side shields the channel from the charge on the side of the charge trapping cell that overlies the drain. The net result of this is that the drain-side charge has little effect on the current running through the channel, while the source-side charge determines the threshold of the transistor. When source and drain are reversed, the opposite side's charge determines the transistor's threshold. This way two different charge levels at either end of the charge trapping cell will cause two different currents to flow through the cell, depending on the direction of the current flow. Later developments Charge trapping NAND – Samsung and others Samsung Electronics in 2006 disclosed its research into the use of Charge Trapping Flash to allow continued scaling of NAND technology using cell structures similar to the planar structures in use at that time. The technology depends on a SONOS (silicon–oxide–nitride–oxide–silicon) or MONOS (metal-ONOS) capacitor structure, storing the information in charge traps in the nitride layer. Samsung disclosed two cell structures: TANOS (Titanium, Alumina, Nitride, Oxide, Silicon) for 40 nm, where researchers believed that the existing 3D cap structure (described in detail later in this article) could not be manufactured, and THNOS, in which the aluminum oxide would be replaced with an undisclosed high-k dielectric material. The high-k material was expected to yield longer retention times than the aluminum oxide structure. In a cap structure the control gate is extended to form a barrier between adjacent floating gates in a conventional floating gate cell. Over the following five years many device designers found ways to push the cap structure to increasingly tighter process geometries, successfully producing NAND at the 30 nm node with this approach. Charge trapping is still viewed as a future technology for NAND flash, but it is being considered more for vertical structures than for planar cells. Why NAND needs charge trapping technology NAND flash has been scaling very aggressively (figure 4). As processes migrate, the width of the interface of the control gate and the floating gate shrinks in proportion to the square of the shrink, and the spacing between floating gates shrinks in proportion to the process shrink, but the floating gate's thickness remains the same (the thinner the floating gate is made the less tolerant the cell becomes to electron loss). This means that the coupling between adjacent floating gates becomes larger than the coupling between the control gate and the floating gate, leading to data corruption between adjacent bits. As processes continue to shrink, this becomes increasingly problematic. For this reason the control gate in modern NAND flash has been reconfigured to cap the floating gate. In a cap structure the control gate is extended to form a barrier between adjacent floating gates in a conventional floating gate cell (see figure 5). This serves to reduce coupling to the adjacent floating gate while increasing the coupling between the floating gate and the control gate. One drawback is that the control gate couples to the channel, so measures must be taken to minimize this coupling. It was believed in 2006 that the existing floating gate cap structure could not be manufactured at processes smaller than the 50 nm node due to difficulties in producing the complex three-layer ONO gate oxide that these devices require. Samsung even announced in late 2006 that by 2008 it would put such a device into production at the 40 nm process node, but over the five years following this announcement many device designers found ways to push the cap structure to increasingly tighter process geometries, successfully producing NAND down to 20 nm node with this approach. The charge trapping approach is still viewed as a future for NAND flash for processes smaller than 20 nm and is being considered for both planar as well as vertical 3D structures. When this change might occur Today SanDisk asserts that the company expects to continue to use conventional NAND structures into a second node in the 10–19 nm range. This implies that standard device structures could stay in place until the industry reaches 10 nm, however the challenges of producing a reliable floating gate become more severe with each process shrink. On the other hand, the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) process technology roadmap's 2010 Process Integration, Devices, and Structures (PIDS) tables show adoption of charge trapping starting at 22 nm in 2012, and becoming mainstream in 2014 with the 20 nm process. It is possible that a planar charge trapping cell will be used for future processes. No manufacturers have yet disclosed their processes for geometries smaller than 19 nm. Charge trapping layers for vertical structures Vertical structures are seen as a logical next step for NAND flash, once further horizontal scaling becomes inviable. Since vertical features cannot be etched sideways, a charge trapping layer becomes a very interesting way to build a vertical NAND flash string. Toshiba and Samsung Electronics have disclosed prototypes for vertical charge trapping NAND structures. Toshiba's BiCS and Samsung's 3D NAND Toshiba in 2007 and Samsung in 2009 announced the development of 3D V-NAND, a means of building a standard NAND flash bit string vertically rather than horizontally to increase the number of bits in a given area of silicon. A rough idea of the cross section of this is shown in figure 6. In this drawing the red portions represent conductive polysilicon, the blue is silicon dioxide insulating layers, and the yellow is the nitride charge trapping layer. The vertical structures (only one shown) are cylinders that implement a channel that is wrapped in alternating dielectric and charge trapping layers (blue and yellow). To manufacture such a device layers of conducting polysilicon and silicon dioxide dielectric are deposited first on top of a silicon substrate that contains standard CMOS logic elements. A trench is then etched and its walls are deposited first with silicon dioxide (blue), then silicon nitride (yellow), then another silicon dioxide (blue) layer, forming the gate dielectric, the charge trap, and the tunnel dielectric in that order. Finally the hole is filled with conducting polysilicon (red) which forms the channel. The alternating layers of conductive polysilicon function as the control gates in this structure. This structure takes advantage of the fact that the charge trap layer does not need to be insulated between each control gate, so it need not be etched in the vertical direction. Charge trapping in embedded memories One advantage that charge trapping flash has over other technologies is that it can be relatively easily embedded with a standard logic process. A standard logic process can be converted to a logic-plus-flash process through the addition of three more high voltage masks and three more core CTF masks, and none of these six masks is a critical layer (i.e. needs to use the most advanced part of the process). All other logic processes can be shared directly. Bandgap-Engineered Charge-Trapping Memory Devices In ITRS PIDS 2013, it was clearly mentioned that bandgap engineered charge-trapping devices are needed to resolve the retention and erase dilemma. SONOS using a simple tunnel oxide, however, is not suitable for NAND application-once electrons are trapped in deep SiN trap levels they are difficult to detrap even under high electric field. In order to erase the device quickly holes in the substrate are injected into the SiN to neutralize the electron charge. Since the hole barrier for SiO2 is high (~4.1 eV), hole injection efficiency is poor and sufficient hole current is only achievable by using very thin tunnel oxide (~ 2 nm). Such thin tunnel oxide, however, results in poor data retention because direct hole tunneling from the substrate under the weak built-in field caused by storage electrons cannot be stopped (the rate of direct tunneling is a strong function of the barrier thickness but only weakly depends on the electric field, thus the weak built-in field by charge storage is sufficient to cause direct hole tunneling from the substrate which ruins the data retention). Several variations of SONOS have been proposed. Tunnel dielectric engineering concepts are used to modify the tunneling barrier properties to create "variable thickness" tunnel dielectric. For example, triple ultra-thin (1–2 nm) layers of ONO are introduced to replace the single oxide (BE-SONOS) [H. T. Lue, et al, IEDM 2005]. Under high electric field, the upper two layers of oxide and nitride are offset above the Si valence band, and substrate holes readily tunnel through the bottom thin oxide and inject into the thick SiN trapping layer above. In data storage mode, the weak electric field does not offset the triple layer and both electrons in the SiN and holes in the substrate are blocked by the total thickness of the triple layer. Later BE-SONOS is added high-K (Al2O3) and metal gate to enhance the erase performances, the so-called BE-MANOS [S. C. Lai, et al, NVSMW 2007]. It is suggested to add a buffer oxide in between high-K Al2O3 and SiN to improve the retention. Right now the mass production 3D NAND adopts a similar structure of BE-MANOS, with some variations of detail recipe tuning by each individual companies. The concept of bandgap engineered for tunneling barrier is recognized as a necessary path for charge-trapping devices. Although charge trapping NAND can help the GCR and FG cross talk issues and thus promises scaling below 20nm it does not help the fundamental limitations such as word line breakdown and too few electrons. Therefore, in the roadmap trend it occupies a transition role between planar FG and 3D NAND. When charge trapping devices are used to build 3D NAND, the larger device size naturally solves the electron number and the word line breakdown issues. Further reading References Non-volatile memory Arab inventions Egyptian inventions Israeli inventions Japanese inventions MOSFETs

The Bankura Unnayani Institute of Engineering or BUIE is a private (TEQUIP-II funded) sponsored engineering college in West Bengal, India providing under-graduate as well as post-graduate courses in engineering and technology disciplines. It was established in 1998 as the first engineering college in Bankura district.The college is affiliated with Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology and all the programmes are approved by the All India Council for Technical Education. The campus is located at Subhankar Nagar, Puabagan, Bankura. Academics The institute offers seven undergraduate courses:- B.Tech in Electronics and Communication Engineering (ECE)- 4 years [Approved intake - 120] B.Tech in Applied Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering (AEIE)- 4 years [Approved intake - 30] B.Tech in Electrical Engineering (EE)- 4 years [Approved intake - 60] B.Tech in Mechanical Engineering (ME)- 4 years [Approved intake - 60] B.Tech in Computer Science and Engineering (CSE)- 4 years [Approved intake - 60] B.Tech in Civil Engineering (CE)- 4 years [Approved intake - 60] B.Tech in Information Technology (IT)- 4 years [Approved intake - 30] The following Postgraduate Degree Programs are offered:- M.Tech. in VLSI & Microelectronics- 2 years [Approved intake - 18] M.Tech. in Computer Science & Engineering- 2 years [Approved intake - 18] See also All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology References External links Official website Colleges affiliated to West Bengal University of Technology Engineering colleges in West Bengal Universities and colleges in Bankura district Educational institutions established in 1998 1998 establishments in West Bengal

The Ensoniq VFX Synth was initially released as a performance type synthesizer in 1989. It was soon followed by the release of the VFX-SD, which included some updated waveforms (drum waves), a 24-track sequencer and a floppy drive. Both models were equipped with the Ensoniq Signal Processing (ESP) chip for 24-bit effects. The VFX-SD also included two AUX outs, which allowed for a total of 4 outputs from the synth for more routing flexibility. The initial models were 21-voice polyphony, and in latter models of the VFX-SD (I/II) and the SD-1, the polyphony was 32. There were many features that caused this synth line to be popular. Some of these were: The sound of the synth itself. The performance capabilities for live use. The versatility of the sequencer (in the VFX-SD and SD-1). Synthesis types The VFX employed 3 types of synthesis: Transwave Wavetable Synthesis, Sample playback and Subtractive Synthesis. The Transwaves gave the VFX a unique sound as the only other instruments (at the time) using wavetable synthesis were the Waldorf Microwave and PPG Wave machines. The wavetable positions and directions of scan could be modulated in a variety of ways, giving a very animated and "alive" sound when programmed correctly. Transwaves are also the only way to get the typical resonance sound since the filters of the VFX did not have a resonance parameter. The waveforms in the original VFX and early VFX-SD synths are 16-bit resolution with a sample frequency of approximately 39 kHz. They covered the standard list of piano, bass, guitar, string and solo varieties, as well as many others, all to Ensoniq's high quality. The VFX can be very deep and atmospheric by combining the waveforms themselves; however, a single sound can contain up to 6 oscillators at a time, providing for some complex layered and detuned sounds. The voice structuring, comprehensive matrix modulation, controller keyboard settings and performance capabilities are pretty advanced and versatile for a synthesizer of this vintage. Performance capabilities The performance capabilities of the VFX's made it a favorite for live musicians, as up to three voices can be selected, combined into a Preset (20 user presets in memory at a time, 40 built-in) to play from at any given time and saved in a custom-programmed setup (each sound in the PRESET allowed for Transpose, Output Routing, MIDI channel assignments, EFX routing/selection, etc.). Since each voice could be made of up to six individual sounds, the possibilities were very wide-ranging, such as using different key-ranges/splits for each of the six voices (although it significantly ate up polyphony). One particular feature that the VFX (and VFX-SD series) had was "Poly-Key Pressure" (better known as Polyphonic Aftertouch). This allowed the player to add modulation to each single note when playing chords. Most synths use the more common (and less expensive to manufacture) "Channels Aftertouch" which adds equal modulation to all keys at a time on a given MIDI channel. An Ensoniq specialty that appeared in almost all of their products were the two "PATCH SELECT" buttons above the Pitch/Modulation wheels. These two buttons were used to select four different oscillator combinations of a sound. The mapping was fully programmable and was invaluable for creating more versatile sounds for performance. Ensoniq had other MIDI modes in addition to the standard Omni and Multi modes: Mono A and Mono B. These were particularly effective when using a guitar synth and allowed for more realistic playing of the sounds. Mono A allowed for the same sound to be played across the MIDI channels and Mono B allowed for each MIDI channel to have a different sound. The sequencer The sequencer (not included in the first VFX version) works in a sequence/song type fashion that allows 12 pattern tracks and 12 parallel song tracks. A full set of editing tools are available, and can be done on specific time ranges set by the user: filtering events, merging tracks, quantize (at up to 96ppq), copy, paste, erase, etc. Because of the large fluorescent display, a lot of information and parameters are available at any one time, making the sequencer very intuitive to work with. Auditioning of tracks after a recording or editing changes allows the user to "KEEP" or "CANCEL" a take if needed. The sequencer capacity is ~25,000 notes, but could be expanded to ~75,000 notes with an optional memory expansion kit. The sequencer also allows for external MIDI input recording from other instruments. This can be done either one track (MIDI channel) at a time or in multi mode with several tracks (MIDI channels) being recorded at once. This makes it easy to also record multi channel sequences from other MIDI-instruments in to the VFX-SD. In 'Sequence' mode, the different patterns can be arranged and named (e.g. as 'Intro', 'Verse', 'Bridge', 'Ending', 'Part 1' etc.), and arranged in any order to make a finished song. Each pattern can be repeated up to 99 times each, which can save a lot of sequencer memory by, for example, recording a standard 2-bar drum/bass/piano part, then repeating it 8 times to make a 16-bar Verse. Tempo changes for each pattern could be programmed in to the patterns themselves or in song mode, to speed up or slow down the tempo at certain points. The user could also change the effects on a 'per-pattern' basis, allowing for more dramatic changes in the song, although that would make the output mute for a moment, if a different effect were selected. 'Song' mode also allows for an additional 12 tracks with their own track parameters. This is similar to having 12 "tape-like" tracks, and can be used for live-like piano playing or solos and such, which may be difficult to put into the individual sequences. By also using external sound devices (or other MIDI gear), very complex arrangements are possible, triggering many different types of MIDI devices. Some users would use the sequencer live, and use some of the extra tracks to change programs on other MIDI enabled devices (light controllers, guitar processors, vocal FX processors etc.). This sequencer can be found in later Ensoniq models -- the VFX-SD (I) and VFX-SD (II), the SD-1, TS series and the SQ series. Storage The VFX-SD also added a floppy disk drive, for additional data archiving purposes, and are used for: single sounds, sets of 6 or sets of 30 sounds, whole banks (60 sounds), single presets, 20-presets bank, single sequence, whole songs etc. Very(!) versatile indeed. The format was proprietary to Ensoniq, but shared by the VFX, the EPS sampler and all later models, although cross-loading amongst different models was limited. Since it was not MS-DOS compatible, a niche industry sprang up to service the needs of musicians. Also, SYS-EX information can be used to send/receive sounds/songs etc. and make parameter changes from a computer software editor. Reliability The main problem with the VFX line was its reliability. Because of the Poly-Key pressure and keybed design (which was in three pieces), it was prone to bending and breaking at the solder points, causing the keyboard not to calibrate when turned on. It took Ensoniq quite a long time to remedy this problem in the future models (VFX-SD I/II) and they created a somewhat disappointed customer base. Another problem with the synth was its ability to get very warm and cause heat-related issues. The heat sink itself would get hot to the touch and cause other problems with heating up the internals of the board, causing 'meltdown' issues (although this mostly happened on US-models). These problems were corrected in future versions and other models within the company, and can easily be solved on existing models as well. Notable users Richard Barbieri Tony Banks Keith Fejeran T Lavitz Hudson Mohawke Mike Oldfield Rick Wakeman References Further reading V

Geophysical survey is the systematic collection of geophysical data for spatial studies. Detection and analysis of the geophysical signals forms the core of Geophysical signal processing. The magnetic and gravitational fields emanating from the Earth's interior hold essential information concerning seismic activities and the internal structure. Hence, detection and analysis of the electric and Magnetic fields is very crucial. As the Electromagnetic and gravitational waves are multi-dimensional signals, all the 1-D transformation techniques can be extended for the analysis of these signals as well. Hence this article also discusses multi-dimensional signal processing techniques. Geophysical surveys may use a great variety of sensing instruments, and data may be collected from above or below the Earth's surface or from aerial, orbital, or marine platforms. Geophysical surveys have many applications in geology, archaeology, mineral and energy exploration, oceanography, and engineering. Geophysical surveys are used in industry as well as for academic research. The sensing instruments such as gravimeter, gravitational wave sensor and magnetometers detect fluctuations in the gravitational and magnetic field. The data collected from a geophysical survey is analysed to draw meaningful conclusions out of that. Analysing the spectral density and the time-frequency localisation of any signal is important in applications such as oil exploration and seismography. Types of geophysical survey There are many methods and types of instruments used in geophysical surveys. Technologies used for geophysical surveys include: Seismic methods, such as reflection seismology, seismic refraction, and seismic tomography. This type of survey is carried out to discover the detailed structure of the rock formations beneath the surface of the Earth. Seismoelectrical method Geodesy and gravity techniques, including gravimetry and gravity gradiometry. This type of survey is carried out to discover the structure of rock formations beneath the surface of the Earth. Magnetic techniques, including aeromagnetic surveys and magnetometers. Electrical techniques, including electrical resistivity tomography, induced polarization, spontaneous potential and marine control source electromagnetic (mCSEM) or EM seabed logging. This type of survey is carried out mainly to study the existence of groundwater. Electromagnetic methods, such as magnetotellurics, ground penetrating radar and transient/time-domain electromagnetics, surface nuclear magnetic resonance (also known as magnetic resonance sounding). Borehole geophysics, also called well logging. Remote sensing techniques, including hyperspectral. Geophysical signal detection This section deals with the principles behind measurement of geophysical waves. The magnetic and gravitational fields are important components of geophysical signals. The instrument used to measure the change in gravitational field is the gravimeter. This meter measures the variation in the gravity due to the subsurface formations and deposits. To measure the changes in magnetic field the magnetometer is used. There are two types of magnetometers, one that measures only vertical component of the magnetic field and the other measures total magnetic field. With the help of these meters, either the gravity values at different locations are measured or the values of Earth's magnetic field are measured. Then these measured values are corrected for various corrections and an anomaly map is prepared. By analyzing these anomaly maps one can get an idea about the structure of rock formations in that area. For this purpose one need to use various analog or digital filters. Measurement of Earth's magnetic fields Magnetometers are used to measure the magnetic fields, magnetic anomalies in the earth. The sensitivity of magnetometers depends upon the requirement. For example, the variations in the geomagnetic fields can be to the order of several aT where 1aT = 10−18T . In such cases, specialized magnetometers such as the superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) are used. Jim Zimmerman co-developed the rf superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) during his tenure at Ford research lab. However, events leading to the invention of the SQUID were in fact, serendipitous. John Lambe, during his experiments on nuclear magnetic resonance noticed that the electrical properties of indium varied due to a change in the magnetic field of the order of few nT. However, Lambe was not able to fully recognize the utility of SQUID. SQUIDs have the capability to detect magnetic fields of extremely low magnitude. This is due to the virtue of the Josephson junction. Jim Zimmerman pioneered the development of SQUID by proposing a new approach to making the Josephson junctions. He made use of niobium wires and niobium ribbons to form two Josephson junctions connected in parallel. The ribbons act as the interruptions to the superconducting current flowing through the wires. The junctions are very sensitive to the magnetic fields and hence are very useful in measuring fields of the order of 10^-18T. Seismic wave measurement using gravitational wave sensor Gravitational wave sensors can detect even a minute change in the gravitational fields due to the influence of heavier bodies. Large seismic waves can interfere with the gravitational waves and may cause shifts in the atoms. Hence, the magnitude of seismic waves can be detected by a relative shift in the gravitational waves. Measurement of seismic waves using atom interferometer The motion of any mass is affected by the gravitational field. The motion of planets is affected by the Sun's enormous gravitational field. Likewise, a heavier object will influence the motion of other objects of smaller mass in its vicinity. However, this change in the motion is very small compared to the motion of heavenly bodies. Hence, special instruments are required to measure such a minute change. Atom interferometers work on the principle of diffraction. The diffraction gratings are nano fabricated materials with a separation of a quarter wavelength of light. When a beam of atoms pass through a diffraction grating, due to the inherent wave nature of atoms, they split and form interference fringes on the screen. An atom interferometer is very sensitive to the changes in the positions of atoms. As heavier objects shifts the position of the atoms nearby, displacement of the atoms can be measured by detecting a shift in the interference fringes. Existing approaches in geophysical signal recognition This section addresses the methods and mathematical techniques behind signal recognition and signal analysis. It considers the time domain and frequency domain analysis of signals. This section also discusses various transforms and their usefulness in the analysis of multi-dimensional waves. 3D sampling Sampling The first step in any signal processing approach is analog to digital conversion. The geophysical signals in the analog domain has to be converted to digital domain for further processing. Most of the filters are available in 1D as well as 2D. Analog to digital conversion As the name suggests, the gravitational and electromagnetic waves in the analog domain are detected, sampled and stored for further analysis. The signals can be sampled in both time and frequency domains. The signal component is measured at both intervals of time and space. Ex, time-domain sampling refers to measuring a signal component at several instances of time. Similarly, spatial-sampling refers to measuring the signal at different locations in space. Traditional sampling of 1D time varying signals is performed by measuring the amplitude of the signal under consideration in discrete intervals of time. Similarly sampling of space-time signals (signals which are functions of 4 variables – 3D space and time), is performed by measuring the amplitude of the signals at different time instances and different locations in the space. For example, the earth's gravitational data is measured with the help of gravitational wave sensor or gradiometer by placing it in different locations at different instances of time. Spectrum analysis Multi-dimensional Fourier transform The Fourier expansion of a time domain signal is the representation of the signal as a sum of its frequency components, specifically sum of sines and cosines. Joseph Fourier came up with the Fourier representation to estimate the heat distribution of a body. The same approach can be followed to analyse the multi-dimensional signals such as gravitational waves and electromagnetic waves. The 4D Fourier representation of such signals is given by ω represents temporal frequency and k represents spatial frequency. s(x,t) is a 4-dimensional space-time signal which can be imagined as travelling plane waves. For such plane waves, the plane of propagation is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the considered wave. Wavelet transform The motivation for development of the Wavelet transform was the Short-time Fourier transform. The signal to be analysed, say f(t) is multiplied with a window function w(t) at a particular time instant. Analysing the Fourier coefficients of this signal gives us information about the frequency components of the signal at a particular time instant. The STFT is mathematically written as: The Wavelet transform is defined as A variety of window functions can be used for analysis. Wavelet functions are used for both time and frequency localisation. For example, one of the windows used in calculating the Fourier coefficients is the Gaussian window which is optimally concentrated in time and frequency. This optimal nature can be explained by considering the time scaling and time shifting parameters a and b respectively. By choosing the appropriate values of a and b, we can determine the frequencies and the time associated with that signal. By representing any signal as the linear combination of the wavelet functions, we can localize the signals in both time and frequency domain. Hence wavelet transforms are important in geophysical applications where spatial and temporal frequency localisation is important. Time frequency localisation using wavelets Geophysical signals are continuously varying functions of space and time. The wavelet transform techniques offer a way to decompose the signals as a linear combination of shifted and scaled version of basis functions. The amount of "shift" and "scale" can be modified to localize the signal in time and frequency. Beamforming Simply put, space-time signal filtering problem can be thought as localizing the speed and direction of a particular signal. The design of filters for space-time signals follows a similar approach as that of 1D signals. The filters for 1-D signals are designed in such a way that if the requirement of the filter is to extract frequency components in a particular non-zero range of frequencies, a bandpass filter with appropriate passband and stop band frequencies in determined. Similarly, in the case of multi-dimensional systems, the wavenumber-frequency response of filters is designed in such a way that it is unity in the designed region of (k, ω) a.k.a. wavenumber – frequency and zero elsewhere. This approach is applied for filtering space-time signals. It is designed to isolate signals travelling in a particular direction. One of the simplest filters is weighted delay and sum beamformer. The output is the average of the linear combination of delayed signals. In other words, the beamformer output is formed by averaging weighted and delayed versions of receiver signals. The delay is chosen such that the passband of beamformer is directed to a specific direction in the space. Classical estimation theory This section deals with the estimation of the power spectral density of the multi-dimensional signals. The spectral density function can be defined as a multidimensional Fourier transform of the autocorrelation function of the random signal. The spectral estimates can be obtained by finding the square of the magnitude of the Fourier transform also called as Periodogram. The spectral estimates obtained from the periodogram have a large variance in amplitude for consecutive periodogram samples or in wavenumber. This problem is resolved using techniques that constitute the classical estimation theory. They are as follows: 1.Bartlett suggested a method that averages the spectral estimates to calculate the power spectrum. Average of spectral estimates over a time interval gives a better estimate. Bartlett's case 2.Welch's method suggested to divide the measurements using data window functions, calculate a periodogram, average them to get a spectral estimate and calculate the power spectrum using Fast Fourier Transform. This increased the computational speed. Welch's case 4. The periodogram under consideration can be modified by multiplying it with a window function. Smoothing window will help us smoothen the estimate. Wider the main lobe of the smoothing spectrum, smoother it becomes at the cost of frequency resolution. Modified periodogram For further details on spectral estimation, please refer Spectral Analysis of Multi-dimensional signals Applications Estimating positions of underground objects The method being discussed here assumes that the mass distribution of the underground objects of interest is already known and hence the problem of estimating their location boils down to parametric localisation. Say underground objects with center of masses (CM1, CM2...CMn) are located under the surface and at positions p1, p2...pn. The gravity gradient (components of the gravity field) is measured using a spinning wheel with accelerometers also called as the gravity gradiometer. The instrument is positioned in different orientations to measure the respective component of the gravitational field. The values of gravitational gradient tensors are calculated and analyzed. The analysis includes observing the contribution of each object under consideration. A maximum likelihood procedure is followed and Cramér–Rao bound (CRB) is computed to assess the quality of location estimate. Array processing for seismographic applications Various sensors located on the surface of earth spaced equidistantly receive the seismic waves. The seismic waves travel through the various layers of earth and undergo changes in their properties - amplitude change, time of arrival, phase shift. By analyzing these properties of the signals, we can model the activities inside the earth. Visualization of 3D data The method of volume rendering is an important tool to analyse the scalar fields. Volume rendering simplifies representation of 3D space. Every point in a 3D space is called a voxel. Data inside the 3-d dataset is projected to the 2-d space (display screen) using various techniques. Different data encoding schemes exist for various applications such as MRI, Seismic applications. References

Vignan's Foundation for Science, Technology and Research University is an deemed University in Andhra Pradesh, India, offering graduate (Masters) under-graduate (Bachelors) and PhD courses in Engineering and Technology. It is located at Vadlamudi, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh History The college's first campus was established in 1997 at Vadlamudi. Later, another campus of the Engineering College started at Deshmukhi near Hyderabad. It has been awarded Deemed University status, is approved by AICTE and NBA, and is an ISO 9001:2000 certified institution. The college, established under the aegis of the Lavu Educational Trust, is the brainchild of its founder, Dr. Lavu Rathaiah. Having made a mark at the plus two level of education, Vignan Group started schools across the state before venturing into professional courses like Engineering and Pharmacy. Vignan Group today has academics activities ranging from schools, junior and degree colleges, PG Centers, Engineering Colleges, Pharmacy Colleges and B.Ed. Colleges. VEC was the first of the engineering colleges to start functioning, in 1997. The college is located along the Guntur – Tenali highway. Guided by Dr. Lavu Rathaiah, the college has topped the Jawaharlal Nehru Technical University results twice in the last nine years. Electronics and Communication Engineering The department began in 1997, catering to the needs of four year B.Tech. ECE students. Up to 1999 the annual intake of ECE department was 40; in 1999 the intake was enhanced to 60; since 2000, the intake has been 120. The department initiated a PG program in M.Tech. in 2006. Consequent to the establishment of JNT University in Kakinada, the affiliations of both programmes were shifted to the new university from 2008 onwards. The undergraduate programme Electronics and Communication was accredited by NBA in 2006. In 2008, the college was accredited by NAAC and awarded an ‘A’ grade. The institution has been conferred with Deemed-to-be University status by UGC from January 2009. Faculty Dr.R.P.Das (HOD of ECE branch) Computer Science and Engineering The department of CSE was started in 1997. The department began with an annual intake of 40, and reached 120 students in 2001. The department provides computing resources for research and education. This includes more than 200 computers with Linux and Windows platforms. The School of Computing has around 50 faculty who are specialists in the areas of Databases, Data Mining, Computer Architecture, Operating Systems, Image Processing, Wireless Networks, Artificial Neural Networks, Information Security and Programming Languages. The department also conducts co-circullar activities on the name of VCODE. Faculty Dr K.venkata rao (Former HOD of CSE branch) Dr.D.Bhattacharyya (HOD of CSE branch) Information technology The department started in 1999 with an intake of 30. The intake of the department has since been increased by 150 over a span of 6 years. In Visakhapatnam branch, the head of the department of information technology branch Sri Bode Prasad is one of the most noticeable person, for his efforts in NSS services, and many inevitable effort of student rights and well-being. Faculty Dr. Bode Prasad. PhD -Dean of examination cell (former HOD of IT branch) K.V.N. Rajesh -H.O.D & Asst.prof R.Daniel -Asso.prof Pilla Srinivas Rao -Asst.prof (system cell incharge) Pasam Prudvi Kiran -Asst.prof (Discipline committee member) K.NAGARJUNA -Asso.prof CH. SRINIVASA REDDY-Asso.prof Electrical and Electronics Engineering The undergraduate program in Electrical and Electronics Engineering was started in 1999 with an annual intake of 40 students. By 2001, the intake was 60. The department started a postgraduate program, M.Tech. (Power Electronics and Drives) with an annual intake of 80 students in 2006. Faculty Dr.PUDI SEKHAR(HOD of EEE branch) Chemical Engineering The department of Chemical Engineering began in 1997. Starting with a student intake of 40, the intake was 60 in 2002. The M.Tech. program was introduced in 2004. Chemical Engineering has faculty who are specialists in the areas of Fluid Mechanics, Heat Transfer, Mass Transfer Operations, Chemical Reaction Engineering, Mechanical Unit Operations, Process Dynamics and Control, Chemical Technology, Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics, Chemical Process Calculations, Chemical Process Equipment Design and Chemical Process Modeling, Simulation and Optimization. Mechanical Engineering The department began in 1997 with a student intake of 60. The postgraduate program, offering specialization in machine design, was started in 2005. The faculty have specializations in the areas of Design, Thermal, Production and Industrial engineering. The faculty strength is 17 comprising two professors, six Associate Professors and nine Assistant Professors... Bio–technology The college started a Bio–Technology branch in 2006 with an intake of 60. Civil Engineering The Department of Civil Engineering is committed to research and development in civil engineering. started in the year 2008. Faculty Dr. Balla Satyanaryan (HOD of Civil branch) Library facility The library subscribes to online IEEE and ASME journals. The digital library with high speed Internet connection and access to online journals helps students prepare for competitive exams like GATE, GRE, CAT, TOFEL besides collating and compiling material for paper presentation, seminar etc. The library has more than 40,000 volumes audio-visual materials about 200 national and international journals a reading room It is air-conditioned with a seating capacity of about 600 students, and has a separate area for research students. The Library is managed with Library Management Software. Using this software, cataloguing as well as circulation services are automated. Digital resources like 1500 multimedia CDs and internet are available. Training and placement cell Equipped with trained personnel the facility started in 2000. The trainers understand the training requirements of undergraduate students and design programmes to help students attain career success. T and P cell at VEC conducts campus recruitment drives. Some of the industries which visit the campus are TATA Consultancy services Infosys Technologies Wipro Technologies VIRTUSA Technologies SONATA Software Mahindra & Mahindra B2B Software OSI Technologies Mphasis Technologies Sutherland Global services Mind edutainment Polaris Amazon Genpact MORDOR intelligence Google Facebook Mphasis etc. The cell organises guidance programs, reasoning tests, aptitude tests, puzzle solving, group discussions, mock interviews, brain storming sessions, case studies, pick and speak, experience sharing and minipresentations. The Training and Placement Cell organizes training programs for the students of all semesters with the help of in-house experts and resource personnel drawn from professional agencies. Internet facility PCs are provided around the university. An intranet portal provides personalized online services and access to information and learning resources for all students. A 16 MBPS Wi-Fi network connection is provided round the clock. Vignan has e-learning tools which provide access to lecture materials, communication with students and tutors through online discussions, web based resources in text, video, audio and image formats, online tests and assignment submission. Gbit/s Fiber Optic backbone and 100 Mbit/s connectivity to individual systems in the intranet. More than 1000 computers and 20 servers are available to the students and faculty. E-mail facility available to the students and faculty for paperless communication. Parents can have an access to Management Information about their children's attendance and performance Students can access E-learning resources through intranet servers. Transport Vignan is located along National Highway-5 and lies between Guntur and Tenali in Andhra Pradesh. t is 13 km from Guntur and 12 km from Tenali. It is well connected by road, rail and aircraft. The biggest railway junction in South India (Vijayawada) is an hours drive from the campus. Gannavaram Airport, providing passenger service to cities like Bangalore, Chennai and Hyderabad, is about 90 minutes drive from the campus. The college has a fleet of 32 buses, operating along two routes of Guntur and Tenali with a seating capacity of 1800 students. The college maintains ten cars for meeting the transport requirements of the senior faculty. Open-air theatres Two open-air theatres have a seating capacity of 15,000 to 20,000 students. A regular event in the theatre is Vignan Mahostav - a National Level Youth Festival. Seminar halls There are two (250 sq.m. and 250 seating capacity each) centrally air-conditioned seminar halls. Each hall is fitted with a projector and public address system. These seminar halls are also used for cultural programs like dance, drama and music. Recreation and sports facilities The campus is equipped with facilities for outdoor games like cricket, football, volleyball, tennis, basketball and 400 meter track athletics. References External links TechBirBal.com -- Engineering syllabus, question papers, Ebooks, notes and mock exams College website Colleges in Guntur Engineering colleges in Andhra Pradesh 1997 establishments in Andhra Pradesh Educational institutions established in 1997

Claudio Maccone (born 6 February 1948, Torino, Italy) is an Italian SETI astronomer, space scientist and mathematician. In 2002 he was awarded the "Giordano Bruno Award" by the SETI League, "for his efforts to establish a radio observatory on the far side of the Moon." In 2010 he was appointed Technical Director for Scientific Space exploration by the International Academy of Astronautics. Since 2012, he has chaired the SETI Permanent Committee of the International Academy of Astronautics, succeeding Seth Shostak of the SETI Institute, who held that position from 2002 to 2012. Maccone's two vice-chairs are his fellow Academicians Michael Garrett, Director of Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics and Leonid Gurvits (IJVE). Career He obtained his PhD at the Department of Mathematics of King's College London in 1980. He then joined the Space Systems Group of Aeritalia (later called Alenia Spazio S.p.A. and now Thales Alenia Space Italia S.p.A.) in Turin as a technical expert for the design of artificial satellites, and got involved in the design of space missions. In 2000 he was elected as Co-Vice Chair of the SETI Committee of the IAA. He has published over 100 scientific and technical papers, most of them in "Acta Astronautica." In 2010, Maccone was appointed Technical Director of Scientific Space Missions for the International Academy of Astronautics. In 2012, he became a founding member of the Advisory Council of the Institute for Interstellar Studies. Books His first book was Telecommunications, KLT and Relativity in 1994 and his second book was The Sun as a Gravitational Lens: Proposed Space Missions (proposing FOCAL space telescope) in 1998 (both at IPI Press, USA). Maccone's third book Deep Space Flight and Communications was published by Praxis-Springer in 2009. In September 2012, his fourth book, Mathematical SETI - Statistics, Signal Processing, Space Missions was published. Honours and awards His second book was awarded the "1999 Book Award for the Engineering Sciences" by the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA). The central main-belt asteroid 11264 Claudiomaccone, discovered by Nikolai Chernykh at Crimea–Nauchnij, was named in his honor on 2 September 2001 (). In 2002, he was awarded the “Giordano Bruno Award” by the SETI League, "for his efforts to establish a radio observatory on the far side of the Moon.'' The League considered it notable that Maccone was the first Italian to win the award, which is named after Italian monk Giordano Bruno. References External links Deep Space Flight and Communications Talk at the SETI Institute, 11/25/2009, (Retrieved 09/30/2011) , Stanford University, April 2016 Claudio Maccone@ ADS 1948 births 20th-century Italian astronomers Alumni of King's College London Living people

Negative-bias temperature instability (NBTI) is a key reliability issue in MOSFETs, a type of transistor aging. NBTI manifests as an increase in the threshold voltage and consequent decrease in drain current and transconductance of a MOSFET. The degradation is often approximated by a power-law dependence on time. It is of immediate concern in p-channel MOS devices (pMOS), since they almost always operate with negative gate-to-source voltage; however, the very same mechanism also affects nMOS transistors when biased in the accumulation regime, i.e. with a negative bias applied to the gate. More specifically, over time positive charges become trapped at the oxide-semiconductor boundary underneath the gate of a MOSFET. These positive charges partially cancel the negative gate voltage without contributing to conduction through the channel as electron holes in the semiconductor are supposed to. When the gate voltage is removed, the trapped charges dissipate over a time scale of milliseconds to hours. The problem has become more acute as transistors have shrunk, as there is less averaging of the effect over a large gate area. Thus, different transistors experience different amounts of NBTI, defeating standard circuit design techniques for tolerating manufacturing variability which depend on the close matching of adjacent transistors. NBTI has become significant for portable electronics because it interacts badly with two common power-saving techniques: reduced operating voltages and clock gating. With lower operating voltages, the NBTI-induced threshold voltage change is a larger fraction of the logic voltage and disrupts operations. When a clock is gated off, transistors stop switching and NBTI effects accumulate much more rapidly. When the clock is re-enabled, the transistor thresholds have changed and the circuit may not operate. Some low-power designs switch to a low-frequency clock rather than stopping completely in order to mitigate NBTI effects. Physics The details of the mechanisms of NBTI have been debated, but two effects are believed to contribute: trapping of positively charged holes, and generation of interface states. preexisting traps located in the bulk of the dielectric are filled with holes coming from the channel of pMOS. Those traps can be emptied when the stress voltage is removed, so that the Vth degradation can be recovered over time. interface traps are generated, and these interface states become positively charged when the pMOS device is biased in the "on" state, i.e. with negative gate voltage. Some interface states may become deactivated when the stress is removed, so that the Vth degradation can be recovered over time. The existence of two coexisting mechanisms has resulted in scientific controversy over the relative importance of each component, and over the mechanism of generation and recovery of interface states. In sub-micrometer devices nitrogen is incorporated into the silicon gate oxide to reduce the gate leakage current density and prevent boron penetration. It is known that incorporating nitrogen enhances NBTI. For new technologies (45 nm and shorter nominal channel lengths), high-κ metal gate stacks are used as an alternative to improve the gate current density for a given equivalent oxide thickness (EOT). Even with the introduction of new materials like hafnium oxide in the gate stack, NBTI remains and is often exacerbated by additional charge trapping in the high-κ layer. With the introduction of high κ metal gates, a new degradation mechanism has become more important, referred to as PBTI (for positive bias temperature instabilities), which affects nMOS transistor when positively biased. In this case, no interface states are generated and 100% of the Vth degradation may be recovered. See also Hot carrier injection Electromigration References J.H. Stathis, S. Mahapatra, and T. Grasser, “Controversial issues in negative bias temperature instability”, Microelectronics Reliability, vol 81, pp. 244-251, Feb. 2018. T. Grasser et al., “The paradigm shift in understanding the bias temperature instability: From reaction–diffusion to switching oxide traps”, IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices 58 (11), pp. 3652-3666, Nov. 2011. D.K. Schroder, “Negative bias temperature instability: What do we understand?”, Microelectronics Reliability, vol. 47, no. 6, pp. 841–852, June 2007. JH Stathis and S Zafar, “The negative bias temperature instability in MOS devices: A review”, Microelectronics Reliability, vol 46, no. 2, pp. 278-286, Feb. 2006. M. Alam and S. Mahapatra, “A comprehensive model of PMOS NBTI degradation”, Microelectronics Reliability, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 71–81, Jan. 2005. Semiconductor device defects Semiconductor device fabrication Electronic engineering Hardware testing

The Crew Return Vehicle (CRV), sometimes referred to as the Assured Crew Return Vehicle (ACRV), was a proposed dedicated lifeboat or escape module for the International Space Station (ISS). A number of different vehicles and designs were considered over two decades – with several flying as developmental test prototypes – but none became operational. Since the arrival of the first permanent crew to the ISS in 2000, the emergency return capability has been fulfilled by Soyuz spacecraft and, more recently, SpaceX's Crew Dragon – each rotated every 6 months. In the original space station design, emergencies were intended to be dealt with by having a "safe area" on the station that the crew could evacuate to, pending a rescue from a U.S. Space Shuttle. However, the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster and the subsequent grounding of the shuttle fleet caused station planners to rethink this concept. Planners foresaw the need for a CRV to address three specific scenarios: Crew return in case of unavailability of a Space Shuttle or Soyuz capsule; Prompt escape from a major time-critical space station emergency; Full or partial crew return in case of a medical emergency. Medical considerations The ISS is equipped with a Health Maintenance Facility (HMF) to handle a certain level of medical situations, which are broken into three main classifications: Class I: non-life-threatening illnesses and injuries (headache, lacerations). Class II: moderate to severe, possibly life-threatening (appendicitis, kidney stones). Class III: severe, incapacitating, life-threatening (major trauma, toxic exposure). However, the HMF is not designed to have general surgical capability, so a means of evacuating a crew member in case of a medical situation that is beyond the HMF's capabilities is essential. A number of studies have attempted to assess the medical risks for long-term space station habitation, but the results are inconclusive, as epidemiological data is lacking. It is, however, understood that longer periods in space increase the risk of serious problems. The closest estimates show an illness/injury rate of 1:3 per year, with 1% estimated to require emergency evacuation by means of a CRV. For an eight-person ISS crew, this results in an expected need for a CRV flight once every 4 to 12 years. These estimates have been partially corroborated by experiences on board the Soviet Union's Mir space station. In the 1980s, the Soviets had at least three incidents where cosmonauts had to be returned under urgent medical conditions. Because of its potential use as a medical evacuation method, the CRV design was required to address a number of issues that are not factors for a standard crewed space vehicle. Foremost of these are the g-loadings as influenced by reentry profiles and deceleration/landing methods upon patients with hemorrhagic shock issues. Patient security issues are more critical for injured astronauts than for uninjured personnel. Additionally, depending on the nature of the injury, it may be unlikely that the patient could be placed in an environmentally contained space suit or minicapsule, therefore the CRV needs to have the capability to provide a "shirt sleeve" environment. The ability to address air purity issues is included in this requirement, as air purity is especially critical in medical as well as toxic exposure situations. Early NASA concepts Dr. Wernher von Braun first brought up the concept of space lifeboats in a 1966 article, and then later NASA planners developed a number of early concepts for a space station lifeboat: Capsule systems The Station Crew Return Alternative Module (SCRAM) was a capsule which could hold up to six astronauts. Reentry heat protection was provided by the use of a heat shield designed for the NASA Viking Mars probe. Costing US$600 million, the primary drawback to this design was high g-loadings on landing, which were not ideal in the case of a medically necessitated evacuation. As a follow-on to the Viking-based concept, NASA considered a 1986 proposal by General Electric and NIS Space Ltd. for a commercially developed derivative of the U.S. Air Force blunt body Discoverer-type recovery capsule called MOSES, already designed for classified military projects, and initially were planned for up to four occupants, but the idea of scaling the capsule up to accommodate eight crew members was considered for a time before also being dropped. However, g-loads of up to 8-gs make this vehicle unsuitable for critical medical situations. In 1989, NASA engineers patented a capsule-type ACRV concept. HL-20 PLS The HL-20 Crew Rescue Vehicle was based on the Personnel Launch System (PLS) concept being developed by NASA as an outgrowth of earlier lifting body research. In October 1989, Rockwell International (Space Systems Division) began a year-long contracted effort managed by Langley Research Center to perform an in-depth study of PLS design and operations with the HL-20 concept as a baseline for the study. In October 1991, the Lockheed Advanced Development Company (better known as the Skunk Works) began a study to determine the feasibility of developing a prototype and operational system. A cooperative agreement between NASA, North Carolina State University and North Carolina A&T University led to the construction of a full-scale model of the HL-20 PLS for further human factors research on this concept.NASA HL-20 web site Of all the options, a lifting body presents the most ideal medical environment in terms of controlled environment as well as low g-loading during reentry and landing. However, the price tag for the HL-20 project was US$2 billion, and Congress cut the program from NASA's budget in 1990. European Space Agency concepts As a part of their wide-ranging studies of potential human spaceflight programs, the European Space Agency (ESA) began a six-month, first-phase ACRV study in October 1992. Prime contractors for the study were Aérospatiale, Alenia Spazio and Deutsche Aerospace. The ESA studied several concepts for a CRV: Apollo-type capsule: This would have been a scaled-up version of the 1960s Apollo capsule capable of carrying eight astronauts. A tower that sat on top of the capsule would contain a docking tunnel as well as the capsule's rocket engines, again similar to the Apollo configuration. The tower would be jettisoned just before reentry. Landing would be via deceleration parachutes and air bags.Image of Apollo-type capsule Also during Phase 1 studies, the ESA looked at a conical capsule known as the "Viking". Like the Apollo-style concept, it would have reentered base-first, but it had a more aerodynamic shape. The rocket engines for the "Viking" module were derivatives of the Ariane Transfer Vehicle. The design work continued until the end of Phase 1 in March 1995.Image of Viking ACRV A Blunt Biconic concept was studied in 1993–1994. This design was expected to be more maneuverable, but would have been heavier and more expensive.Image of Blunt Biconic capsule The ESA's US$1.7 billion ACRV program was cancelled in 1995, although French protests resulted in a two-year contract to perform further studies, which led to a scaled-down Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator capsule, which was flown in 1997.EADS ARD page The ESA instead elected to join NASA's X-38 CRV program in May 1996, after that program finished its Phase A study. Lifeboat Alpha The idea of using a Russian-built craft as a CRV dates back to March 1993, when President Bill Clinton directed NASA to redesign Space Station Freedom and consider including Russian elements. The design was revised that summer, resulting in Space Station Alpha (later the International Space Station). One of the Russian elements considered as a part of the redesign was the use of Soyuz "lifeboats." It was estimated that using the Soyuz capsules for CRV purposes would save NASA US$500 million over the cost expected for Freedom. However, in 1995, a joint venture between Energia, Rockwell International and Khrunichev proposed the Lifeboat Alpha design, derived from the Zarya reentry vehicle. The reentry motor was a solid propellant, and maneuvering thrusters utilized cold gas, so that it would have had a five-year on-station life cycle. The design was rejected, though, in June 1996 in favor of the NASA CRV/X-38 program. X-38 Besides referring to a generalized role within the ISS program, the name Crew Return Vehicle also refers to a specific design program initiated by NASA and joined by the ESA. The concept was to produce a spaceplane that was dedicated to the CRV role only. As such, it was to have three specific missions: medical return, crew return in case of the ISS becoming uninhabitable, and crew return if the ISS cannot be resupplied. CRV overview and concept development As a follow-on to the HL-20 program, the NASA intent was to apply Administrator Dan Goldin's concept of "better, faster, cheaper" to the program. The CRV design concept incorporated three main elements: the lifting-body reentry vehicle, the international berthing/docking module, and the Deorbit Propulsion Stage. The vehicle was to be designed to accommodate up to seven crew members in a shirt-sleeve environment. Because of the need to be able to operate with incapacitated crew members, flight and landing operations were to be performed autonomously. The CRV design had no space maneuvering propulsion system. NASA and ESA agreed that the CRV would be designed to be launched on top of an expendable launch vehicle (ELV) such as the Ariane 5. The program envisioned the construction of four CRV vehicles and two berthing/docking modules. The vehicles and berthing-docking modules were to be delivered to the ISS by the Space Shuttle, and each would remain docked for three years. Depending on which mission was being operated, maximum mission duration was intended to be up to nine hours. If the mission was related to emergency medical return, the mission duration could be reduced to three hours, given optimum sequencing between ISS departure and the deorbit/reentry burn. Under normal operations, the undocking process would take up to 30 minutes, but in an emergency the CRV could separate from the ISS in as little as three minutes. The CRV was to have a length of 29.8 ft (9.1 m) and a cabin volume of 416.4 ft³ (11.8 m³). Maximum landing weight was to be 22,046 lb (10,000 kg). The autonomous landing system was intended to place the vehicle on the ground within 3,000 ft (0.9 km) of its intended target. The Deorbit Propulsion Stage was designed by Aerojet GenCorp under contract to the Marshall Space Flight Center. The module was to be attached to the aft of the spacecraft at six points, and is 15.5 ft (4.72 m) long and 6 ft (1.83 m) wide. Fully fueled, the module would weigh about 6,000 lb (2721.5 kg). The module was designed with eight -thrust rocket engines fueled by hydrazine, which would burn for ten minutes to deorbit the CRV. Eight reaction control thrusters would then control the ship's attitude during deorbit. Once the burn was completed, the module was to be jettisoned, and would burn most of its mass up as it reentered the atmosphere. The cabin of the CRV was designed to be a "windowless cockpit", as windows and windshields add considerable weight to the design and pose additional flight risks to the spacecraft. Instead, the CRV was to have a "virtual cockpit window" system that used synthetic vision tools to provide an all-weather, day or night, real-time, 3-D visual display to the occupants. X-38 Advanced Technology Demonstrator In order to develop the design and technologies for the operational CRV at a fraction of the cost of other space vehicles, NASA launched a program to develop a series of low-cost, rapid-prototype vehicles that were designated the X-38 Advanced Technology Demonstrators. As described in EAS Bulletin 101, the X-38 program "is a multiple application technology demonstration and risk mitigation programme, finding its first application as the pathfinder for the operational Crew Return Vehicle (CRV) for the International Space Station (ISS)." NASA acted as its own prime contractor for the X-38 program, with the Johnson Space Center taking the project lead. All aspects of construction and development were managed in-house, although specific tasks were contracted out. For the production CRV, NASA intended to select an outside prime contractor to build the craft. Four test vehicles were planned, but only two were built, both atmospheric test vehicles. The airframes, which were largely built of composite materials, were constructed under contract by Scaled Composites. The first flew its maiden flight on March 12, 1998. The X-38 utilized a unique parafoil landing system designed by Pioneer Aerospace. The ram-air inflated parafoil used in the flight test program was the largest in the world, with a surface area of . The parafoil was actively controlled by an onboard guidance system that was based on GPS navigation. Controversy NASA's plans for the development program did not include an operational test of the actual CRV, which would have involved it being launched to the ISS, remaining docked there for up to three months, and then conducting an "empty" return to Earth. Instead, NASA had planned to "human rate" the spacecraft based on the results of the X-38's orbital testing. Three independent review groups, as well as the NASA Office of Inspector General, expressed concerns about the wisdom and safety of this plan. The rapid-prototyping method of development, as opposed to the approach of sequential design, development, test and engineering evaluation also raised some concerns about program risk. Funding issues In 1999, NASA projected the cost of the X-38 program at US$96 million (Space Flight Advanced Projects funds) and the actual CRV program at US$1.1 billion (ISS Program funds). A year later, the X-38 costs had risen to US$124.3 million, with the increased cost being paid for by ISS funds. Part of the increased cost was the result of the need to operationally test the CRV with at least one, and possibly more, shuttle launches. The ESA chose not to fund the CRV program directly, but instead decided to allow ESA-participating governments to fund the program individually, starting in 1999. Belgium, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland all indicated that they would make substantial contributions. U.S. funding for the NASA/ESA CRV was never a settled issue. In the Fiscal Year (FY) 2002 funding bill, Congress recommended a funding amount of US$275 million, but made it clear that this was conditional: [T]he Committee does not anticipate providing additional funds for this purpose unless it is made clear that the Administration and the international partners are committed to the International Space Station as a research facility. For this reason, the language included in the bill would rescind the $275,000,000 unless the Administration requests at least $200,000,000 for the crew return vehicle in the fiscal year 2003 NASA budget request. Furthermore, funding of the CRV program was tied to Administration justification of the mission of the ISS: By March 1, 2002, the President shall submit to the Committees on Appropriations of the House and Senate a comprehensive plan that meets the following terms and conditions: First, a clear and unambiguous statement on the role of research in the International Space Station program. Second, a detailed outline of the efforts being pursued to provide habitation facilities for a full-time crew of no less than six persons.... Third, the anticipated costs of the crew return vehicle program by fiscal year.... Fourth, the relative priority of the crew return vehicle development program in the context of the International Space Station. The Committee does not intend to provide any additional funds or approve the release of any of the $275,000,000 provided in this bill, until all conditions are fully satisfied. Cancellation On April 29, 2002, NASA announced that it was cancelling the CRV and X-38 programs, due to budget pressures associated with other elements of the ISS. The agency had been faced with a US$4 billion shortfall, and so radically redesigned the scope of the ISS, calling the new version U.S. Core Complete'''. This scaled-down station did not include the X-38-based CRV. Although the FY 2002 House budget had proposed US$275 million for the CRV, this was not included in the final budget bill. House–Senate conferees, however, saw the need to keep the CRV options open, believing that NASA's redesign and consequent deletion of the CRV premature, and so directed NASA to spend up to US$40 million to keep the X-38 program alive. The CRV cancellation created its own controversy, with Congressman Ralph Hall (D-TX) taking NASA to task in an open letter detailing three areas of criticism: switching resources to a multipurpose Crew Transfer Vehicle might be more costly and time-consuming than completing the CRV project; relying on Soyuz spacecraft for American astronauts beyond the contracted time frame might be subject to political restrictions; questioning whether an independent cost-benefit analysis was conducted prior to NASA's decision. NASA administrator Sean O'Keefe's responses did not satisfy Mr. Hall but the decision stood. Orbital Space Plane As a part of NASA's Integrated Space Transportation Plan (ISTP) which restructured the Space Launch Initiative (SLI), focus moved in 2002 to developing the Orbital Space Plane (OSP) (early on referred to as the Crew Transfer Vehicle, or CTV), which would serve as both crew transport and as the CRV. In the restructuring, program priorities were changed, as NASA declared: "NASA's needs for transporting US crew to and from the Space Station is a driving space transportation requirement and must be addressed as an agency priority. It is NASA's responsibility to ensure that a capability for emergency return of the ISS crew is available. The design and development of an evolvable and flexible vehicle architecture that will initially provide crew return capability and then evolve into a crew transport vehicle is now the near-term focus of SLI." A Crew Transfer Vehicle/Crew Rescue Vehicle Study, conducted by the SLI program in 2002, concluded that a multi-purpose Orbital Space Plane that can perform both the crew transfer and crew return functions for the Space Station is viable and could provide the greatest long-term benefit for NASA's investment. One of the key missions for the OSP, as defined by NASA in 2002, was to provide "rescue capability for no fewer than four Space Station crew members as soon as practical, but no later than 2010." As a part of the flight evaluation program that was to explore and validate technologies to be used in the OSP, NASA initiated the X-37 program, selecting Boeing Integrated Defense Systems as the prime contractor. However, the OSP received heavy congressional criticism for being too limited in mission ("...the primary shortcoming of the OSP is that, as currently envisioned, it leads nowhere besides the space station") and for costing as much as US$3 to $5 billion. Then, in 2004, NASA's focus changed yet again, from the OSP to the Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV), and the X-37 project was transferred to DARPA, where some aspects of technology development were continued, but only as an atmospheric test vehicle. Apollo-derivative capsule With the cancellation of the OSP, the Apollo capsule was once again looked at for use as a CRV, this time by NASA in March 2003. In the initial study of the concept, "the Team concluded unanimously that an Apollo-derived Crew Return Vehicle (CRV) concept, with a 4 to 6 person crew, appears to have the potential of meeting most of the OSP CRV Level 1 requirements. An Apollo derived Crew Transport Vehicle (CTV) would also appear to be able to meet most of the OSP CTV Level 1 requirements with the addition of a service module. The team also surmised that there would be an option to consider the Apollo CSM concept for a common CRV/CTV system. It was further concluded that using the Apollo Command Module (CM) and Service Module (SM) as an ISS CRV and CTV has sufficient merit to warrant a serious detailed study of the performance, cost, and schedule for this approach, in comparison with other OSP approaches, to the same Level 1 requirements." The study identified a number of issues with development of this option: "On the one hand, the Apollo system is well understood, and proved to be a highly successful, rugged system with a very capable launch abort system. Documentation would be very helpful in leading the designers. On the other hand, nearly every system would have to be redesigned, even if it were to be replicated. None of the existing hardware (such as CMs in Museums) was thought to be usable, because of age, obsolescence, lack of traceability, and water immersion. There would be no need for fuel cells or cryogenics, and modern guidance and communications would be lighter and less expensive. Although the flight hardware would be less expensive, and its impact on the Expendable Launch Vehicles would be minimal (it's just another axisymmetrical payload), the landing sites for the CRV may drive the Life Cycle costs high. By adding a Service Module (smaller than the one required to go to the Moon), orbital cross-range of 3000 to , might be gained, and the number of landing sites radically reduced. If land landings can be added to the system safely, another major reduction in life cycle costs would result, because the team believed that the system could be made re-usable." Due to the capsule's aerodynamic characteristics, g-loadings are in the moderate range, (2.5 to 3.5g''). From a medical perspective, though, the Apollo-type capsule presents several disadvantages. The Apollo capsule would have an internal atmospheric operating pressure of only 5 PSI, as opposed to the station's 14.5 PSI. In addition, a water landing on short notice presents some significant delays in capsule recovery. Soyuz TMA With the cancellation of the X-38 and CRV programs in 2001, it was clear that the interim use of Soyuz capsules would be a longer term necessity. To make them more compatible with the needs of the ISS, Energia was contracted to modify the standard Soyuz TM capsule to the TMA configuration. The main modifications involve the interior layout, with new, improved seats to accommodate larger American astronaut anthropometric standards. A series of test drops of the improved capsule were made in 1998 and 1999 from an Ilyushin Il-76 cargo plane to validate the landing capabilities of the TMA. A Soyuz-TMA capsule is always attached to the ISS in "standby" mode, in case of emergencies. Operated in this configuration, the TMA has a lifespan of about 200 days before it has to be rotated out, due to the degradation of the hydrogen peroxide used for its reaction control system. Because of this limitation, the vehicle is planned for a typical six-month changeout cycle. The first flight of the TMA to the ISS occurred on October 29, 2002 with the flight of the Soyuz TMA-1. Because the TMA is limited to three occupants, the ISS was also likewise restricted to that number of occupants, which drastically reduces the amount of research that can be done on board the ISS to 20 person-hours per week, far lower than what was anticipated when the station was designed. With Expedition 20 in May 2009, the crew size of the ISS was increased from 3 to 6 persons with the simultaneously docked two Soyuz spacecraft. Commercial Crew Development In 2008, NASA began administering a program (CCDev) to fund development of commercial crew transportation technologies. The program funded bids to develop specific technologies with awards when milestones were achieved. The first round of recipients in early 2010 included Boeing for its CST-100 capsule and Sierra Nevada Corporation for its Dream Chaser spaceplane. Further proposals submitted at the end of 2010 for a second round of funding included Orbital Sciences Corporation for its Prometheus spaceplane and SpaceX for developing a launch abort system for its Dragon spacecraft. References External links ESA CRV specifications MSNBC Flash presentation showing construction of the ISS and placement of the CRV 3D Modeling for CRV design Timing Analysis and Scheduling of the X-38 Space Station Crew Return Vehicle and Other Space Vehicles CRV Interior Design NASA Tech Paper 3101: Numerical Analysis and Simulation of an Assured Crew Return Vehicle Flow Field Historic overview of space lifeboats AAAS FY 2002 budget review and commentary on CRV issues NASA programs Lifting bodies International Space Station Cancelled spacecraft

The following terms are used by electrical engineers in statistical signal processing studies instead of typical statistician's terms. In other engineering fields, particularly mechanical engineering, uncertainty analysis examines systematic and random components of variations in measurements associated with physical experiments. Notes References S.M. Kay, Fundamentals of Statistical Signal Processing, . H. Coleman and W. G. Steele, Experimentation and uncertainty analysis for engineers, . Detection theory Statistical hypothesis testing

Micropower describes the use of very small electric generators and prime movers or devices to convert heat or motion to electricity, for use close to the generator. The generator is typically integrated with microelectronic devices and produces "several watts of power or less." These devices offer the promise of a power source for portable electronic devices which is lighter weight and has a longer operating time than batteries. Microturbine technology The components of any turbine engine — the gas compressor, the combustion chamber, and the turbine rotor — are fabricated from etched silicon, much like integrated circuits. The technology holds the promise of ten times the operating time of a battery of the same weight as the micropower unit, and similar efficiency to large utility gas turbines. Researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology have thus far succeeded in fabricating the parts for such a micro turbine out of six etched and stacked silicon wafers, and are working toward combining them into a functioning engine about the size of a U.S. quarter coin. Researchers at Georgia Tech have built a micro generator 10 mm wide, which spins a magnet above an array of coils fabricated on a silicon chip. The device spins at 100,000 revolutions per minute, and produces 1.1 watts of electrical power, sufficient to operate a cell phone. Their goal is to produce 20 to 50 watts, sufficient to power a laptop computer. Scientists at Lehigh University are developing a hydrogen generator on a silicon chip that can convert methanol, diesel, or gasoline into fuel for a microengine or a miniature fuel cell. Professor Sanjeev Mukerjee of Northeastern University's chemistry department is developing fuel cells for the military that will burn hydrogen to power portable electronic equipment, such as night vision goggles, computers, and communication equipment. In his system, a cartridge of methanol would be used to produce hydrogen to run a small fuel cell for up to 5,000 hours. It would be lighter than rechargeable batteries needed to provide the same power output, with a longer run time. Similar technology could be improved and expanded in future years to power automobiles. The National Academies' National Research Council recommended in a 2004 report that the U.S. Army should investigate such micropower sources for powering electronic equipment to be carried by soldiers in the future, since batteries sufficient to power the computers, sensors, and communications devices would add considerable weight to the burden of infantry soldiers. The Future Warrior Concept of the U.S. Army envisions a 2- to 20-watt micro turbine fueled by a liquid hydrocarbon being used to power communications and wearable heating/cooling equipment for up to six days on 10 ounces of fuel. Other microgenerator/nanogenerator technologies Professor Orest Symko of the University of Utah physics department and his students developed Thermal Acoustic Piezo Energy Conversion (TAPEC), devices of a cubic inch (16 cubic centimeters), or so, which convert waste heat into acoustic resonance and then into electricity. It would be used to power microelectromechanical systems, or MEMS. The research was funded by the U.S. Army. Symko was to present a paper at the Acoustical Society of America. June 8, 2007. Researchers at MIT developed the first micro-scale piezoelectric energy harvester using thin film PZT in 2005. Arman Hajati and Sang-Gook Kim invented the Ultra Wide-Bandwidth micro-scale piezoelectric energy harvesting device by exploiting the nonlinear stiffness of a doubly clamped microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) resonator. The stretching strain in a doubly clamped beam shows a nonlinear stiffness, which provides a passive feedback and results in amplitude-stiffened Duffing mode resonance. Professor Zhong Lin Wang of the Georgia Institute of Technology said his team of investigators had developed a "nanometer-scale generator ... based on arrays of vertically aligned zinc oxide nanowires that move inside a "zigzag" plate electrode." Built into shoes, it could generate electricity from walking to power small electronic devices. It could also be powered by blood flow to power biomedical devices. Per an account of the device which appeared in the journal Science, bending of the zinc oxide nanowire arrays produces an electric field by the piezoelectric properties of the material. The semiconductor properties of the device create a Schottky barrier with rectifying capabilities. The generator is estimated to be 17% to 30% efficient in converting mechanical motion into electricity. This could be used to power biomedical devices that have wireless transmission capabilities for data and control. A later development was to grow hundreds of such nanowires on a substrate that functioned as an electrode. On top of this was placed a silicon electrode covered with a series of platinum ridges. Vibration of the top electrode caused the generation of direct current. A report by Wang was to appear in the August 8, 2007 issue of the journal "Nano Letters," saying that such devices could power implantable biomedical devices. The device would be powered by flowing blood or a beating heart. It could function while immersed in body fluids, and would get its energy from ultrasonic vibrations. Wang expects that an array of the devices could produce 4 watts per cubic centimeter. Goals for further development are to increase the efficiency of the array of nanowires, and to increase the lifetime of the device, which as of April 2007 was only about one hour. By November 2010 Wang and his team were able to produce 3 volts of potential and as much as 300 nanoamperes of current, an output level 100 times greater than was possible a year earlier, from an array measuring about 2 cm by 1.5 cm. The windbelt is a micropower technology invented by Shawn Frayne. It is essentially an aeolian harp, except that it exploits the motion of the string produced by aeroelastic flutter to create a physical oscillation that can be converted to electricity. It avoids the losses inherent in rotating wind powered generators. Prototypes have produced 40 milliwatts in a 16 km/h wind. Magnets on the vibrating membrane generate currents in stationary coils. Piezoelectric nanofibers in clothing could generate enough electricity from the wearer's body movements to power small electronic devices, such as iPods or some of the electronic equipment used by soldiers on the battlefield, based on research by University of California, Berkeley Professor Liwei Lin and his team. One million such fibers could power an iPod, and would be altogether as large as a grain of sand. Researchers at Stanford University are developing "eTextiles" — batteries made of fabric — that might serve to store power generated by such technology. Thermal resonator technology allows generation of power from the daily change of temperature, even when there is no instantaneous temperature difference as needed for thermoelectric generation, and no sunlight as needed for photovoltaic generation. A phase change material such as octadecane is selected which can change from solid to liquid when the ambient temperature changes a few degrees celsius. In a small demonstration device created by chemical engineering professor Michael Strano and seven others at MIT, a 10 degree celsius daily change produced 350 millivolts and 1.3 milliwatts. The power levels envisioned could power sensors and communication devices. See also Battery (electricity) Cell phone Electrical generator Electronics Fuel cell Gas turbine Hub dynamo Integrated circuits Laptop Microelectronics Microelectromechanical systems Portable fuel cell applications Windbelt Nanogenerator References External links MIT Gas Turbine Laboratory Z.L. Wang's lab at Georgia Institute of Technology Electrical generators Microtechnology

The MOFO Project/Object is an album by Frank Zappa. The album was announced by the Zappa Family Trust in mid-2006. It commemorates the 40th anniversary of Zappa's first album, Freak Out!. It documents the making of Freak Out! featuring previously unreleased material. It was released as a uniquely packaged 4-CD set. It is project/object #1 in a series of 40th Anniversary FZ Audio Documentaries. A more affordable 2-CD set was also released. CD2 tracks 2, 5, 11, 12, 13, 15 & 16 are unique to this 2-CD set release (these seven tracks do not appear on the four-disc box set). All the other tracks are available on The MOFO Project/Object 4-CD set. The first CD of each set includes the original 1966 vinyl mix of Freak Out!. This mix has a shorter kazoo outro on "Who Are The Brain Police?" Track listing 4-CD version Disc 1 Original 1966 Stereo LP Mix of Freak Out! None of these tracks have previously appeared in any format outside the Vault other than the configuration offered herein. 2-CD version Disc 1 Original 1966 Stereo LP Mix of Freak Out! Credits • Arthur Maebe • Benjamin Barrett • Bob Stone - Remixing • Carl Franzoni • Carol Kaye • Chris Riess - Liner Notes • Dave Wells • David Anderle • David Fricke - Liner Notes • Doug Sax - Remastering • Edgard Varèse - Author • Elliot Ingber - Guitar, Guitar (Rhythm) • Emmet Sargeant • Eugene Dinovi • Frank Zappa - Arranger, Art Direction, Author, Conductor, Executive Producer, Orchestration, Percussion, Producer, Remixing, Text • Gail Zappa - Producer • Gene Estes - Percussion • George Price • Jack Anesh - Cover Design • Jim Black - Drums, Percussion, Vocals • Joe Travers - Producer, Vault Research • John "Snakehips" Johnson • John Polito - Audio Restoration, Mastering • John Rotella • Joseph Saxon • Ken Watson - Percussion • Kim Fowley • Kurt Reher • Melanie Starks - Production Coordination • Mothers Auxiliary • Neil Levang • Paul Bergstrom • Plas Johnson • Ray Collins - Finger Cymbals, Hair Stylist, Harmonica, Tambourine, Vocals • Ray Leong - Cover Photo • Raymond Kelley (cello) • Roy Caton • Roy Estrada - Bass, Guitarron, Soprano (Vocal) • Sangwook "Sunny" Nam - Remastering • Stan Agol - Remixing • Terry Gilliam • Tom Wilson - Producer • Tracy Veal - Art Direction, Layout Design • Val Valentine - Engineering Director • Virgil Evans Notes and references External links Official Zappa website - album info The Zappa Patio - Detailed analysis and fanatical opinions Compilation albums published posthumously Frank Zappa compilation albums 2006 compilation albums The Mothers of Invention albums Zappa Records albums

Technische Hochschule Lübeck (THL) is a technical university of applied sciences located in the hanseatic city of Lübeck in northern Germany. The university was renamed in 2018 and was formerly known as “Fachhochschule Lübeck (FHL)” respectively "Lübeck University of Applied Sciences”. There are 35 degree programs, with 21 Bachelor's degree programs and 14 Master's degree programs. 5,164 students are studying at the university, including 1,655 women (as of Winter Semester 2020–21). International collaborations The university's electrical engineering program has had an exchange program with  Milwaukee School of Engineering (MSOE) since 1995. There are international partnerships in industrial and mechanical engineering. Recently, it has worked with MSOE to develop a MIS exchange program. It also collaborates and has exchange programs with other universities in the United States, as well as with universities in China, Denmark, Finland, France, Ghana, Ireland, Latvia, Spain, and Sweden. Currently there are also more than 70 Exchange Students from East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai participating in Environmental Engineering and Electrical Engineering. Further, 5 to 7 students qualify themselves to enroll IFIM Business School, Bangalore, India, and 6 to 8 students of the counterpart school come as a part of yearly exchange program. One University - Four Departments The departments, their degree programs and the respective teaching language (if available) Department of Applied Natural Sciences Applied Chemistry, B.Sc. (German) Biomedical Engineering, M.Sc. (English) Biomedical Engineering, B.Sc. (German) Medical Microtechnology, M.Sc. (English) Audiological Acoustics, B.Sc. (German) Auditory Technology, M.Sc. (German) Physical Technology, B.Sc. (German) Regulatory Affairs, M.Sc. (German) Technical Biochemistry, M.Sc. (German) Environmental Engineering and - Management, B.Sc. (German) Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering Architecture, B.A. and M.A. (German) Civil Engineering, B. Eng. and M.Eng. (German) Urban Planning, B.Sc. (German) Urban Design and Planning, M.A. (German) Sustainable Building Technology, B.Eng. (German) Water Engineering, M.Eng. (English) Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Applied Information Technology, M.Sc. (English/German) Electrical Engineering - General Electrical Engineering, B.Sc. Energy Systems and Automation Eng., B.Sc. Communication Systems, B.Sc. Computer Science/Software Engineering Computer Science/Software Engineering for Distributed Systems, M.Sc. Information Technology and Design, B.Sc. IT Security Online, B.Sc. Computer Science and Media Applications - online studies, B.Sc./M.Sc. Renewable Energies Online, B.Sc. Department of Mechanical Engineering and Business Administration Business Administration, B.Sc.* and M.A. Mechanical Engineering,  B.Sc. (incl. dual studies Mechanical Engineering) Mechanical Engineering, M.Sc. (English) Business Administration and Engineering, B.Sc. and M.Sc. Business Administration and Engineering (online), B.Eng. Business Administration and Engineering – Food Industry, B.Eng. References External links University homepage (in German) LinkedIn Page of the University Much of the content of this article comes from the equivalent German-language Wikipedia article (retrieved September 23, 2006). Engineering universities and colleges in Germany Buildings and structures in Lübeck Universities and colleges in Schleswig-Holstein Universities of Applied Sciences in Germany

Neither Storm Nor Quake Nor Fire is the only album of metalcore band Demise of Eros. It was released on August 22, 2006. Critical reception Josh from Indie Vision Music writes: "The band definitely has talent but need a guiding hand to direct their abilities into a smoother result. As of right now, the potential can be seen, but the band probably wont be able to stand out amongst the hordes of metalcore groups out there. I look at this album the same way I looked at War Of Ages’ debut. You could hear the overflowing potential of WOA but they needed to really clean up their sound and work out a few kinks, which they successfully did. Demise Of Eros, with the same work effort, have the same bright future ahead of them!" Track listing Credits Demise of Eros Darren Belajac - Vocals Steve Stout - Guitar, Vocals John Erickson - Guitar Will Curtis - Bass Joey Solak - Drums Production Dave Quiggle - Artwork, Layout Design Doug White - Engineer, Producer, Impersonations References 2006 debut albums Demise of Eros albums

A multibeam echosounder (MBES) is a type of sonar that is used to map the seabed. It emits acoustic waves in a fan shape beneath its transceiver. The time it takes for the sound waves to reflect off the seabed and return to the receiver is used to calculate the water depth. Unlike other sonars and echo sounders, MBES uses beamforming to extract directional information from the returning soundwaves, producing a swathe of depth soundings from a single ping. History and progression Multibeam sonar sounding systems, also known as swathe (British English) or swath (American English) , originated for military applications. The concept originated in a radar system that was intended for the Lockheed U-2 high altitude reconnaissance aircraft, but the project was derailed when the aircraft flown by Gary Powers was brought down by a Soviet missile in May 1960. A proposal for using the "Mills Cross" beamforming technique adapted for use with bottom mapping sonar was made to the US Navy. Data from each ping of the sonar would be automatically processed, making corrections for ship motion and transducer depth sound velocity and refraction effects, but at the time there was insufficient digital data storage capacity, so the data would be converted into a depth contour strip map and stored on continuous film. The Sonar Array Sounding System (SASS) was developed in the early 1960s by the US Navy, in conjunction with General Instrument to map large swathes of the ocean floor to assist the underwater navigation of its submarine force. SASS was tested aboard the USS Compass Island (AG-153). The final array system, composed of sixty-one one degree beams with a swathe width of approximately 1.15 times water depth, was then installed on the USNS Bowditch (T-AGS-21), USNS Dutton (T-AGS-22) and USNS Michelson (T-AGS-23). At the same time, a Narrow Beam Echo Sounder (NBES) using 16 narrow beams was also developed by Harris ASW and installed on the Survey Ships Surveyor, Discoverer and Researcher. This technology would eventually become Sea Beam Only the vertical centre beam data was recorded during surveying operations. Starting in the 1970s, companies such as General Instrument (now SeaBeam Instruments, part of L3 Klein) in the United States, Krupp Atlas (now Atlas Hydrographic) and Elac Nautik (now part of the Wärtsilä Corporation) in Germany, Simrad (now Kongsberg Maritime) in Norway and RESON now Teledyne RESON A/S in Denmark developed systems that could be mounted to the hull of large ships, as well as on small boats (as technology improved, multibeam echosounders became more compact and lighter, and operating frequencies increased). The first commercial multibeam is now known as the SeaBeam Classic and was put in service in May 1977 on the Australian survey vessel HMAS Cook. This system produced up to 16 beams across a 45-degree arc. The (retronym) term "SeaBeam Classic" was coined after the manufacturer developed newer systems such as the SeaBeam 2000 and the SeaBeam 2112 in the late 1980s. The second SeaBeam Classic installation was on the French Research Vessel Jean Charcot. The SB Classic arrays on the Charcot were damaged in a grounding and the SeaBeam was replaced with an EM120 in 1991. Although it seems that the original SeaBeam Classic installation was not used much, the others were widely used, and subsequent installations were made on many vessels. SeaBeam Classic systems were subsequently installed on the US academic research vessels (Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California), the (Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University) and the (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution). As technology improved in the 1980s and 1990s, higher-frequency systems which provided higher resolution mapping in shallow water were developed, and today such systems are widely used for shallow-water hydrographic surveying in support of navigational charting. Multibeam echosounders are also commonly used for geological and oceanographic research, and since the 1990s for offshore oil and gas exploration and seafloor cable routing. More recently, multibeam echsounders are also used in the renewable energy sector such as offshore windfarms. In 1989, Atlas Electronics (Bremen, Germany) installed a second-generation deep-sea multibeam called Hydrosweep DS on the German research vessel Meteor. The Hydrosweep DS (HS-DS) produced up to 59 beams across a 90-degree swath, which was a vast improvement and was inherently ice-strengthened. Early HS-DS systems were installed on the (Germany), the (Germany), the (US) and the (India) in 1989 and 1990 and subsequently on a number of other vessels including the (US) and (Japan). As multibeam acoustic frequencies have increased and the cost of components has decreased, the worldwide number of multibeam swathe systems in operation has increased significantly. The required physical size of an acoustic transducer used to develop multiple high-resolution beams, decreases as the multibeam acoustic frequency increases. Consequently, increases in the operating frequencies of multibeam sonars have resulted in significant decreases in their weight, size and volume characteristics. The older and larger, lower-frequency multibeam sonar systems, that required considerable time and effort mounting them onto a ship's hull, used conventional tonpilz-type transducer elements, which provided a usable bandwidth of approximately 1/3 octave. The newer and smaller, higher-frequency multibeam sonar systems can easily be attached to a survey launch or to a tender vessel. Shallow water multibeam echosounders, like those from Teledyne Odom, R2Sonic and Norbit, which can incorporate sensors for measuring transducer motion and sound speed local to the transducer, are allowing many smaller hydrographic survey companies to move from traditional single beam echosounders to multibeam echosounders. Small low-power multibeam swathe systems are also now suitable for mounting on an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) and on an Autonomous Surface Vessel (ASV). Multibeam echosounder data may include bathymetry, acoustic backscatter, and water column data. (Gas plumes now commonly identified in midwater multibeam data are termed flares.) Type 1-3 piezo-composite transducer elements, are being employed in a multispectral multibeam echosounder to provide a usable bandwidth that is in excess of 3 octaves. Consequently, multispectral multibeam echosounder surveys are possible with a single sonar system, which during every ping cycle, collects multispectral bathymetry data, multispectral backscatter data, and multispectral water column data in each swathe. Theory of operation A multibeam echosounder is a device typically used by hydrographic surveyors to determine the depth of water and the nature of the seabed. Most modern systems work by transmitting a broad acoustic fan shaped pulse from a specially designed transducer across the full swathe acrosstrack with a narrow alongtrack then forming multiple receive beams (beamforming) that are much narrower in the acrosstrack (around 1 degree depending on the system). From this narrow beam, a two way travel time of the acoustic pulse is then established utilizing a bottom detection algorithm. If the speed of sound in water is known for the full water column profile, the depth and position of the return signal can be determined from the receive angle and the two-way travel time. In order to determine the transmit and receive angle of each beam, a multibeam echosounder requires accurate measurement of the motion of the sonar relative to a cartesian coordinate system. The measured values are typically heave, pitch, roll, yaw, and heading. To compensate for signal loss due to spreading and absorption a time-varied gain circuit is designed into the receiver. For deep water systems, a steerable transmit beam is required to compensate for pitch. This can also be accomplished with beamforming. References Further reading Louay M.A. Jalloul and Sam. P. Alex, "Evaluation Methodology and Performance of an IEEE 802.16e System", Presented to the IEEE Communications and Signal Processing Society, Orange County Joint Chapter (ComSig), December 7, 2006. Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20110414143801/http://chapters.comsoc.org/comsig/meet.html B. D. V. Veen and K. M. Buckley. Beamforming: A versatile approach to spatial filtering. IEEE ASSP Magazine, pages 4–24, Apr. 1988. H. L. Van Trees, Optimum Array Processing, Wiley, NY, 2002. "A Primer on Digital Beamforming" by Toby Haynes, March 26, 1998 "What Is Beamforming?" by Greg Allen. "Two Decades of Array Signal Processing Research" by Hamid Krim and Mats Viberg in IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, July 1996 External links A Note on Fifty Years of Multi-beam Sounding Pole to Sea Beam (NOAA History) MB-System open source software for processing multibeam data News and application articles of multibeam equipment on Hydro International Memorial website for USNS Bowditch, USNS Dutton and USNS Michelson {First application of Multibeam} Oceanography Sonar

The single-ended primary-inductor converter (SEPIC) is a type of DC/DC converter that allows the electrical potential (voltage) at its output to be greater than, less than, or equal to that at its input. The output of the SEPIC is controlled by the duty cycle of the control switch (S1). A SEPIC is essentially a boost converter followed by an inverted buck-boost converter, therefore it is similar to a traditional buck-boost converter, but has advantages of having non-inverted output (the output has the same electrical polarity as the input), using a series capacitor to couple energy from the input to the output (and thus can respond more gracefully to a short-circuit output), and being capable of true shutdown: when the switch S1 is turned off enough, the output (V0) drops to 0 V, following a fairly hefty transient dump of charge. SEPICs are useful in applications in which a battery voltage can be above and below that of the regulator's intended output. For example, a single lithium ion battery typically discharges from 4.2 volts to 3 volts; if other components require 3.3 volts, then the SEPIC would be effective. Circuit operation The schematic diagram for a basic SEPIC is shown in Figure 1. As with other switched mode power supplies (specifically DC-to-DC converters), the SEPIC exchanges energy between the capacitors and inductors in order to convert from one voltage to another. The amount of energy exchanged is controlled by switch S1, which is typically a transistor such as a MOSFET. MOSFETs offer much higher input impedance and lower voltage drop than bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), and do not require biasing resistors as MOSFET switching is controlled by differences in voltage rather than a current, as with BJTs. Continuous mode A SEPIC is said to be in continuous-conduction mode ("continuous mode") if the currents through inductors L1 and L2 never fall to zero during an operating cycle. During a SEPIC's steady-state operation, the average voltage across capacitor C1 (VC1) is equal to the input voltage (Vin). Because capacitor C1 blocks direct current (DC), the average current through it (IC1) is zero, making inductor L2 the only source of DC load current. Therefore, the average current through inductor L2 (IL2) is the same as the average load current and hence independent of the input voltage. Looking at average voltages, the following can be written: Because the average voltage of VC1 is equal to VIN, VL1 = −VL2. For this reason, the two inductors can be wound on the same core, which begins to resemble a flyback converter, the most basic of the transformer-isolated switched-mode power supply topologies. Since the voltages are the same in magnitude, their effects on the mutual inductance will be zero, assuming the polarity of the windings is correct. Also, since the voltages are the same in magnitude, the ripple currents from the two inductors will be equal in magnitude. The average currents can be summed as follows (average capacitor currents must be zero): When switch S1 is turned on, current IL1 increases and the current IL2 goes more negative. (Mathematically, it decreases due to arrow direction.) The energy to increase the current IL1 comes from the input source. Since S1 is a short while closed, and the instantaneous voltage VL1 is approximately VIN, the voltage VL2 is approximately −VC1. Therefore, D1 is opened and the capacitor C1 supplies the energy to increase the magnitude of the current in IL2 and thus increase the energy stored in L2. IL is supplied by C2. The easiest way to visualize this is to consider the bias voltages of the circuit in a d.c. state, then close S1. When switch S1 is turned off, the current IC1 becomes the same as the current IL1, since inductors do not allow instantaneous changes in current. The current IL2 will continue in the negative direction, in fact it never reverses direction. It can be seen from the diagram that a negative IL2 will add to the current IL1 to increase the current delivered to the load. Using Kirchhoff's Current Law, it can be shown that ID1 = IC1 - IL2. It can then be concluded, that while S1 is off, power is delivered to the load from both L2 and L1. C1, however is being charged by L1 during this off cycle (as C2 by L1 and L2), and will in turn recharge L2 during the following on cycle. Because the potential (voltage) across capacitor C1 may reverse direction every cycle, a non-polarized capacitor should be used. However, a polarized tantalum or electrolytic capacitor may be used in some cases, because the potential (voltage) across capacitor C1 will not change unless the switch is closed long enough for a half cycle of resonance with inductor L2, and by this time the current in inductor L1 could be quite large. The capacitor CIN has no effect on the ideal circuit's analysis, but is required in actual regulator circuits to reduce the effects of parasitic inductance and internal resistance of the power supply. The boost/buck capabilities of the SEPIC are possible because of capacitor C1 and inductor L2. Inductor L1 and switch S1 create a standard boost converter, which generates a voltage (VS1) that is higher than VIN, whose magnitude is determined by the duty cycle of the switch S1. Since the average voltage across C1 is VIN, the output voltage (VO) is VS1 - VIN. If VS1 is less than double VIN, then the output voltage will be less than the input voltage. If VS1 is greater than double VIN, then the output voltage will be greater than the input voltage. Discontinuous mode A SEPIC is said to be in discontinuous-conduction mode or discontinuous mode if the current through either of inductors L1 or L2 is allowed to fall to zero during an operating cycle. Reliability and efficiency The voltage drop and switching time of diode D1 is critical to a SEPIC's reliability and efficiency. The diode's switching time needs to be extremely fast in order to not generate high voltage spikes across the inductors, which could cause damage to components. Fast conventional diodes or Schottky diodes may be used. The resistances in the inductors and the capacitors can also have large effects on the converter efficiency and output ripple. Inductors with lower series resistance allow less energy to be dissipated as heat, resulting in greater efficiency (a larger portion of the input power being transferred to the load). Capacitors with low equivalent series resistance (ESR) should also be used for C1 and C2 to minimize ripple and prevent heat build-up, especially in C1 where the current is changing direction frequently. Disadvantages Like the buck–boost converter, the SEPIC has a pulsating output current. The similar Ćuk converter does not have this disadvantage, but it can only have negative output polarity, unless the isolated Ćuk converter is used. Since the SEPIC converter transfers all its energy via the series capacitor, a capacitor with high capacitance and current handling capability is required. The fourth-order nature of the converter also makes the SEPIC converter difficult to control, making it only suitable for very slow varying applications. See also Switched-mode power supply (SMPS) DC to DC converter Buck converter Boost converter Buck-boost converter Flyback converter Ćuk converter References Maniktala, Sanjaya. Switching Power Supply Design & Optimization, McGraw-Hill, New York 2005 SEPIC Equations and Component Ratings, Maxim Integrated Products. Appnote 1051, 2005. TM SEPIC converter in PFC Pre-Regulator, STMicroelectronics. Application Note AN2435. This application note presents the basic equation of the SEPIC converter, in addition to a practical design example. High Frequency Power Converters, Intersil Corporation. Application Note AN9208, April 1994. This application note covers various power converter architectures, including the various conduction modes of SEPIC converters. DC-to-DC converters Voltage regulation

The Indian Armed Forces are the military forces of the Republic of India. It consists of three professional uniformed services: the Indian Army, Indian Navy, and Indian Air Force. Additionally, the Indian Armed Forces are supported by the Central Armed Police Forces, Indian Coast Guard and Special Frontier Force and various inter-service commands and institutions such as the Strategic Forces Command, the Andaman and Nicobar Command and the Integrated Defence Staff. The President of India is the Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces but the executive authority and responsibility for national security is vested in the Prime Minister of India and their chosen Cabinet Ministers. The Indian Armed Forces are under the management of the Ministry of Defence of the Government of India. With strength of over 1.4 million active personnel, it is the world's second-largest military force and has the world's largest volunteer army. It also has the third-largest defence budget in the world. The Global Firepower Index report lists it as the fourth most-powerful military. The Indian Armed Forces have been engaged in a number of major military operations, including: the Indo-Pakistani wars of 1947, 1965 and 1971, the Portuguese-Indian War, the Sino-Indian War, the 1967 Cho La incident, the 1987 Sino-Indian skirmish, the Kargil War, and the Siachen conflict among others. India honours its armed forces and military personnel annually on Armed Forces Flag Day, 7 December. Armed with the nuclear triad, the Indian armed forces are steadily undergoing modernisation, with investments in areas such as futuristic soldier systems and missile defence systems. The Department of Defence Production of the Ministry of Defence is responsible for the indigenous production of equipment used by the Indian Armed Forces. It comprises 16 Defence PSUs. India remains one of the largest importer of defence equipment with Russia, Israel, France and the United States being the top foreign suppliers of military equipment. The Government of India, as part of the Make in India initiative, seeks to indigenise manufacturing and reduce dependence on imports for defence. History India has one of the longest military histories, dating back several millennia. The first reference to armies is found in the Vedas as well as the epics Ramayana and Mahabaratha. Classical Indian texts on archery in particular, and martial arts in general are known as Dhanurveda. Ancient to medieval era Indian maritime history dates back 5,000 years. The first tidal dock is believed to have been built at Lothal around 2300 BC during the Indus Valley civilisation period, near the present day port of Mangrol on the Gujarat coast. The Rig Veda written around 1500 BC, credits Varuna with knowledge of the ocean routes and describes naval expeditions. There is reference to the side wings of a vessel called Plava, which gives the ship stability in storm conditions. A compass, Matsya yantra was used for navigation in the fourth and fifth century AD. The earliest known reference to an organisation devoted to ships in ancient India is in the Mauryan Empire from the 4th century BC. Powerful militaries included those of the: Maurya, Satavahana, Chola, Vijayanagara, Mughal and Maratha empires. Emperor Chandragupta Maurya's mentor and advisor Chanakya's Arthashastra devotes a full chapter on the state department of waterways under navadhyaksha (Sanskrit for Superintendent of ships) . The term, nava dvipantaragamanam (Sanskrit for "sailing to other lands by ships," i.e. exploration) appears in this book in addition to appearing in the Vedic text, Baudhayana Dharmashastra as the interpretation of the term, Samudrasamyanam. Sea lanes between India and neighbouring lands were used for trade for many centuries, and are responsible for the widespread influence of Indian Culture on other societies. The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Maratha and Kerala fleets were expanded, and became the most powerful Naval Forces in the subcontinent, defeating European navies at various times (See the Battle of Colachel). The fleet review of the Maratha navy, at which the ships Pal and Qalbat participated, took place at the Ratnagiri fort. The Maratha Kanhoji Angre, and Kunjali Marakkar, the Naval chief of Saamoothiri were two notable naval chiefs of the period. British India (1857 to 1947) The Royal Indian Navy was first established by the British while much of India was under the control of the East India Company. In 1892, it became a maritime component as the Royal Indian Marine (RIM). During World War I the Indian Army contributed a number of divisions and independent brigades to the European, Mediterranean and Middle Eastern theatres of war. One million Indian troops served overseas; 62,000 died and another 67,000 were wounded. In total, 74,187 Indian soldiers died during the war. It fought against the German Empire in German East Africa and on the Western Front. Indian divisions were also sent to Egypt, Gallipoli and nearly 700,000 served in Mesopotamia against the Ottoman Empire. Following WWI, the Indian Armed Forces underwent significant transformation. In 1928, Engineer Sub-lieutenant D. N. Mukherji became the first Indian to receive a commission in the Royal Indian Marine. In 1932, the Indian Air Force was established as an auxiliary air force within RAF India; two years later, the RIM was upgraded to the status of a naval service as the Royal Indian Navy (RIN). Though the gradual "Indianisation" of the officer corps began after WWI, at the outbreak of war in 1939, there were no Indian flag, general or air officers in the armed services. The highest-ranking Indian officers were those serving in the non-combatant Indian Medical Service, who held no rank higher than colonel; in the regular Indian Army, there were no Indian officers above the rank of major. The Royal Indian Navy had no Indian senior line officers and only a single Indian senior engineer officer, while the Indian Air Force had no Indian senior officers in 1939, with the highest-ranking Indian air force officer a flight lieutenant. In World War II, the Indian Army began the war in 1939 with just under 200,000 men. By the end of the war it had become the largest volunteer army in history, rising to over 2.5 million men by August 1945. Serving in divisions of infantry, armour and a fledgling airborne forces, they fought on three continents in Africa, Europe and Asia. The Indian Army fought in Ethiopia against the Italian Army, in Egypt, Libya and Tunisia against both the Italian and German Army, and, after the Italian surrender, against the German Army in Italy. However, the bulk of the Indian Army was committed to fighting the Japanese Army, first during the British defeats in Malaya and the retreat from Burma to the Indian border; later, after resting and refitting for the victorious advance back into Burma, as part of the largest British Empire army ever formed. These campaigns cost the lives of over 36,000 Indian servicemen, while another 34,354 were wounded; 67,340 became prisoners of war. Their valour was recognised with the award of some 4,000 decorations, and 38 members of the Indian Army were awarded the Victoria Cross or the George Cross. The demands of war and increasing recognition that the era of British dominance in the subcontinent was ending increased the pace of "Indianisation." In 1940, Subroto Mukherjee (later the first Indian C-in-C and Chief of the Air Staff) became the first Indian to command an air force squadron and attain the (albeit acting) rank of squadron leader. In July 1941, Indian Medical Service officer Hiraji Cursetji became one of the first Indian officers to be promoted to substantive general officer rank. During the war, several Indian Army officers, notably Kodandera M. Cariappa, S. M. Shrinagesh and Kodandera Subayya Thimayya, all of whom would subsequently command the Indian Army, achieved distinction as the first Indian battalion and brigade commanders. On 1 May 1945, Cariappa became the first Indian officer to be promoted to brigadier. At the end of hostilities in 1945, the Indian Army's officer corps included Indian Medical Service officer Hiraji Cursetji as its sole Indian major-general, one IMS brigadier, three Indian brigadiers in combatant arms and 220 other Indian officers in the temporary or acting ranks of colonel and lieutenant-colonel. From October 1945, the granting of regular commissions in the Indian Armed Forces was restricted to Indians, though provisions were made for the continued secondment of British officers for as long as was deemed necessary. In 1946, sailors of the Royal Indian Navy mutinied on board ships and in shore establishments. A total of 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 sailors were involved in the rebellion, which had an impact across India. Indianization of the armed forces nevertheless continued to progress. On 15 May 1947, Subroto Mukherjee became the first Indian air officer with the acting rank of air commodore, in the appointment of Deputy Assistant to the Air Officer Commanding (Administration). On 21 July, H.M.S. Choudhry and Bhaskar Sadashiv Soman, both of whom would eventually command the Pakistani and Indian Navies, respectively, became the first Indian Royal Indian Navy officers to be promoted to acting captain. On 30 July, Brigadiers K.M. Cariappa, Muhammad Akbar Khan and Maharaj Shri Rajendrasinhji Jadeja were promoted major-generals, the first Indian general officers in a combat arm of the Indian Army. Dominion of India (1947–1950) The period immediately following Indian independence was a traumatic time for India and her armed services. Along with the newly independent India, the Indian Armed Forces were forcibly divided between India and Pakistan, with ships, divisions and aircraft allocated to the respective Dominions. Following partition, on 15 August 1947, the Indian Armed Forces comprised: The Royal Indian Navy (RIN): Four sloops, two frigates, 12 minesweepers, one corvette, one survey vessel, four armed trawlers, four motor minesweepers, four harbour defence launches and all landing craft of the pre-Independence RIN. Indian Army: 15 infantry regiments, 12 armoured corps units, 18.5 artillery regiments and 61 engineer units. Of the Nepalese Gorkha regiments formerly attached to the British Indian Army, the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th (Royal), 8th and 9th Gorkha Rifles remained in Indian service, with the first and second battalions of the 2nd, 6th, 7th and 10th Gorkha Rifles placed in British Army service. The Royal Indian Air Force (RIAF): Seven fighter squadrons of Hawker Tempest II aircraft and one transport squadron of Douglas Dakota III/IV aircraft. By the end of 1947, there were a total of 13 Indian major-generals and 30 Indian brigadiers, with all three army commands being led by Indian officers by October 1948, at which time only 260 British officers remained in the new Indian Army as advisers or in posts requiring certain technical abilities. With effect from April 1948, the former Viceroy's Commissioned Officers (VCO) were re-designated Junior Commissioned Officers (JCO), the distinction between King's Commissioned Indian Officers (KCIO) and Indian Commissioned Officers (ICO) was abolished and Indian Other Ranks were re-designated as "other ranks." During this period, the armed forces of India were involved in a number of significant military operations, notably the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 and Operation Polo, the code name of a military operation in September 1948 where the Indian Armed Forces invaded the State of Hyderabad, annexing the state into the Indian Union. On 15 January 1949, General K. M. Cariappa was appointed the first Indian Commander-in-Chief of the Indian army. In February 1949, the Indian government repealed colonial-era legislation which mandated limits on the recruitment of certain ethnic groups into the armed forces. Republic of India (1950 to present) Upon India becoming a sovereign republic on 26 January 1950, some of the last vestiges of British rule – such as rank badges, imperial crowns, British ensigns and "Royal" monikers – were dropped and replaced with the Indian tricolour and the Lion Capital of Asoka. On 1 April 1951, the remaining units of Imperial Service Troops of the former princely states were integrated with the regular Indian Army, though only a percentage of the former princely states forces were found capable enough to be retained in active service. While India had become a republic, British officers seconded from the British Armed Forces continued to hold senior positions in the Indian Armed Forces into the early 1960s. On 1 April 1954, Air Marshal Subroto Mukherjee became the first Indian Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Air Force. Effective from 1 April 1955, a Parliamentary Act, the Commanders-In-Chiefs (Change in Designation) Act, re-designated the office of Commander-in-Chief as the Chief of Staff of each branch. Not until 1958 would the last British chief of staff that of the Indian Navy, be succeeded by an Indian. On 22 April of that year, Vice Admiral Ram Dass Katari became the first Indian Chief of Naval Staff. The Chiefs of Staff of the Indian Air Force and the Indian Navy were upgraded to four-star rank on par with the Chief of Army Staff in 1966 and 1968, respectively. In 1961 tensions rose between India and Portugal over the Portuguese-occupied territory of Goa, which India claimed for itself. After Portuguese police cracked down violently on a peaceful, unarmed demonstration for union with India, the Indian government decided to invade and initiated Operation Vijay. A lopsided air, sea, and ground campaign resulted in the speedy surrender of Portuguese forces. Within 36 hours, 451 years of Portuguese colonial rule ended, and Goa was annexed by India. India fought four major wars with its neighbour Pakistan in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999, and with China in 1962 and 1967. Indian victory over Pakistan in the 1971 war, helped create the free country of Bangladesh. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Pakistan began organising tourist expeditions to the Siachen Glacier, disputed territory with India. Irked by this development, in April 1984 India initiated the successful Operation Meghdoot during which it gained control over all of the 70-kilometre (41-mile)-long Siachen Glacier, and all of its tributary glaciers, as well as the three main passes of the Saltoro Ridge immediately west of the glacier—Sia La, Bilafond La, and Gyong La. According to TIME magazine, India gained more than of territory as a result of its military operations in Siachen. In 1987 and in 1989 Pakistan attempted to re-take the glacier but was unsuccessful. The conflict ended with Indian Victory. Since 2003, the two sides have maintained a ceasefire and with "cold peace". The Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) carried out a mission in northern and eastern Sri Lanka in 1987–1990 to disarm the Tamil Tigers under the terms of the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord. It was a difficult battle for the Indian Army, which was not trained for an unconventional war. After losing approximately 1,200 personnel and several T-72 tanks, India ultimately abandoned the mission in consultation with the Sri Lankan government. In what was labelled as Operation Pawan, the Indian Air Force flew about 70,000 sorties to and within Sri Lanka. The beginning of the 21st century saw a reorientation for India on the global stage from a regional role in the subcontinent to a major role in the Indian Ocean stretching from the Gulf of Aden to the Malacca Strait. India's sphere of influence has surpassed the South Asian subcontinent, and it has emerged as a regional power and "net security provider" in the Indo-Pacific region. Overview The headquarters of the Indian Armed Forces is in New Delhi, the capital city of India. The President of India serves as the formal Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces, while actual control lies with the executive headed by the Prime Minister of India. The Ministry of Defence (MoD) is the ministry charged with the responsibilities of countering insurgency and ensuring external security of India. General Manoj Pande is the Chief of the Army Staff (COAS), Admiral R.Hari Kumar is the Chief of the Naval Staff (CNS) and Air Chief Marshal Vivek Ram Choudhari is the Chief of the Air Staff (CAS). The Indian armed force are split into different groups based on their region of operation. The Indian Army is divided administratively into seven tactical commands, each under the control of different Lieutenant Generals. The Indian Air Force is divided into five operational and two functional commands. Each command is headed by an air officer commanding-in-chief with the rank of air marshal. The Indian Navy operates three commands. Each command is headed by a flag officer commanding-in-chief with the rank of vice admiral. There are two joint commands whose head can belong to any of the three services. These are the Strategic Forces Command and the Andaman and Nicobar Command. The lack of an overall military commander has helped keep the Indian Armed Forces under civilian control, and has prevented the rise of military dictatorships unlike in neighbouring Pakistan. The Armed Forces have four main tasks; To assert the territorial integrity of India. To defend the country if attacked by a foreign nation. To support the civil community in case of disasters (e.g. flooding). To participate in United Nations peacekeeping operations in consonance with India's commitment to the United Nations Charter. The code of conduct of the Indian military is detailed in a semi-official book called Customs and Etiquette in the Services, written by retired Major General Ravi Arora, which details how Indian personnel are expected to conduct themselves generally. Arora is an executive editor of the Indian Military Review. The major deployments of the Indian army constitute the border regions of India, particularly Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, and Northeast India, to engage in counter-insurgency and anti-terrorist operations. The major commitments of the Indian Navy constitute patrol missions, anti-piracy operations off the coast of Somalia, the 'Singapore Indian Maritime Bilateral Exercise' with the Republic of Singapore Navy in the Straits of Malacca, maintaining a military presence in Southeast Asias waters, and joint exercises with other countries, such as: Brasil, South Africa, the United States and Japan, France (Varuna naval exercises), the People's Republic of China, the Russian Navy (INDRA naval exercises), and others. Between April 2015 and March 2016, India allocated $40 billion to Defence Services, $10 billion to Defence (Civil Estimates) and another $10 billion to the Home Ministry for Paramilitary and CAPF forces – a total allocation for defence and security of about $60 billion for the financial year 2015–16. In 2016–17, the contribution to the Home Ministry has been increased from $10 billion to $11.5 billion. Contemporary criticism of the Indian military have drawn attention to several issues, such as lack of political reform, obsolete equipment, lack of adequate ammunition, and inadequate research and development due to over-reliance on foreign imports. In addition, the lack of a 'strategic culture' among the political class in India is claimed to have hindered the effectiveness of the Indian military. Critics believe these issues hobble the progress and modernisation of the military. However, analysis by the Central Intelligence Agency indicates that India is projected to have the fourth most capable concentration of power by 2015. According to a report published by the US Congress, India is the developing world's leading arms purchaser. It is investing to build a dedicated and secure optical fibre cable (OFC) network for exclusive use of the Army, Navy and Air Force. This will be one of the world's largest closed user group (CUG) networks. Personnel During 2010, the Indian Armed Forces had a reported strength of 1.4 million active personnel and 2.1 million reserve personnel. In addition, there were approximately 1.3 million paramilitary personnel, making it one of the world's largest military forces. A total of 1,567,390 ex- servicemen are registered with the Indian Army, the majority of them hailing from: Uttar Pradesh (271,928), Punjab (191,702), Haryana (165,702), Maharashtra (143,951), Kerala (127,920), Tamil Nadu (103,156), Rajasthan (100,592) and Himachal Pradesh (78,321). Many of them are re-employed in various Central government sectors. The highest wartime gallantry award given by the Military of India is the Param Vir Chakra (PVC), followed by the Maha Vir Chakra (MVC) and the Vir Chakra (VrC). Its peacetime equivalent is the Ashoka Chakra Award. The highest decoration for meritorious service is the Param Vishisht Seva Medal. Women in the armed forces As of December 2021, the percentages of women serving across all ranks in the Army, Navy and Air Force are 0.59%, 6.0% and 1.08%, respectively. Women may serve at any rank in the Army and Air Force, but may only serve in the Navy as commissioned officers. During the British Raj, the Temporary Indian Nursing Service was established in 1914 to meet the nursing needs of Indian soldiers serving in the First World War, with female Indian nurses serving as military auxiliaries. The Indian Military Nursing Service (MNS) was formed on 1 October 1926, with its officers integrated into the armed forces on 15 September 1943 and given the status of commissioned officers. Following Independence, apart from those serving in the MNS, women remained ineligible for regular commissions in the armed forces until 1 November 1958, when the restriction on granting permanent commissions to women was removed for those joining the Army Medical Corps. In 1961, Dr. Barbara Ghosh became the first female medical officer to be granted a permanent naval commission. On 27 August 1976, Gertrude Alice Ram, the military nursing service Matron-in-Chief, became the first woman officer in the Indian Army to attain the rank of major-general, and the first female officer in the Indian Armed Forces to attain two-star rank. In January 1992, the Union government sanctioned the induction of women into non-combatant branches of the Army while holding short-service commissions. On 28 November 1992, the Indian Navy became the first armed force to commission women on short-service commissions in non-medical streams (Education, Logistics and Naval Law). The Air Force approved the induction of women officers for ground duties in 1992, with those officers receiving their commissions on 1 June 1993, and opened the flying (non-fighter) and technical branches to women the same year, commissioning its first seven female pilots on 17 December 1994. Until December 1996, women short-service commission officers in the Armed Forces were limited to five years in service, excepting the technical branch of the air force, in which female officers could only serve for three years. In August 1998, the Navy opened all of its branches to women. Punita Arora was appointed Commandant, Armed Forces Medical College on 1 September 2004 in the rank of lieutenant-general, becoming the first woman in the armed forces to reach three-star rank. In September 2008, women became eligible for permanent commissions in the Judge Advocate General (JAG) and Education Corps in all three services, along with the Naval Constructor branch of the Navy and in the Accounts branch of the Air Force. This made them eligible to be promoted by selection in those streams (to the ranks of colonel, captain and group captain, and to the flag ranks), as short-service commissions are relinquished after 14 years of service. In November 2011, women Air Force officers further became eligible for permanent commissions in the Technical, Administration, Logistics and Meteorology Branches. Branches Recruitment and Training The vast majority of soldiers in Indian Army are enlisted personnel, called by the Army as Soldier, general duty. These soldiers are recruited at different recruitment rallies across the country. At these rallies, Army recruiters look at candidates from surrounding districts and examine their fitness for the Army. Candidates for Soldier, general duty must have Class 10 Leaving Certificate and in the range of 17 to 21 years. The Army also does online applications to appear at recruitment rallies. Requirements for technical roles, like nurses, artillery, Missile Defense have more stringent educational requirements. The least restrictive job in Army is House Keeper and Cleaner, for which candidates only have to be 8th pass. At the rally, prospective soldiers are evaluated for height, weight, vision and hearing, and physical fitness. Fitness tests include a 1.6 km Run, Pull Ups, jumping a 9 Feet ditch, and doing a zig zag balance test. After recruitment rally, accepted candidates go to Basic Training. The Indian Armed Forces have set up numerous military academies across India for training personnel. Military schools, Sainik Schools, and the Rashtriya Indian Military College were founded to broaden the recruitment base of the Defence Forces. The three branches of the Indian Armed Forces jointly operate several institutions such as: the National Defence Academy (NDA), the Defence Services Staff College (DSSC), the National Defence College (NDC) and the College of Defence Management (CDM) for training its officers. The Armed Forces Medical College (AFMC) at Pune is responsible for providing the entire pool of medical staff to the Armed Forces by giving them in-service training. Officer recruitment is through many military-related academies. Besides the tri-service National Defence Academy, Pune, the three services have their own training institutes for this purpose. These include: the Indian Military Academy, Dehradun, Indian Naval Academy, Ezhimala, Air Force Academy, Hyderabad, Officers Training Academy at Chennai and Gaya. Other notable institutions are the Army War College, at Mhow, Madhya Pradesh, the High Altitude Warfare School (HAWS), at Gulmarg, Jammu and Kashmir, the Counter Insurgency and Jungle Warfare School (CIJW), in Vairengte, Mizoram, and the College of Military Engineering (CME), in Pune. After being commissioned, officers are posted and deputed, and are at the helm of affairs not only inside India but also abroad. Officers are appointed and removed only by the President of India. Overseas bases and relations Farkhor Air Base is a military air base located near the town of Farkhor in Tajikistan, southeast of the capital Dushanbe. It is operated by the Indian Air Force in collaboration with the Tajikistan Air Force. Farkhor is India's first and only military base outside its territory. There was an unconfirmed report of India building some assets at Ayni Air Base in Tajikistan, although the Tajik government has denied this. However, India had deployed its Army and Border Roads Organisation personnel to upgrade Ayni airbase by extending its runway, constructing an air-traffic control tower and perimeter fencing around the base. India provided medium-lift choppers to Tajikistan and a dedicated hospital there as part of efforts to build on the strategic ties between the two countries against the backdrop of US-led troops pulling out from Afghanistan in 2014. India is also helping with the development of Chah Bahar Seaport in southeastern Iran, which is speculated to be done to secure India's Maritime assets and also as a gateway to Afghanistan & Central Asia. However, India and Israel also have a very strong defence relationship. In the 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship, India took on the obligation to actively assist Nepal in national defence and military preparedness, and both nations agreed not to tolerate threats to each other's security. In 1958, the then-Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru visited Bhutan and reiterated India's support for Bhutan's independence and later declared in the Indian Parliament that any aggression against Bhutan would be seen as aggression against India. India started the process to bring the island country Maldives into India's security grid. India is also one of three countries with whom Japan has a security pact, the others being Australia and the United States. India and Russia maintain strong military co-operation. India has defence pacts with the US focusing on areas including security, joint training, joint development and manufacture of defence equipment and technology. In 1951, India and Burma signed a Treaty of Friendship in New Delhi. Article II of the treaty stipulates that "There shall be everlasting peace and unalterable friendship between the two States who shall ever strive to strengthen and develop further the cordial relations existing between the peoples of the two countries." India had signed a pact to develop ports in Myanmar and various bilateral issues, including economic co-operation, connectivity, security and energy. India has a "comprehensive strategic partnership" with UAE. India has maritime security arrangements in place with Oman and Qatar. In 2008, a landmark defence pact was signed, under which India committed its military assets to protect "Qatar from external threats". On 9 June 2012, the JIMEX 2012 naval exercise took place off the coast of Tamil Nadu in India to Tokyo in Japan. This was the first ever bilateral maritime exercise between the two nations in a long time, reflecting their similar interests, especially those involving spontaneous regional security against common external aggressors. The Indian Navy has berthing rights in Oman and Vietnam. As part of its two-decade-old Look East policy, India has substantially stepped up military engagement with East Asian and ASEAN nations. Although never explicitly stated, ASEAN and East Asian nations want New Delhi to be a counterweight to increasing Chinese footprints in the region. Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia and, particularly, Vietnam and Myanmar have time and again pressed India to help them both in terms of military training and weapons supply. Myanmar's Navy Chief, Vice Admiral Thura Thet Swe during his four-day visit to India in late July 2012 held wide-ranging consultations with top officials from the Indian Ministry of Defence. Apart from increasing the number of training slots of Myanmar officers in Indian military training establishments, India has agreed to build at least four Offshore Patrol Vehicles (OPV) in Indian Shipyards to be used by Myanmar's navy. For more than a decade now, India has assisted Vietnam in beefing up its naval and air capabilities. For instance, India has repaired and upgraded more than 100 MiG 21 planes of the Vietnam People's Air Force and supplied them with enhanced avionics and radar systems. Indian Air Force pilots have also been training their Vietnamese counterparts. In a first, India has offered a $100-million credit line to Vietnam to purchase military equipment. A bilateral agreement for the use of facilities in India by the Singapore Air Force and Army was signed in October 2007 and August 2008 respectively and has been extended up to 2017. Singapore is the only country to which India is offering such facilities. Indian Army The Indian Army is a voluntary service, the military draft having never been imposed in India. It is one of the largest standing armies (and the largest standing volunteer army) in the world, with 1,237,000 active troops and 800,000 reserve troops. The force is headed by the Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army, General Manoj Mukund Pande. The highest rank in the Indian Army is Field Marshal, but it is a largely ceremonial rank and appointments are made by the President of India, on the advice of the Union Cabinet of Ministers, only in exceptional circumstances. Sam Manekshaw and the K.M. Cariappa are the only two officers who have attained this rank. The army has rich combat experience in diverse terrains, due to India's varied geography, and also has a distinguished history of serving in United Nations peacekeeping operations. Initially, the army's main objective was to defend the nation's frontiers. However, over the years, the army has also taken up the responsibility of providing internal security, especially in insurgent-hit Kashmir and the north-east. The Indian Army has seen military action during the First Kashmir War, Operation Polo, the Sino-Indian War, the Second Kashmir War, the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the Sri Lankan Civil War and the Kargil War. It has dedicated one brigade of troops to the UN's standby arrangements. Through its large, sustained troop commitments India has been praised for taking part in difficult operations for prolonged periods. The Indian Army has participated in several UN peacekeeping operations including those in: Cyprus, Lebanon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, Cambodia, Vietnam, Namibia, El Salvador, Liberia, Mozambique and Somalia. The army also provided a paramedical unit to facilitate the withdrawal of the sick and wounded in the Korean War. Doctrine, corps, field force The current combat doctrine of the Indian Army is based on effectively utilising holding formations and strike formations. In the case of an attack, the holding formations would contain the enemy, and strike formations would counter-attack to neutralise enemy forces. In the case of an Indian attack, the holding formations would pin enemy forces down whilst the strike formations attack at a point of India's choosing. The Indian Army is large enough to devote several corps to the strike role. The army is also looking at enhancing its special forces capabilities. With the role of India increasing, and the need to protect India's interests on far-off shores becoming important, the Indian Army and Indian Navy are jointly planning to set up a marine brigade. The Army's field force comprises fifteen corps, three armoured divisions, four Reorganised Army Plains Infantry Divisions (RAPID), eighteen infantry divisions and ten mountain divisions, a number of independent brigades, and requisite combat support and service support formations and units. Among the fifteen, four are "strike" corps – Mathura (I Corps), Ambala (II Corps), Bhopal (XXI Corps) and Panagarh (XVII Corps). The main combat and combat support units are 68 armoured regiments, and over 350 infantry battalions and 300 artillery regiments (including two surface-to-surface missile (SSM) units). Amongst major armaments and equipment, there are nearly 4000 main battle tanks, 2000 armoured personnel carriers, 4300 artillery pieces and 200 light helicopters. Mountain Strike Corps India has raised a new mountain strike corps to strengthen its defence along its disputed border with China in the high reaches of the Himalayas. However, the entire XVII Corps, with its headquarters at Panagarh in West Bengal, will only be fully raised with 90,274 troops at a cost of 646.7 Billion Indian Rupees by 2018–2019 (circa US$7.3 Billion at 2018 rates). With units spread across the Line of Actual Control (LAC) from Ladakh to Arunachal Pradesh, the corps will have two high-altitude infantry divisions (59 Div at Panagarh and 72 Div at Pathankot) with their integral units, two independent infantry brigades, two armoured brigades and the like. It will include 30 new infantry battalions and two Para-Special Forces battalions. In other words, it will have "rapid reaction force" capability to launch a counter-offensive into Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR) in the event of any Chinese attack. Army Aviation Corps The Army Aviation Corps is another vital part of the Indian Army formed on 1 November 1986. The army aviation pilots are drawn from other combat arms, including artillery officers, to form a composite third dimensional force for an integrated battle. IAF operates and flies attack Helicopters like the Mil Mi-25/Mi-35 which are owned and administered by the Indian Air Force, but under the operational control of the Army and play a major role to support the armoured columns and infantry. Apart from the attack role, helicopters like the HAL Chetak, HAL Cheetah, and HAL Dhruv provide logistical support for the Indian Army in remote and inaccessible areas, especially the Siachen Glacier. To equip Army Aviation Corps, procurement process for 197 light utility helicopters (LUH) is ongoing, of which 64 will be inducted in the Army Aviation to replace the Cheetak and Cheetah Helicopters. HAL has obtained a firm order to deliver 114 HAL Light Combat Helicopters to the Indian Army. Modernisation Mechanised forces India is re-organising its mechanised forces to achieve strategic mobility and high-volume firepower for rapid thrusts into enemy territory. At present, the Indian army has severe deficiencies in its artillery (particularly self-propelled guns) and ammunition stocks, not to mention the inability of some of its modern tanks to operate in the heat and dust of the desert regions around the international border. India proposes to progressively induct as many as 248 Arjun MBT and to develop and induct the Arjun MK-II variant, 1,657 Russian-origin T-90S main-battle tanks, apart from the ongoing upgrade of its T-72 fleet. Arjun MK-II trials had already begun in August 2013. The improved features of the MK-II version of Arjun are night vision capabilities with a thermal imaging system for detecting all kinds of missiles, Explosive Reactive Armour (ERA), mine ploughs, the ability to fire anti-tank missiles with its 120 mm main gun, an Advanced Air Defence gun capable of shooting down helicopters with a 360-degree coverage, Automatic Target Tracking (ATT) lending a greater accuracy when it comes to moving targets and superior Laser Warning and Control systems. The Indian Army will upgrade its entire Boyevaya Mashina Pekhoty-2 (BMP-2)/2K infantry combat vehicle (ICV) fleet to enhance their ability to address operational requirements. Upgrades include integration of the latest generation fire control system, twin missile launchers and commander's thermal imaging panoramic sights, anti- tank guided missiles, as well as automatic grenade launchers. Artillery Under the Field Artillery Rationalisation Plan, the army plans to procure 3000 to 4000 pieces of artillery at a cost of US$3 billion. This includes purchasing 1580 towed, 814 mounted, 180 self-propelled wheeled, 100 self-propelled tracked and 145 ultra-light 155 mm/52 calibre artillery guns. After three years of searching and negotiations, India ordered M777 155 mm howitzers from USA in September 2013. To lend greater firepower support to the Mechanized infantry, DRDO has developed the Pinaka multiple rocket launcher. The system has a maximum range of and can fire a salvo of 12 HE rockets in 44 seconds, neutralising a target area of . The system is mounted on a Tatra truck for mobility. Pinaka saw service during the Kargil War, where it was successful in neutralising enemy positions on the mountain tops. It has since been inducted into the Indian Army in large numbers. Infantry The Indian Army has also embarked on an infantry modernisation programme known as Futuristic Infantry Soldier As a System (F-INSAS). The infantry soldiers will be equipped with modular weapon systems that will have multiple functions. The core systems include bullet proof helmet and visor. The bullet proof helmet is an integrated assembly equipped with helmet mounted flashlight, thermal sensors and night vision device, miniature computer with audio headsets. The personal clothing of the soldier of the future would be lightweight with a bullet-proof jacket. The futuristic jacket would be waterproof, yet it would be able to breathe. The new attire will enable the troops to carry extra loads and resist the impact of nuclear, chemical and biological warfare. The new uniform will have vests with sensors to monitor the soldier's health parameters and to provide quick medical relief. The weapons sub-system is built around a multi-calibre individual weapon system with the fourth calibre attached to a grenade launcher. These include a 5.56 mm, a 7.62 mm and a new 6.8 mm under development for the first time in India. In November 2013, the Indian Army moved a step closer to the battlefield of the future, where command networks know the precise location of every soldier and weapon, with whom generals can exchange reports, photos, data and verbal and written communications. Army headquarters called in 14 Indian companies and issued them an expression of interest (EoI) for developing a Battlefield Management System (BMS). The BMS will integrate combat units – armoured, artillery and infantry regiments, infantry battalions, helicopter flights, etc. – into a digital network that will link together all components of the future battlefield. While precise costs are still unclear, vendors competing for the contract say the army expects to pay about Rs 40,000 crore for developing and manufacturing the BMS. However, in 2015, the Indian Army decided to replace the F-INSAS program in favour of two separate projects. The new program will have two components: one arming the modern infantry soldier with the best available assault rifle, carbines and personal equipment such as the helmet and bulletproof vests, the second part is the Battlefield Management Systems (BMS). Indian Navy The Indian Navy is the naval branch of the Indian armed forces. With 58,350 men and women, including 7,000 personnel of the Indian Naval Air Arm, 1,200 Marine Commandos (MARCOS) and 1,000 personnel of the Sagar Prahari Bal. The Indian Navy is one of the world's largest naval forces and developed into a blue water navy. The Indian Navy has a large operational fleet consisting of 2 aircraft carriers, 1 amphibious transport dock, 9 Landing ship tanks, 10 destroyers, 14 frigates, 1 nuclear-powered attack submarine, 14 conventionally-powered attack submarines, 24 corvettes, 6 mine countermeasure vessels, 25 patrol vessels, 4 fleet tankers and various auxiliary vessels. Ships The Indian navy operates two aircraft carriers- the first is the , a modified ship, and the indigenous . The navy also operates one , three , three and three guided-missile destroyers. The Rajput-class destroyers will be replaced in the near future by the next-generation (Project 15B destroyers). In addition to destroyers, the navy operates several classes of frigates such as three (Project 17 class) and six frigates. Seven additional (Project 17A-class) frigates are on order. The older frigates will be replaced systematically one by one as the new classes of frigates are brought into service over the next decade. Smaller littoral zone combatants in service are in the form of corvettes, of which, the Indian Navy operates the , , , and classes. Replenishment tankers such as the Jyoti-class tanker, the and the new fleet tankers help improve the navy's endurance at sea. These tankers will be the mainstay of the replenishment fleet until the first half of the 21st century. Submarines The Indian Navy operates a sizeable fleet of (Russian design) and (German Type 209/1500 design)-class submarines. A nuclear-powered attack submarine has been leased from Russia. India is completing the construction of six submarines at Mazagon Dockyards Limited (MDL), in Mumbai under technology transfer from French firm DCNS. The new submarines feature air-independent propulsion and started joining the navy towards the end of 2017; four were in service by the end of 2021. Designed for coastal defence against under-water threats, the 1,750-tonne submarine-submarine-killer (SSK) Scorpène is in length and can dive to a depth of . According to French naval officials, the submarine can stay at sea for 45 days with a crew of 31. The standard version has six torpedo tubes and anti-shipping missile launchers. Another ambitious project in this regard is the nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine manufacture programme – class. Weapons systems In the category of weapon systems, the Indian Navy operates K Missile family submarine launched ballistic missiles, the Prithvi-III ballistic ship-launched missile, and a number of land-attack cruise/Anti-ship missiles such as BrahMos Supersonic Cruise Missile, 3M-54E/3M-14E Klub Anti-Ship/Land Attack Cruise Missile (SS-N-27 Sizzler), Kh-35 (SS-N-25 SwitchBlade), P-20 (SS-N-2D Styx), Sea Eagle missile and Gabriel. Nirbhay long-range subsonic cruise missile and BrahMos Hypersonic Cruise Missile are in development. India has also fitted its P-8I Neptune reconnaissance aircraft with all-weather, active-rader-homing, over-the-horizon AGM-84L Harpoon Block II Missiles and Mk 54 All-Up-Round Lightweight Torpedoes. Indian warships' primary air-defence shield is provided by Barak-1 SAM, while an advanced version Barak-8, developed in collaboration with Israel, has entered service. India's next-generation Scorpène-class submarines will be armed with the Exocet anti-ship missile system. Among indigenous missiles, a ship-launched version of Prithvi-II is called the Dhanush, which has a range of and can carry a nuclear warhead. Naval Air Arm The Indian Naval Air Arm is a branch of Indian Navy which is tasked to provide an aircraft carrier based strike capability, fleet air defence, maritime reconnaissance, and anti-submarine warfare. Flag Officer Naval Aviation (FONA) at Goa directs the field operations of the air arm. Naval Air Arm operates eight Tu-142 aircraft, which entered service in 1988. Upgrading of the aircraft is taking place, which helps to extend the service life of the aircraft by sixteen years. The BAE Sea Harrier operates from the INS Viraat. The BAE Sea Harrier FRS Mk.51 / T Mk.60 fly with the INAS 300 and INAS 552 squadrons of the Indian Navy. The Mikoyan MiG-29K will be deployed aboard INS Vikramaditya. The Indian Navy operates five Il-38 planes. They are being upgraded to use Sea Dragon suite. Used principally for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) and search and rescue roles, the helicopter fleet of Westland Sea King and the Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King operate from INS Garuda (Kochi) as well as INS Kunjali-II (Mumbai) air stations. 56 more naval utility helicopters are planned to be inducted from 2016. These will be used for surveillance, anti-submarine warfare, electronic intelligence gathering and search and rescue operations. The helicopters will be equipped with 70 mm rocket launchers, 12.7 mm guns, lightweight torpedoes and depth charges. The Indian Navy will also continue to procure HAL Dhruv as a multi-role utility platform. In the long-range maritime reconnaissance (LRMR) role, the navy uses Boeing P-8I Neptune and has issued a global tender for nine medium-range maritime reconnaissance (MRMR) aircraft for coastal defence. Defence satellite India's first exclusive defence satellite GSAT-7 was successfully launched by European space consortium Arianespace's Ariane 5 rocket from Kourou spaceport in French Guiana in August 2013, giving a major push to the country's maritime security. The Indian Navy is the user of the multi-band, home-built communication spacecraft, which is operational. GSAT-7 was designed and developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and is expected to operate for seven years in its orbital slot at 74 degrees east, providing UHF, S-band, C-band and Ku-band relay capacity. Its Ku-band capacity is expected to provide high-density data transmission facility both for voice and video. This satellite has been provided with additional power to communicate with smaller and mobile (not necessarily land-based) terminals. This dedicated satellite is expected to provide the Indian navy with an approximately footprint over the Indian Ocean region, and over both the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal region and enable real-time networking of all its operational assets in the water (and land). It also will help the navy to operate in a network-centric atmosphere. Exercises India often conducts naval exercises with other friendly countries designed to increase naval interoperability and also to strengthen cooperative security relationships. Some exercises take place annually like: the Varuna with the French Navy, Konkan with the Royal Navy, Indra with Russian Navy, Malabar with the US and Japan navies, Simbex with the Republic of Singapore Navy and IBSAMAR with the Brasil and South African navies. In 2007, Indian Navy conducted naval exercise with the Japan Maritime Self-Defence Force and the U.S Navy in the Pacific and also signed an agreement with Japan in October 2008 for joint naval patrolling in the Asia-Pacific region. India has also held naval exercise with Vietnam, the Philippines and New Zealand. In 2007, India and South Korea decided to conduct annual naval exercises and India participated in the South Korean international fleet review. In addition, the Indian Navy will also be increasing naval co-operation with other allies, particularly with Germany, and Arab states of the Persian Gulf including Kuwait, Oman, Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Indian Navy also took part in the world's largest naval exercise/war-game RIMPAC 2014 along with 22 other nations and has since taken part in RIMPAC each year. Modernisation In recent years, the Indian Navy has undergone modernisation and expansion with the intention of countering growing Chinese maritime power in the Indian Ocean and reaching the status of a recognised blue-water navy. New equipment programmes include: the lease of a nuclear-powered submarine INS Chakra from Russia, the ex-Soviet carrier and the first of the indigenously built Arihant-class ballistic missile submarines by 2016, the first of the Scorpène-class submarines by 2016 and the indigenously built aircraft carrier INS Vikrant by 2018. The plan in the near future is to have two aircraft carriers at sea at all times, with a third docked up in maintenance. Other programmes include the Talwar and Shivalik frigates and the Kolkata-class destroyers, all of which will be equipped with the BrahMos cruise missile. In a significant step towards India's pursuit for self-reliance in indigenous warship building, four anti-submarine Kamorta-class stealth corvettes with features such as an X Form Hull and inclined sides for low radar cross-section, infra-red suppression, and acoustic quieting systems are being built for the Indian Navy. Recent induction of the attack submarine INS Chakra, and the development of INS Arihant, make the Indian Navy one of six navies worldwide capable of building and operating nuclear-powered submarines. (Others include: China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States.) India also launched a 37,500-ton indigenous aircraft carrier in August 2013 in its bid to join a select group of nations – the United States, the United Kingdom, Russia and France – capable of building such warships. It will undergo extensive tests in the next few years before it is commissioned into the navy. INS Vikrant, is expected to carry MiG 29K fighters and light combat aircraft such as the HAL Tejas. India is also set to become the first country to buy a military aircraft from Japan since World War II. India is expected to sign a deal for the purchase of six Utility Seaplane Mark 2 (US-2) amphibian aircraft when Prime Minister Narendra Modi visits Japan from 31 August – 3 September 2014. The 47-tonne US-2 aircraft does not require a long airstrip to take off or to land. It is capable of taking off from land and water (-stretch). It can carry loads of up to 18 tonnes and can be engaged in search and rescue operations. With a range of over it can patrol areas away and react to an emergency by landing 30 armed troops even in waves as high as . Indian Air Force The Indian Air Force is the air arm of the Indian armed forces. Its primary responsibility is to secure Indian airspace and to conduct aerial warfare during a conflict. It was officially established on 8 October 1932 as an auxiliary air force of the British Raj and the prefix Royal was added in 1945 in recognition of its services during World War II. After India achieved independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, the Royal Indian Air Force served the Dominion of India, with the prefix being dropped when India became a republic in 1950. The Indian Air Force plays a crucial role in securing Indian airspace and also in India's power projection in South Asia and Indian Ocean. Therefore, modernising and expanding the Indian Air Force is a top priority for the Indian government. Over the years, the IAF has grown from a tactical force to one with transoceanic reach. The strategic reach emerges from induction of Force Multipliers like Flight Refuelling Aircraft (FRA), Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and credible strategic lift capabilities. Aircraft Historically, the IAF has generally relied on Soviet, British, Israeli and French military craft and technology to support its growth. IAF's primary air superiority fighter with the additional capability to conduct air-ground (strike) missions is Sukhoi Su-30MKI. The IAF have placed an order for a total of 272 Su-30MKIs of which 205 are in service as of May 2015. The Mikoyan MiG-29 is a dedicated air superiority fighter, and constitutes a second line of defence after the Sukhoi Su-30MKI. At present, 66 MiG-29s are in service, all of which are being upgraded to the MiG-29UPG standard. The Dassault Mirage 2000 is the primary multirole fighter in service and the IAF operates 49 Mirage 2000Hs which are being upgraded to the Mirage 2000-5 MK2 standard. As part of the upgrade, the aircraft will also be equipped with MBDA's MICA family of medium-range missiles. To give the IAF fighters an edge in anti-ship and land attack roles, a smaller version of BrahMos missile is being developed to be integrated in Sukhoi Su-30MKI and is expected to be delivered to IAF by 2015. In the aerial refuelling (tanker) role, the IAF operates six Ilyushin Il-78MKIs. For strategic military transport operations the IAF uses the Ilyushin Il-76, and has placed orders for 10 Boeing C-17 Globemaster III, four of which were delivered by November 2013. The C-130J Super-Hercules planes of the IAF is used by special forces for combined Army-Air Force operations. There are six C-130Js in service and six more are planned to be procured. The Antonov An-32 serves as medium transport aircraft in the IAF. As an airborne early warning system, the IAF operates the Israeli EL/W-2090 Phalcon Airborne Early Warning and Control System AEW&C. A total of three such systems are in service, with possible orders for two more. The DRDO AEW&CS is a project of India's DRDO to develop an AEW&C system for the Indian Air Force. The DRDO AEWACS programme aims to deliver three radar-equipped surveillance aircraft to the Indian Air Force. The aircraft platform selected was the Embraer ERJ 145. Three ERJ 145 were procured from Embraer at a cost of US$300 Million, including the contracted modifications to the airframe. Probable delivery date for the first batch of three is 2015. Network-centric warfare The Indian Air Force (IAF) made progress towards becoming a truly network-centric air force with the integration of Air Force Network (AFNET), a reliable and robust digital information grid that enables accurate and faster response to enemy threats, in 2010. The modern, state-of-the-art AFNET is a fully secure communication network, providing IAF a critical link among its command and control centre, sensors such as the Airborne Early Warning and Control Systems, and attack platforms such as fighter aircraft and missile launchers. Integrated Air Command and Control System (IACCS), an automated command and control system for Air Defence (AD) operations will ride the AFNet backbone integrating all ground-based and airborne sensors, AD weapon systems and C2 nodes. Subsequent integration with other services networks and civil radars will provide an integrated Air Situation Picture to operators to carry out Air Defence role. AFNet will prove to be an effective force multiplier for intelligence analysis, mission planning and control, post-mission feedback and related activities like maintenance, logistics and administration. A comprehensive design with multi-layer security precautions for "Defence in Depth" have been planned by incorporating encryption technologies, Intrusion Prevention Systems to ensure the resistance of the IT system against information manipulation and eavesdropping. In October 2013, IAF launched its own stand-alone ₹3 Billion (US$34 Million) cellular network, through which secure video calling and other information exchange facilities will be provided. The IAF also plans to issue around one hundred thousand mobile handsets to its personnel of the rank of sergeant and above to connect and provide secure 'end-point' connectivity to airborne forces deployed across the country. The captive network has been named 'Air Force Cellular'. While Phase I of the project will ensure mobile connectivity to all air combat units in the National Capital Region, its Phase II will cover the rest of the bases. Modernisation The Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft (MMRCA) competition, also known as the MRCA tender, was a competition to supply 126 multi-role combat aircraft to the Indian Air Force (IAF). The Defence Ministry has allocated ~ US$13 billion for the purchase of these aircraft, making it India's single largest defence deal. The MRCA tender was floated with the idea of filling the gap between its future Light Combat Aircraft and its in-service Sukhoi Su-30MKI air superiority fighter. On 31 January 2012, it was announced that Dassault Rafale won the competition due to its lower life-cycle cost. However the tender was cancelled in July 2015. The Indian Air Force (IAF) is also in the final stages of acquiring 22 Apache Longbow gunships, armed with Hellfire and Stinger missiles in a $1.2 billion contract and 15 heavy-lift Boeing CH Chinook helicopters. The IAF has initiated the process for acquisition of additional Mi-17 IV helicopters, heavy lift helicopters, Advanced Light Helicopter and Light Combat Helicopters. Among trainer aircraft, the Hawk Advanced Jet Trainer has been inducted and the Intermediate Jet Trainer (IJT) would be acquired in the near future. In recent times, India has also manufactured its own aircraft such as the HAL Tejas, a 4th generation fighter, and the HAL Dhruv, a multi-role helicopter, which has been exported to several countries, including Israel, Burma, Nepal and Ecuador. A weaponised version of Dhruv is called the HAL Rudra, which is armed with high-velocity M621 20 mm cannon, long-range 70 mm rockets (8 km), air-to-air missiles (Mistral-II), and MAWS (missile approach warning system). Combat in Kargil highlighted the requirement of an attack helicopter specially made for such high-altitude operations. The HAL Light Combat Helicopter (LCH) is a multi-role combat helicopter being developed in India by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) for use by the Indian Air Force and the Indian Army. The LCH is being designed to fit into an anti-infantry and anti-armour role and will be able to operate at high altitudes. LCH will be fitted with indigenous anti-tank missile Helina. India also maintains unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) squadrons (primarily Searcher-II and Heron from Israel) which can be used to carry out ground and aerial surveillance. India is also testing its own long-range Beyond Visual Range missile| (BVR) an air-to-air missile named Astra, and also building a Medium Altitude Long Endurance Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) called Rustom. India is also in an ambitious collaboration programme with Russia to build fifth-generation fighter aircraft, called HAL/Sukhoi FGFA which will be based on the Russian Sukhoi Su-57 fighter. Earlier in 2013, the two sides completed the preliminary design of the FGFA and are now negotiating a detailed design contract. Although there is no reliable information about the Su-57 and FGFA specifications yet, it is known from interviews with individuals in the Russian Air Force that it will be stealthy, have the ability to supercruise, be outfitted with the next generation of air-to-air, air-to-surface, and air-to-ship missiles, and incorporate an AESA radar. Joint co-development and co-production of Multi-role Transport Aircraft (MTA), by Russian partners and HAL, is being launched to meet the requirements of the Russian and Indian Air Forces. The aircraft will be designed for the roles of a 15–20 ton cargo / troop transport, paratrooping / airdrop of supplies including Low Altitude Parachute Extraction System (LAPES) capability. It will be configured such that all types of cargo can be transported, and the aircraft would be capable of operating from semi-prepared runways. The MTA is expected to replace the Indian Air Force's ageing fleet of Antonov An-32 transport aircraft. The aircraft is expected to conduct its first flight by 2017, and to enter service by 2018. To protect IAF assets on the ground, there has been a search for short-range surface-to-air missile. India has begun deploying six Akash surface-to-air missile (SAM) squadrons in the northeast to deter Chinese jets, helicopters and drones against any misadventure in the region. The IAF has started taking delivery of the six Akash missile squadrons, which can "neutralise" multiple targets at a interception range in all weather conditions, earmarked for the eastern theatre. The IAF has already deployed the first two Akash squadrons at the Mirage-2000 base in Gwalior and the Sukhoi base in Pune. Indian Coast Guard The Indian Coast Guard (ICG) protects India's maritime interests and enforces maritime law, with jurisdiction over the territorial waters of India, including its contiguous zone and exclusive economic zone. The Indian Coast Guard was formally established on 18 August 1978 by the Coast Guard Act, 1978 of the Parliament of India as an independent Armed force of India. It operates under the Ministry of Defence. The Coast Guard works in close co-operation with the Indian Navy, the Department of Fisheries, the Department of Revenue (Customs) and the Central and State police forces. Central Armed Police Forces The following are the seven paramilitary police forces termed as Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs). These forces were earlier referred to as the "central paramilitary forces". In 2011, the nomenclature CAPF was adopted to refer them. Assam Rifles The Assam Rifles trace their lineage to a paramilitary police force that was formed under the British in 1835 called Cachar Levy. Since then the Assam Rifles have undergone a number of name changes before the name Assam Rifles was finally adopted in 1917. Over the course of its history, the Assam Rifles, and its predecessor units, have served in a number of roles, conflicts and theatres including World War I where they served in Europe and the Middle East, and World War II where they served mainly in Burma. In the post-World War II period, the Assam Rifles have expanded greatly as has their role. There are currently 46 battalions of Assam Rifles under the control of the Indian Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA). They perform many roles including: the provision of internal security under the control of the army through the conduct of counter insurgency and border security operations, provision of aid to the civil power in times of emergency, and the provision of communications, medical assistance and education in remote areas. In times of war they can also be used as a combat force to secure rear areas if needed. Central Reserve Police Force Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) is the largest of the CAPFs with 325,000 personnel in 246 battalions. The CRPF includes the Rapid Action Force (RAF), a 15 battalion anti-riot force trained to respond to sectarian violence, and the Commando Battalion for Resolute Action (COBRA), a 10 battalion strong anti-Naxalite force. Border Security Force The primary role of the Border Security Force (BSF) is to guard the land borders of the country, except the mountains. The sanctioned strength is 257,363 personnel in 186 battalions, and is headed by an Indian Police Service Officer. Indo-Tibetan Border Police The Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) is deployed for guard duties on the border with China from Karakoram Pass in Ladakh to Diphu La in Arunachal Pradesh covering a total distance of . It has 90,000 personnel in 60 battalions. Sashastra Seema Bal The objective of the Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB) is to guard the Indo-Nepal and Indo-Bhutan Borders. As of 2019, it has 94,261 active personnel in 73 battalions and a strength of 98,965 is sanctioned. Central Industrial Security Force One of the largest industrial security forces in the world, the Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) provides security to various public sector companies (PSUs) and other critical infrastructure installations across the country, such as airports. It has a total strength of about 144,418 personnel in 132 battalions. National Security Guard The National Security Guard (NSG) is an elite counter-terrorist and rapid response force. Its roles include conducting anti-sabotage checks, rescuing hostages, neutralising terrorist threats to vital installations, engaging terrorists, responding to hijacking and piracy and protecting VIPs. It has 8636 personnel (including 1086 personnel for regional hubs.). The NSG also includes the Special Ranger Group (SRG), whose 3,000 personnel provide protection to India's VVIPs. Other forces Special Frontier Force The Special Frontier Force (SFF) is India's paramilitary unit. It was initially conceived in the post Sino-Indian war period as a guerrilla force composed mainly of Tibetan refugees whose main goal was to conduct covert operations behind Chinese lines in case of another war between the People's Republic of China and India. Later, its composition and roles were expanded. Based in Chakrata, Uttarakhand, SFF is also known as the Establishment 22. The force is under the direct supervision of the Research and Analysis Wing, India's external intelligence agency. Special Protection Group The Special Protection Group (SPG) was formed in 1988 by an act of the Parliament of India to "provide proximate security to the Prime Minister of India and former Prime Minister of India and members of their immediate families (wife, husband, children and parents)". For former Prime Ministers and their dependents, a regular review is held to decide whether the threat to their life is high enough to warrant SPG protection. Railway Protection Force The Railway Protection Force (RPF) was established under the Railway Protection Force Act 1957. The RPF is charged with providing security for Indian Railways. It has a sanctioned strength of 75,000 personnel. National Disaster Response Force The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is a specialised force constituted "for the purpose of specialist response to a threatening disaster situation or disaster". It is manned by persons on deputation from the various Central Armed Police Forces. At present it has 12 battalions, located in different parts of India. The control of NDRF lies with the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), which is headed by the Prime Minister. Special Forces The Special Forces of India are Indian military units with specialised training in the field of special operations such as" Direct action, Hostage rescue, Counter-terrorism, Unconventional warfare, Special reconnaissance, Foreign Internal Defence, Personnel recovery, Asymmetric warfare and Counter-proliferation. The various branches include, Para (Special Forces): Formed in 1966, the Para (SF) are the largest and most important part of the Special Forces of India. They are a part of the highly trained Parachute Regiment of the Indian Army. The main aim of having a Parachute Regiment is for quick deployment of soldiers behind the enemy lines to attack the enemy from behind and destroy their first line of defence. Para (SF) conducted a series of joint exercises with US army special forces called Vajra Prahar. Ghatak Force:Ghatak Platoon, or Ghatak Commandos, is a special operations capable infantry platoon. There is one platoon in every infantry battalion in the Indian Army. Ghatak is a Hindi word meaning "killer" or "lethal". They act as shock troops and spearhead assaults ahead of the battalion. Their operational role is similar to Scout Sniper Platoon, STA platoon of the US Marine Corp and the Patrols platoon of the British Army. A Ghatak Platoon is usually 20-men strong, consisting of a commanding captain, 2 non-commissioned officers and some special teams like marksman and spotter pairs, light machine gunners, a medic, and a radio operator. The remaining soldiers act as assault troopers. Most undergo training at the Commando Training Course in Belagavi, Karnataka. Often, other specialised training like heliborne assault, rock climbing, mountain warfare, demolitions, advanced weapons training, close quarter battle and infantry tactics are also given. Members of the platoon are also sent to the High Altitude Warfare School and Counterinsurgency and Jungle Warfare School. Marine Commandos (MARCOS): Marine Commandos (MARCOS) is an elite special operations unit of the Indian Navy. It is specially organised, trained and equipped for the conduct of special operations in a maritime environment. The force has gradually acquired experience and a reputation for professionalism over the two decades it has been in existence. Now it is one of the finest Special Forces units in the world and among the few units qualified to jump in the water with a full combat load. The MARCOS are capable of undertaking operations in all types of terrain, but are specialised in maritime operations in Jammu and Kashmir through the Jhelum River and Wular Lake. To strengthen its capabilities to carry out special operations, the navy is planning to procure advanced Integrated Combat System (ICS) for the MARCOS. The Navy wants the ICS for effective command, control and information sharing to maximise capabilities of individuals and groups of the MARCOS while engaging enemies. The individual equipment required by the navy in the ICS includes light weight helmets, head-mounted displays, tactical and soft ballistic vests along with communication equipment. The group-level gear requirements include command and control and surveillance systems along with high speed communication equipment. Garud Commando Force: The Garud Commando Force is the Special Forces unit of the Indian Air Force. It was formed in September 2004 and has a strength of approximately 2000 personnel. The unit derives its name from Garuda, a divine bird-like creature of Hindu Mythology. Garud is tasked with the protection of critical Air Force bases and installations; search and rescue during peace and hostilities and disaster relief during calamities. Garuds are deployed in the Congo as part of the UN peace keeping operations. Weapons of mass destruction Chemical and biological weapons In 1992 India signed the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), stating that it did not have chemical weapons or the capacity or capability to manufacture them. By so doing, India became one of the original signators of the Chemical Weapons Convention [CWC] in 1993, and ratified it on 2 September 1996. In June 1997, India declared its stock of chemical weapons (1,044 tonnes of sulphur mustard) had been destroyed. By the end of 2006, India had destroyed more than 75 percent of its chemical weapons/material stockpile and was granted an extension to destroying the remaining stocks by April 2009. It was expected to achieve 100 percent destruction within that time frame. India informed the United Nations in May 2009 that it had destroyed its stockpile of chemical weapons in compliance with the international Chemical Weapons Convention. With this India has become third country after South Korea and Albania to do so. This was cross-checked by United Nations' inspectors. India has also ratified the Biological Weapons Convention (January 1973) and pledges to abide by its obligations. There is no clear evidence, circumstantial or otherwise, that directly points toward an offensive biological weapons programme. India does possess the scientific capability and infrastructure to launch such an offensive programme, but has chosen not to do so. Nuclear weapons India has been in possession of nuclear weapons since 1974. Its most recent nuclear test took place on 11 May 1998, when Operation Shakti (Pokhran-II) was initiated with the detonation of one fusion and three fission bombs. On 13 May 1998, two additional fission devices were detonated. However, India maintains a "no-first use" and a nuclear deterrence policy against nuclear adversaries. Its nuclear doctrine envisages building a credible minimum deterrent for maintaining a "second strike capability" which would be massive and designed to induce unacceptable damage on the enemy. India is one of only four nations in the world to possess a Nuclear triad. India's nuclear missiles include the Prithvi, the Agni, the Shaurya, the Sagarika, the Dhanush, and others. India conducted its first test with the Agni-V in April 2012 and a second test in September 2013. With its range, it can carry a nuclear warhead to the east to include all of China, and to the west deep into Europe. Agni-VI, with a perceived range of is also under development with features like multiple independently targetable re-entry warheads (MIRVs). India also has bomber aircraft such as the Tupolev Tu-142 as well as fighter jets like the Dassault Rafale, Sukhoi Su-30MKI, the Dassault Mirage 2000, the MiG-29 and the HAL Tejas capable of being armed with nuclear tipped bombs and missiles. Since India does not have a nuclear first use policy against an adversary, it becomes important to protect from a first strike. This protection is being developed in the form of the two layered Anti-ballistic missile defence system. India's Strategic Nuclear Command controls its land-based nuclear warheads, while the navy controls the ship and submarine based missiles and the air force the air-based warheads. India's nuclear warheads are deployed in five areas: Ship based mobile, like the Dhanush. (operational) Land-based mobile, like the Agni. (operational) Fixed underground silos (operational) Submarine based, like the Sagarika. (operational) Air-based warheads of the Indian Air Forces' strategic bomber force like the Dassault Mirage 2000 and the Jaguar (operational) Nuclear-armed cruise missiles BrahMos: The BrahMos is a Mach 3 Supersonic Cruise Missile developed in collaboration with Russia. Its land attack and anti-ship variants are in service with the Indian Army and Indian Navy. Sub-Launched and Air Launched variants are under development or testing. BrahMos II The BrahMos II is a Mach 7 Hypersonic Cruise Missile being developed in collaboration with Russia. Nirbhay: The Nirbhay is a Long Range Sub-Sonic Cruise Missile. This Missile has a range of over . Other missiles Akash: The Aakash is a medium-range, mobile surface-to-air missile defence system. The missile system can target aircraft up to away, at altitudes up to Nag: The Nag is a third generation "Fire-and-forget" anti-tank missile developed in India. It is one of five missile systems developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP). HELINA: The HELINA is a variant of the NAG Missile to be launched from a helicopter. It will be structurally different from the Nag. Shaurya: The Shaurya is a canister launched hypersonic surface-to-surface tactical missile with a range more than . It provides the potential to strike an adversary in the short-intermediate range. Prahaar: The Prahaar is a solid-fuelled surface-to-surface guided short-range tactical ballistic missile. Astra: The Astra is a "Beyond Visual Range Air-to-Air Missile" (BVRAAM) developed for the Indian Air Force. India's nuclear doctrine India has a declared nuclear no-first-use policy and is in the process of developing a nuclear doctrine based on "credible minimum deterrence". In August 1999, the Indian government released a draft of the doctrine which asserts that nuclear weapons are solely for deterrence and that India will pursue a policy of "retaliation only". The document also maintains that India "will not be the first to initiate a nuclear first strike, but will respond with punitive retaliation should deterrence fail". The fourth National Security Advisor of India Shivshankar Menon signalled a significant shift from "no first use" to "no first use against non-nuclear weapon states" in a speech on the occasion of the Golden Jubilee celebrations of the National Defence College in New Delhi on 21 October 2010, a doctrine Menon said reflected India's "strategic culture, with its emphasis on minimal deterrence". However, whether the policy shift actually took place or not is unclear. Some argued that this was not a substantive change but "an innocent typographical or lexical error in the text of the speech". India's current PM Modi has, in the run up to the recent general elections, reiterated commitment to no first use policy. In April 2013 Shyam Saran, convener of the National Security Advisory Board, affirmed that regardless of the size of a nuclear "attack against India," be it a miniaturised version or a "big" missile, India will "retaliate massively to inflict unacceptable damage". Here, the term "attack against India" means attack against the "Union of India" or "Indian forces anywhere". Missile defence programme India's missile defence network has two principal components – the Air Defence Ground Environment System (ADGES) and the Base Air Defence Zones (BADZ). The ADGES network provides for wide area radar coverage and permits the detection and interception of most aerial incursions into Indian airspace. The BADZ system is far more concentrated with radars, interceptors, surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) and anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) units working together to provide an intense and highly effective defensive barrier to attacks on vital targets. Ballistic missile defence The Ballistic Missile Defence Program is an initiative to develop and deploy a multi-layered ballistic missile defence system to protect India from ballistic missile attacks. Introduced in light of the ballistic missile threat from Pakistan, it is a double-tiered system consisting of two interceptor missiles, namely the Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) missile for high-altitude interception, and the Advanced Air Defence (AAD) Missile for lower altitude interception. The two-tiered shield should be able to intercept any incoming missile launched away. PAD was tested in November 2006, followed by AAD in December 2007. With the test of the PAD missile, India became the fourth country to have successfully developed an anti-ballistic missile system, after the United States, Russia and Israel. On 6 March 2009, India again successfully tested its missile defence shield, during which an incoming "enemy" missile was intercepted at an altitude of . On 6 May 2012, it was announced that Phase-I is complete and can be deployed on short notice to protect Indian cities. New Delhi, the national capital, and Mumbai, have been selected for the ballistic missile defence shield. After successful implementation in Delhi and Mumbai, the system will be used to cover other major cities in the country. This shield can destroy incoming ballistic missiles launched from as far as away. When the Phase II is completed and the PDV is developed, the two anti-ballistic missiles can intercept targets up to both at exo and endo-atmospheric (inside the atmosphere) regions. The missiles will work in tandem to ensure a hit probability of 99.8 percent. This system can handle multiple targets simultaneously with multiple interceptors. India is reported to have procured a squadron of S-300V systems which are in use as an anti-tactical ballistic missile screen. Cruise missile defence Defending against an attack by a cruise missile on the other hand is similar to tackling low-flying manned aircraft and hence most methods of aircraft defence can be used for a cruise missile defence system. To ward off the threats of nuclear-tipped cruise missile attack India has a new missile defence programme which will be focused solely on intercepting cruise missiles. The technological breakthrough has been created with an AAD missile. DRDO Chief, Dr. V K Saraswat stated in an interview: "Our studies have indicated that this AAD will be able to handle a cruise missile intercept." Furthermore, India is acquiring airborne radars like AWACS to ensure detection of cruise missiles in order to stay on top of the threat. Barak-8 is a long-range anti-air and anti-missile naval defence system being developed jointly by Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) of India. The Indian Army is considering the induction of a variant of the Barak 8 missile to meet its requirement for a medium-range surface-to-air air defence missile. The naval version of this missile has the capability to intercept incoming enemy cruise missiles and combat jets targeting its warships at sea. It would also be inducted into the Indian Air Force, followed by the Army. Recently developed, India's Akash missile defence system also has the capability to "neutralise aerial targets like fighter jets, cruise missiles and air-to-surface missiles". Both the Barak-8 and the Akash missile defence systems can engage multiple targets simultaneously during saturation attacks. On 17 November 2010, in an interview Rafael's vice-president Mr. Lova Drori confirmed that the David's Sling system has been offered to the Indian Armed Forces. This system is further designed to distinguish between decoys and the actual warhead of a missile. S-400 Triumf In October 2018, India inked an agreement with Russia for to purchase five S-400 Triumf surface-to-air missile defence systems. Defence intelligence The Defence Intelligence Agency (DIA) is an organisation responsible for providing and co-ordinating intelligence for the Indian armed forces. It was created in March 2002 and is administered within the Union Ministry of Defence. It is headed by a Director General who is also the principal adviser to the Minister of Defence and the Chief of Defence Staff. Traditionally, the bulk of intelligence work in India has been carried out by the Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW) and the Intelligence Bureau (IB). The various services intelligence directorates namely the Directorate of Military Intelligence (DMI), the Directorate of Air Intelligence (DAI), Directorate of Naval Intelligence (DNI) and some other agencies are also involved but their activity is smaller by comparison. The R&AW and IB agencies are composed largely of civilians. Military personnel are often deputed to these agencies, but the letter of the law and concerns of deniability limit the use of serving military officers in some types of activity (especially collection and action). The creation of an intelligence agency co-ordinating the intelligence arms of the three military services had long been called for by senior Indian military officers. It was formally recommended by the Cabinet Group of Ministers, headed by the then Deputy Prime Minister of India Lal Krishna Advani. The Group of Ministers investigated intelligence lapses that occurred during the Kargil War and recommended a comprehensive reform of Indian intelligence agencies. The Defence Intelligence Agency was created and became operational in March 2002. As part of expanding bilateral co-operation on gathering intelligence and fighting terrorism, the United States military also provided advice to Indian military officers on the creation of the DIA. DIA has control of MoD's prized technical intelligence assets – the Directorate of Signals Intelligence and the Defence Image Processing and Analysis Centre (DIPAC). While the Signals Directorate is responsible for acquiring and decrypting enemy communications, the DIPAC controls India's satellite-based image acquisition capabilities. The DIA also controls the Defence Information Warfare Agency (DIWA) which handles all elements of the information warfare repertoire, including psychological operations, cyber-war, electronic intercepts and the monitoring of sound waves. Research and development The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is an agency of the Republic of India, responsible for the development of technology for use by the military, headquartered in New Delhi, India. It was formed in 1958 by the merger of the Technical Development Establishment and the Directorate of Technical Development and Production with the Defence Science Organisation. DRDO has a network of 52 laboratories which are engaged in developing defence technologies covering various fields, like aeronautics, armaments, electronic and computer sciences, human resource development, life sciences, materials, missiles, combat vehicles development and naval research and development. The organisation includes more than 5,000 scientists and about 25,000 other scientific, technical and supporting personnel. Annual operating budget of the DRDO is pegged at $1.6 billion (2011–12). Electronic-warfare, Cyber-warfare, military hardware The DRDO's avionics programme has been a success story with its mission computers, radar warning receivers, high accuracy direction finding pods, synthetic aperture radar, Active Phased Array Radar, airborne jammers and flight instrumentation in use across a wide variety of Indian Air Force aircraft and satellites. DRDO labs have developed many electronic warfare systems for IAF and the Indian Army and high-performance Sonar systems for the navy. DRDO also developed other critical military hardware, such as the Arjun Main Battle Tank, and is engaged in the development of the future Infantry Combat Vehicle, the "Abhay". The DRDO is also a member of the trials teams for the T-72 upgrade and its fire control systems. INSAS, India's de facto standard small arms family including assault rifle, light machine guns and carbine, is developed at the Armament Research and Development Establishment, a DRDO laboratory. ARDE also worked on the development of Pinaka Multi Barrel Rocket Launcher, which has a maximum range of – and can fire a salvo of 12 high-explosive rockets in 44 seconds, neutralising a target area of 3.9 square km. This project was one of the first major Indian defence projects involving the Private sector. India has created the Defence Cyber Agency, which has the responsibility of conducting Cyberwarfare. Missile development programme DRDO executed the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) to establish the ability to develop and design a missile locally, and manufacture a range of missile systems for the three defence services. The programme has seen significant success in its two most important constituents – the Agni missiles and the Prithvi missiles, while two other programmes, the Akash SAM and the anti-tank Nag Missile have seen significant orders. Another significant project of DRDO has been the Astra beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile (BVR), for equipping IAF's air-superiority fighters. The crown jewel of DRDO has been the BrahMos programme (as a joint venture with Russian NPO), which aims at creating a range of supersonic cruise missiles derived from the Yakhont system. The DRDO has been responsible for the navigational systems on the BrahMos, aspects of its propulsion, airframe and seeker, fire control systems, mobile command posts and the Transporter Erector Launcher. The US Department of Defence (Pentagon) has written to India's Ministry of Defence (MoD), proposing the two countries collaborate in jointly developing a next-generation version of the Javelin anti-tank missile. Unmanned aerial vehicles The DRDO has also developed many unmanned aerial vehicles- such as the Nishant tactical UAV and the Lakshya Pilotless Target Aircraft (PTA). The Lakshya PTA has been ordered by all three services for their gunnery target training requirements. Efforts are ongoing to develop the PTA further, with an improved all-digital flight control system, and a better turbojet engine. The DRDO is also going ahead with its plans to develop a new class of UAV, referred to by the HALE (High Altitude Long Endurance) and MALE (Medium Altitude Long Endurance) designations. The MALE UAV has been tentatively named the Rustom, and will feature canards and carry a range of payloads, including optronic, radar, laser designators and ESM. The UAV will have conventional landing and take off capability. The HALE UAV will have features such as SATCOM links, allowing it to be commanded beyond line of sight. Other tentative plans speak of converting the LCA into an unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV), and weaponising UAVs such as AURA. Anti-satellite weapon In 2010, the defence ministry drafted a 15-year "Technology Perspective and Roadmap", which held development of ASAT weapons "for electronic or physical destruction of satellites in both LEO (2,000-km altitude above earth's surface) and the higher geosynchronous orbit" as a thrust area in its long-term integrated perspective plan under the management of DRDO. On 10 February 2010, Defence Research and Development Organisation Director-General, and Scientific Advisor to the Defence Minister, Dr VK Saraswat stated that India had "all the building blocks necessary" to integrate an anti-satellite weapon to neutralise hostile satellites in low earth and polar orbits. India is known to have been developing an exo-atmospheric kill vehicle that can be integrated with the missile to engage satellites. On 27 March 2019, India conducted the first test of an ASAT weapon. Future programmes Directed-energy weapons It is also known that DRDO is working on a slew of directed energy weapons (DEWs) and has identified DEWs, along with space security, cyber-security, and hypersonic vehicles/missiles as focus areas in the next 15 years. Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle The Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (HSTDV) is an unmanned scramjet demonstration aircraft for hypersonic flight (Mach 6.5). The HSTDV program is run by the DRDO. Peace keeping, anti-piracy, and exploration missions United Nations peacekeeping India has been the largest troop contributor to UN missions since their inception. So far India has taken part in 43 peacekeeping missions with a total contribution exceeding 160,000 troops and a significant number of police personnel having been deployed. India has so far, provided one Military Advisor (Lt Gen R K Mehta), one Police Adviser (Ms Kiran Bedi), one Deputy Military Adviser (Lt Gen Abhijit Guha), 14 Force Commanders and numerous Police Commissioners in various UN Missions. The Indian Army has also contributed lady officers as Military Observers and Staff Officers apart from them forming part of Medical Units being deployed in UN Missions. The first all women contingent in a peacekeeping mission, was a Formed Police Unit from India, deployed in 2007 to the UN Operation in Liberia(UNMIL). India has suffered 127 soldier deaths while serving on peacekeeping missions. India has also provided army contingents performing a peacekeeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990 as the Indian Peace Keeping Force. In November 1988, India also helped to restore the government of Maumoon Abdul Gayoom in the Maldives under Operation Cactus. As of June 2013, about 8000 Indian UN peacekeepers, both men and women, are deployed in nine missions, including the Congo, South Sudan, Liberia, UNDOF, Haiti, Lebanon, Abeyi, Cyprus and Cote de Ivoire. Anti-piracy mission India sought to augment its naval force in the Gulf of Aden by deploying the larger INS Mysore to patrol the area. Somalia also added India to its list of states, including the US and France, who are permitted to enter its territorial waters, extending up to from the coastline, in an effort to check piracy. An Indian naval official confirmed receipt of a letter acceding to India's prerogative to check such piracy. "We had put up a request before the Somali government to play a greater role in suppressing piracy in the Gulf of Aden in view of the United Nations resolution. The TFG government gave its nod recently." In November 2008, an Indian navy warship destroyed a suspected Somali pirate vessel after it came under attack in the Gulf of Aden. In a report on Somalia submitted to the Security Council, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon said "I welcome the decision of the governments of India and the Russian Federation to cooperate with the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia to fight piracy and armed robbery against ships." India also expressed the desire to deploy up to four more warships in the region. On 2010-09-06, a team of Indian marine commandos (MARCOS) boarded MV Jag Arnav and overpowered attacking pirates – seven heavily armed Somalis and one Yemeni national. In the seven-year time frame India deployed 52 warships to combat piracy, which resulted in the area up to 65 degrees east being cleared of pirates. Relief operations The Indian Air Force provides regular relief operation for food and medical facilities around the world using its cargo aircraft most notably the Ilyushin Il-76. The most recent relief operation of the IAF was in Kyrgyzstan. During the 2010 Ladakh floods, two Ilyushin Il-76 and four Antonov-32 aircraft of the IAF carried 30 tonnes of load, which include 125 rescue and relief personnel, medicines, generators, tents, portable X-ray machines and emergency rescue kits. A MI-17 helicopter and Cheetah helicopter were used to increase the effectiveness of the rescue operations. During the 2013 Uttrakhand Floods, the Indian armed forces took part in rescue operations. By 21 June 2013, the Army had deployed 10,000 soldiers and 11 helicopters, the navy had sent 45 naval divers, and the Air force had deployed 43 aircraft including 36 helicopters. From 17 to 30 June 2013, the IAF airlifted a total of 18,424 people – flying a total of 2,137 sorties and dropping/landing a total of 3,36,930 kg of relief material and equipment. The IAF participated in the rescue operation codenamed Operation Raahat and evacuated more than 4640 Indian citizens (along with 960 foreign nationals from 41 countries) from Yemen during the 2015 military intervention by Saudi Arabia and its allies in that country during the Yemeni Crisis. IAF efforts in eclipse study The Indian Air Force successfully undertook sorties to help Indian scientists study the total solar eclipse that took place on 23 July 2010. Two separate missions from Agra and Gwalior were flown along the path of the Moon's shadow, a mission that was deemed hugely successful by scientists associated with the experiment. While one AN-32 transport aircraft carrying scientific equipment, cameras and scientists took off from Agra and landed back after a three-hour flight, a Mirage-2000 trainer from Gwalior took images of the celestial spectacle from . With weather being clear at such altitudes and coordinates planned by the IAF pilots, both the AN-32 and Mirage-2000 pilots were able to accomplish the mission successfully. Indian Navy exploration The Indian Navy regularly conducts adventure expeditions. The sailing ship and training vessel INS Tarangini began circumnavigating the world on 23 January 2003, intending to foster good relations with other nations; she returned to India in May of the following year after visiting 36 ports in 18 nations. Lt. Cdr. M.S. Kohli led the Indian Navy's first successful expedition to Mount Everest in 1965. Another Navy team also successfully scaled Everest from the north face, the more technically challenging route. An Indian Navy team comprising 11 members successfully completed an expedition to the North Pole in 2006. The Indian Naval ensign first flew in Antarctica in 1981. The Indian Navy succeeded in Mission Dakshin Dhruv by traversing to the South Pole on skis in 2006. With this historic expedition, they set the record for being the world's first military team to have successfully completed a ski traverse to the geographic south pole. Misconceptions in nomenclature There are number of uniformed forces in India apart from the Indian Armed Forces. All such forces are established under the acts of Parliament. They are: the Central Reserve Police Force, the Border Security Force, the Indo-Tibetan Border Police, the Central Industrial Security Force, the Sashastra Seema Bal, the Assam Rifles, the National Security Guard under the Ministry of Home Affairs (India), the Special Protection Group under the Cabinet Secretariat of India, the Railway Protection Force under Ministry of Railways (India), and the Indian Coast Guard (ICG) under the Ministry of Defence (India). These forces are referred to as "Armed Force of the Union" in their respective acts, which means a force with armed capability and not necessarily "Armed Forces", the term as per international standards and conventionally referred to as "Army", "Navy" and "Air Force". The Supreme Court in its judgements reported in AIR 1996 SC 1705 held that the military service is only confined to three principal wings of the armed forces i.e. Army, Navy and Air Force. Further the Honourable Supreme Court of India in a case reported in AIR 2000 SC 3948 clarified that unless it is a service in the three principal wing of the Armed Forces, a force included in the expression "Armed forces of the Union" does not constitute part of the military service/military. To differentiate from Armed Forces, Some of other forces were commonly referred to as Central Paramilitary Forces which caused confusion and give the impression of them being part of the military forces. To remove such confusion, in 2011 the Ministry of Home Affairs adopted the uniform nomenclature of Central Armed Police Forces for only five of its Primary Police organisations. These were formerly called as Paramilitary Forces. Central Armed Police Forces are still incorrectly referred to as "Paramilitary Forces" in the media and in some correspondences. These forces are headed by officers from the Indian Police Service and are under the Ministry of Home Affairs. Other uniform services are referred to by their names only such as: the Railway Protection Force, the NSG, the SPG, the ICG, the Assam Rifles etc., but not under any collective nomenclature. However, conventionally some forces are referred to as the Paramilitary Forces of India, for example the Assam Rifles, the SFF and the ICG. The Indian Coast Guard is often confused incorrectly as being a part of the military forces due to the organisation being under the Ministry of Defence. The Supreme Court in its judgement has held that unless it is a service in the three principal wings of the Armed Forces, a force included in the expression "Armed forces of the Union" does not constitute part of military service/military. The Indian Coast Guard works closely with civilian agencies such as Customs, the Department of Fisheries, the Coastal Police etc. with its primary role being that of a non-military, maritime law enforcement agency. It is independent of the command and control of the Indian Navy. ICG was initially planned to be kept under the Ministry of Home Affairs but has been kept under the Ministry of Defence for better synergy since it is patterned like the navy. The ICG does not take part in any protocol of military forces such as the President's Body Guard, ADCs, the Tri-Services Guard of Honour etc. Their recruitment is also not under the Combined Defence Services Exam/National Defence Academy Exam which is one of the prime modes of commissioning officers to the Armed Forces. Indian Coast Guard Officers continue to get their training with Indian Navy Officers since the ICG does not have its own training academy. Already a new Indian Coast Guard Academy for training of their officers is under construction. Often ICG loses its credit for being incorrectly recognised as part of Indian military Forces and not as a unique independent force. See also Military budget of India National Security Council (India) Ordnance Factories Board Defence Research and Development Organisation One Rank, One Pension Demand Law enforcement in India Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses Indian Armed forces rank flags Indian Army United Nations peacekeeping missions Indian National Army Subhas Chandra Bose References Footnotes Does not include members of the Indian Police Service. Citations Bibliography External links Indian Army – Official website Indian Air Force – Official website Indian Navy – Official website (archived 16 October 2012) Ministry of Defence (India)

A sinusoidal waveform is said to have a unity amplitude when the amplitude of the wave is equal to 1. where . This terminology is most commonly used in digital signal processing and is usually associated with the Fourier series and Fourier Transform sinusoids that involve a duty cycle, , and a defined fundamental period, . Analytic signals with unit amplitude satisfy the Bedrosian Theorem. References Digital signal processing

The Intel Paragon is a discontinued series of massively parallel supercomputers that was produced by Intel in the 1990s. The Paragon XP/S is a productized version of the experimental Touchstone Delta system that was built at Caltech, launched in 1992. The Paragon superseded Intel's earlier iPSC/860 system, to which it is closely related. The Paragon series is based on the Intel i860 RISC microprocessor. Up to 2048 (later, up to 4096) i860s are connected in a 2D grid. In 1993, an entry-level Paragon XP/E variant was announced with up to 32 compute nodes. The system architecture is a partitioned system, with the majority of the system comprising diskless compute nodes and a small number of I/O nodes interactive service nodes. Since the bulk of the nodes have no permanent storage, it is possible to "Red/Black switch" the compute partition from classified to unclassified by disconnecting one set of I/O nodes with classified disks and then connecting an unclassified I/O partition. Intel intended the Paragon to run the OSF/1 AD distributed operating system on all processors. However, this was found to be inefficient in practice, and a light-weight kernel called SUNMOS was developed at Sandia National Laboratories to replace OSF/1 AD on the Paragon's compute processors. Oak Ridge National Laboratory operated a Paragon XP/S 150 MP, one of the largest Paragon systems, for several years. The prototype for the Intel Paragon was the Intel Delta, built by Intel with funding from DARPA and installed operationally at the California Institute of Technology in the late 1980s with funding from the National Science Foundation. The Delta was one of the few computers to sit significantly above the curve of Moore's Law. Compute nodes The computer boards was produced in two variants: the GP16 with 16 MB of memory and two CPUs, and the MP16 with three CPUs. Each node has a B-NIC interface that connects to the mesh routers on the backplane. The compute nodes are diskless and performed all I/O over the mesh. During system software development, a light-pen was duct-taped to the status LED on one board and a timer interrupt was used to bit bang a serial port. The B-NIC ASIC is the square chip with the circular heat-sink. I/O nodes The IO boards have either SCSI drive interfaces or HiPPI network connections and are used to provide data to the compute nodes. They do not run any user applications. The MP64 I/O node has three i860 CPUs and an i960 CPU used in the disk controller. References External Links Intel products Massively parallel computers Supercomputers Very long instruction word computing 32-bit computers Intel supercomputers

After declaring its independence from Mexico in March, 1836, the Republic of Texas had numerous locations as its seat of government. This being seen as a problem attempts were made to select a permanent site for the capital. January, 1839, with Mirabeau B. Lamar as the newly elected president, a site selection commission of five commissioners was formed. Edward Burleson had surveyed the planned townsite of Waterloo, near the mouth of Shoal Creek on the Colorado River, in 1838; it was incorporated January 1839. By April of that year the site selection commission had selected Waterloo to be the new capital. A bill previously passed by Congress in May, 1838, specified that any site selected as the new capital would be named Austin, after the late Stephen F. Austin; hence Waterloo upon selection as the capital was renamed Austin. The first lots in Austin went on sale August 1839. Austin's history has also been largely tied to state politics and in the late 19th century, the establishment of the University of Texas made Austin a regional center for higher education, as well as a hub for state government. In the 20th century, Austin's music scene had earned the city the nickname "Live Music Capital of the World." With a population of over 800,000 inhabitants in 2010, Austin is experiencing a population boom. During the 2000s (decade) Austin was the third fastest-growing large city in the nation. Beginning Evidence of habitation of the Balcones Escarpment region of Texas can be traced to at least 11,000 years ago. Two of the oldest Paleolithic archeological sites in Texas, the Levi Rock Shelter and Smith Rock Shelter, are located southwest and southeast of present-day Austin respectively. Several hundred years before the arrival of European settlers, the area was inhabited by a variety of nomadic Native American tribes. These indigenous peoples fished and hunted along the creeks, including present-day Barton Springs, which proved to be a reliable campsite. At the time of Austin's founding, the Tonkawa tribe was the most common, with Comanches, Lipan Apaches and Waco also frequenting the area. The first European settlers in the present-day Austin were a group of Spanish friars who arrived from East Texas in July 1730. They established three temporary missions, La Purísima Concepción, San Francisco de los Neches and San José de los Nazonis, on a site by the Colorado River, near Barton Springs. The friars found conditions undesirable and relocated to the San Antonio River within a year of their arrival. Following Mexico's Independence from Spain, Anglo-American settlers began to populate Texas and reached present-day Central Texas by the 1830s. The site where Austin is located was surveyed by Edward Burleson in 1838, calling it Waterloo. It was incorporated in January, 1839, only months before selection as the site of the new capital, ending its existence. Early Austin resident and chronicler Frank Brown says the first and only settler in 1838 was Jacob Harrell who may have been living there already. Living in a tent with his family, he later built a cabin and small stockade near the mouth of Shoal Creek. In its short lifespan of less than two years the population of Waterloo grew to only about twelve people made up of four families. Capital City of A New Republic By 1836 the Texas Revolution was over and the Republic of Texas was independent. That year was also characterized by political disarray in Texas. Between 1836 and 1837 no fewer than five Texas sites served as temporary capitals of the new republic (Washington-on-the-Brazos, Harrisburg, Galveston, Velasco and Columbia), before President Sam Houston moved the capital to Houston in 1837. Shortly after the election of President Mirabeau B. Lamar, the Texas Congress appointed a site-selection commission to locate an optimal site for a new permanent capital. They chose a site on the western frontier, after viewing it at the instruction of President Lamar, who visited the sparsely settled area in 1838. Lamar was a proponent of westward expansion. Impressed by its beauty, abundant natural resources, promise as an economic hub, and central location in Texas territory, the commission purchased along the Colorado River consisting of a planned townsite surveyed by Edward Burleson in 1838 (incorporated Jan, 1839) he called Waterloo, and adjacent lands. Because the area's remoteness from population centers and its vulnerability to attacks by Mexican troops and Native Americans displeased many Texans, Sam Houston among them, political opposition made Austin's early years precarious ones. However, Lamar prevailed in his nomination, which he felt would be a prime location that intersected the roads to San Antonio and Santa Fe. Officially chartered in 1839, the Texas Congress designated the name of Austin for the new city. According to local folklore, Stephen F. Austin, the "father of Texas" for whom the new capital city was named, negotiated a boundary treaty with the local Native Americans at the site of the present-day Treaty Oak after a few settlers were killed in raids. The city's original name is honored by local businesses such as Waterloo Ice House and Waterloo Records, as well as Waterloo Park downtown. Lamar tapped Judge Edwin Waller to direct the planning and construction of the new town. Waller chose a site on a bluff above the Colorado River, nestled between Shoal Creek to the west and Waller Creek (which was named for him) to the east. Waller and a team of surveyors developed Austin's first city plan, commonly known as the Waller Plan, dividing the single square-mile plot into a grid plan of 14 blocks running in both directions. One grand avenue, which Lamar named "Congress", cut through the center of town from Capitol Square down to the Colorado River. The streets running north and south (paralleling Congress) were named for Texas rivers with their order of placement matching the order of rivers on the Texas state map. The east and west streets were named after trees native to the region, despite the fact that Waller had recommended using numbers. (They were eventually changed to numbers in 1884.) The city's perimeters stretched north to south from the river at 1st Street to 15th Street, and from East Avenue (now Interstate 35) to West Avenue. Much of this original Waller Plan design is still intact in downtown Austin today. In October 1839, the entire government of the Republic of Texas arrived by oxcart from Houston. By the next January, the population of the town was 839. During the Republic of Texas era, France sent Alphonse Dubois de Saligny to Austin as its chargé d'affaires. Dubois purchased of land in 1840 on a high hill just east of downtown to build a legation, or diplomatic outpost. The French Legation stands as the oldest documented frame structure in Austin. Also in 1839, the Texas Congress set aside of land north of the capitol and downtown for a "university of the first class." This land became the central campus of the University of Texas at Austin in 1883. Political turmoil and the Texas Annexation Austin flourished initially but in 1842 entered the darkest period in its history. Lamar's successor as President of the Republic of Texas, Sam Houston, ordered the national archives transferred to Houston for safekeeping after Mexican troops captured San Antonio on March 5, 1842. Convinced that removal of the republic's diplomatic, financial, land, and military-service records was tantamount to choosing a new capital, Austinites refused to relinquish the archives. Houston moved the government anyway, first to Houston and then to Washington-on-the-Brazos, which remained the seat of government until 1845. The archives stayed in Austin. When Houston sent a contingent of armed men to seize the General Land Office records in December 1842, they were foiled by the citizens of Austin and Travis County in an incident known as the Texas Archive War. Deprived of its political function, Austin languished. Between 1842 and 1845 its population dropped below 200 and its buildings deteriorated. During the summer of 1845, Anson Jones, Houston's successor as president, called a constitutional convention meeting in Austin, approved the annexation of Texas to the United States and named Austin the state capital until 1850, at which time the voters of Texas were to express their preference in a general election. After resuming its role as the seat of government in 1845, Austin officially became the state capital on February 19, 1846, the date of the formal transfer of authority from the republic to the state. Austin's status as capital city of the new U.S. state of Texas remained in doubt until 1872, when the city prevailed in a statewide election to choose once and for all the state capital, turning back challenges from Houston and Waco. Statehood and the U.S. Civil War Austin recovered gradually, population reaching 854 by 1850, 225 of whom were slaves and one a free black. Forty-eight percent of Austin's family heads owned slaves. The city entered a period of accelerated growth following its decisive triumph in the 1850 election to determine the site of the state capital for the next twenty years. For the first time the government constructed permanent buildings, among them a new capitol at the head of Congress Avenue, completed in 1853, and the Governor's Mansion, completed in 1856. State-run asylums for deaf, blind, and mentally ill Texans were erected on the fringes of town. Congregations of Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists, Presbyterians, and Catholics erected permanent church buildings, and the town's elite built elegant Greek Revival mansions. By 1860 the population had climbed to 3,546, including 1,019 slaves and twelve free blacks. That year thirty-five percent of Austin's family heads owned slaves. While Texas voted overwhelmingly to secede from the Union and join the Confederacy in 1861, Travis County was one of a few counties in state to vote against the secession ordinance (704 to 450). However, Unionist sentiment waned once the war began. By April 1862 about 600 Austin and Travis County men had joined some twelve volunteer companies serving the Confederacy. Austinites followed with particular concern news of the successive Union thrusts toward Texas, but the town was never directly threatened. Like other communities, Austin experienced severe shortages of goods, spiraling inflation, and the decimation of its fighting men. After learning in late April 1865 of the Confederate surrender at Appomattox, civil order in Austin began to break down. Governor Pendleton Murrah vacated his office and fled to Mexico with other officials. Lieutenant Governor Fletcher Stockdale then stepped up to serve as Acting Governor. In May, Captain George R. Freeman organized a company of 30 volunteers to protect the city. On June 11, a group of 50 men broke into the state treasury northeast of the Capitol. A gunfight ensued when Freeman and his volunteers arrived at the treasury. One of the robbers was mortally wounded, and the others fled west toward Mount Bonnell with $17,000 in gold and silver, trailing currency along their path. None of the thieves and none of their loot was found. The end of the Civil War brought Union occupation troops to the city and a period of explosive growth of the African-American population, which increased by 57 percent during the 1860s. During the late 1860s and early 1870s the city's newly emancipated blacks established the residential communities of Masontown, Wheatville, Pleasant Hill, and Clarksville. By 1870, Austin's 1,615 black residents constituted some 36 percent of the town's 4,428 inhabitants. Emergence of a political and educational center The Reconstruction boom of the 1870s brought dramatic changes to Austin. In the downtown area, the wooden wagon yards and saloons of the 1850s and 1860s began to be replaced by the more solid masonry structures still standing today. On December 25, 1871, a new era opened with the coming of the Houston and Texas Central Railway, Austin's first railroad connection. By becoming the westernmost railroad terminus in Texas and the only railroad town for scores of miles in most directions, Austin was transformed into a trading center for a vast area. Construction boomed and the population more than doubled in five years to 10,363. The many foreign-born newcomers gave Austin's citizenry a more heterogeneous character. By 1875 there were 757 inhabitants from Germany, 297 from Mexico, 215 from Ireland, and 138 from Sweden. For the first time a Mexican-American community took root in Austin, in a neighborhood near the mouth of Shoal Creek. Accompanying these dramatic changes were civic improvements, among them gas street lamps in 1874, the first mule-drawn streetcar line in 1875, and the first elevated bridge across the Colorado River about 1876. Although a second railroad, the International and Great Northern, reached Austin in 1876, the town's fortunes turned downward after 1875 as new railroads traversed Austin's trading region and diverted much of its trade to other towns. From 1875 to 1880 the city's population increased by only 650 inhabitants to 11,013. Austin's expectations of rivaling other Texas cities for economic leadership faded. However, Austin solidified its position as a political center during the 1870s, after the city prevailed in the 1872 statewide election to settle the state capital question once and for all. Three years later Texas took the first steps toward constructing a new Texas State Capitol that culminated in 1888 in the dedication of a magnificent granite building towering over the town. After a fire destroyed its predecessor in 1881, a nationwide design contest was held to determine who would build the current Capitol building. Architect Elijah E. Myers, who built the Capitols of Michigan and Colorado, won with a Renaissance Revival style. However, construction was held up for two years over a debate as to whether the exterior should be built from granite or limestone. It was eventually decided that it would be built of "sunset red" granite from Marble Falls. Funded by the famous XIT Ranch, the building remains part of the Austin skyline. The state capitol is smaller than the United States Capitol in total gross square footage, but is actually taller than its Washington, D.C., counterpart. Another statewide election in 1881 set the stage for Austin to become an educational and cultural hub as well, when it was chosen as the site for a new state university in a hotly contested election. A state constitution adopted in 1876 mandated that Texas establish a "university of the first class" to be located by vote of the people and styled the University of Texas. On September 6, 1881, Austin was chosen for the site of the main university and Galveston for the location of the medical department. In 1882 construction began on the Austin campus with the placement of the cornerstone of the Main Building. The university held classes for the first time in 1883. Tillotson Collegiate and Normal Institute, the forerunner of Huston–Tillotson University, founded by the American Missionary Association to provide educational opportunities for African-Americans, opened its doors in East Austin by 1881. The Austin Independent School District was established the same year. Before either UT or Huston–Tillotson opened their doors, however, St. Edward's Academy (the forerunner of today's St. Edward's University) was established by the Rev. Edward Sorin in 1878 on farmland in present-day south Austin. In 1885, the president, the Rev. P. J. Franciscus strengthened the prestige of the academy by securing a charter, changing its name to St. Edward's College, assembling a faculty, and increasing enrollment. Subsequently, St. Edward's began to grow, and the first school newspaper, the organization of baseball and football teams, and approval to erect an administration building all followed. Well-known architect Nicholas J. Clayton of Galveston was commissioned to design the college's Main Building, four stories tall and constructed with local white limestone in the Gothic Revival, that was finished in 1888. Of note during this period were serial murders committed in 1884 and 1885 by an unidentified perpetrator known as the "Servant Girl Annihilator". According to some sources there were eight murders, seven women and one man, attributed to the serial killer, in addition to eight serious injuries. These occurred in a town that had only about 23,000 citizens total. The murders made national headlines, but only three years later London was plagued by Jack the Ripper overshadowing Austin's tragedy in the history books. 20th century Learning to live with the Colorado River Austin's fortunes have been tied with the Colorado River for much of its history, no more so than in the 1890s. At the urging of local civic leader Alexander P. Wooldridge, the citizens of Austin voted overwhelmingly to put themselves deeply in debt to build a dam along the river to attract manufacturing. The hope was that cheap hydroelectricity would lure industrialists who would line the riverbanks with cotton mills. Austin would become "the Lowell of the South," and the sleepy center of government and education would be transformed into a bustling industrial city. The town had reached its limits as a seat of politics and education, Wooldridge contended, yet its economy could not sustain its present size. Empowered by a new city charter in 1891 that more than tripled Austin's corporate area from 4 to 16 square miles, the city fathers implemented a plan to build a municipal water and electric system, construct a dam for power, and lease most of the hydroelectric power to manufacturers. By 1893 the sixty-foot-high Austin Dam was completed just northwest of town. In 1895 dam-generated electricity began powering the four-year-old electric streetcar line and the city's new water and light systems. The dammed river formed a lake that became known as "Lake McDonald," for John McDonald, the mayor who had whipped up support for the project—attracted new residents and developers, while the waters of the lake itself drew those seeking respite from the Texas heat. Austin boomed in the mid-1890s, driven largely by land speculation. Monroe M. Shipe established Hyde Park, a classic streetcar suburb north of downtown, and smaller developments sprang up around the city. Thirty-one new 165-foot-high moonlight towers illuminated Austin at night. Civic pride ran strong during those years, which also saw the city blessed with the talents of sculptor Elisabet Ney and writer O. Henry. By today's standards, the dam was unremarkable – a wall of granite and limestone, 65 feet high and 1,100 feet long, with no catwalk or floodgates. But Scientific American magazine was sufficiently impressed to feature the dam on its cover. However, structurally the dam was likely doomed from the start, as it was constructed on the spot where the Balcones Fault passes under the river. Silt had filled nearly half the lake by February 1900, and the dam's design failed to accommodate the force that could be created by a large volume of water. However, the flow of the Colorado proved to be far more variable than the project's promoters had claimed, and the dam was never able to produce the kind of steady power needed to drive a bank of mills. The manufacturers never came, periodic power shortfalls disrupted city services, Lake McDonald silted up, and, on April 7, 1900, the Austin Dam was dealt its final blow after a spring storm. At 11:20 am, floodwaters crested at 11 feet atop the dam before it disintegrated, with two 250-foot sections – almost half the dam – breaking away. In all, the flood drowned 18 people and destroyed 100 houses in Austin, at a total estimated loss of $1.4 million, in 1900 dollars. After 1900, the people of Austin did what they could to recover from the disaster. Having gotten a taste of city-owned electric power, they refused to go back; they bought out the local private power company, which used steam-driven generators, and today's Austin Energy municipal utility is in a sense a legacy of the old Austin Dam. The city also tried to rebuild the dam itself, but a dispute with the contractor left the repairs unfinished in 1912, and another flood in 1915 damaged it further. The wrecked dam sat derelict, "a tombstone on the river," until the Lower Colorado River Authority stepped in and, with federal money, rebuilt it as Tom Miller Dam, completed in 1940. The remaining portions of the 1893 and 1912 dams were incorporated into the new structure, but are now hidden under new layers of concrete. By the time it was finished, however, Tom Miller Dam was already overshadowed by the much larger LCRA dams built upstream that formed the Texas Highland Lakes. For the last seventy years, Lake Travis (Mansfield Dam) and Lake Buchanan (Buchanan Dam), have provided water, hydroelectric power, and flood control for Central Texas. Between 1880 and 1920 Austin's population grew threefold to 34,876, but the city slipped from fourth largest in the state to tenth largest. The state's surging industrial development, propelled by the booming oil business, passed Austin by. The capital city began boosting itself as a residential city, but the heavy municipal indebtedness incurred in building the dam resulted in the neglect of city services. On December 20, 1886, the Driskill Hotel opened at 6th and Brazos, giving Austin its first premier hotel. The hotel would close and reopen many times in subsequent years. In 1905 Austin had few sanitary sewers, virtually no public parks or playgrounds, and only one paved street. Three years later Austin voters overturned the alderman form of government, by which the city had been governed since 1839, and replaced it with commission government. Wooldridge headed the reform group voted into office in 1909 and served a decade as mayor, during which the city made steady if modest progress toward improving residential life. The Littefield and Scarborough buildings at 6th and Congress downtown also opened that year, representing the city's first skyscrapers. In 1910, the city opened the concrete Congress Avenue Bridge across the Colorado River and, by the next year, had extended the streetcar line to South Austin along South Congress Avenue. The fostered development south of the river for the first time, allowing for development of Travis Heights in 1913. In 1918 the city acquired Barton Springs, a spring-fed pool that became the symbol of the residential city. Upon Wooldridge's retirement in 1919 the flaws of commission government, hidden by his leadership, became apparent as city services again deteriorated. At the urging of the Chamber of Commerce, Austinites voted in 1924 to adopt council-manager government, which went into effect in 1926 and remains in effect today. Progressive ideas like city planning and beautification became official city policy. A 1928 city plan, the first since 1839, called upon Austin to develop its strengths as a residential, cultural, and educational center. A $4,250,000 bond issue, Austin's largest to date, provided funds for streets, sewers, parks, the city hospital, the first permanent public library building, and the first municipal airport, which opened in 1930. A recreation department was established, and within a decade it offered Austinites a profusion of recreational programs, parks, and pools. Race and the 1928 City Plan By the early years of the 20th century, African-Americans occupied settlements in various parts of the city of Austin. By and large, these residential communities had churches at their core. Some had black-run businesses and schools for African-American youth. Though surrounded by Anglo neighborhoods, these island enclaves functioned as fairly autonomous residential neighborhoods often organized around family ties, common religious practices, and connection to pre-emancipation slave-status relationships with common slave holders/land owners. Though some date back to slavery, by the 1920s these communities were located across the city and include Kincheonville (1865), Wheatville (1867), Clarksville (1871), Masonville, St. Johns, Pleasant Hill, and other settlements. While residences of blacks had been widely scattered all across the city in 1880, by 1930 they were heavily concentrated in East Austin, a process encouraged by the 1928 Austin city plan, which recommended that East Austin be designated a "Negro district." City officials implemented the plan successfully, and most blacks who had been living in the western half of the city were "relocated" back to the former plantation lands, on the other side of East Avenue (now Interstate 35). Municipal services like schools, sewers, and parks were made available to blacks in East Austin only. At mid-century Austin was still segregated in most respects—housing, restaurants, hotels, parks, hospitals, schools, public transportation—but African Americans had long fostered their own institutions, which included by the late 1940s some 150 small businesses, more than thirty churches, and two colleges, Tillotson College and Samuel Huston College. Between 1880 and 1940 the number of black residents grew from 3,587 to 14,861, but their proportion of the overall population declined from 33% to 17%. Austin's Hispanic residents, who in 1900 numbered about 335 and composed just 1.5% of the population, rose to 11% by 1940, when they numbered 9,693. By the 1940s most Mexican-Americans lived in the rapidly expanding East Austin barrio south of East Eleventh Street, where increasing numbers owned homes. Hispanic-owned business were dominated by a thriving food industry. Though Mexican Americans encountered widespread discrimination—in employment, housing, education, city services, and other areas—it was by no means practiced as rigidly as it was toward African-Americans. Between the 1950s and 1980s ethnic relations in Austin were transformed. First came a sustained attack on segregation. Local black leaders and political-action groups waged campaigns to desegregate city schools and services. In 1956 the University of Texas became the first major university in the South to admit blacks as undergraduates. In the early 1960s students staged demonstrations against segregated lunch counters, restaurants, and movie theaters. Gradually the barriers receded, a process accelerated when the United States Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed racial discrimination in public accommodations. Nevertheless, discrimination persisted in areas like employment and housing. Shut out of the town's political leadership since the 1880s, when two blacks had served on the city council, African-Americans regained a foothold by winning a school-board seat in 1968 and a city-council seat in 1971. This political breakthrough was matched by Hispanics, whose numbers had reached 39,399 by 1970, or 16 percent of the population. Mexican-Americans won their first seats on the Austin school board in 1972 and the city council in 1975. Growth during the Great Depression During the early and mid-1930s, Austin experienced the harsh effects of the Great Depression. Nevertheless, the town fared comparatively well, sustained by its twin foundations of government and education and by the political skills of Mayor Tom Miller, who took office in 1933, and United States Congressman Lyndon Baines Johnson, who won election to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1937. Its population grew at a faster pace during the 1930s than in any other decade during the 20th century, increasing 66 percent from 53,120 to 87,930. By 1936 the Public Works Administration had provided Austin with more funding for municipal construction projects than any other Texas city during the same period. UT nearly doubled its enrollment during the decade and undertook a massive construction program. In addition, the Robert Mueller Municipal Airport opened its doors for commercial air traffic in 1930. Over three decades after the original Austin Dam collapsed, Governor Miriam A. "Ma" Ferguson signed the bill that created the Lower Colorado River Authority (LCRA). Modeled after the Tennessee Valley Authority, the LCRA is a nonprofit public utility involved in managing the resources along the Highland Lakes and Colorado River. The old Austin Dam, partially rebuilt under Mayor Wooldridge but never finished due to damage from flooding in 1915, was finally completed in 1940 and renamed Tom Miller Dam. Lake Austin stretched twenty-one miles behind it. Just upriver the much larger Mansfield Dam was completed in 1941 to impound Lake Travis. The two dams, in conjunction with other dams in the Lower Colorado River Authority system, brought great benefits to Austin: cheap hydroelectric power, the end of flooding that in 1935 and on earlier occasions had ravaged the town, and a plentiful supply of water without which the city's later growth would have been unlikely. In 1942 Austin gained the economic benefit of Del Valle Army Air Base, later Bergstrom Air Force Base, which remained in operation until 1993. Post-War growth and its consequences From 1940 to 1990 Austin's population grew at an average rate of 40 percent per decade, from 87,930 to 472,020. By 2000 the population was 656,562. The city's corporate area, which between 1891 and 1940 had about doubled to 30.85 square miles, grew more than sevenfold to 225.40 square miles by 1990. During the 1950s and 1960s much of Austin's growth reflected the rapid expansion of its traditional strengths—education and government. During the 1960s alone the number of students attending the University of Texas at Austin doubled, reaching 39,000 by 1970. Government employees in Travis County tripled between 1950 and 1970 to 47,300. University of Texas buildings multiplied, with the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library opening in 1971. A complex of state office buildings was constructed north of the Capitol. Propelling Austin's growth by the 1970s was its emergence as a center for high technology. This development, fostered by the Chamber of Commerce since the 1950s as a way to expand the city's narrow economic base and fueled by proliferating research programs at the University of Texas, accelerated when IBM located in Austin in 1967, followed by Texas Instruments in 1969 and Motorola in 1974. Two major research consortia of high-technology companies followed during the 1980s, Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation and Sematech. By the early 1990s, the Austin–Round Rock–San Marcos Metropolitan Statistical Area had about 400 high-technology manufacturers. While high-technology industries located on Austin's periphery, its central area sprouted multi-storied office buildings and hotels during the 1970s and 1980s, venues for the burgeoning music industry, and, in 1992, a new convention center. On August 1, 1966, UT student and former Marine Charles Whitman killed both his wife and his mother before ascending the UT Tower and opening fire with a high-powered sniper rifle and several other firearms. Whitman killed or fatally wounded 14 more people over the next 90 minutes before being shot dead by police. 1970 to 1989 During the 1970s and 1980s, the city experienced a tremendous boom in development that temporarily halted with the Savings and Loan crisis in the late 1980s. The growth led to an ongoing series of fierce political battles that pitted preservationists against developers. In particular the preservation of Barton Springs, and by extension the Edwards Aquifer, became an issue that defined the themes of the larger battles. Austin's rapid growth generated strong resistance by the 1970s. Angered by proliferating apartment complexes and traffic flow, neighborhood groups mobilized to protect the integrity of their residential areas. By 1983 there were more than 150 such groups. Environmentalists organized a powerful movement to protect streams, lakes, watersheds, and wooded hills from environmental degradation, resulting in the passage of a series of environmental-protection ordinances during the 1970s and 1980s. A program was inaugurated in 1971 to beautify the shores of Town Lake (now named Lady Bird Lake), a downtown lake impounded in 1960 behind Longhorn Crossing Dam. Historic preservationists fought the destruction of Austin's architectural heritage by rescuing and restoring historic buildings. City election campaigns during the 1970s and 1980s frequently featured struggles over the management of growth, with neighborhood groups and environmentalists on one side and business and development interests on the other. As Austin became known as a location for creative individuals, corporate retail branches also moved into town and displaced many "home-grown" businesses. To many longtime Austinites, this loss of landmark retail establishments left a void in the city's culture. In the 1970s, Austin became a refuge for a group of country and western musicians and songwriters seeking to escape the music industry's corporate domination of Nashville. The best-known artist in this group was Willie Nelson, who became an icon for what became the city's "alternate music industry"; another was Stevie Ray Vaughan. In 1975, Austin City Limits premiered on PBS, showcasing Austin's burgeoning music scene to the country. The Armadillo World Headquarters gained a national reputation during the 1970s as a venue for these anti-establishment musicians as well as mainstream acts. In the following years, Austin gained a reputation as a place where struggling musicians could launch their careers in informal live venues in front of receptive audiences. This ultimately led to the city's official motto, "The Live Music Capital of the World". 1990 to present In the 1990s, the boom resumed with the influx and growth of a large technology industry. Initially, the technology industry was centered around larger, established companies such as IBM, but in the late 1990s, Austin gained the additional reputation of being a center of the dot-com boom and subsequent dot-com bust. Austin is also known for game development, filmmaking, and popular music. On May 23, 1999, Austin-Bergstrom International Airport served its first passengers, replacing Robert Mueller Municipal Airport. In 2000, Austin became the center of an intense media focus as the headquarters of presidential candidate and Texas Governor George W. Bush. The headquarters of his main opponent, Al Gore, were in Nashville, thus re-creating the old country music rivalry between the two cities. Also in the 2000 election, Austinites narrowly rejected a light rail proposal put forward by Capital Metro. In 2004, however, they approved a commuter rail service from Leander to downtown along existing rail lines. Capital MetroRail service finally began service in 2010. In 2004, the Frost Bank Tower opened in the downtown business district along Congress Avenue. At , it was the tallest building in Austin by a wide margin, and was also the first high rise to be built after September 11, 2001. Several other high-rise downtown projects, most residential or mixed-use, were underway in the downtown area at the time, dramatically changing the appearance of downtown Austin, and placing a new emphasis on downtown living and development. In 2006, the first sections of Austin's first toll road network opened. The toll roads were extolled as a solution to underfunded highway projects, but also decried by opposition groups who felt the tolls amounted in some cases to a double tax. In March 2018, a series of four explosions centered in Austin, killed two civilians and injuring another five. Presently, Austin continues to rise in popularity and experience rapid growth. Young people in particular have flooded the city, drawn in part by its relatively strong economy, its reputation of liberal politics and alternative culture in Middle America, and its relatively low housing costs compared to the coastal regions of the country. The sudden growth has brought up several issues for the city, including urban sprawl, as well as balancing the need for new infrastructure with environmental protection. Most recently, the city has pushed for smart growth, mostly in downtown and the surrounding neighborhoods, spurring the development of new condominiums in the area and altering the city's skyline. While Smart Growth has been successful in revitalizing downtown and the surrounding central city neighborhoods housing development has not kept pace with demand driven by rapid and sustained employment growth which has resulted in higher housing costs. See also Timeline of Austin, Texas Capital Metropolitan Transportation Authority for a history of public transportation in Austin References Further reading Auyero, Javier. Invisible in Austin: Life and Labor in an American City (U of Texas Press, 2015). Busch, Andrew. "Building" A City of Upper-Middle-Class Citizens": Labor Markets, Segregation, and Growth in Austin, Texas, 1950–1973." Journal of Urban History (2013) online Humphrey, David C. Austin: A history of the capital city (Texas A&M University Press, 2013). External links Waterloo, Texas from TexasEscapes.com Waterloo, Texas (Travis County) from https://tshaonline.org

Silicon photonics is the study and application of photonic systems which use silicon as an optical medium. The silicon is usually patterned with sub-micrometre precision, into microphotonic components. These operate in the infrared, most commonly at the 1.55 micrometre wavelength used by most fiber optic telecommunication systems. The silicon typically lies on top of a layer of silica in what (by analogy with a similar construction in microelectronics) is known as silicon on insulator (SOI). Silicon photonic devices can be made using existing semiconductor fabrication techniques, and because silicon is already used as the substrate for most integrated circuits, it is possible to create hybrid devices in which the optical and electronic components are integrated onto a single microchip. Consequently, silicon photonics is being actively researched by many electronics manufacturers including IBM and Intel, as well as by academic research groups, as a means for keeping on track with Moore's Law, by using optical interconnects to provide faster data transfer both between and within microchips. The propagation of light through silicon devices is governed by a range of nonlinear optical phenomena including the Kerr effect, the Raman effect, two-photon absorption and interactions between photons and free charge carriers. The presence of nonlinearity is of fundamental importance, as it enables light to interact with light, thus permitting applications such as wavelength conversion and all-optical signal routing, in addition to the passive transmission of light. Silicon waveguides are also of great academic interest, due to their unique guiding properties, they can be used for communications, interconnects, biosensors, and they offer the possibility to support exotic nonlinear optical phenomena such as soliton propagation. Applications Optical communications In a typical optical link, data is first transferred from the electrical to the optical domain using an electro-optic modulator or a directly modulated laser. An electro-optic modulator can vary the intensity and/or the phase of the optical carrier. In silicon photonics, a common technique to achieve modulation is to vary the density of free charge carriers. Variations of electron and hole densities change the real and the imaginary part of the refractive index of silicon as described by the empirical equations of Soref and Bennett. Modulators can consist of both forward-biased PIN diodes, which generally generate large phase-shifts but suffer of lower speeds, as well as of reverse-biased PN junctions. A prototype optical interconnect with microring modulators integrated with germanium detectors has been demonstrated. Non-resonant modulators, such as Mach-Zehnder interferometers, have typical dimensions in the millimeter range and are usually used in telecom or datacom applications. Resonant devices, such as ring-resonators, can have dimensions of few tens of micrometers only, occupying therefore much smaller areas. In 2013, researchers demonstrated a resonant depletion modulator that can be fabricated using standard Silicon-on-Insulator Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (SOI CMOS) manufacturing processes. A similar device has been demonstrated as well in bulk CMOS rather than in SOI. On the receiver side, the optical signal is typically converted back to the electrical domain using a semiconductor photodetector. The semiconductor used for carrier generation has usually a band-gap smaller than the photon energy, and the most common choice is pure germanium. Most detectors utilize a PN junction for carrier extraction, however, detectors based on metal–semiconductor junctions (with germanium as the semiconductor) have been integrated into silicon waveguides as well. More recently, silicon-germanium avalanche photodiodes capable of operating at 40 Gbit/s have been fabricated. Complete transceivers have been commercialized in the form of active optical cables. Optical communications are conveniently classified by the reach, or length, of their links. The majority of silicon photonic communications have so far been limited to telecom and datacom applications, where the reach is of several kilometers or several meters respectively. Silicon photonics, however, is expected to play a significant role in computercom as well, where optical links have a reach in the centimeter to meter range. In fact, progress in computer technology (and the continuation of Moore's Law) is becoming increasingly dependent on faster data transfer between and within microchips. Optical interconnects may provide a way forward, and silicon photonics may prove particularly useful, once integrated on the standard silicon chips. In 2006, Intel Senior Vice President - and future CEO - Pat Gelsinger stated that, "Today, optics is a niche technology. Tomorrow, it's the mainstream of every chip that we build." In 2010 Intel demostrated a 50 Gbps connection made with silicon photonics. The first microprocessor with optical input/output (I/O) was demonstrated in December 2015 using an approach known as "zero-change" CMOS photonics. This is known as fiber-to-the-processor. This first demonstration was based on a 45 nm SOI node, and the bi-directional chip-to-chip link was operated at a rate of 2×2.5 Gbit/s. The total energy consumption of the link was calculated to be of 16 pJ/b and was dominated by the contribution of the off-chip laser. Some researchers believe an on-chip laser source is required. Others think that it should remain off-chip because of thermal problems (the quantum efficiency decreases with temperature, and computer chips are generally hot) and because of CMOS-compatibility issues. One such device is the hybrid silicon laser, in which the silicon is bonded to a different semiconductor (such as indium phosphide) as the lasing medium. Other devices include all-silicon Raman laser or an all-silicon Brillouin lasers wherein silicon serves as the lasing medium. In 2012, IBM announced that it had achieved optical components at the 90 nanometer scale that can be manufactured using standard techniques and incorporated into conventional chips. In September 2013, Intel announced technology to transmit data at speeds of 100 gigabits per second along a cable approximately five millimeters in diameter for connecting servers inside data centers. Conventional PCI-E data cables carry data at up to eight gigabits per second, while networking cables reach 40 Gbit/s. The latest version of the USB standard tops out at ten Gbit/s. The technology does not directly replace existing cables in that it requires a separate circuit board to interconvert electrical and optical signals. Its advanced speed offers the potential of reducing the number of cables that connect blades on a rack and even of separating processor, storage and memory into separate blades to allow more efficient cooling and dynamic configuration. Graphene photodetectors have the potential to surpass germanium devices in several important aspects, although they remain about one order of magnitude behind current generation capacity, despite rapid improvement. Graphene devices can work at very high frequencies, and could in principle reach higher bandwidths. Graphene can absorb a broader range of wavelengths than germanium. That property could be exploited to transmit more data streams simultaneously in the same beam of light. Unlike germanium detectors, graphene photodetectors do not require applied voltage, which could reduce energy needs. Finally, graphene detectors in principle permit a simpler and less expensive on-chip integration. However, graphene does not strongly absorb light. Pairing a silicon waveguide with a graphene sheet better routes light and maximizes interaction. The first such device was demonstrated in 2011. Manufacturing such devices using conventional manufacturing techniques has not been demonstrated. Optical routers and signal processors Another application of silicon photonics is in signal routers for optical communication. Construction can be greatly simplified by fabricating the optical and electronic parts on the same chip, rather than having them spread across multiple components. A wider aim is all-optical signal processing, whereby tasks which are conventionally performed by manipulating signals in electronic form are done directly in optical form. An important example is all-optical switching, whereby the routing of optical signals is directly controlled by other optical signals. Another example is all-optical wavelength conversion. In 2013, a startup company named "Compass-EOS", based in California and in Israel, was the first to present a commercial silicon-to-photonics router. Long range telecommunications using silicon photonics Silicon microphotonics can potentially increase the Internet's bandwidth capacity by providing micro-scale, ultra low power devices. Furthermore, the power consumption of datacenters may be significantly reduced if this is successfully achieved. Researchers at Sandia, Kotura, NTT, Fujitsu and various academic institutes have been attempting to prove this functionality. A 2010 paper reported on a prototype 80 km, 12.5 Gbit/s transmission using microring silicon devices. Light-field displays As of 2015, US startup company Magic Leap is working on a light-field chip using silicon photonics for the purpose of an augmented reality display. Artificial intelligence Silicon photonics has been used in artiificial intelligence inference processors that are more energy efficient than those using conventional transistors. This can be done using Mach-Zehnder interferometers (MZIs) which can be combined with nanoelectromechanical systems to modulate the light passing though it, by physically bending the MZI which changes the phase of the light. Physical properties Optical guiding and dispersion tailoring Silicon is transparent to infrared light with wavelengths above about 1.1 micrometres. Silicon also has a very high refractive index, of about 3.5. The tight optical confinement provided by this high index allows for microscopic optical waveguides, which may have cross-sectional dimensions of only a few hundred nanometers. Single mode propagation can be achieved, thus (like single-mode optical fiber) eliminating the problem of modal dispersion. The strong dielectric boundary effects that result from this tight confinement substantially alter the optical dispersion relation. By selecting the waveguide geometry, it is possible to tailor the dispersion to have desired properties, which is of crucial importance to applications requiring ultrashort pulses. In particular, the group velocity dispersion (that is, the extent to which group velocity varies with wavelength) can be closely controlled. In bulk silicon at 1.55 micrometres, the group velocity dispersion (GVD) is normal in that pulses with longer wavelengths travel with higher group velocity than those with shorter wavelength. By selecting a suitable waveguide geometry, however, it is possible to reverse this, and achieve anomalous GVD, in which pulses with shorter wavelengths travel faster. Anomalous dispersion is significant, as it is a prerequisite for soliton propagation, and modulational instability. In order for the silicon photonic components to remain optically independent from the bulk silicon of the wafer on which they are fabricated, it is necessary to have a layer of intervening material. This is usually silica, which has a much lower refractive index (of about 1.44 in the wavelength region of interest), and thus light at the silicon-silica interface will (like light at the silicon-air interface) undergo total internal reflection, and remain in the silicon. This construct is known as silicon on insulator. It is named after the technology of silicon on insulator in electronics, whereby components are built upon a layer of insulator in order to reduce parasitic capacitance and so improve performance. Kerr nonlinearity Silicon has a focusing Kerr nonlinearity, in that the refractive index increases with optical intensity. This effect is not especially strong in bulk silicon, but it can be greatly enhanced by using a silicon waveguide to concentrate light into a very small cross-sectional area. This allows nonlinear optical effects to be seen at low powers. The nonlinearity can be enhanced further by using a slot waveguide, in which the high refractive index of the silicon is used to confine light into a central region filled with a strongly nonlinear polymer. Kerr nonlinearity underlies a wide variety of optical phenomena. One example is four wave mixing, which has been applied in silicon to realise optical parametric amplification, parametric wavelength conversion, and frequency comb generation., Kerr nonlinearity can also cause modulational instability, in which it reinforces deviations from an optical waveform, leading to the generation of spectral-sidebands and the eventual breakup of the waveform into a train of pulses. Another example (as described below) is soliton propagation. Two-photon absorption Silicon exhibits two-photon absorption (TPA), in which a pair of photons can act to excite an electron-hole pair. This process is related to the Kerr effect, and by analogy with complex refractive index, can be thought of as the imaginary-part of a complex Kerr nonlinearity. At the 1.55 micrometre telecommunication wavelength, this imaginary part is approximately 10% of the real part. The influence of TPA is highly disruptive, as it both wastes light, and generates unwanted heat. It can be mitigated, however, either by switching to longer wavelengths (at which the TPA to Kerr ratio drops), or by using slot waveguides (in which the internal nonlinear material has a lower TPA to Kerr ratio). Alternatively, the energy lost through TPA can be partially recovered (as is described below) by extracting it from the generated charge carriers. Free charge carrier interactions The free charge carriers within silicon can both absorb photons and change its refractive index. This is particularly significant at high intensities and for long durations, due to the carrier concentration being built up by TPA. The influence of free charge carriers is often (but not always) unwanted, and various means have been proposed to remove them. One such scheme is to implant the silicon with helium in order to enhance carrier recombination. A suitable choice of geometry can also be used to reduce the carrier lifetime. Rib waveguides (in which the waveguides consist of thicker regions in a wider layer of silicon) enhance both the carrier recombination at the silica-silicon interface and the diffusion of carriers from the waveguide core. A more advanced scheme for carrier removal is to integrate the waveguide into the intrinsic region of a PIN diode, which is reverse biased so that the carriers are attracted away from the waveguide core. A more sophisticated scheme still, is to use the diode as part of a circuit in which voltage and current are out of phase, thus allowing power to be extracted from the waveguide. The source of this power is the light lost to two photon absorption, and so by recovering some of it, the net loss (and the rate at which heat is generated) can be reduced. As is mentioned above, free charge carrier effects can also be used constructively, in order to modulate the light. Second-order nonlinearity Second-order nonlinearities cannot exist in bulk silicon because of the centrosymmetry of its crystalline structure. By applying strain however, the inversion symmetry of silicon can be broken. This can be obtained for example by depositing a silicon nitride layer on a thin silicon film. Second-order nonlinear phenomena can be exploited for optical modulation, spontaneous parametric down-conversion, parametric amplification, ultra-fast optical signal processing and mid-infrared generation. Efficient nonlinear conversion however requires phase matching between the optical waves involved. Second-order nonlinear waveguides based on strained silicon can achieve phase matching by dispersion-engineering. So far, however, experimental demonstrations are based only on designs which are not phase matched. It has been shown that phase matching can be obtained as well in silicon double slot waveguides coated with a highly nonlinear organic cladding and in periodically strained silicon waveguides. The Raman effect Silicon exhibits the Raman effect, in which a photon is exchanged for a photon with a slightly different energy, corresponding to an excitation or a relaxation of the material. Silicon's Raman transition is dominated by a single, very narrow frequency peak, which is problematic for broadband phenomena such as Raman amplification, but is beneficial for narrowband devices such as Raman lasers. Early studies of Raman amplification and Raman lasers started at UCLA which led to demonstration of net gain Silicon Raman amplifiers and silicon pulsed Raman laser with fiber resonator (Optics express 2004). Consequently, all-silicon Raman lasers have been fabricated in 2005. The Brillouin effect In the Raman effect, photons are red- or blue-shifted by optical phonons with a frequency of about 15 THz. However, silicon waveguides also support acoustic phonon excitations. The interaction of these acoustic phonons with light is called Brillouin scattering. The frequencies and mode shapes of these acoustic phonons are dependent on the geometry and size of the silicon waveguides, making it possible to produce strong Brillouin scattering at frequencies ranging from a few MHz to tens of GHz. Stimulated Brillouin scattering has been used to make narrowband optical amplifiers as well as all-silicon Brillouin lasers. The interaction between photons and acoustic phonons is also studied in the field of cavity optomechanics, although 3D optical cavities are not necessary to observe the interaction. For instance, besides in silicon waveguides the optomechanical coupling has also been demonstrated in fibers and in chalcogenide waveguides. Solitons The evolution of light through silicon waveguides can be approximated with a cubic Nonlinear Schrödinger equation, which is notable for admitting sech-like soliton solutions. These optical solitons (which are also known in optical fiber) result from a balance between self phase modulation (which causes the leading edge of the pulse to be redshifted and the trailing edge blueshifted) and anomalous group velocity dispersion. Such solitons have been observed in silicon waveguides, by groups at the universities of Columbia, Rochester, and Bath. See also Photonic integrated circuit References Nonlinear optics Photonics Silicon

Philip E. Rubin (born May 22, 1949) is an American cognitive scientist, technologist, and science administrator known for raising the visibility of behavioral and cognitive science, neuroscience, and ethical issues related to science, technology, and medicine, at a national level. His research career is noted for his theoretical contributions and pioneering technological developments, starting in the 1970s, related to speech synthesis and speech production, including articulatory synthesis (computational modeling of the physiology and acoustics of speech production) and sinewave synthesis, and their use in studying complex temporal events, particularly understanding the biological bases of speech and language. He is the President of the Federation of Associations in Behavioral and Brain Sciences (FABBS). He is also Chair of the Board of Directors of Haskins Laboratories in New Haven, Connecticut, where he is Chief Executive Officer emeritus and was for many years a senior scientist. In addition, he is a Professor Adjunct in the Department of Surgery, Otolaryngology at the Yale University School of Medicine, a Research Affiliate in the Department of Psychology at Yale University, a Fellow at Yale's Trumbull College, and a Trustee of the University of Connecticut. From 2012 through Feb. 2015 he was the Principal Assistant Director for Science at the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) in the Executive Office of the President of the United States, and led the White House's neuroscience initiative, which included the BRAIN Initiative. He also served as the Assistant Director for Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences at OSTP. For many years he has been involved with issues of science advocacy, education, funding, and policy. Education Philip Rubin received his BA in psychology and linguistics in 1971 from Brandeis University and subsequently attended the University of Connecticut where he received his PhD in experimental psychology in 1975 under the tutelage of Michael Turvey, Ignatius Mattingly, Philip Lieberman, and Alvin Liberman. Career Philip Rubin's research spans a number of disciplines, combining computational, engineering, linguistic, physiological, and psychological approaches to study embodied cognition, most particularly the biological bases of speech and language. He is best known for his work on articulatory synthesis (computational modeling of the physiology and acoustics of speech production), speech perception, sinewave synthesis, signal processing, perceptual organization, and theoretical approaches and modeling of complex temporal events. At the same time, he has been involved in leadership roles related to science administration, policy, and advocacy. Speech Synthesis and Speech Production Starting in the early 1970s, Rubin worked on foundational issues in speech technology. These include: participating with Rod McGuire on Haskins aspects of the ARPANET Network Voice Protocol, a predecessor of Voice over IP; collaborating with Leonard Szubowicz, Douglas Whalen, and others on digitized speech, particularly extensions of the Haskins Pulse-code modulation (PCM) implementation, focusing on expanding temporal markers and event labels; and working with Patrick Nye on the Digital Pattern Playback, which was eventually replaced by Rubin's HADES system. During his time at Haskins Laboratories, Rubin was responsible for the design of many computational models and other software systems. Most prominent are ASY, the Haskins articulatory synthesis program, and SWS, the Haskins sinewave synthesis program, both developed in the 1970s. ASY expanded the Mermelstein vocal-tract model developed at Bell Laboratories, adding additional articulatory control, simulation of nasal sounds, sound generation, and digital sound production. Most importantly, Rubin designed and implemented an approach for describing and controlling articulatory events, now known as speech gestures. In addition to use in standard articulatory synthesis, the ASY program has been used as part of a gestural-computational model that combines articulatory phonology, task dynamics, and articulatory synthesis. With Louis Goldstein and Mark Tiede, Rubin designed a radical revision of the articulatory synthesis model, known as CASY, the configurable articulatory synthesizer. This 3-dimensional model of the vocal tract permits researchers to replicate MRI images of actual speakers and has been used to study the relation between speech production and perception. With colleagues Hosung Nam, Catherine Browman, Louis Goldstein, Michael Proctor, Elliot Saltzman, and Mark Tiede, a software system called TADA was developed. It implemented the task dynamic model of inter-articulator speech coordination, incorporating also a coupled-oscillator model of inter-gestural planning, a gestural-coupling model, and portions of the Haskins articulatory model. The system also generated articulatory models of English utterances from either phonetic or orthographic text input. The sinewave synthesis system designed by Rubin, known as SWS, is based on a technique for synthesizing speech by replacing the formants (main bands of energy) with pure tone whistles, and was designed to explore the spatiotemporal aspects of speech signals. It was the first sinewave synthesis system developed for the automatic, large-scale creation of stimuli for perceptual experiments, and has been used by Robert Remez, Rubin, David B. Pisoni, and other colleagues and researchers to study the time-varying characteristics of the speech signal. Rubin is also the designer of the HADES signal processing system and the SPIEL programming language, a predecessor of MATLAB. From 1992 through 2012, Rubin was the core and administrative leader of Haskins Laboratories' main research activity, the National Institutes of Health/NICHD funded P-01 program project, “The Nature and Acquisition of the Speech Code and Reading.” In 1998, he was the co-founder and first President of AVISA, the Auditory-Visual Speech Association, now part of the International Speech Communication Association (ISCA). He was the co-creator, with Eric Vatikiotis-Bateson, of the Talking Heads website, which is no longer active. Theoretical Contributions Dynamical systems / action theory perspective on speech. With Carol Fowler, Robert Remez, and Michael Turvey, Rubin introduced the consideration of speech in terms of a dynamical systems / action theory perspective. Rubin's theoretical approach to perception and production, particularly in the case of speech, eschews attention to the momentary and punctate aspects of the signal, focusing not on traditional features and cues, but on spatiotemporal coordination of global aspects of the system, such as spectral coherence over long stretches of time (an approach related to current speech understanding systems, like Siri or Amazon Alexa). Perceptual organization. With Robert Remez and various other colleagues, he has used the technique of sinewave synthesis to explore perceptual organization. They have noted that "the criteria for the perceptual organization of speech - visible, audible, and even palpable - are actually specified in a general form, removed from any particular sensory modality ...", but, to Rubin, related to the underlying spectral coherence of signals created by coordinated physiological activity. Events, gestures, and embodiment. Rubin's approach stresses the constraints and structure stemming from the realities of embodied systems, again across both time and physical space. He expanded the modeling of speech production to incorporate an event based approach to control movement over time and articulatory space of the vocal tract, by building on the conceptual approach developed by Paul Mermelstein and colleagues at Bell Laboratories. This work was influenced, in part, by the event-based focus of James J. Jenkins. Rubin's articulatory synthesis model, ASY, illustrates how simple physical changes, such as velar opening, directly account for degrees of nasality, avoiding the complexity of attempting to reconcile numerous spectral cues. This event orientation evolved into a gestural computational system developed at Haskins Laboratories that combined ASY with the articulatory phonology of Catherine Browman and Louis Goldstein, and the task dynamic model of Elliot Saltzman. In this system utterances are organized ensembles (or constellations) of units of articulatory action called gestures. Each gesture is modeled as a dynamical system that characterizes the formation (and release) of a local constriction within the vocal tract (the gesture’s functional goal or `task’). Goldstein and Rubin have described the "dances of the vocal tract" that underlie the production of continuous speech. Biomechanical constraints on inverse mapping. Biomechanical constraints stemming from such embodiment also can be exploited in the recovery of vocal tract shapes from the acoustic signal as seen in the continuity mapping approach of John Hogden, used by Hogden, Rubin, and colleagues to re-conceptualize how realistic physical constraints affect pattern recognition. This involves reverse engineering the path from the acoustic signal to its physiological source (aka: the inverse problem) using a gradient maximum likelihood approach. Audiovisual speech and multimodality. Rubin expanded his approach to understanding the importance of spatiotemporal coordination in his collaborations on audiovisual speech with Eric Vatikiotis-Bateson, Hani Yehia, and other colleagues, focusing on multimodality by exploring the simultaneous combination of speech, facial information, and gesture, leading to innovations in analysis, synthesis, and simulation. National Science Foundation From 2000-2003 Rubin was the Director of the Division of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences (BCS) at the National Science Foundation (NSF) in Arlington, Virginia, where he helped launch the Cognitive Neuroscience, Human Origins (HOMINID), Documenting Endangered Languages, and other programs, was part of the NBIC convergence (Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information technology and Cognitive science) activities, and was the first chair of the Human and Social Dynamics priority area. Rubin returned to the NSF during the second term of the Obama Administration to serve as a Senior Advisor in the Directorate for Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences (SBE). Science Policy and Advocacy Rubin has been in several leadership roles related to science policy and advocacy. From 2006-2011 he was the Chair of the National Academies Board on Behavioral, Cognitive, and Sensory Sciences; a member-at-large of the Board of the Federation of Associations in Behavioral and Brain Sciences (FABBS); and the co-leader of the Yale-Haskins Teagle Foundation Collegium on Student Learning. He is also the former Chairman of the Board of the Discovery Museum and Planetarium in Bridgeport, Connecticut, where he also worked with museum staff, trustees, city and state representatives, and others to establish the Discovery Magnet School on museum grounds, the first pre-K to 8 interdistrict public magnet school in the region with a science theme. He is currently the President and chair of the Board of Directors of FABBS. Ethical Issues Related to Research and Emerging Technologies While at the NSF during the Bill Clinton and George W. Bush administrations, Rubin was the NSF ex officio representative to the National Human Research Protection Advisory Committee (NHRPAC) and the Secretary's Advisory Committee on Human Research Protections (SACHRP), established to provide advice to the Secretary of Health and Human Services on issues related to the protection of human research subjects. He was also the co-chair of the inter-agency National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) Committee on Science (COS) Human Subjects Research Subcommittee (HSRS) under the auspices of the President's Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) and was also formerly the co-chair of the HSRS Behavioral Research Working Group. After leaving the NSF in 2003, he continued to be active on human subjects issues as they relate to public policy, including lecturing, writing, co-authoring with Judith Jarvis Thompson and others an AAUP report, participating in activities of the Yale Bioethics Center, and serving on the advisory board of the Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics. Rubin has been a long-time member of the Yale University Technology and Ethics working group and Yale's Science, Technology, and Utopian Visions (STUVWG) and Mind, Brain, Culture and Consciousness (MBCC) working groups, both hosted by the Whitney Humanities Center. He was a member of the Steering Committee of MBCC. As part of the ongoing STUVWG activities, he has focused on the ethics of technology and developed the web-based Artificial Intelligence Reading List. He has also expressed concerns about the ethical and scientific oversight of the use of certain tools and techniques by the intelligence, law enforcement, military, and national security communities, considering some of them to be boondoggles. An example includes his serving as the Chair of the National Research Council (NRC) Committee on Field Evaluation of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences-Based Methods and Tools for Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence. In a workshop report from that committee he provided an analysis of the use of voice stress technologies in the detection of deception and said "not only is there no evidence that voice stress technologies are effective in detecting stress, but also the hypothesis underlying their use has been shown to be false." He was also a member of the NRC Committee on Developing Metrics for Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Research. On April 6, 2011, he provided testimony at a hearing of the United States House Committee on Oversight and Reform - Behavioral Science and Security: Evaluating TSA's SPOT Program. In his written and oral congressional testimony, he criticized the TSA's SPOT passenger screening program, including raising concerns about the limitations that the Department of Homeland Security imposed on an outside review and oversight committee for the SPOT program, known as the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC), of which he was a member. In May 2016 Rubin was a signatory to an Open Letter to the World Health Organization (WHO) calling on them to move or postpone the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro over the 2016 epidemic of Zika fever. He also appeared on air on ESPN with Hannah Storm to discuss risk assessment and Zika. White House Office of Science and Technology Policy In February 2012 Philip Rubin took a position as the Assistant Director for Social, Behavioral, and Economic Sciences at the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) in the Executive Office of the President of the United States. He also served as a Senior Advisor at the National Science Foundation in the Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences (SBE) Directorate. At OSTP he led the White House's neuroscience initiative. On April 16, 2012, Congressman Chakah Fattah (D-PA) introduced House Resolution 613, supporting the OSTP interagency working group on neuroscience that Rubin organized. The resolution also "... commends President Barack Obama for the expeditious appointment of Dr. Philip Rubin to lead the working group's efforts." In June 2012 was named by John Holdren, Assistant to the President for Science and Technology and Director of OSTP, to be OSTP's Principal Assistant Director for Science, taking over the duties of Nobel laureate Carl Wieman, who resigned as Associate Director for Science on June 2. In this new role Rubin also became Co-Chair of the National Science and Technology Council's Committee on Science, serving with other Co-Chairs, Francis Collins and Subra Suresh, Directors of the NIH and NSF, respectively. He also co-chaired the interagency Common Rule Modernization Working Group. During his tenure, key priorities for the OSTP Science Division included: Support for fundamental and translational research at NIH, NSF, NIST, and NASA. Public Access to research results, Open Data, and open science (led by Michael Stebbins). Large-scale, scientific infrastructure (led by Gerald Blazey, Altof Carim, and Tamara Dickinson), including such projects as ITER and the James Webb Space Telescope. Biomedical innovation (led by Michael Stebbins and Col. Geoffrey Ling, both of whom when on to propose "Creating the Health Advanced Research Projects Agency (HARPA)" for the Day One project, which led to ARPA-H). Neuroscience (led by Rubin and Carlos Peña, with contributions by Danielle Carnival, Meredith Drossback, Michael Stebbins, Carl Wieman, and others), including areas such as traumatic brain injury, neurodegenerative disease, the BRAIN Initiative, cognitive science, development, emotion, and learning, and the chartering of the NSTC Interagency Working Group on Neuroscience (IWGN). Rubin represented the White House at the G8 Dementia Summit on December 11, 2013 in London, held to shape an effective international response to dementia. Mental health, including areas such as PTSD, stigma, and suicide (Rubin and Stebbins). Forensic science (led by Tania Simoncelli, now Director of Science Policy at the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative). Behavioral science and social science (including planning meetings on behavioral economics, encouraged by Richard Suzman (then at NIH/NIA)), and supported by Philip Rubin, Alan Krueger (then at the Council of Economic Advisers), and Alan Kraut (then at the Association for Psychological Science), leading to the Behavioral Impacts program (led by Tom Kalil and Maya Shankar). Broadening participation in science (led by Joan Frye, now retired; Sean Jones, now Assistant Director for Mathematical and Physical Sciences at the NSF; and Danielle Carnival, now White House Cancer Moonshot Coordinator). Human subjects research issues (led by Rubin and Tania Simoncelli), including modernization of the Common Rule. Uniform Guidance for research and related regulations; grant reform; and graduate education reform (led by Joan Frye, Kelsey Cook, and Sean Jones). Language and communication, (led by Philip Rubin), including the chartering of an interagency NSTC working group. Aging, including interfacing with the White House Conference on Aging and with PCAST activities on technology and aging (Rubin). Space science (led by Tamara Dickinson, then principal assistant director for Energy and Environment at OSTP). In February 2015, Rubin retired from OSTP and the NSF. Other Activities Rubin was the founder, in 1984, and first president of YMUG (later known as YaleMUG, the Yale Macintosh Users Group) and the publisher of The Desktop Journal. Other co-founders and early members include Tony Cecala, Eric Celeste, Richard Crane, Ward J. McFarland, Jr., David Pogue, Michael D. Rabin, Tom Rielly, Elliot Schlessel, Ed Seidel, and Sharon Steuer. Rubin is the co-founder, with Elliot Saltzman, of the IS Group, an informal, collaborative group founded in the 1980s of scientists and technologists from around the country exploring cutting-edge issues such as dynamical systems, evolution, artificial intelligence, linguistics, robotics, network science, neuroscience, and other topics. Between 1999 and some time in the early 2000s, Rubin was technical advisor at ZeniMax Media Parent company of video game publisher Bethesda Softworks. Philip Rubin is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Challenges for International Scientific Partnerships (CISP) Large-Scale Science Working Group. He is also a member of the American Academy's Commission on Language Learning, created to examine the current state of language education in response to a bipartisan request from members of the United States Senate and House of Representatives. Rubin is a member of the Beyond Conflict Scientific Advisory Committee. This organization assists leaders in divided societies who are struggling with conflict, reconciliation, and societal change. The initiative explores how insights from cognitive science and neuroscience can inform the practice of conflict resolution and diplomacy. In May 2015 Rubin served as a judge for the DARPA Robotics Challenge (DRC) Robots4Us Student Video Contest and was an invited participant in the activities at the DRC Finals in June 2015. On May 26–27, 2016 Rubin was a participant in the first ever White House Foster Care and Technology Hackathon. From 2016 through 2019, Rubin served as Director and Treasurer of iGIANT (impact of Gender/Sex on Innovation and Novel Technologies), founded and led by Dr. Saralyn Mark. In Jan. 2020 Rubin was named as a Board Member Emeritus of iGIANT. In 2017 and 2018, Rubin served as a member of the National Academy of Public Administration's NASA Advisory Council: Organizational Assessment panel. The NASA Authorization Act of 2017 directed the Academy to conduct a review "to assess the effectiveness of the NASA Advisory Council and to make recommendations to Congress." In December, 2017, Governor of Connecticut, Dannel P. Malloy, appointed Philip Rubin to serve as a member of the UConn Board of Trustees, the governing body for the University of Connecticut. In October, 2018, Rubin was elected as a member of the Board of Directors of Haskins Laboratories. In December, 2019, he was appointed by the UConn Board as Vice-Chair, leading their new, legislatively encouraged standing committee on Research, Entrepreneurship and Innovation. In January, 2021, Rubin became Editor of the Haskins Press, Haskins Laboratories, in New Haven, Connecticut. In 2021, Rubin became a member of the Advisory Board for RISE: Reimagining Innovation in STEM Education, the NSF/IBM Education Convergence Accelerator. In 2021, Rubin was named as a member of the International Selection Committee for the Franklin Institute's Bower Award and Prize for Achievement in Science. In November, 2021, he was appointed as a member of UConn's Trustee-Administration-Faculty-Student (TAFS) Committee. In January, 2022, Rubin took over as President of the Federation of Associations in Behavioral and Brain Sciences (FABBS). In April, 2022, he was nominated by Ned Lamont, Governor of Connecticut, for reappointment to the University of Connecticut Board of Trustees and approved by unanimous consent of the CT Senate. In January, 2023, Rubin was named as Chair of the Board of Directors of Haskins Laboratories. Honors and awards 1999 – Elected to Fellow of the Acoustical Society of America 2002 – Elected to Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, for “ … major contributions to the understanding of human speech processing and the technology of speech analysis.” 2003 – Elected to Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science, for “… sustained outstanding achievements in psychological science.” 2003 – Award for “Commendable Performance ... for his superior leadership of all federal government departments and agencies involved in the protection of human subjects,” from the Human Subjects Research Subcommittee, Committee on Science, National Science and Technology Council, Office of Science and Technology Policy, Executive Office of the President of the United States 2006 – Elected to Fellow of the American Psychological Association, “… in recognition of outstanding and unusual contributions to the science and profession of psychology.” 2007 – Elected to member of the Philosophical Society of Washington 2007 – Elected to Fellow of Trumbull College at Yale University 2008 – Elected to member of Sigma Xi 2010 – American Psychological Association's Meritorious Research Service Commendation, “In recognition of your outstanding contributions to psychological science through your service as a leader in research management and policy development at the national level.” 2012 – Elected to Senior Member of the IEEE 2013 – Elected to Fellow of the National Academy of Public Administration 2014 – OSTP Award for Excellence, White House Office of Science and Technology Policy 2015 – Distinguished Service Award, COSSA (Consortium of Social Science Associations), "in recognition of his career of service to the social and behavioral science community." 2015 – Added to the FABBS (Federation of Associations in Behavioral and Brain Sciences) "In Honor Of ..." gallery of scientists, "recognizing eminent, senior scientists who have made important and lasting contributions to the sciences of mind, brain, and behavior." 2015 – Elected to Fellow of the Psychonomic Society 2016 – Granted lifetime membership in Nu Rho Psi, The National Honor Society in Neuroscience, "In recognition of outstanding achievement in the areas of neuroscience scholarship and research …". 2017 – Elected to member of the Connecticut Academy of Science and Engineering (CASE). 2020 – iGIANT Pioneer Award 2020, for "contributions to accelerating the translation of research into gender/sex-specific design elements." 2020 – Elected as the President-Elect of the Federation of Associations in Behavioral and Brain Sciences (FABBS) Personal life Philip Rubin was born on May 22, 1949, in Newark, New Jersey. His maternal grandmother was Fannie Auerbach (née Rothschild) (1891-1976). He spent most of his childhood in Newark and graduated in 1967 from Union High School in Union, New Jersey, where his interest in science, along with classmates such as Marty Kaplan, was nurtured by the inspirational advanced biology teacher Irwin Jaeger. In the 1960s he was a co-founder and guitar player in the seminal New Jersey garage band, The Institution. Rubin is a photographer who, since the 1970s, has concentrated on pictures of wall art, including murals, graffiti, and painted buildings, in the urban centers of the cities that he has visited. Speaking of the transient nature of wall art, he has said, "The artist is often unknown; the passing of time and the public venues invite unanticipated collaboration." His work has been exhibited and sold at numerous venues. He is married to Joette Katz, retired Associate Justice of the Connecticut Supreme Court, and currently a partner at the law firm, Shipman & Goodwin LLP. They have two children, Dr. Jason Wilder Katz Rubin, a pediatrician at Seattle Children's Hospital and Associate Professor at the University of Washington School of Medicine in Seattle, and Samantha Katz, a creative director and curator who is the founder of Created Here. Popular culture influences In March 2010, Audiobulb Records released a CD by artist Autistici, titled Detached Metal Voice - Early Works (Vol. I). This album has been described as a collection of tracks that "explores the raw extrusion of the human condition." There is an homage to voice synthesis that includes excerpts from many of the early laboratory attempts to produce the human voice via articulatory synthesis, including work pioneered by Philip Rubin and colleagues at Haskins Laboratories, based on earlier work at Bell Laboratories. Rorschach Audio - Art and Illusion for Sound discusses "Sine-Wave Speech, The Clangers" and other topics, influenced by the sinewave synthesis work of Rubin and colleagues. The sinewave speech projection "Poulomi's Ode to Young-Hae Chang Heavy Industries" was presented at Rich Mix London on Dec. 3, 2010. Manfred Bartmann, in 2017, made reference to the sine-wave work of Rubin, Remez, and others, and remarked on the similarity of sine-wave speech to the "warbling sounds of R2-D2". Bartmann incorporated sine-wave samples as part of CD Frisia Orientalis II: Making Music of Speech © 2017. On the CD, three tracks make use of sine-wave syntheses: No. 3 April '84 - fieldworking in East Frisia, No. 4 An East Frisian farm-hand song (Deenstenleed) revisited, and No. 5 Rökeldoab Dada, a grooving Low German mouth music. Bartmann says, "R2-D2's iconic sounds were created by sound designer Ben Burtt, and I always had thought that he had used a software developed by Philip Rubin way back then for the purpose of what was to be called sine-wave synthesis (Rubin 1982). However, in an interview ... on YouTube, Burtt pointed out that he just imitated the sounds that an infant would make." In June 2022, an illustration of Rubin by noted cartoonist Drew Friedman appeared in Mineshaft #42. Mineshaft is an independent international art magazine that features the work of Robert Crumb and other alternative artists and writers. The illustration, titled "What kind of man reads Mineshaft?", shows Rubin in 2019 holding the 1957 Les Paul Special that he played in The Institution, the mid-1960s band that he co-founded. Selected publications Fowler, C. A., Rubin, P. E., Remez, R. E., & Turvey, M. T. (1980). Implications for speech production of a general theory of action. In B. Butterworth (Ed.), Language Production, Vol. I: Speech and Talk (pp. 373–420). New York: Academic Press. Rubin, Philip E. (1995). HADES: A Case Study of the Development of a Signal System. In R. Bennett, S. L. Greenspan & A. Syrdal (Eds.), Behavioral Aspects of Speech Technology: Theory and Applications. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 501-520. Rubin, P. & Vatikiotis-Bateson, E. (1998). Measuring and modeling speech production in humans. In S. L. Hopp & C. S. Evans (Eds.), Animal Acoustic Communication: Recent Technical Advances. Springer-Verlag, New York, 251-290. Rubin, P., & Vatikiotis-Bateson, E. (1998). Talking heads. In D. Burnham, J. Robert-Ribes, & E. Vatikiotis-Bateson (Eds.), International Conference on Auditory-Visual Speech Processing - AVSP'98 (pp. 231–235). Terrigal, Australia. Rubin, Philip. (2002). The regulatory environment for science: Protecting participants in research. In Albert H. Teich, Stephen D. Nelson, and Stephen J. Lita (eds.), AAAS Science and Technology Policy Yearbook 2002. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C., 199-206. Sieber, Joan E., Plattner, Stuart, and Rubin, Philip. (2002). How (Not) to Regulate Social and Behavioral Research. Professional Ethics Report, Vol. XV, No. 2, Spr. 2002, 1-4. Rubin, Philip. (2004). NSF reflections. American Psychological Society Observer, Vol. 17, No. 4, April 2004, 20-22. Thomson, Judith Jarvis, Elgin, Catherine, Hyman, David A., Rubin, Philip E. and Knight, Jonathan. (2006). Report: Research on Human Subjects: Academic Freedom and the Institutional Review Board. Academe, Volume 92, Number 5, September–October 2006. Goldstein, L. and Rubin, P. (2007). Speech: Dances of the Vocal Tract. Odyssey Magazine, Jan. 2007, 14-15. Hogden, J., Rubin, P., McDermott, E., Katagiri, S., and Goldstein, L. (2007). Inverting mappings from smooth paths through Rn to paths throughs Rm. A technique applied to recovering articulation from acoustics. Speech Communication, May 2007, Volume 49, Issue 5, 361-383. Rubin, P. (2011). "Cognitive Science." In: William Sims Bainbridge (ed.). Leadership in Science and Technology: A Reference Handbook. SAGE Publications: 2011. Rubin, Philip. (2018). Changes to the human subjects system: a view from someone formerly on the inside. FABBS Blog, February 16, 2018. Rubin, Philip and Munhall, Kevin. (2018). Obituary: Eric Vatikiotis-Bateson (1952-2017). Phonetica, 2018, Vol. 75, 187-189. Rubin, Philip E. (2019). Modernizing the Human Subjects Regulations. The Penn Regulatory Review, May 2, 2019. Rubin, Philip. (2019). In Memoriam: John T. Cacioppo (1951 – 2018). American Psychologist, 2019, Vol. 74, No. 6, 745. Lubell, Michael S. and Rubin, Philip. (2021). Biden's Big Science Challenge: Increasing Public Trust. Scientific American, March 15, 2021. Rubin, Philip. (2021). “Foreword.” In: Carol A. Fowler and Donald Shankweiler (eds.). Language and Life: Haskins Laboratories’ first half century. Haskins Press, New Haven, CT: 2021. Rubin, Philip. (2022). Arthur Abramson. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics, April 20, 2022. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.923 See also List of pioneers in computer science References External links Personal website AI Reading List Articulatory Synthesis Discovery Museum & Planetarium Federation of Associations in Behavioral & Brain Sciences (FABBS) Haskins Laboratories National Academies Board on Behavioral, Cognitive, and Sensory Sciences National Science Foundation NSF Reflections. APS Observer, V. 17, #4 Obama's BRAIN (video), PSW, Nov. 24, 2015 SineWave Synthesis University of Connecticut Wall Art White House Office of Science and Technology Policy Yale School of Medicine Yale University 1949 births 21st-century American scientists American computer programmers American computer scientists Brandeis University alumni American cognitive scientists Fellows of the Acoustical Society of America Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science Fellows of the American Psychological Association Fellows of the Linguistic Society of America Haskins Laboratories scientists Human–computer interaction researchers Linguists from the United States Living people Office of Science and Technology Policy officials People from Fairfield, Connecticut People from Union Township, Union County, New Jersey Programming language designers Speech perception researchers Union High School (New Jersey) alumni University of Connecticut alumni Writers from Newark, New Jersey Yale University faculty

This is a list of notable alumni, faculty, and students of Southern Methodist University. Those individuals who qualify for multiple categories have been placed under the section for which they are best known. Notable alumni and attendees Politics and government Foreign government Fadel Mohammed Ali (M.S. 1978) – Jordanian former director of the Royal Maintenance Corps of the Jordanian Armed Forces Ahmed Mohamed Zakaria (B.S. 2003) – Former Treasurer of the Government of Dubai - Department of Finance. Fahad Almubarak (B.S.) – Governor Central Bank of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Catherine Bamugemereire (LL.M. 2003) – justice of the Constitutional Court and Court of Appeal of Uganda, the second-highest judicial organ in Uganda Gela Bezhuashvili (LL.M. 1997) – Georgian former head of the Georgian Intelligence Service, Minister of Defense, Minister of Foreign Affairs Charles Brumskine (LL.M. 1982) – Liberian leader of the Liberty Party, former President pro tempore of the Liberian Senate Hideo Chikusa (M.C.L. '62) – justice of the Supreme Court of Japan Haechang Chung (M.C.L. '68) – former minister of justice and former chief of staff to the president of Korea Mirsad Hadžikadić (PhD 1987) – professor and director of the Institute of Complex Systems at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte and candidate for presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 2018 election Yukio Horigome – justice, Supreme Court of Japan Joseph Fitzgerald Kamara (LL.M. 2000) – Attorney General and Minister of Justice, Sierra Leone Susan Kihika - Senator for Nakuru County, Republic of Kenya S. M. Krishna (LL.M. 1959) – Indian former Minister of External Affairs, Governor of Maharashtra, Chief Minister of Karnataka Bagir Manan – Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Indonesia Shigeharu Negishi (M.C.L. '60) – justice, Supreme Court of Japan Reynato Puno (LL.M. 1967) – 22nd Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines (2007–2010), 131st Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines (1993–2007) Manouchehr Talieh – justice Supreme Court of Iran Gillian Triggs (LL.M. '72) – president of the Australian Human Rights Commission U.S. government U.S. Cabinet/White House Laura Bush (B.S. 1968) – First Lady of the United States (2001–2009), First Lady of Texas (1995–2000) Bill Clements (attended) – U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense (1973–1977) Hope Hicks (B.A. 2010) – former White House Communications Director, former press secretary for Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign and presidential transition team Karen Hughes (B.A. 1977) – former Under Secretary for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs, Counselor to the President, White House Communications Director Jo Jorgensen (MBA 1980) - Libertarian Party's nominee in the 2020 election, First woman to become the Libertarian nominee and the only female 2020 presidential candidate with ballot access to over 270 electoral votes. John Lee Ratcliffe (J.D. 1989) - former Director of National Intelligence, former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas representing the 4th district. Chad Wolf (B.A. 1998) – Acting Secretary United States Department of Homeland Security and Under Secretary of Homeland Security for Strategy, Policy, and Plans, previously, Chief of Staff of the United States Department of Homeland Security and Chief of Staff of the Transportation Security Administration U.S. Senate Bob Krueger (B.A. 1957) – former U.S. Senator and member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas, U.S. Ambassador to Botswana, U.S. Ambassador to Burundi Rick Scott (J.D. 1978) – U.S. Senator from Florida John Tower (M.A. 1951) – former U.S. Senator from Texas U.S. House of Representatives John Wiley Bryant (B.A. 1969, J.D. 1972) – former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas Jim Chapman (J.D. 1970) – former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas James M. Collins (B.S. 1937) – former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas John Culberson (B.A. 1981) – former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas Bob Franks (J.D. 1976) – former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New Jersey, chairman of the New Jersey Republican State Committee Ralph Hall (LL.B. 1951) – former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas Eddie Bernice Johnson (M.P.A. 1976) – current member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas Sam Johnson (B.B.A. 1951) – former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas Bob Krueger (B.A. 1957) – former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas, U.S. Ambassador to Botswana, U.S. Ambassador to Burundi Dennis Moore (attended) – former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Kansas John Lee Ratcliffe (J.D. 1989) - former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas representing the 4th district, 2015 - 2020. Lamar Smith (J.D. 1975) – former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas U.S. ambassadors and diplomats Rena Bitter (J.D. 1991) – former U.S. Ambassador to Laos, Nominee for Assistant Secretary of State for Consular Affairs Teel Bivins (J.D. 1976) – former U.S. Ambassador to Sweden, member of the Texas Senate Tony Garza (J.D. 1983) – former U.S. Ambassador to Mexico, Texas Railroad Commissioner, 98th Secretary of State of Texas Roy M. Huffington (B.S. 1938) – former U.S. Ambassador to Austria Bob Krueger (B.A. 1957) – former U.S. Ambassador to Botswana, U.S. Ambassador to Burundi George C. McGhee (attended) – former U.S. Ambassador to Turkey, U.S. Ambassador to West Germany, Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs Jeanne L. Phillips (B.A. 1976) – former U.S. Ambassador to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Elizabeth Holzhall Richard (B.A. 1981, J.D. 1984) – current U.S. Ambassador to Lebanon Roy R. Rubottom Jr. (B.A. 1933) – former U.S. Ambassador to Argentina, Assistant secretary for Inter-American Affairs State governors Bill Clements (attended) – 42nd and 44th governor of Texas (1979–1983; 1987–1991), U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense (1973–1977) Rick Scott (J.D. 1978) – 45th governor of Florida (2011–2019) State legislators Rafael Anchia (B.A. 1990) – current member of the Texas House of Representatives Leo Berman (B.A. 1969) – former member of the Texas House of Representatives, member of the city council of Arlington, Texas Dan Branch (J.D.) – former member of the Texas House of Representatives Raleigh Brown – member of the Texas House of Representatives; Texas State District Court judge in Abilene Jim R. Caldwell (M.S.) – former member of the Arkansas Senate, chairman of the Arkansas Republican Party Mickey Dollens (B.A. 2011) – current member of the Oklahoma House of Representatives Charlie Geren (B.B.A. 1971) – member of the Texas House of Representatives from his native Fort Worth Ike Harris (J.D. 1960) – member of the Texas Senate (1967–1995), President pro tempore of the Texas Senate (1973) Todd Ames Hunter (Law '78) – member of the Texas House of Representatives from Corpus Christi (Democrat, 1989–1997; Republican, since 2009) Ray Hutchison (B.A. '57, J.D. '59) – former state representative and partner in Vinson and Elkins in Dallas; husband of U.S. Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison Jim Keet (B.B.A. 1971) – 2010 Republican nominee for Governor of Arkansas, member of the Arkansas Senate (1993–1997), member of the Arkansas House of Representatives (1989–1991) Bill Keffer (B.A. 1981) – member of the Texas House of Representatives (2003–2007) Sharon Keller – Presiding Judge of the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals Bob McFarland (J.D. 1966) – member of the Texas Senate (1983–1991), President pro tempore of the Texas Senate (1989) Morgan Meyer – Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives from District 108 in Dallas County, including University Park Barrow Peacock – Republican member of the Louisiana State Senate from Shreveport E. J. Pipkin (M.S. 2014) – Republican member of the Maryland Senate (2003–2013) Ana-Maria Ramos (J.D.) - current member of the Texas House of Representatives Matt Shaheen – Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives from Plano, effective 2015; former Collin County commissioner; received master's degree from SMU Kenneth Sheets (J.D. 2004) – Dallas attorney and Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives from District 107 in Dallas County since 2011 Virginia Shehee – member of the Louisiana State Senate from Shreveport, 1976 to 1980; businesswoman and philanthropist; studied social work at SMU Burt Solomons – Republican former member of the Texas House of Representatives from Denton County; received a Master of Public Administration degree from SMU in the early 1970s Other state and local government Dewey F. Bartlett Jr. (M.B.A. 1971) – 39th mayor of Tulsa, Oklahoma (2009–2016), son of former U.S. Senator Dewey F. Bartlett Bryan Bush – district attorney of East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana (1985–1990) K. Dennise Garcia (B. A., B.S., J.D.) State District Judge (2004-2020); Justice, 5th District Court of Appeals (2021–present) https://ballotpedia.org/Dennise_Garcia Eric V. Moyé (B.A.) State District Judge (1992–95; 2008–present) Barbara Staff (B.A.) – Texas Republican Party activist, Texas co-chairman of Ronald Reagan's 1976 presidential primary campaign Martha Whitehead (B.A. 1962) – last Texas State Treasurer (1993–1996) Phil Wilson (M.B.A.) – 106th Texas Secretary of State (2007–2008) Military Fred E. Ellis – Air National Guard major general Fred E. Haynes Jr. – World War II Marine Officer and later Major General; brother of actor Jerry Haynes General Craig R. McKinley (B.B.A. 1974) – 26th Chief of the National Guard Bureau (2008–2012) Jack Miller – World War II Marine Officer; namesake of the USS Jack Miller Huan Nguyen – first Vietnamese-American Navy rear admiral Harry M. Wyatt III (B. A. in Business Administration, 1974) – attorney, retired lieutenant general of the U.S. Air Force, former Adjutant General of Oklahoma, former Secretary of Military Affairs for State of Oklahoma; J. D. from University of Tulsa School of Law (1980) Business Gerald Alley – founder, president and CEO, Con-Real Thaddeus Arroyo – CEO, AT&T Business Solutions and International Gabriel Barbier-Mueller – founder and CEO, Harwood International Harry W. Bass, Jr. – owner, Vail Resorts April Beasley – CEO of RCKT, Global Marketing Strategist for tech startups Mark Blinn – former president and chief executive officer, Flowserve Corporartion Henry L. Brandon – chairman of the board, Unocal Corporation John J Christmann IV – chairman and CEO, Apache Corporation Richard L. Clemmer (MBA) – CEO of NXP Semiconductors Lodwrick Cook – chairman and CEO, Atlantic Richfield Company (ARCO) Trammell Crow – Founder, Trammell Crow Company Álex Cruz – former CEO, British Airways C. David Cush – former CEO, Virgin America Aaron Davidson – chairman of the North American Soccer League and president of Traffic Sports USA Aart J. de Geus – co-founder, chairman and CEO of Synopsys Robert H. Dedman, Sr. – founder and CEO, ClubCorp Robert H. Dedman, Jr. – former CEO, ClubCorp David B. Dillon – president and chairman of the Kroger Co. Bob Dudley – CEO, BP Thomas Dundon (B.S. 1993) – chairman and managing partner of Dundon Capital Partners in Dallas, Texas, owner of the Carolina Hurricanes of the National Hockey League and one-quarter of TopGolf Sten Ekberg (BBA) - Doctor of Chiropractic, Olympic athlete. J. Lindsay Embrey – chairman and CEO of First Continental Enterprises Inc. and Embrey Enterprises Inc. Martin L. Flanagan – president and CEO, Invesco Gerald J. Ford (B.A. 1966, J.D. 1969) – Dallas-based billionaire Jerry Fullinwider – founder of V–F Petroleum Deborah Gibbins – chief operating officer, Mary Kay, Inc. Rob C. Holmes – CEO, President and a member of the Board of Directors, Texas Capital Bank Donald Holmquest – CEO, California RHIO Thomas W. Horton – CEO, American Airlines Clark Hunt (B.B.A. 1987) – current part owner, chairman, and CEO of the Kansas City Chiefs (NFL), founding investor-owner in Major League Soccer Helen LaKelly Hunt – founder of The Sister Fund Hunter L. Hunt (B.A. 1990) – current chairman and CEO of Hunt Consolidated Energy Lamar Hunt (B.S. 1956) – principal founder of the American Football League (AFL), Major League Soccer (MLS), and Kansas City Chiefs, owner of the Kansas City Wizards, Columbus Crew, and FC Dallas Ray Lee Hunt – chairman and CEO, Hunt Oil Company Jim Irsay (B.A. 1982) – current owner and CEO of the Indianapolis Colts of the National Football League Keith D. Jackson – president, CEO and Director of ON Semiconductor and 2020 Chair of the Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA) Board of Directors Jerry Junkins – president, chairman, and CEO of Texas Instruments (1988–1996) Paul B. Loyd, Jr. – former chairman and CEO of the R&B Falcon Corporation, the world's largest offshore drilling company (1997–2001); sits on the SMU Board of Trustees Harold MacDowell – CEO, TDIndustries Ruth Ann Marshall - one of the 100 most influential women 2005 - Forbes, former president of the Americas at MasterCard John H. Matthews Beth E. Mooney – CEO of Key Bank Kenneth R. Morris – co-founder, PeopleSoft Robert Mosbacher, Jr. – Houston businessman; president of Mosbacher Energy Company, Overseas Private Investment Corporation Erle A. Nye – chairman and CEO, TXU William J. O'Neil – founder of the business newspaper Investor's Business Daily Jamie Patel – Senior Vice-president and Chief Technology Officer, American Century Investments Marc Patrick (B.A. 1993) – Senior director for global brand communications, Nike, Inc. Martin W. "Bud" Pernoll – founder and CEO, Bay Mutual Financial Eckhard Pfeiffer (MBA) – chairman and CEO, Compaq Melissa Reiff – CEO, The Container Store Robert Rowling – U.S. billionaire No. 45 on Forbes 400 Edward B. Rust, Jr. (MBA) – chairman and CEO, State Farm Insurance John Santa María Otazua – CEO, Coca-Cola FEMSA George Edward Seay III – businessman; co-founder and CEO of Annandale Capital; philanthropist; conservative political activist Mark Shepherd – chairman and CEO, Texas Instruments Jeffrey Skilling – chairman and CEO of Enron Jeff Storey, president and chief executive officer of Level 3 Communications Emily Summers – interior designer John H. Tyson – chairman of Tyson Foods Ray Washburne – real estate investor Whitney Wolfe Herd – founder and CEO, Bumble; co-founder of Tinder Donald Zale – chairman, Capitol Entertainment Group and son of Morris (M. B.) Zale, the co-founder of Zale Corporation Law James A. Baker (B.B.A. 1953, LL.B. 1958) – justice of the Supreme Court of Texas (1995–2002) Jeff Cox (Legal Law Masters in Taxation) – judge since 2005 of the Louisiana 26th Judicial District Court of Bossier and Webster parishes Craig T. Enoch – justice, Texas Supreme Court Mondonna ("Mondi") Ghasedi (BA 1996) - Judge, State of Missouri (21st Circuit - St. Louis County) David C. Godbey – federal judge Deborah Hankinson – former justice of Texas Supreme Court Nathan Hecht – chief justice, Texas Supreme Court Stephen N. Limbaugh, Jr. – justice, Supreme Court of Missouri Barbara M.G. Lynn – judge, United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas Robert B. Maloney – federal judge Lawrence E. Meyers – judge of the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals since 1993; resides in Fort Worth Harriet Miers – George W. Bush administration nominee to the United States Supreme Court James Latane Noel, Jr. – Attorney General of Texas Michael Pryles (LL.M '68, S.J.D '70) former Commissioner, Australian Law Reform Commission; former Commissioner, United Nations Compensation Commission (Geneva); chairman, Singapore International Arbitration Centre (2009–2012) William Steger – judge, United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas Scientists Michael Bunnell - Winner of 2010 Scientific and Engineering Academy Award for making computer-generated characters look more real Donald D. Clayton – astrophysicist James Cronin – Nobel Prize-winning physicist Robert Dennard – computing pioneer Donald Holmquest – NASA astronaut, physician Jack N. James – engineer and manager at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory; project manager for the Mariner program Kent Norman – cognitive psychologist and expert on computer rage Andrés Ruzo – geothermal scientist and a National Geographic Young Explorer Clyde Snow – forensic anthropologist Robert Taylor – computing pioneer Mary E. Weber – NASA astronaut Donald J. Wheeler – expert on statistical process control and data analysis Cindy Ann Yeilding - American geologist and former Vice-president of British Petroleum, BP Academia Betsy Boze (née Betsy Vogel) – President, The College of The Bahamas Larry Faulkner – President, University of Texas at Austin (1998–2006) Utpal K. Goswami - President Santa Barbara City College (SBCC) Lee F. Jackson – former Chancellor of the University of North Texas System (2002–2017) and the State of Texas' longest-serving chancellor at the time when he announced his retirement in March 2017. 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Buynak – developed compounds to help fight antibiotic-resistant bacteria Frederick R. Chang – former director of research at the National Security Agency Bill Dillon – associate dean, Cox School of Business Delores M. Etter – Fellow, National Academy of Engineering; former Assistant Secretary of the Navy for research, development, and acquisition Rick Halperin – chair, Amnesty International USA Eugene Herrin – co-developed a seismic system that detects underground nuclear detonations worldwide Choon Sae Lee – developed a new form of antenna Larry Shampine – his work was recognized by New Media Magazine as "one of the nine best digital projects on the planet" Brian Stump – co-developed a seismic system that detects underground nuclear detonations worldwide Bonnie Wheeler – founding editor of Arthuriana, journal of the International Arthurian Society/North American Branch; appointed by the Medieval Academy of America to found the Committee on Teaching Medieval Studies; historical and literary consultant for A&E, the History Channel, and the BBC Former faculty Jeremy duQuesnay Adams – medieval historian and translator; author of Patterns of Medieval Society and The Populus of Augustine and Jerome Robert Theodore Anderson – organist, composer, and pedagogue Lev Aronson – cellist, Holocaust survivor Lewis Binford – Archaeologist and Fellow, National Academy of Sciences José Antonio Bowen – former dean of the SMU Meadows School of the Arts, President of Goucher College, and jazz musician David J. Chard – Founding Dean of the SMU Simmons School of Education and Human Development, President of Wheelock College, Dean ad interim of the Boston University Wheelock College of Education & Human Development Alessandra Comini – National Book Award finalist for Egon Schiele's Portraits; recipient of the Grand Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria; curated exposition of Schiele's portraits for the Neue Galerie New York Jesse Lee Cuninggim – Methodist clergyman; served as head of the Department of Religious Education at SMU; received honorary degree from SMU Steven C. Currall – former provost of SMU, president of University of South Florida Hesham El-Rewini – former chair of the Computer Science and Engineering Department, within the Lyle School of Engineering, dean, University of North Dakota College of Engineering and Mines Craig Flournoy – Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Elaine Heath – former McCreless Professor of Evangelism in the SMU Perkins School of Theology, former dean of the Duke Divinity School William Andrew Irwin – scholar of the Old Testament Michael K. McLendon – former Harold and Annette Simmons Centennial Chair in Higher Education Policy and Leadership at the SMU Simmons School of Education and Human Development, former provost ad interim, Baylor University, former dean of the Baylor School of Education Geoffrey Orsak – former dean of the SMU Lyle School of Engineering, former president of the University of Tulsa Laurence Perrine – author of Sound and Sense Ellen S. Pryor – former associate provost and the Homer R. Mitchell Endowed Professor of Law at the SMU Dedman College, founding associate dean for academic affairs at the University of North Texas at Dallas College of Law György Sándor – pianist and writer Willard Spiegelman – longtime editor of The Southwest Review; arts and books writer since 1987 for The Wall Street Journal; recipient of fellowships from the National Endowment for the Humanities, Guggenheim, and Rockefeller Foundations, author of numerous books of literary criticism and personal essays Laura J. Steinberg – former chair of the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, within the Lyle School of Engineering, special assistant for strategy to vice chancellor for strategic initiatives and innovation, former dean of the Syracuse University College of Engineering and Computer Science Jeffrey W. Talley – former professor and chair of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, the Bobby B. Lyle Professor of Leadership and Global Entrepreneurship and the Founding Director of the Hunter and Stephanie Hunt Institute for Engineering and Humanity, Retired United States Army General and a Global Fellow for the IBM Center for the Business of Government, former president and CEO of Environmental Technology Solutions (ETS Partners), in Phoenix, Arizona William Tsutsui – former dean of the SMU Dedman College, president of Hendrix College Paul van Katwijk - former dean of the SMU School of Music P. Gregory Warden – former university distinguished professor emeritus of art history and associate dean for research and academic affairs at the SMU Meadows School of the Arts, president of Franklin College Switzerland David J. Weber – Fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences Fred Wendorf – archaeologist and Fellow, National Academy of Sciences Lori S. White – former SMU vice president for student affairs, vice chancellor for students at Washington University in St. Louis Chairpersons of the board of trustees The board of governors served as an executive committee of the 75-member board of trustees. Because of the group's size, most of the real governing was done by the 21-member board of governors. In the aftermath of the 1987 Football 'Death penalty' against SMU, the board of governors was eliminated and replaced with a smaller and more efficient board of trustees. The changes were also designed to increase the independence and authority of the university president. The new structure called for a board of trustees of 40 members and meeting four times a year instead of twice. Chairpersons of the board of trustees Chairpersons of the board of governors Honorary degree recipients George H. W. Bush (Doctor of Humane Letters, 1992) – 41st president of the United States Gerald R. Ford (Doctor of Laws, 1975) – 38th president of the United States Juan Carlos I (Doctor of Arts, 2001) – King of Spain Jack Kilby (Doctor of Science) – Nobel Prize winner; inventor of the integrated circuit Bob Hope (Doctor of Humane Letters, 1967) – actor H. Ross Perot (Doctor of Humane Letters, 1991) – billionaire and former presidential candidate William McFerrin Stowe (Doctor of Laws, 1965) – bishop of the Methodist Church Other SMU affiliates (non-alumni) U.S. Vice-president Dick Cheney was a diplomat-in-residence at SMU's John Goodwin Tower Center for Political Studies in March 1996. Later that year, Cheney was named to the SMU Board of Trustees, resigning in August 2000 when he became the Republican candidate for U.S. vice president. General Colin Powell in 1997 received the first Medal of Freedom Award given by SMU's John Goodwin Tower Center for Political Studies at Dedman College of Humanities and Sciences. Former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Margaret Thatcher in 1999 received the second Medal of Freedom Award, presented to her by Colin Powell, the recipient of the first medal. Senator and candidate for the Republican nomination for US President John McCain received the Tower Center's Medal of Freedom Award in 2005. Former British prime minister Tony Blair received the Medal of Freedom Award in 2008. SMU presidents References Southern Methodist University Southern Methodist University people

Sound amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (SASER) refers to a device that emits acoustic radiation. It focuses sound waves in a way that they can serve as accurate and high-speed carriers of information in many kinds of applications—similar to uses of laser light. Acoustic radiation (sound waves) can be emitted by using the process of sound amplification based on stimulated emission of phonons. Sound (or lattice vibration) can be described by a phonon just as light can be considered as photons, and therefore one can state that SASER is the acoustic analogue of the laser. In a SASER device, a source (e.g., an electric field as a pump) produces sound waves (lattice vibrations, phonons) that travel through an active medium. In this active medium, a stimulated emission of phonons leads to amplification of the sound waves, resulting in a sound beam coming out of the device. The sound wave beams emitted from such devices are highly coherent. The first successful SASERs were developed in 2009. Terminology Instead of a feedback-built wave of electromagnetic radiation (i.e., a laser beam), a SASER delivers a sound wave. SASER may also be referred to as phonon laser, acoustic laser or sound laser. Uses and applications SASERs could have wide applications. Apart from facilitating the investigation of terahertz-frequency ultrasound, the SASER is also likely to find uses in optoelectronics (electronic devices that detect and control light—as a method of transmitting a signal from an end to the other of, for instance, fiber optics), as a method of signal modulation and/or transmission. Such devices could be high precision measurement instruments and they could lead to high energy focused sound. Using SASERs to manipulate electrons inside semiconductors could theoretically result in terahertz-frequency computer processors, much faster than the current chips. History This concept can be more conceivable by imagining it in analogy to laser theory. Theodore Maiman operated the first functioning LASER on May 16, 1960 at Hughes Research Laboratories, Malibu, California, A device that operates according to the central idea of the "sound amplification by stimulated emission of radiation" theory is the thermoacoustic laser. This is a half-open pipe with a heat differential across a special porous material inserted in the pipe. Much like a light laser, a thermoacoustic SASER has a high-Q cavity and uses a gain medium to amplify coherent waves. For further explanation see thermoacoustic heat engine. The possibility of phonon laser action had been proposed in a wide range of physical systems such as nanomechanics, semiconductors, nanomagnets and paramagnetic ions in a lattice. Finding materials that stimulate emission was needed for the development of the SASER. The generation of coherent phonons in a double-barrier semiconductor heterostructure was first proposed around 1990. The transformation of the electric potential energy in a vibrational mode of the lattice is remarkably facilitated by the electronic confinement in a double-barrier structure. On this basis, physicists were searching for materials in which stimulated emission rather than spontaneous emission, is the dominant decay process. A device was first experimentally demonstrated in the Gigahertz range in 2009. Announced in 2010, two independent groups came up with two different devices that produce coherent phonons at any frequency in the range megahertz to terahertz. One group from the University of Nottingham consisted of A.J. Kent and his colleagues R.P. Beardsley, A.V. Akimov, W. Maryam and M. Henini. The other group from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) consisted of Ivan S. Grudinin, Hansuek Lee, O. Painter and Kerry J. Vahala from Caltech implemented a study on Phonon Laser Action in a tunable two-level system. The University of Nottingham device operates at about 440 GHz, while the Caltech device operates in the megahertz range. According to a member of the Nottingham group, the two approaches are complementary and it should be possible to use one device or the other to create coherent phonons at any frequency in the megahertz to terahertz range. A significant result rises from the operating frequency of these devices. The differences between the two devices suggest that SASERs could be made to operate over a wide range of frequencies. Work on the SASER continues at the University of Nottingham, the Lashkarev Institute of Semiconductor Physics at the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, and Caltech. In 2023 researchers using a Paul trap coaxed two ions into forming a phonon laser containing fewer than 10 phonons, placing it firmly in the quantum regime, whereas previous phonon lasers had at least 10,000 phonons. Design SASER's central idea is based on sound waves. The set-up needed for the implement of sound amplification by stimulated emission of radiation is similar to an oscillator. An oscillator can produce oscillations without any external feed-mechanism. An example is a common sound amplification system with a microphone, amplifier and speaker. When the microphone is in front of the speaker, we hear an annoying whistle. This whistle is generated without extra contribution from the sound source, and is self-reinforced and self-sufficient while the microphone is somewhere in front of the speaker. This phenomenon, known as the Larsen effect, is the result of a positive feedback. In general, every oscillator consists of three main parts. These are the power source or pump, the amplifier and the positive feedback leading to the output. The corresponding parts in a SASER device are the excitation or pumping mechanism, the active (amplifying) medium, and the feedback leading to acoustic radiation. Pumping can be performed, for instance, with an alternating electric field or with some mechanical vibrations of resonators. The active medium should be a material in which sound amplification can be induced. An example of a feedback mechanism into the active medium is the existence of superlattice layers that reflect the phonons back and force them to bounce repeatedly to amplify sound. Therefore, to proceed to an understanding of a SASER design we need to imagine it in analogy with a laser device. In a laser, the active medium is placed between two mirror surfaces (reflectors)of a Fabry–Pérot interferometer. A spontaneously emitted photon inside this interferometer can force excited atoms to decay a photon of same frequency, same momentum, same polarization and same phase. Because the momentum (as a vector) of the photon is nearly parallel to the axes of the mirrors, it is possible for photons to repeat multiple reflections and force more and more photons to follow them producing an avalanche effect. The number of photons of this coherent laser beam increases and competes the number of photons perished due to losses. The basic necessary condition for the generation of a laser radiation is the population inversion, which can be achieved either by exciting atoms and inducing percussion or by external radiation absorption. A SASER device mimics this procedure using a source-pump to induce a sound beam of phonons. This sound beam propagates not in an optical cavity, but in a different active medium. An example of an active medium is the superlattice. A superlattice can consist of multiple ultra-thin lattices of two different semiconductors. These two semiconductor materials have different band gaps, and form quantum wells—which are potential wells that confine particles to move in two dimensions instead of three, forcing them to occupy a planar region. In the superlattice, a new set of selection rules is composed that affects the flow-conditions of charges through the structure. When this set-up is excited by a source, the phonons start to multiply while they reflect on the lattice levels, until they escape from the lattice structure in a form of an ultrahigh frequency phonon beam. Namely, a concerted emission of phonons can lead to coherent sound and an example of concerted phonon emission is the emission coming from quantum wells. This stands in similar paths with the laser where a coherent light can build up by the concerted stimulated emission of light from a lot of atoms. A SASER device transforms the electric potential energy in a single vibrational mode of the lattice (phonon). The medium where the amplification takes place consists of stacks of thin layers of semiconductors that together form quantum wells. In these wells, electrons can be excited by parcels of ultrasound of millielectronvolts of energy. This amount of energy is equivalent to a frequency of 0.1 to 1 THz. Physics Just as light is a wave motion that is considered as composed of particles called photons, we can think of the normal modes of vibration in a solid as being particle-like. The quantum of lattice vibration is called phonon. In lattice dynamics we want to find the normal modes of vibration of a crystal. In other words, we need to calculate the energies (or frequencies ) of the phonons as a function of their wave vector's k . The relationship between frequency ω and wave vector k is called phonon dispersion. Light and sound are similar in various ways. They both can be thought of in terms of waves, and they both come in quantum mechanical units. In the case of light we have photons while in sound we have phonons. Both sound and light can be produced as random collections of quanta (e.g. light emitted by a light bulb) or orderly waves that travel in a coordinated form (e.g. laser light). This parallelism implies that lasers should be as feasible with sound as they are with light. In the 21st century, it is easy to produce low frequency sound in the range that humans can hear (~20 kHz), in either a random or orderly form. However, at the terahertz frequencies in the regime of phonon laser applications, more difficulties arise. The problem stems from the fact that sound travels much slower than light. This means that the wavelength of sound is much shorter than light at a given frequency. Instead of resulting in orderly, coherent phonons, laser structures that can produce terahertz sound tend to emit phonons randomly. Researchers have overcome the problem of terahertz frequencies by following various approaches. Scientists in Caltech have overcome this problem by assembling a pair of microscopic cavities that only permit specific frequencies of phonons to be emitted. This system can be also tuned to emit phonons of different frequencies by changing the relative separation of the microcavities. On the other hand, the group from the University of Nottingham took a different approach. They have built their device out of electrons moving through a series of structures known as quantum wells. Briefly, as an electron hops from one quantum well to another neighbouring well it produces a phonon. External energy pumping (e.g. a light beam or voltage) can help to the excitation of an electron. Relaxation of an electron from one of the upper states may occur by emission of either a photon or a phonon. This is determined by the density of states of phonons and photons. Density of states is the number of states per volume unit in an interval of energy (E, E + dE) that are available to be occupied by electrons. Both phonons and photons are bosons and thus, they obey Bose–Einstein statistics. This means that, since bosons with the same energy can occupy the same place in space, phonons and photons are force carrier particles and they have integer spins. There are more allowed states available for occupancy in a phonon field than in a photon field. Therefore, since the density of terminal states in the phonon field exceeds that in a photon field (by up to ~105), phonon emission is by far the more likely event. We could also imagine a concept where the excitation of an electron briefly leads to vibration of the lattice and thus to phonon generation. The vibration energy of the lattice can take discrete values for every excitation. Every one of this "excitation packages" is called phonon. An electron does not stay in an excited state for too long. It readily releases energy to return to its stable low energy state. The electrons release energy in any random direction and at any time (after their excitation). At some particular times, some electrons get excited while others lose energy in a way that the average energy of system is the lowest possible. By pumping energy into the system we can achieve a population inversion. This means that there are more excited electrons than electrons in the lowest energy state in the system. As electron releases energy (e.g. phonon) it interacts with another excited electron to release its energy too. Therefore, we have a stimulated emission, which means a lot of energy (e.g., acoustic radiation, phonons) is released at the same time. One can mention that the stimulated emission is a procedure where we have a spontaneous and an induced emission at the same time. The induced emission comes from the pumping procedure and then is added to the spontaneous emission. A SASER device should consist of a pumping mechanism and an active medium. The pumping procedure can be induced for example by an alternating electric field or with some mechanical vibrations of resonators, followed by acoustic amplification in the active medium. The fact that a SASER operates on principles remarkably similar to a laser, can lead to an easier way of understanding the relevant operation circumstances. Instead of a feedback-built potent wave of electromagnetic radiation, a SASER delivers a potent sound wave. Some methods for sound amplification of GHz–THz have been proposed so far. Some have been explored only theoretically and others have been explored in non-coherent experiments. We note that acoustic waves of 100 GHz to 1 THz have wavelengths in nanometre range. Sound amplification according to the experiment taken in the University of Nottingham could be based on an induced cascade of electrons in semiconductor superlattices. The energy levels of electrons are confined in the superlattice layers. As the electrons hop between gallium arsenide quantum wells in the superlattice they emit phonons. Then, one phonon going in, produces two phonons coming out of the superlattice. This process can be stimulated by other phonons and then give rise to an acoustic amplification. Upon the addition of electrons, short-wavelength (in the terahertz range) phonons are produced. Since the electrons are confined to the quantum wells existing within the lattice, the transmission of their energy depends upon the phonons they generate. As these phonons strike other layers in the lattice, they excite electrons, which produce further phonons, which go on to excite more electrons, and so on. Eventually, a very narrow beam of high-frequency ultrasound exits the device. Semiconductor superlattices are used as acoustic mirrors. These superlattice structures must be in the right size obeying the theory of multilayer distributed Bragg reflector, in similarity with multilayer dielectric mirrors in optics. Proposed schemes and devices Basic understanding of the SASER development requires the evaluation of some proposed examples of SASER devices and SASER theoretical schemes. Liquid with gas bubbles as the active medium In this proposed theoretical scheme, the active medium is a liquid dielectric (e.g. ordinary distilled water) in which dispersed particles are uniformly distributed. Means of electrolysis cause gas bubbles that serve as the dispersed particles. A pumped wave excited in the active medium produces a periodic variation of the volumes of the dispersed particles (gas bubbles). Since, the initial spatial distribution of the particles is uniform, the waves emitted by the particles are added with different phases and give zero on the average. Nevertheless, if the active medium is located in a resonator, then a standing mode can be excited in it. Particles then bunch under the action of the acoustic radiation forces. In this case, the oscillations of the bubbles are self-synchronized and the useful mode amplifies. The similarity of this with the free-electron laser is useful to understand the theoretical concepts of the scheme. In a FEL, electrons move through magnetic periodic systems producing electromagnetic radiation. The radiation of the electrons is initially incoherent but then on account of the interaction with the useful electromagnetic wave they start to bunch according to phase and they become coherent. Thus, the electromagnetic field is amplified. We note that, in the case of the piezoelectric radiators usually used to generate ultrasound, only the working surface radiates and therefore the working system is two-dimensional. On the other hand, a sound amplification by stimulated emission of radiation device is a three-dimensional system, since the entire volume of the active medium radiates. The active medium gas–liquid mixture fills the resonator. The bubble density in the liquid is initially distributed uniformly in space. Since the wave propagates in such a medium, the pump wave leads to the appearance of an additional quasi-periodic wave. This wave is coupled with the spatial variation of the bubble density under the action of radiation pressure forces. Hence, the wave amplitude and the bubble density vary slowly compared with the period of the oscillations. In the theoretical scheme where the usage of resonators is essential, the SASER radiation passes through the resonator walls, which are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the pump wave. According to an example of an electrically pumped SASER, the active medium is confined between two planes, which are defined by the solid walls of the resonator. The radiation then, propagates along an axis parallel to the plane defined by the two resonator walls. The static electric field acting on the liquid with gas bubbles results in the deformation of dielectrics and therefore leads to a change in the volumes of the particles. We note that, the electromagnetic waves in the medium propagate with a velocity much greater than the velocity of sound in the same medium. This results to the assumption that the effective pump wave acting on the bubbles does not depend on the spatial coordinates. The pressure of a wave pump in the system leads to both the appearance of a backward wave and a dynamical instability of the system. Mathematical analyses have shown that two types of losses must be overcome for generation of oscillations to start. Losses of the first type are associated with the dispersion of energy inside the active medium and second type losses are due to radiation losses at the ends of the resonator. These types of losses are inversely proportional to the amount of energy stored in the resonator. In general, the disparity of the radiators does not play a role in any attempt of a mathematical calculation of the starting conditions. Bubbles with resonance frequencies close to the pump frequency make the main contribution to the gain of the useful mode. In contrast, the determination of the starting pressure in ordinary lasers is independent from the number of radiators. The useful mode grows with the number of particles but sound absorption increases at the same time. Both these factors neutralize each other. Bubbles play the main role in the energy dispersion in a SASER. A relevant suggested scheme of sound amplification by stimulated emission of radiation using gas bubbles as the active medium was introduced around 1995 The pumping is created by mechanical oscillations of a cylindrical resonator and the phase bunching of bubbles is realized by acoustic radiation forces. A notable fact is that gas bubbles can only oscillate under an external action, but not spontaneously. According to other proposed schemes, the electrostriction oscillations of the dispersed particle volumes in the cylindrical resonator are realized by an alternating electromagnetic field. However, a SASER scheme with an alternating electric field as the pump has a limitation. A very large amplitude of electric field (up to tens of kV/cm) is required to realize the amplification. Such values approach the electric puncture intensity of liquid dielectrics. Hence, a study proposes a SASER scheme without this limitation. The pumping is created by radial mechanical pulsations of a cylinder. This cylinder contains an active medium—a liquid dielectric with gas bubbles. The radiation emits through the faces of the cylinder. Narrow-gap indirect semiconductors and excitons in coupled quantum wells A proposal for the development of a phonon laser on resonant phonon transitions has been introduced from a group in Institute of Spectroscopy in Moscow, Russia. Two schemes for steady stimulated phonon generation were mentioned. The first scheme exploits a narrow-gap indirect semiconductor or analogous indirect gap semiconductor heterostructure where the tuning into resonance of one-phonon transition of electron–hole recombination can be carried out by external pressure, magnetic or electric fields. The second scheme uses one-phonon transition between direct and indirect exciton levels in coupled quantum wells. We note that an exciton is an electrically neutral quasiparticle that describes an elementary excitation of condensed matter. It can transport energy without transporting net electric charge. The tuning into the resonance of this transition can be accomplished by engineering of dispersion of indirect exciton by external in-plane magnetic and normal electric fields. The magnitude of phonon wave vector in the second proposed scheme, is supposed to be determined by magnitude of in-plane magnetic field. Therefore, such kind of SASER is tunable (i.e. its wavelength of operation can be altered in a controlled manner). Common semiconductor lasers can be realised only in direct gap semiconductors. The reasoning behind that is that a pair of electron and hole near minima of their bands in an indirect gap semiconductor can recombine only with production of a phonon and a photon, due to energy and momentum conservation laws. This kind of process is weak in comparison with electron–hole recombination in a direct semiconductor. Consequently, the pumping of these transitions has to be very intense so as to obtain a steady laser generation. Hence, the lasing transition with production of only one particle – photon – must be resonant. This means that the lasing transition must be allowed by momentum and energy conservation laws to generate in a steady form. Photons have negligible wave vectors and therefore the band extremes have to be in the same position of the Brillouin zone . On the other hand, for devices such as SASERs, acoustic phonons have a considerable dispersion. According to dynamics, this leads to the statement that the levels on which the laser should operate, must be in the k-space relatively to each other. K-space refers to a space where things are in terms of momentum and frequency instead of position and time. The conversion between real space and k-space is a mathematical transformation called the Fourier transform and thus k-space can be also called Fourier space. We note that, the difference in energy of the photon lasing levels has to be at least smaller than the Debye energy in the semiconductor. Here we can think of the Debye energy as the maximum energy associated with the vibrational modes of the lattice. Such levels can be formed by conduction and valence bands in narrow gap indirect semiconductors. Narrow-gap indirect semiconductor as a SASER system The energy gap in a semiconductor under the influence of pressure or magnetic field slightly varies and thus does not deserve any consideration. On the other hand, in narrow-gap semiconductors this variation of energy is considerable and therefore external pressure or magnetic field may serve the purpose of tuning into the resonance of one-phonon interband transition. Note that interband transition is the transition between the conduction and valence band. This scheme considers of indirect semiconductors instead of direct semiconductors. The reasoning behind that comes from the fact that, due to the k-selection rule in semiconductors, interband transitions with the production of only one phonon can be only those that produce an optical phonon. However, optical phonons have a short lifetime (they split into two due to anharmonicity) and therefore they add some important complications. Here we can note that even in the case of multi-stage process of acoustic phonon creation it is possible to create SASER. Examples of narrow-gap indirect semiconductors that can be used are chalcogenides PbTe, PbSe and PbS with energy gap 0.15 – 0.3 eV. For the same scheme, the usage of a semiconductor heterostructure (layers of different semiconductors) with narrow gap indirect in momentum space between valence and conduction bands may be more effective. This could be more promising since the spatial separation of the layers provides a possibility of tuning the interband transition into resonance by an external electric field. An essential statement here is that this proposed phonon laser can operate only if the temperature is much lower than the energy gap in the semiconductor. During the analysis of this theoretical scheme several assumptions were introduced for simplicity reasons. The method of the pumping keeps the system electro-neutral and the dispersion laws of electrons and holes are assumed to be parabolic and isotropic. Also phonon dispersion law is required to be linear and isotropic too. Since the entire system is electro-neutral, the process of pumping creates electrons and holes with the same rate. A mathematical analysis, leads to an equation for the average number of electron–hole pairs per one phonon mode per unit volume. For a low loss limit, this equation gives us a pumping rate for the SASER that is rather moderate in comparison with usual phonon lasers on a p–n transition. Tunable exciton transition in coupled quantum wells It has been mentioned that a quantum well is basically a potential well that confines particles to move in two dimensions instead of three, forcing them to occupy a planar region. In coupled quantum wells there are two possible ways for electrons and holes to be bound into an exciton: indirect exciton and direct exciton. In indirect exciton, electrons and holes are in different quantum wells, in contrast with direct exciton where electrons and holes are located in the same well. In a case where the quantum wells are identical, both levels have a two-fold degeneracy. Direct exciton level is lower than the level of indirect exciton because of greater Coulomb interaction. Also, indirect exciton has an electric dipole momentum normal to coupled quantum well and thus a moving indirect exciton has an in-plane magnetic momentum perpendicular to its velocity. Any interactions of its electric dipole with normal electric field, lowers one of indirect exciton sub-levels and in sufficiently strong electric fields the moving indirect exciton becomes the ground excitonic level. Having in mind these procedures, one can select velocity to have an interaction between magnetic dipole and in-plane magnetic field. This displaces the minimum of the dispersion law away from the radiation zone. The importance of this, lies on the fact that electric and in-plane magnetic fields normal to coupled quantum wells, can control the dispersion of indirect exciton. Normal electric field is needed for tuning the transition: direct exciton --> indirect exciton + phonon into resonance and its magnitude can form a linear function with the magnitude of in-plane magnetic field. We note that the mathematical analysis of this scheme considers of longitudinal acoustic (LA) phonons instead of transverse acoustic (TA) phonons. This aims to more simple numerical estimations. Generally, the preference in transverse acoustic (TA) phonons is better because TA phonons have lower energy and the greater life-time than LA phonons. Therefore, their interaction with the electronic subsystem is weak. In addition, simpler quantitative evaluations require a pumping of direct exciton level performed by a laser irradiation. A further analysis of the scheme can help us to establish differential equations for direct exciton, indirect exciton and phonon modes. The solution of these equations gives that separately phonon and indirect exciton modes have no definite phase and only the sum of their phases is defined. The aim here is to check if the operation of this scheme with a rather moderate pumping rate can hold against the fact that excitons in coupled quantum wells have low dimensionality in comparison to phonons. Hence, phonons not confined in the coupled quantum well are considered. An example is longitudinal optical (LO) phonons that are in AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructure and thus, phonons presented in this proposed system are three-dimensional. Differences in dimensionalities of phonons and excitons cause upper level to transform into many states of phonon field. By applying this information to specific equations we can conclude to a desired result. There is no additional requirement for the laser pumping despite the difference in phonon and exciton dimensionalities. A tunable two-level system Phonon laser action has been stated in a wide range of physical systems (e.g. semiconductors). A 2012 publication from the Department of Applied Physics in California Institute of Technology (Caltech), introduces a demonstration of a compound micro-cavity system, coupled with a radio-frequency mechanical mode, which operates in close analogy to a two-level laser system. This compound micro-cavity system can also be called "photonic molecule". Hybridized orbitals of an electrical system are replaced by optical supermodes of this photonic molecule while the transitions between their corresponding energy levels are induced by a phonon field. For typical conditions of the optical micro-resonators, the photonic molecule behaves as a two-level laser system. Nevertheless, there is a bizarre inversion between the roles of the active medium and the cavity modes (laser field). The medium becomes purely optical and the laser field is provided by the material as a phonon mode. An inversion produces gain, causing phonon laser action above a pump power threshold of around 7 μW. The proposed device is characterized from a continuously tunable gain spectrum that selectively amplifies mechanical modes from radio frequency to microwave rates. Viewed as Brillouin process, the system accesses a regime in which the phonon plays the role of Stokes wave. Stokes wave refers to a non-linear and periodic surface wave on an inviscid fluid (ideal fluid assumed to have no viscosity) layer of constant mean depth. For this reason it should be also possible to controllably switch between phonon and phonon laser regimes. Compound optical microcavity systems provide beneficial spectral controls. These controls impact both phonon laser action and cooling and define some finely spaced optical levels whose transition energies are proportional to phonon energies. These level spacings are continuously tunable by a significant adjustment of optical coupling. Therefore, amplification and cooling occur around a tunable line center, in contrast with some cavity optomechanical phenomena. The creation of these finely spaced levels does not require increasing the optical microcavity dimensions. Hence, these finely spaced levels do not affect the optomechanical interaction strength in a significant degree. The approach uses intermodal coupling, induced by radiation pressure and can also provide a spectrally selective mean to detect phonons. Moreover, some evidences of intermodal cooling are observed in this kind of experiments and thus, there is an interest in optomechanical cooling. Overall, an extension to multilevel systems using multiple coupled resonators is possible. Two-level system In a two level system, the particles have only two available energy levels, separated by some energy difference: ΔΕ = E2 − E1 = hv, where ν is the frequency of the associated electromagnetic wave of the photon emitted and h is the Planck constant. Also note: E2 > E1. These two levels are the excited (upper) and ground (lower) states. When a particle in the upper state interacts with a photon matching the energy separation of the levels, the particle may decay, emitting another photon with the same phase and frequency as the incident photon. Therefore, by pumping energy into the system we can have a stimulated emission of radiation—which means that the pump forces the system to release a big amount of energy at a specific time. A fundamental characteristic of lasing, like the population inversion, is not actually possible in a two-level system and therefore a two-level laser is not possible. In a two-level atom the pump is, in a way, the laser itself. Coherent terahertz amplification in a Stark ladder superlattice The amplification of coherent terahertz sound in a Wannier–Stark ladder superlattice has been achieved in 2009 according to a paper publication from the School of Physics and Astronomy in the University of Nottingham. Wannier–Stark effect, exists in superlattices. Electron states in quantum wells respond sensitively to moderate electric fields either by the quantum confined Stark effect in the case of wide barriers or by Wannier-Stark localization in the case of a superlattice. Both effects lead to large changes of the optical properties near the absorption edge, which are useful for intensity modulation and optical switching. Namely, in a mathematical point of view, if an electric field is applied to a superlattice the relevant Hamiltonian exhibits an additional scalar potential. If an eigenstate exists, then the states corresponding to wave functions are eigenstates of the Hamiltonian as well. These states are equally spaced both in energy and real space and form the so-called Wannier–Stark ladder. In the proposed scheme, an application of an electrical bias to a semiconductor superlattice is increasing the amplitude of coherent folded phonons generated by an optical pulse. This increase of the amplitude is observed for those biases in which the energy drop per period of the superlattice is greater than the phonon energy. If the superlattice is biased such that the energy drop per period of the superlattice exceeds the width of electronic minibands (Wannier–Stark regime), the electrons become localized in the quantum wells and vertical electron transport takes place via hopping between neighboring quantum wells, which may be phonon assisted. As it had been shown previously, under these conditions stimulated phonon emission can become the dominant phonon-assisted hoping process for phonons of an energy value close to the Stark splitting. Thus, coherent phonon amplification is theoretically possible in this type of system. Together with the increase in amplitude, the spectrum of the bias-induced oscillations is narrower than the spectrum of the coherent phonons at zero bias. This shows that coherent amplification of phonons due to stimulated emission takes place in the structure under electrical pumping. A bias voltage is applied to a weakly coupled n-doped GaAs/AlAs superlattice and increases the amplitude of the coherent hypersound oscillations generated by a femtosecond optical pulse. An evidence of hypersound amplification by stimulated emission of phonons emerges, in a system where the inversion of the electron populations for phonon-assisted transitions exists. This evidence is provided by the bias-induced amplitude increase and experimentally observer spectral narrowing of the superlattice phonon mode with a frequency of 441 GHz. The main target of this type of experiments is to highlight the realization probability of a coherent amplification of THz sound. The THz stimulated phonon induced transitions between the electron superlattice states lead to this coherent amplification while processing a population inversion. An essential step towards coherent generation ("sasing") of THz sound and other active hypersound devices has been provided by this achievement of THz sound amplification. Generally, in a device where the threshold for "sasing" is achieved, the technique described by this proposed scheme could be used to measure the coherence time of the emitted hypersound. See also Acoustics Laser Maser Optoelectronics Ultrasound References and notes Further reading and works referred to B.A. Glavin, V.A. Kochelap, T.L. Linnik, P. Walker, A.J. Kentand M. Henini, Monochromatic terahertz acoustic phonon emission from piezoelectric superlattices, Jour. Phys. Cs 92 (2007). K. Vahala, M. Herrmann, S. Knunz, V. Batteiger, G. Saathoff, T. W. Hansch and Th. Udem, A phonon Laser Transducers Acoustics

The Handbook of North American Indians is a series of edited scholarly and reference volumes in Native American studies, published by the Smithsonian Institution beginning in 1978. Planning for the handbook series began in the late 1960s and work was initiated following a special congressional appropriation in fiscal year 1971. To date, 16 volumes have been published. Each volume addresses a subtopic of Americanist research and contains a number of articles or chapters by individual specialists in the field coordinated and edited by a volume editor. The overall series of 20 volumes is planned and coordinated by a general or series editor. Until the series was suspended, mainly due to lack of funds, the series editor was William C. Sturtevant, who died in 2007. This work documents information about all Indigenous peoples of the Americas north of Mexico, including cultural and physical aspects of the people, language family, history, and worldviews. This series is a reference work for historians, anthropologists, other scholars, and the general reader. The series utilized noted authorities for each topic. The set is illustrated, indexed, and has extensive bibliographies. Volumes may be purchased individually. Bibliographic information Handbook of North American Indians / William C. Sturtevant, General Editor. Washington, DC : Smithsonian Institution: For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office, Superintendent of Documents., 1978–. Volume 1: Introduction , https://doi.org/10.5479/si.21262173 Introduction: A Gateway to the Handbook Series. Igor Krupnik. Pages 1-9. Antecedents of the Smithsonian Handbook Project: 1800s–1965. Igor Krupnik. Pages 10–30. Native American Histories in the Twenty-First Century Writing American Indian Histories in the Twenty-First Century. Donald L. Fixico. Pages 31–43. Codes of Ethics: Anthropology's Relations with American Indians. Joe Watkins. Pages 44–56. Indigenous North Americans and Archaeology. George Nicholas, Dorothy Lippert, and Stephen Loring. Pages 57–74. Cultural Heritage Laws and Their Impact. Eric Hollinger, Lauren Sieg, William Billeck, Jacquetta Swift, and Terry Snowball. Pages 75–89. Emergence of Cultural Diversity: Long-Distance Interactions and Cultural Complexity in Native North America. J. Daniel Rodgers and William W. Fitzhugh. Pages 90–103. Coastal Peoples and Maritime Adaptations: From First Settlement to Contact. Torben C. Rick and Todd J. Braje. Pages 104–118. New Cultural Domains Indigenous Peoples, Museums, and Anthropology. Aron L. Crowell. Pages 119–135. "A New Dream Museum": 100 Years of the (National) Museum of the American Indian, 1916–2016. Ann McMullen. Pages 136-150. Access to Native Collections in Museums and Archives: History, Context, and Future Directions. Hannah Turner and Candace Green. Pages 151–164. Emergent Digital Networks: Museum Collections and Indigenous Knowledge in the Digital Era. Aaron Glass and Kate Hennessy. Pages 165–181. 3D Digital Replication: Emerging Cultural Domain for Native American Communities. Eric Hollinger. Pages 182-195. Social Media: Extending the Boundaries of Indian Country. Loriene Roy, Marisa Elena Duarte, Christina M. Gonzalez, and Wendy Peters. Pages 196-210. Digital Domains for Native American Languages. Gary Holton. Pages 211-229. Native American Experiences in the Twenty-First Century Food Sovereignty. Elizabeth Hoover. Pages 230-246. Native American Communities and Climate Change. Margaret Hiza Redsteer, Igor Krupnik, and Julie K. Maldonado. Pages 247-264. Native American Languages at the Threshold of the New Millennium. Marianne Mithun. Pages 265-277. Immigrant Indigenous Communities: Indigenous Latino Populations in the United States. Gabriela Pérez Báez, Cynthia Vidaurri, and José Barreiro. Pages 278–292. Contestation from Invisibility: Indigenous Peoples as a Permanent Part of the World Order. Duane Champagne. Pages 293–303. Transitions in Native North American Research Arctic. Peter Collings. Pages 304–319. Subarctic: Accommodation and Resistance since 1970. Collin Scott, William E. Simeone, Robert Wishart, and Janelle Baker. Pages 320–337. Northwest Coast: Ethnology since the Late 1980s. Sergei Kan and Michael Harkin. Pages 338–354. California. Ira Jacknis, Carolyn Smith, Olivia Chilcote. Pages 355–371. Greater Southwest: Introduction. Igor Krupnik. Page 373. Southwest-1. Gwyneira Isaac, Klinton Burgio-Ericson, Chip Colwell, T.J. Ferguson, Jane Hill, Debra Martin, and Ofelia Zepeda. Pages 374–389. Southwest-2: Non-Pueblo and Northern Mexico. Maurice Crandall, Moises Gonzales, Sergei Kan, Enrique R. Lamadrid, Kimberly Jenkins Marshall, and José Luis Moctezuma Zamarrón. Pages 390–410. Great Basin. Catherine S. Fowler, David Rhode, Angus Quinlan, and Darla Garey-Sage. Pages 411–427. Plateau: Trends in Ethnocultural Research from the 1990s. David W. Dinwoodie. Pages 428–444. Plains: Research since 2000. Sebastian Felix Braun. Pages 445–460. Southeast. Robbie Ethridge, Jessica Blanchard, and Mary Linn. Pages 461–479. Northeast: Research since 1978. Kathleen J. Bragdon and Larry Nesper. Pages 480–498. The Smithsonian Handbook Project, 1965–2008 Section Introduction. Igor Krupnik. Page 499. The Beginnings, 1965–1971. Adrianna Link and Igor Krupnik. Pages 500–515. William Curtis Sturtevant, General Editor. William L. Merrill. Pages 516–530. Production of the Handbook, 1970–2008: An Insider's View. Joanna Cohan Scherer. Pages 531–548. Organization and Operation: Perspectives from 1993. Christian Carstensen. Pages 549–560. The Handbook: A Retrospective. Ira Jacknis, William L. Merril, and Joanna Cohan Scherer. Pages 561–581. End Matter Contributors. Pages 583–586. Reviewers (December 22, 2020). Pages 587–588. Tributes. Pages 589–593. Appendix 1: Smithsonian Handbook Project Timeline, 1964–2014. Igor Krupnik, and Joanna Cohan Scherer with additions by Jan Danek and William L. Merrill. Pages 596–609. Appendix 2: Handbook Series Production and Editorial Staff, 1969–2022. Pages 610–612. Appendix 3: Conventions on Tribal and Ethnic Names in Volume 1. Igor Krupnick, with additions by Daniel G. Cole, Ives Goddard, Cesare Marino, Larry Nesper, and Joe Watkins. Pages 613–616. Bibliography. Pages 617–867. Index. Pages 869–931. Volume 2: Indians in Contemporary Society Introduction. Garrick A. Bailey. Pages 1–9. The Issues in the United States Indians in the Military. Pamela Bennett and Thom Holm. Pages 10–18. Termination and Relocation. Larry W. Burt. Pages 19–27. Indian Land Claims. Judith Royster. Pages 28–37. Activism, 1950-1980. Vine Deloria, Jr. Pages 38–44. Activism Since 1980. Robert Warrior. Pages 45–54. The Federal-Tribe Relationship. Alex Tallchief Skibine. Pages 55–65. The State-Tribe Relationship. Carole Goldberg. Pages 66–75. Tribal Government in the United States. Sharon O'Brien. Pages 76–85. The Bureau of Indian Affairs and Reservations. Angelique EagleWoman (Wambdi A. WasteWin). Pages 86–96. Health and Health Issues in the United States. Jennie R. Joe. Pages 97–105. Restoration of Terminated Tribes. George Roth. Pages 106-112. Recognition. George Roth. Pages 113-128. Tribal Sovereignty and Economic Development. Taylor Keen and Angelique EagleWoman (Wambdi A. WasteWin). Pages 129-139. Alaska Native Corporations. Rosita Worl. Pages 140-147. Gaming. Jessica R. Cattelino. Pages 148-156. The Issues in Canada Native Rights and the Constitution in Canada. John J. Borrows. Pages 157-165. Native Rights Case Law. Kent McNeil. Pages 166-176. Aboriginal Land Claims. Shin Imai. Pages 177-184. Native Governments and Organizations. Yale D. Belanger. Pages 185-196. The Evolution of Native Reserves. Yale D. Belanger, David R. Newhouse, and Heather Y. Shpuniarsky. Pages 197-207. The Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development. John F. Leslie. Pages 208-221. Health and Health Care in Canada. James B. Waldram. Pages 222-230. Aboriginal Economic Development. Carl Beal. Pages 231-245. Nunavut. Kirt Ejesiak. Pages 246-251. James Bay Cree. Colin H. Scott. Pages 252-260. Nisga'a. Margaret Seguin Anderson. Pages 261-268. Demographic and Ethnic Issues United States Native Population. Russell Thornton. Pages 269-274. The Freedmen. Circe Sturm and Kristy J. Feldhousen-Giles. Pages 275-284. Native Populations of Canada. C. Vivian O'Donnell. Pages 285-293. Métis. Joe Sawchuk. Pages 294-301. Native American Identity in Law. Eva Marie Garroutte. Pages 302-307. Social and Cultural Revitalization Urban Communities. Joan Weibel-Orlando. Pages 308-316. The Native American Church. Daniel C. Swan. Pages 317-326. Powwows. Thomas W. Kavanagh. Pages 327-337. Native Museums and Cultural Centers. Lisa J. Watt and Brian L. Laurie-Beaumont. Pages 338-350. Languages and Language Programs. Leanne Hinton. Pages 351-364. News Media. Dan Agent. Pages 365-372. Theater. Hanay Geiogamah. Pages 373-380. Film. Mark Anthony Rolo. Pages 381-391. Literature. Kathryn W. Shanley. Pages 392-401. Tribal Colleges and Universities. Wayne J. Stein. Pages 402-411. Native American Studies Programs. Clara Sue Kidwell. Pages 412-420. Lawyers and Law Programs. Rennard Strickland & M. Sharon Blackwell. Pages 421-426. Repatriation. C. Timothy McKeown. Pages 427-437. The Global Indigenous Movement. Ronald Niezen. Pages 438-445. Volume 3: Environment, Origins, and Population Introduction. Douglas H. Ubelaker. Pages 1–3. Native Views of Origins. JoAllyn Archambault. Pages 4–15. Paleo-Indian Paleo-Indian: Introduction. Dennis Stanford. Pages 16–22. Geoarcheology of the Plains, Southwest, and Great Lakes. Vance T. Holliday & Rolfe D. Mandel. Pages 23–46. Geological Framework and Glaciation of the Western Area. Christopher L. Hill. Pages 47–60. Climate and Biota of Western North America. Russell William Graham. Pages 61–66. Geological Framework and Glaciation of the Central Area. Christopher L. Hill. Pages 67–80. Geological Framework and Glaciation of the Eastern Area. Christopher L. Hill. Pages 81–98. Climate and Biota of Eastern North America. Herbert E. Wright, Jr. Pages 99–109. History of Research on the Paleo-Indian. David J. Meltzer. Pages 110-128. Paleo-Indian: Far Northwest. E. James Dixon. Pages 129-147. Paleo-Indian: Plains and Southwest. Bruce B. Huckell & W. James Judge. Pages 148-170. Paleo-Indian: East. Bradley T. Lepper & Robert E. Funk. Pages 171-193. Paleo-Indian: West. C. Melvin Aikens. Pages 194-207. Late Pleistocene Faunal Extinctions. Donald K. Grayson. Pages 208-218. Plant and Animal Resources Plant and Animal Resources: Introduction. Bruce D. Smith. Pages 219-221. Arctic and Subarctic Plants. Alestine Andre, Amanda Karst, & Nancy J. Turner. Pages 222-235. Arctic and Subarctic Animals. Christyann M. Darwent & Laura L. Smith. Pages 236-250. Northwest Coast and Plateau Plants. Nancy J. Turner & Fiona Hamersley-Chambers. Pages 251-262. Northwest Coast and Plateau Animals. Virginia L. Butler & Sarah K. Campbell. Pages 263-273. California Plants. Robert L. Bettinger & Eric Wohlgemuth. Pages 274-283. California Animals. William R. Hildebrandt & Kimberly Carpenter. Pages 284-291. Southwest Plants. Karen R. Adams & Suzanne K. Fish. Pages 292-312. Southwest Animals. Steven R. James. Pages 313-330. Great Basin Plants. Catherine S. Fowler & David E. Rhode. Pages 331-350. Great Basin Animals. Joel C. Janetski. Pages 351-364. Plains Plants. Mary J. Adair. Pages 365-374. Plains Animals. John R. Bozell, Carl R. Falk, & Eileen Johnson. Pages 375-387. Southeast Plants. Kristen J. Gremillion. Pages 388-395. Southeast Animals. Heather A. Lapham. Pages 396-404. Northeast Plants. Gary W. Crawford. Pages 405-411. Northeast Animals. Bonnie W. Styles. Pages 412-427. Domestication of Plants in the East. C. Margaret Scarry & Richard A. Yarnell. Pages 428-436. Introduction and Diffusion of Crops from Mexico. Gayle J. Fritz. Pages 437-446. Tobacco. Volney H. Jones & Sandra L. Dunavan. Pages 447-451. Dog. Lynn M. Snyder & Jennifer A. Leonard. Pages 452-462. The Role of the Turkey in the Southwest. Natalie D. Munro. Pages 463-470. Introduction and Adoption of Crops from Europe. Lee A. Newsom & Deborah Ann Trieu. Pages 471-484. Introduction and Adoption of Animals from Europe. Barnet Pavao-Zuckerman & Elizabeth J. Reitz. Pages 485-491. Skeletal Biology and Population Size Skeletal Biology and Population Size: Introduction. Douglas H. Ubelaker. Pages 492-496. History of Craniometric Studies, The View in 1975. W.W. Howells. Pages 497-503. History of Research in Skeletal Biology. Jane Buikstra. Pages 504-523. Skeletal Biology: Arctic and Subarctic. Anne Keenleyside. Pages 524-531. Skeletal Biology: Northwest Coast and Plateau. Jerome S. Cybulski. Pages 532-547. Skeletal Biology: California. Phillip L. Walker. Pages 548-556. Skeletal Biology: Southwest. Ann L.W. Stodder. Pages 557-580. Skeletal Biology: Great Basin. Clark Spencer Larsen & Brian E. Hemphill. Pages 581-589. Skeletal Biology: Northern Mexico and Texas. Lee Meadows Jantz, Nicholas P. Herrmann, Richard L. Jantz, & Douglas H. Ubelaker. Pages 590-594. Skeletal Biology: Plains. Laura L. Scheiber. Pages 595-609. Skeletal Biology: Southeast. Clark Spencer Larsen. Pages 610-621. Skeletal Biology: Great Lakes Area. M. Anne Katzenberg. Pages 622-629. Skeletal Biology: Northeast. George R. Milner & Jane Buikstra. Pages 630-639. Population Inferences from Bone Chemistry. Margaret J. Schoeninger. Pages 640-644. Dentition. G. Richard Scott & Christy G. Turner. Pages 645-660. Paleopathology. Donald J. Ortner & Mary Lucas Powell. Pages 661-678. Craniometric Affinities and Early Skeletal Evidence for Origins. Russell Nelson, Noriko Seguchi, & C. Loring Brace. Pages 679-684. Environmental Influences on Skeletal Morphology. Christopher Ruff. Pages 685-693. Population Size, Contact to Nadir. Douglas H. Ubelaker. Pages 694-701. Population Size, Nadir to 2000. C. Matthew Snipp. Pages 702-710. Human Biology Human Biology: Introduction. Emőke J.E. Szathmáry. Pages 711-726. Growth and Development. Lawrence M. Schell, Mia V. Gallo, & Francis E. Johnston. Pages 727-739. Acclimatization and Adaptation: Responses to Cold. Michael A. Little and A.T. Steegman Jr. Pages 740-747. Acclimatization and Adaptation: Responses to Heat. Joel M. Hanna and Donald M. Austin. Pages 748-753. Albinism. Charles M. Woolf. Pages 754-761. Blood Groups, Immunoglobulins, and Genetic Variation. Dennis H. O'Rourke. Pages 762-776. Anthropometry. Richard L. Jantz. Pages 777-788. Health and Disease. Kue Young. Pages 789-798. Admixture. Jeffrey C. Long. Pages 799-807. Dermatoglyphics. Robert J. Meier. Pages 808-816. Mitochondrial DNA. D. Andrew Merriwether. Pages 817-830. Y Chromosomes. Tatiana M. Karafet, Stephen L. Zegura, & Michael F. Hammer. Pages 831-839. Ancient DNA. Anne C. Stone. Pages 840-847. Volume 4: History of Indian-White relations Introduction. Wilcomb E. Washburn. Pages 1–4. National Policies British Indian Policies to 1783. Wilbur R. Jacobs. Pages 5–12. Dutch and Swedish Indian Policies. Francis Jennings. Pages 13–19. French Indian Policies. Mason Wade. Pages 20–28. United States Indian Policies, 1776-1815. Reginald Horsman. Pages 29–39. United States Indian Policies, 1815-1860. Francis Paul Prucha. Pages 40–50. United States Indian Policies, 1860-1900. William T. Hagan. Pages 51–65. United States Indian Policies, 1900-1980. Lawrence C. Kelly. Pages 66–80. Canadian Indian Policies. Robert J. Surtees. Pages 81–95. Spanish Indian Policies. Charles Gibson. Pages 96–102. Mexican Indian Policies. Edward H. Spicer. Pages 103-109. Danish Greenland Policies. Finn Gad. Pages 110-118. Russian and Soviet Eskimo Indian Policies. Richard A. Pierce. Pages 119-127. Military Situation Colonial Indian Wars. Douglas E. Leach. Pages 128-143. Indian-United States Military Situation, 1775-1848. John K. Mahon. Pages 144-162. Indian-United States Military Situation, 1848-1891. Robert M. Utley. Pages 163-184. Political Relations British Colonial Indian Treaties. Dorothy V. Jones. Pages 185-194. United States Indian Treaties and Agreements. Robert M. Kvasnicka. Pages 195-201. Canadian Indian Treaties. Robert J. Surtees. Pages 202-210. Indian Land Transfers. Arrell M. Gibson. Pages 211-229. The Legal Status of American Indians. Lawrence R. Baca. Pages 230-237. Presents and Delegations. Francis Paul Prucha. Pages 238-244. Colonial Government Agencies. Yasuhide Kawashima. Pages 245-254. Nineteenth-Century United States Government Agencies. Donald J. Berthrong. Pages 255-263. Twentieth-century United States Government Agencies. Philleo Nash. Pages 264-275. Government Indian Agencies in Canada. Douglas Sanders. Pages 276-283. American Indian Education. Margaret Connell Szasz & Carmelita S. Ryan. Pages 284-300. Indian Rights Movement Until 1887. Robert W. Mardock. Pages 301-304. Indian Rights Movement, 1887-1973. Hazel Whitman Hertzberg. Pages 305-323. Economic Relations The Fur Trade in the Colonial Northeast. William J. Eccles. Pages 324-334. The Hudson's Bay Company and Native People. Arthur J. Ray. Pages 335-350. Indian Trade in the Trans-Mississippi West to 1870. William R. Swagerty. Pages 351-374. The Maritime Trade of the North Pacific Coast. James R. Gibson. Pages 375-390. Economic Relations in the Southeast Until 1783. Daniel H. Usner, Jr. Pages 391-395. Trade Goods. E.S. Lohse. Pages 396-403. Indian Servitude in the Northeast. Yasuhide Kawashima. Pages 404-406. Indian Servitude in the Southeast. Peter H. Wood. Pages 407-409. Indian Servitude in the Southwest. Albert H Schroeder & Omer C. Stewart. Pages 410-413. Indian Servitude in California. Robert F. Heizer. Pages 414-416. Ecological Change and Indian-White Relations. William Cronon & Richard White. Pages 417-429. Religious Relations Protestant Churches and the Indians. R. Pierce Beaver. Pages 430-458. Mormon Missions to the Indians. John A. Price. Pages 459-463. Roman Catholic Missions in New France. Lucien Campeau. Pages 464-471. Roman Catholic Missions in California and the Southwest. Sherburne F. Cook & Cesare R. Marino. Pages 472-480. Roman Catholic Missions in the Southeast and the Northeast. Clifford M. Lewis. Pages 481-493. Roman Catholic Missions in the Northwest. Robert I. Burns. Pages 494-500. Roman Catholic Missions in the Arctic. Louis-Jacques Dorais & Bernard Saladin d'Anglure. Pages 501-505. The Russian Orthodox Church in Alaska. Sergei Kan. Pages 506-521. Conceptual Relations White Conceptions of Indians. Robert F. Berkhofer, Jr. Pages 522-547. Relations Between Indians and Anthropologists. Nancy O. Lurie. Pages 548-556. The Indian Hobbyist Movement in North America. William K. Powers. Pages 557-561. The Indian Hobbyist Movement in Europe. Colin F. Taylor. Pages 562-569. Indians and the Counterculture, 1960s–1970s. Stewart Brand. Pages 570-572. The Indian in Literature in English. Leslie A. Fiedler. Pages 573-581. The Indian in Non-English Literature. Christian F. Feest. Pages 582-586. The Indian in Popular American Culture. Rayna D. Green. Pages 587-606. The Indian in the Movies. Michael T. Marsden and Jack G. Nachbar. Pages 607-616 Non-Indian Biographies Brief biographical sketches of 294 individuals who were not Indians but had a significant impact on the history of Indian-White relations in North America. Pages 617-699. Volume 5: Arctic Introduction. David Damas. Pages 1–7. History of Research Before 1945. Henry B. Collins. Pages 8–16. History of Archeology After 1945. Elmer Harp, Jr. Pages 17–22. History of Ethnology After 1945. Charles C. Hughes. Pages 23–26. Physical Environment. John K. Stager & Robert J. McSkimming. Pages 27–35. Arctic Ecosystems. Milton M.R. Freeman. Pages 36–48. Eskimo and Aleut Languages. Anthony C. Woodbury. Pages 49–63. Human Biology of the Arctic. Emőke J.E. Szathmary. Pages 64–71. Prehistory: Summary. Don E. Dumond. Pages 72–79. Western Arctic Prehistory of North Alaska. Douglas D. Anderson. Pages 80–93. Prehistory of the Bering Sea Region. Don E. Dumond. Pages 94–105. Prehistory of the Asian Eskimo Zone. Robert E. Ackerman. Pages 106-118. Prehistory of the Aleutian Region. Allen P. McCartney. Pages 119-135. Prehistory of the Pacific Eskimo Region. Donald W. Clark. Pages 136-148. Exploration and Contact History of Western Alaska. James W. VanStone. Pages 149-160. Aleut. Margaret Lantis. Pages 161-184. Pacific Eskimo: Historical Ethnography. Donald W. Clark. Pages 185-197. Contemporary Pacific Eskimo. Nancy Yaw Davis. Pages 198-204. Southwest Alaska Eskimo: Introduction. James W. VanStone. Pages 205-208. Nunivak Eskimo. Margaret Lantis. Pages 209-223. Mainland Southwest Alaska Eskimo. James W. VanStone. Pages 224-242. Asiatic Eskimo: Introduction. Charles C. Hughes. Pages 243-246. Siberian Eskimo. Charles C. Hughes. Pages 247-261. Saint Lawrence Island Eskimo. Charles C. Hughes. Pages 262-277. North Alaska Eskimo: Introduction. Robert F. Spencer. Pages 278-284. Bering Strait Eskimo. Dorothy Jean Ray. Pages 285-302. Kotzebue Sound Eskimo. Ernest S. Burch, Jr. Pages 303-319. North Alaska Coast Eskimo. Robert F. Spencer. Pages 320-337. Interior North Alaska Eskimo. Edwin S. Hall. Pages 338-346. Mackenzie Delta Eskimo. Derek G. Smith. Pages 347-358. Canadian Arctic Pre-Dorset and Dorset Prehistory of Canada. Moreau S. Maxwell. Pages 359-368. Thule Prehistory of Canada. Robert McGhee. Pages 369-376. Exploration and History of the Canadian Arctic. L.H. Neatby. Pages 377-390. Central Eskimo: Introduction. David Damas. Pages 391-396. Copper Eskimo. David Damas. Pages 397-414. Netsilik. Asen Balikci. Pages 415-430. Iglulik. Guy Mary-Rousselière. Pages 431-446. Caribou Eskimo. Eugene Y. Arima. Pages 447-462. Baffinland Eskimo. William B. Kemp. Pages 463-475. Inuit of Quebec. Bernard Saladin d'Anglure. Pages 476-507. Historical Ethnography of the Labrador Coast. J. Garth Taylor. Pages 508-521. Greenland Greenland Eskimo: Introduction. Helge Kleivan. Pages 522-527. Paleo-Eskimo Cultures of Greenland. William W. Fitzhugh. Pages 528-539. Neo-Eskimo Prehistory of Greenland. Richard H. Jordan. Pages 540-548. History of Norse Greenland. Inge Kleivan. Pages 549-555. History of Colonial Greenland. Finn Gad. Pages 556-576. Polar Eskimo. Rolf Gilberg. Pages 577-594. West Greenland Before 1950. Inge Kleivan. Pages 595-621. East Greenland Before 1950. Robert Petersen. Pages 622-639. Greenlandic Written Literature. Robert Petersen. Pages 640-645. The 1950-1980 Period Alaska Eskimo Modernization. Norman A. Chance. Pages 646-656. The Land Claims Era in Alaska. Ernest S. Burch. Jr. Pages 657-661. Contemporary Canadian Inuit. Frank G. Vallee, Derek G. Smith, & Joseph D. Cooper. Pages 662-675. The Grise Fiord Project. Milton M.R. Freeman. Pages 676-682. Contemporary Inuit of Quebec. Bernard Saladin d'Anglure. Pages 683-688. Coastal Northern Labrador After 1950. Anne Brantenberg & Terje Brantenberg. Pages 689-699. Contemporary Greenlanders. Helge Kleivan. Pages 700-717. East Greenland After 1950. Robert Petersen. Pages 718-723. The Pan-Eskimo Movement. Robert Petersen. Pages 724-728. Volume 6: Subarctic Introduction. June Helm. Pages 1–4. General Environment. James S. Gardner. Pages 5–14. Major Fauna in the Traditional Economy. Beryl C. Gillespie. Pages 15–18. History of Ethnological Research in the Subarctic Shield and Mackenzie Borderlands. Edward S. Rogers. Pages 19–29. History of Archeological Research in the Subarctic Shield and Mackenzie Valley. Jacques Cinq-Mars & Charles A. Martijn. Pages 30–34. History of Research in the Subarctic Cordillera. Catharine McClellan. Pages 35–42. History of Research in Subarctic Alaska. Nancy Yaw Davis. Pages 43–48. Museum and Archival Resources for Subarctic Alaska. James W. VanStone. Pages 49–51. Subarctic Algonquian Languages. Richard A. Rhodes & Evelyn M. Todd. Pages 52–66. Northern Athapaskan Languages. Michael E. Krauss & Victor K. Golla. Pages 67–85. Prehistory of the Canadian Shield. James V. Wright. Pages 86–96. Prehistory of the Great Slave Lake and Great Bear Lake Region. William C. Noble. Pages 97–106. Prehistory of the Western Subarctic. Donald W. Clark. Pages 107-129. Subarctic Shield and Mackenzie Borderlands Environment and Culture in the Shield and Mackenzie Borderlands. Edward S. Rogers & James G.E. Smith. Pages 130-146. Intercultural Relations and Cultural Change in the Shield and Mackenzie Borderlands. June Helm, Edward S. Rogers, & James G.E. Smith. Pages 146-157. Territorial Groups Before 1821: Cree and Ojibwa. Charles A. Bishop. Pages 158-160. Territorial Groups Before 1821: Athapaskans of the Shield and the Mackenzie Drainage. Beryl C. Gillespie. Pages 161-168. Montagnais-Naskapi. Edward S. Rogers & Eleanor Leacock. Pages 169-189. Seventeenth-Century Montagnais Social Relations and Values. Eleanor Leacock. Pages 190-195. East Main Cree. Richard J. Preston. Pages 196-207. Attikamek (Tête de Boule). Gérard E. McNulty & Louis Gilbert. Pages 208-216. West Main Cree. John J. Honigmann. Pages 217-230. Northern Ojibwa. Edward S. Rogers & J. Garth Taylor. Pages 231-243. Saulteaux of Lake Winnipeg. Jack H. Steinbring. Pages 244-255. Western Woods Cree. James G.E. Smith. Pages 256-270. Chipewyan. James G.E. Smith. Pages 271-284. Yellowknife. Beryl C. Gillespie. Pages 285-290. Dogrib. June Helm. Pages 291-309. Bearlake Indians. Beryl C. Gillespie. Pages 310-313. Hare. Joel S. Savishinsky & Hiroko Sue Hara. Pages 314-325. Mountain Indians. Beryl C. Gillespie. Pages 326-337. Slavey. Michael I. Asch. Pages 338-349. Beaver. Robin Ridington. Pages 350-360. Subarctic Métis. Richard Slobodin. Pages 361-371. Subarctic Cordillera Environment and Culture in the Cordillera. Catharine McClellan & Glenda Denniston. Pages 372-386. Intercultural Relations and Cultural Change in the Cordillera. Catharine McClellan. Pages 387-401. Chilcotin. Robert B. Lane. Pages 402-412. Carrier. Margaret L. Tobey. Pages 413-432. Sekani. Glenda Denniston. Pages 433-441. Kaska. John J. Honigmann. Pages 442-450. Nahani. Beryl C. Gillespie. Pages 451-453. Tsetsaut. Wilson Duff. Pages 454-457. Tahltan. Bruce B. MacLachlan. Pages 458-468. Inland Tlingit. Catharine McClellan. Pages 469-480. Tagish. Catharine McClellan. Pages 481-492. Tutchone. Catharine McClellan. Pages 493-505. Han. John R. Crow & Philip R. Obley. Pages 506-513. Kutchin. Richard Slobodin. Pages 514-532. Alaska Plateau Environment and Culture in the Alaska Plateau. Edward H. Hosley. Pages 533-545. Intercultural Relations and Cultural Change in the Alaska Plateau. Edward H. Hosley. Pages 546-555. Territorial Groups of West-Central Alaska Before 1898. James W. VanStone and Ives Goddard. Pages 556-561. Tanana. Robert A. McKennan. Pages 562-576. Upper Tanana River Potlatch. Marie-Françoise Guédon. Pages 577-581. Koyukon. A. McFadyen Clark. Pages 582-601. Ingalik. Jeanne H. Snow. Pages 602-617. Kolchan. Edward H. Hosley. Pages 618-622. South of the Alaska Range Tanaina. Joan B. Townsend. Pages 623-640. Ahtna. Frederica de Laguna & Catharine McClellan. Pages 641-663. Native Settlements Native Settlements: Introduction. June Helm. Pages 664-665. Davis Inlet, Labrador. Georg Henriksen. Pages 666-672. Great Whale River, Quebec. W.K. Barger. Pages 673-682. Fort Resolution, Northwest Territories. David M. Smith. Pages 683-693. Old Crow, Yukon Territory. Ann Welsh Acheson. Pages 694-703. Minto, Alaska. Wallace M. Olson. Pages 704-711. Special Topics Modern Subarctic Indians and Métis. John J. Honigmann. Pages 712-717. Expressive Aspects of Subarctic Indian Culture. John J. Honigmann. Pages 718-738. Volume 7: Northwest Coast Introduction. Wayne Suttles. Pages 1–15. Environment. Wayne Suttles. Pages 16–29. Languages. Laurence C. Thompson & M. Dale Kinkade. Pages 30–51. Human Biology. Jerome S. Cybulski. Pages 52–59. Cultural Antecedents. Roy L. Carlson. Pages 60–69. History of Research History of Research: Early Sources. Wayne Suttles. Pages 70–72. History of Research in Ethnology. Wayne Suttles & Aldona C. Jonaitis. Pages 73–87. History of Research: Museum Collections. E.S. Lohse & Frances Sundt. Pages 88–97. History of Research in Linguistics. M. Dale Kinkade. Pages 98–106. History of Research in Archeology. Roy L. Carlson. Pages 107-115. History of Research in Physical Anthropology. Jerome S. Cybulski. Pages 116-118. History of Contact History of the Early Period. Douglas Cole & David Darling. Pages 119-134. Demographic History, 1774-1874. Robert T. Boyd. Pages 135-148. History of Southeastern Alaska Since 1867. Rosita Worl. Pages 149-158. History of Coastal British Columbia Since 1849. J.E. Michael Kew. Pages 159-168. History of Western Washington Since 1846. Cesare Marino. Pages 169-179. History of Western Oregon Since 1846. Stephen Dow Beckham. Pages 180-188. The Peoples Eyak. Frederica De Laguna. Pages 189-196. Prehistory of Southeastern Alaska. Stanley D. Davis. Pages 197-202. Tlingit. Frederica De Laguna. Pages 203-228. Prehistory of the Northern Coast of British Columbia. Knut R. Fladmark, Kenneth M. Ames, & Patricia D. Sutherland. Pages 229-239. Haida: Traditional Culture. Margaret B. Blackman. Pages 240-260. Haida Since 1960. Mary Lee Stearns. Pages 261-266. Tsimshian Peoples: Southern Tsimshian, Coast Tsimshian, Nishga, and Gitksan. Marjorie M. Halpin & Margaret Seguin. Pages 267-284. Tsimshian of British Columbia Since 1900. Gordon B. Inglis, Douglas R. Hudson, Barbara K. Rigsby, & Bruce Rigsby. Pages 285-293. Tsimshian of Metlakatla, Alaska. John A. Dunn & Arnold Booth. Pages 294-297. Prehistory of the Central Coast of British Columbia. Philip M. Hobler. Pages 298-305. Haisla. Charles Hamori-Torok. Pages 306-311. Haihais, Bella Bella, and Oowekeeno. Susanne F. Hilton. Pages 312-322. Bella Coola. Dorothy I.D. Kennedy & Randall T. Bouchard. Pages 323-339. Prehistory of the Coasts of Southern British Columbia and Northern Washington. Donald Mitchell. Pages 340-358. Kwakiutl: Traditional Culture. Helen Codere. Pages 359-377. Kwakiutl: Winter Ceremonies. Bill Holm. Pages 378-386. Kwakiutl Since 1980. Gloria Cranmer Webster. Pages 387-390. Nootkans of Vancouver Island. Eugene Arima & John Dewhirst. Pages 391-411. Prehistory of the Ocean Coast of Washington. Gary Wessen. Pages 412-421. Makah. Ann M. Renker & Erna Gunther. Pages 422-430. Quileute. James V. Powell. Pages 431-437. Chemakum. William W. Elmendorf. Pages 438-440. Northern Coast Salish. Dorothy I.D. Kennedy & Randall T. Bouchard. Pages 441-452. Central Coast Salish. Wayne Suttles. Pages 453-475. Central and Southern Coast Salish Ceremonies Since 1900. J.E. Michael Kew. Pages 476-480. Prehistory of the Puget Sound Region. Charles M. Nelson. Pages 481-484. Southern Coast Salish. Wayne Suttles & Barbara Lane. Pages 485-502. Southwestern Coast Salish. Yvonne Hajda. Pages 503-517. Prehistory of the Lower Columbia and Willamette Valley. Richard M. Pettigrew. Pages 518-529. Kwalhioqua and Clatskanie. Michael E. Krauss. Pages 530-532. Chinookans of the Lower Columbia. Michael Silverstein. Pages 533-546. Kalapuyans. Henry B. Zenk. Pages 547-553. Prehistory of the Oregon Coast. Richard E. Ross. Pages 554-559. Tillamook. William R. Seaburg & Jay Miller. Pages 560-567. Alseans. Henry B. Zenk. Pages 568-571. Siuslawans and Coosans. Henry B. Zenk. Pages 572-579. Athapaskans of Southwestern Oregon. Jay Miller & William R. Seaburg. Pages 580-588. Takelma. Daythal L. Kendall. Pages 589-592. Special Topics Mythology. Dell Hymes. Pages 593-601. Art. Bill Holm. Pages 602-632. The Indian Shaker Church. Pamela T. Amoss. Pages 633-639. Volume 8: California Introduction. Rebert F. Heizer. Pages 1–5. History of Research. Robert F. Heizer. Pages 6–15. Environmental Background. Martin A Baumhoff. Pages 16–24. Post-Pleistocene Archeology, 9000 to 2000 B.C. William J. Wallace. Pages 25–36. Development of Regional Prehistoric Cultures. Albert B. Elsasser. Pages 37–57. Protohistoric and Historic Archeology. Chester King. Pages 58–68. Indian-Euro-American Interaction: Archeological Evidence from non-Indian Sites. Robert L. Schuyler. Pages 69–79. Native Languages of California. William F. Shipley. Pages 80–90. Historical Demography. Sherburne F. Cook. Pages 91–98. The Impact of Euro-American Exploration and Settlement. Edward D. Castillo. Pages 99–127. Tolowa. Richard A. Gould. Pages 128-136. Yurok. Arnold R. Pilling. Pages 137-154. Wiyot. Albert B. Elsasser. Pages 155-163. Hupa, Chilula, and Whilkut. William J. Wallace. Pages 164-179. Karok. William Bright. Pages 180-189. Mattole, Nongatl, Sinkyone, Lassik, and Wailaki. Albert B. Elsasser. Pages 190-204. Chimariko. Shirley Silver. Pages 205-210. Shastan Peoples. Shirley Silver. Pages 211-224. Achumawi. D.L. Olmsted & Omer C. Stewart. Pages 225-235. Atsugewi. T.R. Garth. Pages 236-243. Cahto. James E. Myers. Pages 244-248. Yuki, Huchnom, and Coast Yuki. Virginia P. Miller. Pages 249-255. Wappo. Jesse O. Sawyer. Pages 256-263. Lake Miwok. Catherine A. Callaghan. Pages 264-273. Pomo: Introduction. Sally McLendon & Robert L. Oswalt. Pages 274-288. Western Pomo and Northeastern Pomo. Lowell John Bean & Dorothea Theodoratus. Pages 289-305. Eastern Pomo and Southeastern Pomo. Sally McLendon & Michael J. Lowy. Pages 306-323. Wintu. Frank R. LaPena. Pages 324-340. Nomlaki. Walter Goldschmidt. Pages 341-349. Patwin. Patti J. Johnson. Pages 350-360. Yana. Jerald Jay Johnson. Pages 361-369. Maidu and Konkow. Francis A. Riddell. Pages 370-386. Nisenan. Norman L. Wilson & Arlean H. Towne. Pages 387-397. Eastern Miwok. Richard Levy. Pages 398-413. Coast Miwok. Isabel Kelly. Pages 414-425. Monache. Robert F.G. Spier. Pages 426-436. Tubatulabal. Charles R. Smith. Pages 437-445. Yokuts: Introduction. Michael Silverstein. Pages 446-447. Southern Valley Yokuts. William J. Wallace. Pages 448-461. Northern Valley Yokuts. William J. Wallace. Pages 462-470. Foothill Yokuts. Robert F.G. Spier. Pages 471-484. Costanoan. Richard Levy. Pages 485-495. Esselen. Thomas Roy Hester. Pages 496-499. Salinan. Thomas Roy Hester. Pages 500-504. Chumash: Introduction. Campbell Grant. Pages 505-508. Eastern Coastal Chumash. Campbell Grant. Pages 509-519. Obispeño and Purisimeño Chumash. Roberts S. Greenwood. Pages 520-523. Island Chumash. Campbell Grant. Pages 524-529. Interior Chumash. Campbell Grant. Pages 530-534. Tataviam. Chester King & Thomas C. Blackburn. Pages 535-537. Gabrielino. Lowell John Bean & Charles R. Smith. Pages 538-549. Luiseño. Lowell John Bean & Florence C. Shipek. Pages 550-563. Kitanemuk. Thomas C. Blackburn & Lowell John Bean. Pages 564-569. Serrano. Lowell John Bean & Charles R. Smith. Pages 570-574. Cahuilla. Lowell John Bean. Pages 575-587. Cupeño. Lowell John Bean & Charles R. Smith. Pages 588-591. Tipai and Ipai. Katharine Luomala. Pages 592-609. History of Southern California Mission Indians. Florence C. Shipek. Pages 610-618. Prehistoric Rock Art. C. William Clewlow, Jr. Pages 619-625. Basketry. Albert B. Elsasser. Pages 626-641. Music and Musical Instruments. William J. Wallace. Pages 642-648. Natural Forces and Native World View. Robert F. Heizer. Pages 649-653. Mythology: Regional Patterns and History of Research. Robert F. Heizer. Pages 654-657. Comparative Literature. William J. Wallace. Pages 658-661. Cults and Their Transformations. Lowell John Bean & Sylvia Brakke Vane. Pages 662-672. Social Organization. Lowell John Bean. Pages 673-682. Sexual Status and Role Differences. Edith Wallace. Pages 683-689. Trade and Trails. Robert F. Heizer. Pages 690-693. Intergroup Conflict. Thomas McCorkle. Pages 694-700. Treaties. Robert F. Heizer. Pages 701-704. Litigation and its Effects. Omer C. Stewart. Pages 705-712. Twentieth-Century Secular Movements. Edward D. Castillo. Pages 713-718. Volume 9: Southwest Volume 9 covers the Pueblo tribes of the Southwest. Volume 10 covers the non-Pueblo tribes of the Southwest. Introduction. Alfonso Ortiz. Pages 1–4. History of Archeological Research. Albert H. Schroeder. Pages 5–13. History of Ethnological Research. Keith H. Basso. Pages 14–21. Prehistory: Introduction. Richard B. Woodbury. Pages 22–30. Post-Pleistocene Archeology, 7000-2000 B.C. Cynthis Irwin-Williams Pages 31–42. Agricultural Beginnings, 2000 B.C.-A.D. 500. Richard B. Woodbury & Ezra B.W. Zubrow. Pages 43–60. Prehistory: Mogollon. Paul S. Martin. Pages 61–74. Prehistory: Hohokam. George J. Gumerman & Emil W. Haury. Pages 75–90. Prehistory: O'otam. Charles C. Di Peso. Pages 91–99. Prehistory: Hakataya. Albert H. Schroeder. Pages 100-107. Prehistory: Western Anasazi. Fred Plog. Pages 108-130. Prehistory: Eastern Anasazi. Linda S. Cordell. Pages 131-151. Prehistory: Souther Periphery. Charles C. Di Peso. Pages 152-161. Southern Athapaskan Archeology. Joseph H. Gunnerson. Pages 162-169. Historical Linguistics and Archeology. Kenneth Hale & David Harris. Pages 170-177. History of Pueblo-Spanish Relations to 1821. Marc Simmons. Pages 178-193. The Pueblo Revolt. Joe S. Sando. Pages 194-197. Genizaros. Fray Angelico Chavez. Pages 198-200. Relations of the Southwest with the Plains and Great Basin. Charles H. Lange. Pages 201-205. History of the Pueblos Since 1821. Marc Simmons. Pages 206-223. Pueblos: Introduction. Fred Eggan. Pages 224-235. Pueblos Abandoned in Historic Times. Albert H. Schroeder. Pages 236-254. Taos Pueblo. John J. Bodine. Pages 255-267. Picuris Pueblo. Donald N. Brown. Pages 268-277. San Juan Pueblo. Alfonso Ortiz. Pages 278-295. Santa Clara Pueblo. Nancy S. Arnon & W.W. Hill. Pages 296-307. San Ildefonso Pueblo. Sandra A. Edelman. Pages 308-316. Nambe Pueblo. Randall H. Speirs. Pages 317-323. Pojoaque Pueblo. Marjorie F. Lambert. Pages 324-329. Tesuque Pueblo. Sandra A. Edelman & Alfonso Ortiz. Pages 330-335. Tigua Pueblo. Nicholas P. Houser. Pages 336-342. Sandia Pueblo. Elizabeth A. Brandt. Pages 343-350. Isleta Pueblo. Florence Hawley Ellis. Pages 351-365. Cochiti Pueblo. Charles H. Lange. Pages 366-378. Santo Domingo Pueblo. Charles H. Lange. Pages 379-389. San Felipe Pueblo. Pauline Turner Strong. Pages 390-397. Santa Ana Pueblo. Pauline Turner Strong. Pages 398-406. Zia Pueblo. E. Adamson Hoebel. Pages 407-417. Jemez Pueblo. Joe S. Sando. Pages 418-429. Pecos Pueblo. Albert H. Schroeder. Pages 430-437. Laguna Pueblo. Florence Hawley Ellis. Pages 438-449. Acoma Pueblo. Velma Garcia-Mason. Pages 450-466. Zuni Prehistory and History to 1850. Richard B. Woodbury. Pages 467-473. Zuni History, 1850-1970. Fred Eggan & T.N. Pandey. Pages 474-481. Zuni Social and Political Organization. Edmund J. Ladd. Pages 482-491. Zuni Economy. Edmund J. Ladd. Pages 492-498. Zuni Religion and World View. Dennis Tedlock. Pages 499-508. Zuni Semantic Categories. Willard Walker. Pages 509-513. Hopi Prehistory and History to 1850. J.O. Brew. Pages 514-523. Hopi History, 1850-1940. Frederick J. Dockstader. Pages 524-532. Hopi History, 1940-1970. Richard O. Clemmer. Pages 533-538. Hopi Social Organization. John C. Connelly. Pages 539-553. Hopi Economy and Subsistence. Edward A. Kennard. Pages 554-563. Hopi Ceremonial Organization. Ariette Frigout. Pages 564-576. Hopi World View. Louis A. Hieb. Pages 577-580. Hopi Semantics. C.F. Voegelin, F.H. Voegelin, LaVerne Masayesva Jeanne. Pages 581-586. Hopi-Tewa. Michael B. Stanislawski. Pages 587-602. Pueblo Fine Arts. J.J. Brody. Pages 603-608. The Pueblo Mythological Triangle: Poseyemu, Montezuma, and Jesus in the Pueblos. Richard J. Parmentier. Pages 609-622. Volume 10: Southwest Volume 10 covers the non-Pueblo tribes of the Southwest. Volume 9 covers the Pueblo tribes of the Southwest. Yuman: Introduction. Kenneth M. Stewart. Pages 1–4. Yuman Languages. Martha B. Kendall. Pages 4–12. Havasupai. Douglas W. Schwartz. Pages 13–24. Walapai. Thomas R. McGuire. Pages 25–37. Yavapai. Sigrid Khera & Patricia S. Mariella. Pages 38–54. Mohave. Kenneth M. Stewart. Pages 55–70. Maricopa. Henry O. Harwell & Marsha C.S. Kelly. Pages 71–85. Quechan. Robert L. Bee. Pages 86–98. Cocopa. Anita Alvarez de Williams. Pages 99–112. Uto-Aztecan Languages. Wick R. Miller. Pages 113-124. Pima and Papago: Introduction. Bernard L. Fontana. Pages 125-136. History of the Papago. Bernard L. Fontana. Pages 137-148. History of the Pima. Paul H. Ezell. Pages 149-160. Pima and Papago Ecological Adaptations. Robert A. Hackenberg. Pages 161-177. Pima and Papago Social Organization. Donald M. Bahr. Pages 178-192. Pima and Papago Medicine and Philosophy. Donal M. Bahr. Pages 193-200. Papago Semantics. Madeleine Mathiot. Pages 201-211. Contemporary Pima. Sally Giff Pablo. Pages 212-216. Lower Pima. Timothy Dunnigan. Pages 217-229. Seri. Thomas Bowen. Pages 230-249. Yaqui. Edward H. Spicer. Pages 250-263. Mayo. N. Ross Crumrine. Pages 264-275. Tarahumara. Campbell W. Pennington. Pages 276-289. Tarahumara Social Organization, Political Organization, and Religion. William L. Merrill. Pages 290-305. Northern Tepehuan. Campbell W. Pennington. Pages 306-314. Southern Periphery: West. Thomas Hinton. Pages 315-328. Southern Periphery: East. William B. Griffen. Pages 329-342. Coahuiltecans and Their Neighbors. T.N. Campbell. Pages 343-358. Karankawa. William W. Newcomb, Jr. Pages 359-367. The Apachean Culture Pattern and Its Origins. Morris E. Opler. Pages 368-392. Apachean Languages. Robert W. Young. Pages 393-400. Chiricahua Apache. Morris E. Opler. Pages 401-418. Mescalero Apache. Morris E. Opler. Pages 419-439. Jicarilla Apache. Veronica E. Tiller. Pages 440-461. Western Apache. Keith H. Basso. Pages 462-488. Navajo Prehistory and History to 1850. David M. Brugge. Pages 489-501. Navajo Views of Their Origin. Sam D. Gill. Pages 502-505. Navajo History, 1850-1923. Robert Roessel. Pages 506-523. Navajo Social Organization. Gary Witherspoon. Pages 524-535. Navajo Ceremonial System. Leland C. Wyman. Pages 536-557. Peyote Religion Among the Navajo. David F. Aberle. Pages 558-569. Language and Reality in Navajo World View. Gary Witherspon. Pages 570-578. A Taxonomic View of the Traditional Navajo Universe. Oswald Werner, Allen Manning, and Kenneth Yazzie Begishe. Pages 579-591. Navajo Arts and Crafts. Ruth Roessel. Pages 592-604. Navajo Music. David P. McAllester & Douglas F. Mitchell. Pages 605-623. Development of Navajo Tribal Government. Mary Shepardson. Pages 624-635. The Emerging Navajo Nation. Peter Iverson. Pages 636-640. Navajo Economic Development. David F. Aberle. Pages 641-658. Navajo Education. Gloria J. Emerson. Pages 659-671. Navajo Health Services and Projects. Robert L. Bergman. Pages 672-678. The Navajo Nation Today. Marshall Tome. Pages 679-683. Comparative Traditional Economics and Ecological Adaptations. Joseph G. Jorgensen. Pages 684-710. Inter-Indian Exchange in the Southwest. Richard I. Ford. Pages 711-722. Comparative Social Organization. Fred Eggan. Pages 723-742. Southwestern Ceremonialism. Louise Lamphere. Pages 743-763. Kachinas and Masking. James Seavey Griffith. Pages 764-777. Volume 11: Great Basin Introduction. Warren L. d'Azevedo. Pages 1–14. History of Research. Don D. Fowler. Pages 15–30. Prehistoric Environments. Peter J. Mehringer, Jr. Pages 31–50. Historical Environments. Kimball T. Harper. Pages 51–63. Subsistence. Catherine S. Fowler. Pages 64–97. Numic Languages. Wick R. Miller. Pages 98–106. Washoe Language. William H. Jacobsen, Jr. Pages 107-112. Prehistory Prehistory: Introduction. Jesse D. Jennings. Pages 113-119. Prehistory of the Northern Area. Luther S. Cressman. Pages 120-126. Prehistory of the Snake and Salmon River Area. B. Robert Butler. Pages 127-134. Prehistory of the Western Area. Robert G. Elston. Pages 135-148. Prehistory of the Eastern Area. C. Melvin Aikens & David B. Madsen. Pages 149-160. Fremont Cultures. John P. Marwitt. Pages 161-172. Prehistory of the Southeastern Area. Don D. Fowler & David B. Madsen. Pages 173-182. Prehistory of the Southwestern Area. Claude N. Warren & Robert H. Crabtree. Pages 183-193. Prehistoric Basketry. J.M. Adovasio. Pages 194-205. Prehistoric Ceramics. David B. Madsen. Pages 206-214. Rock Art. Polly Schaafsma. Pages 215-226. Portable Art Objects. Donald R. Tuohy. Pages 227-237. Early Trade. Richard E. Hughes & James A. Bennyhoff. Pages 238-255. Contract Anthropology. Donald L. Hardesty, Thomas J. Green, & La Mar W. Lindsay. Pages 256-261. Ethnology Western Shoshone. David H. Thomas, Lorann S.A. Pendleton, & Stephen C. Cappannari. Pages 262-283. Northern Shoshone and Bannock. Robert F. Murphy & Yolanda Murphy. Pages 284-307. Eastern Shoshone. Demitri B. Shimkin. Pages 308-335. Ute. Donald G. Callaway, Joel C. Janetski, & Omer C. Stewart. Pages 336-367. Southern Paiute. Isabel T. Kelly & Catherine S. Fowler. Pages 368-397. Kawaiisu. Maurice Zigmond. Pages 398-411. Owens Valley Paiute. Sven Liljeblad & Catherine S. Fowler. Pages 412-434. Northern Paiute. Catherine S. Fowler & Sven Liljeblad. Pages 435-465. Washoe. Warren L. d'Azevedo. Pages 466-498. History Euro-American Impact Before 1870. Carling I. Malouf & John Findlay. Pages 499-516. Introduction of the Horse. Demitri B. Shimkin. Pages 517-524. Treaties, Reservations, and Claims. Richard O. Clemmer & Omer C. Stewart. Pages 525-557. Tribal Politics. Elmer R. Rusco & Mary K. Rusco. Pages 558-572. Indian Economies, 1950-1980. Martha C. Knack. Pages 573-591. Issues: The Indian Perspective. Edward C. Johnson. Pages 592-600. Tribal Historical Projects. John R. Alley, Jr. Pages 601-607. Special Topics Population. Joy Leland. Pages 608-619. Kinship. Judith R. Shapiro. Pages 620-629. Mythology and Religious Concepts. Åke Hultkrantz. Pages 630-640. Oral Tradition: Content and Style of Verbal Arts. Sven Liljeblad. Pages 641-659. Ghost Dance, Bear Dance, and Sun Dance. Joseph G. Jorgensen. Pages 660-672. The Peyote Religion. Omer C. Stewart. Pages 673-681. Music. Thomas Vennum, Jr. Pages 682-704. Ethnographic Basketry. Catherine S. Fowler & Lawrence E. Dawson. Pages 705-737. Volume 12: Plateau Introduction. Deward E. Walker, Jr. Pages 1–7. History of Research. E.S. Lohse & Roderick Sprague. Pages 8–28. Environment. James C. Chatters. Pages 29–48. Languages. M. Dale Kinkade, William W. Elmendorf, Bruce Rigsby, & Haruo Aoki. Pages 49–72. Prehistory Prehistory: Introduction. James C. Chatters & David L. Pokotylo. Pages 73–80. Prehistory of the Northern Plateau. David L. Pokotylo & Donald Mitchell. Pages 81–102. Prehistory of the Southern Plateau. Kenneth M. Ames, Don E. Dumond, Jerry R. Galm, and Rick Minor. Pages 103-119. Prehistory of the Eastern Plateau. Tom E. Roll & Steven Hackenberger. Pages 120-137. History History Until 1846. Deward E. Walker, Jr. & Roderick Sprague. Pages 138-148. History Since 1846. Stephen Dow Beckham. Pages 149-173. The Peoples Lillooet. Dorothy I.D. Kennedy & Randall T. Bouchard. Pages 174-190. Thompson. David Wyatt. Pages 191-202. Shuswap. Marianne Boelscher Ignace. Pages 203-219. Nicola. David Wyatt. Pages 220-222. Kootenai. Bill B. Brunton. Pages 223-237. Northern Okanagan, Lakes, and Colville. Dorothy I.D. Kennedy & Randall T. Bouchard. Pages 238-252. Middle Columbia River Salishans. Jay Miller. Pages 253-270. Spokane. John Alan Ross. Pages 271-282. Kalispel. Sylvester L. Lahren, Jr. Pages 283-296. Flathead and Pend d'Oreille. Carling I. Malouf. Pages 297-312. Coeur d'Alene. Gary B. Palmer. Pages 313-326. Yakima and Neighboring Groups. Helen H. Schuster. Pages 327-351. Palouse. Roderick Sprague. Pages 352-359. Wasco, Wishram, and Cascades. David H. French & Kathrine S. French. Pages 360-377. Western Columbia River Sahaptins. Eugene S. Hunn & David H. French. Pages 378-394. Cayuse, Umatilla, and Walla Walla. Theodore Stern. Pages 395-419. Nez Perce. Deward E. Walker, Jr. Pages 420-438. Molala. Henry B. Zenk & Bruce Rigsby. Pages 439-445. Klamath and Modoc. Theodore Stern. Pages 446-466. Special Topics Demographic History Until 1990. Robert T. Boyd. Pages 467-483. Reservations and Reserves. Sylvester L. Lahren, Jr. Pages 484-498. Religious Movements. Deward E. Walker, Jr. & Helen H. Schuster. Pages 499-514. Kinship, Family, and Gender Roles. Lillian A. Ackerman. Pages 515-524. Ethnobiology and Subsistence. Eugene S. Hunn, Nancy J. Turner, & David H. French. Pages 525-545. Music and Dance. Loran Olsen. Pages 546-572. The Stick Game. Bill B. Brunton. Pages 573-583. Mythology. Rodney Frey & Dell Hymes. Pages 584-599. Basketry. Richard G. Conn & Mary Dodds Schlick. Pages 600-610. Rock Art. Keo Boreson. Pages 611-619. Fishing. Gordon W. Hewes. Pages 620-640. Columbia River Trade Network. Theodore Stern. Pages 641-652. Volume 13: Plains Volume 13 is physically bound in two volumes (Part 1 and Part 2), but page numbering is continuous between the two parts. Part 1 ends at "Plains Métis", page 676. Introduction. Raymond J. DeMallie. Pages 1–13. History of Archeological Research. Waldo R. Wedel & Richard A. Krause. Pages 14–22. History of Ethnological and Ethnohistorical Research. Raymond J. DeMallie & John C. Ewers. Pages 23–43. Environment and Subsistence. Waldo R. Wedel & Gorge C. Frison. Pages 44–60. The Languages of the Plains: Introduction. Ives Goddard. Pages 61–70. The Algonquian Languages of the Plains. Ives Goddard. Pages 71–79. Caddoan Languages. Douglas R. Parks. Pages 80–93. Siouan Languages. Douglas R. Parks & Robert L. Rankin. Pages 94–114. Prehistory Hunting and Gathering Tradition: Canadian Plains. Ian Dyck & Richard E. Morlan. Pages 115-130. Hunting and Gathering Tradition: Northwestern and Central Plains. George C. Frison. Pages 131-145. Hunting and Gathering Tradition: Southern Plains. Susan C. Vehik. Pages 146-158. Plains Woodland Tradition. Alfred E. Johnson. Pages 159-172. Plains Village Tradition: Central. Waldo R. Wedel. Pages 173-185. Plains Village Tradition: Middle Missouri. W. Raymond Wood. Pages 186-195. Plains Village Tradition: Coalescent. Richard A. Krause. Pages 196-206. Plains Village Tradition: Southern. Robert E. Bell & Robert L. Brooks. Pages 207-221. Plains Village Tradition: Eastern Periphery and Oneota Tradition. Dale R. Henning. Pages 222-233. Plains Village Tradition: Western Periphery. James H. Gunnerson. Pages 234-244. Plains Village Tradition: Postcontact. Donald J. Lehmer. Pages 245-255. History History of the United States Plains Until 1850. William R. Swagerty. Pages 256-279. History of the United States Plains Since 1850. Loretta Fowler. Pages 280-299. History of the Canadian Plains Until 1870. Jennifer S.H. Brown. Pages 300-312. History of the Canadian Plains Since 1870. David McCrady. Pages 313-328. Prairie Plains Hidatsa. Frank Henderson Stewart. Pages 329-348. Mandan. W. Raymond Wood & Lee Irwin. Pages 349-364. Arikara. Douglas R. Parks. Pages 365-390. Three Affiliated Tribes. Mary Jane Schneider. Pages 391-398. Omaha. Margot P. Liberty, W. Raymond Wood, & Lee Irwin. Pages 399-415. Ponca. Donald N. Brown & Lee Irwin. Pages 416-431. Iowa. Mildred Mott Wedel. Pages 432-446. Otoe and Missouria. Marjorie M. Schweitzer. Pages 447-461. Kansa. Garric, A. Bailey & Gloria A. Young. Pages 462-475. Osage. Garrick A. Bailey. Pages 476-496. Quapaw. Gloria A. Young & Michael P. Hoffman. Pages 497-514. Pawnee. Douglas R. Parks. Pages 515-547. Wichita. William W. Newcomb, Jr. Pages 548-566. Kitsai. Douglas R. Parks. Pages 567-571. High Plains Assiniboine. Raymond J. DeMallie & David Reed Miller. Pages 572-595. Stoney. Ian A.L. Getty & Erik D. Gooding. Pages 596-603. Blackfoot. Hugh A. Dempsey. Pages 604-628. Sarcee. Hugh A. Dempsey. Pages 629-637. Plains Cree. Regna Darnell. Pages 638-651. Plains Ojibwa. Patricia C. Albers. Pages 652-660. Plains Métis. Diane Paulette Payment. Pages 661-676. Gros Ventre. Loretta Fowler & Regina Flannery. Pages 677-694. Crow. Fred W. Voget. Pages 695-717. Sioux Until 1850. Raymond J. DeMallie. Pages 718-760. Santee. Patricia C. Albers. Pages 761-776. Yankton and Yanktonai. Raymond J. DeMallie. Pages 777-793. Teton. Raymond J. DeMallie. Pages 794-820. Sioux, 1930-2000. Dennis M. Christafferson. Pages 821-839. Arapaho. Loretta Fowler. Pages 840-862. Cheyenne. John H. Moore, Margot P. Liberty, & A. Terry Straus. Pages 863-885 Comanche. Thomas W. Kavanagh. Pages 886-906. Kiowa. Jerrold E. Levy. Pages 907-925. Plains Apache. Morris W. Foster & Martha McCollough. Pages 926-940. Lipan Apache. Morris E. Opler. Pages 941-952. Tonkawa. William W. Newcomb, Jr. & Thomas N. Campbell. Pages 953-964. Special Topics Enigmatic Groups. Douglas R. Praks. Pages 965-973. Kinship and Social Organization. Fred Eggan & Joseph A. Maxwell. Pages 974-982. Sun Dance. JoAllyn Archambault. Pages 983-995. Intertribal Religious Movements. Gloria A. Young. Pages 996-1010. Celebrations and Giveaways. Gloria A. Young & Erik D. Gooding. Pages 1011-1025. Music. Gloria A. Young. Pages 1026-1038. Art Until 1900. Candace S. Greene. Pages 1039-1054. Art Since 1900. JoAllyn Archambault. Pages 1055-1061. Tribal Traditions and Records. Raymond J. DeMallie & Douglas R. Parks. Pages 1062-1073. Volume 14: Southeast Introduction. Jason Baird Jackson & Raymond D. Fogelson. Pages 1–13. History of Archeological Research. James B. Stoltman. Pages 14–30. History of Ethnological and Linguistic Research. Jason Baird Jackson, Raymond D. Fogelson, & William C. Sturtevant. Pages 31–47. Demographic History. Russell Thornton. Pages 48–52. Environment. Kristen J. Gremillion. Pages 53–67. Languages. Jack B. Martin. Pages 68–86. Regional Prehistory Early and Middle Holocene Periods, 9500 to 3750 B.C. David G. Anderson & Kenneth E. Sassaman. Pages 87–100. Late Holocene Period, 3750 to 650 B.C. Kenneth E. Sassaman & David G. Anderson. Pages 101-114. Regional Cultures, 700 B.C.-A.D. 1000. Richard W. Jefferies. Pages 115-127. History History Until 1776. Claudio Saunt. Pages 128-138. The American Revolution to the Mid-Nineteenth Century. Gregory Evans Dowd. Pages 139-151. History of the Old South Since Removal. John R. Finger & Theda Perdue. Pages 152-161. History of the Western Southeast Since Removal. Donal L. Fixico. Pages 162-173. Small Tribes of the Western Southeast. Ives Goddard, Patricia Galloway, Marvin D. Jeter, Gregory A. Waskelkov, & John E. Worth. Pages 174-190. Florida Prehistory of Florida After 500 B.C. Jerald T. Milanich. Pages 191-203. Calusa. William H. Marquardt. Pages 204-212. Early Groups of Central and South Florida. Jerald T. Milanich. Pages 213-218. Timucua. JErald T. Milanich. Pages 219-228. Atlantic Coastal Plain Prehistory of the Lower Atlantic Coast After 500 B.C. Jerald T. Milanich. Pages 229-237. Guale. John E. Worth. Pages 238-244. Yamasee. John E. Worth. Pages 245-253. Cusabo. Gene Waddell. Pages 254-264. Interior Southeast Prehistory of the Eastern Interior After 500 B.C. David J. Hally & Robert C. Mainfort, Jr. Pages 265-285. Tutelo and Neighboring Groups. Raymond J. DeMallie. Pages 286-300. Catawba and Neighboring Groups. Blair A. Rudes, Thomas J. Blumer, & J. Alan May. Pages 301-318. Lumbee. Karen I. Blu. Pages 319-327. Indians of the Carolinas Since 1900. Patricia B. Lerch. Pages 328-336. Cherokee in the East. Raymond D. Fogelson. Pages 337-353. Cherokee in the West: History Since 1776. Duane H. King. Pages 354-372. Creek Confederacy Before Removal. Willard B. Walker. Pages 373-392. Creek in the West. Pamela Innes. Pages 393-403. Creek in the East Since Removal. Anthony J. Paredes. Pages 404-406. Alabama and Koasati. Stephanie A. May. Pages 407-414. Yuchi. Jason Baird Jackson. Pages 415-428. Florida Seminole and Miccosukee. William C. Sturtevant & Jessica R. Cattelino. Pages 429-449. Seminole in the West. Richard A. Sattler. Pages 450-464. Seminole Maroons. Kevin Mulroy. Pages 465-477. Chickasaw. Robert A. Brightman & Pamela S. Wallace. Pages 478-495. Chakchiuma. Patricia Galloway. Pages 496-498. Choctaw in the East. Patricia Galloway & Clara Sue Kidwell. Pages 499-519. Choctaw in the West. Clara Sue Kidwell. Pages 520-530. Choctaw at Ardmore, Oklahoma. Victoria Lindsay Levine. Pages 531-533. Mississippi Valley and Gulf Coastal Plain Prehistory of the Central Mississippi Valley and Ozarks After 500 B.C. Martha Ann Rolingson. Pages 534-544. Prehistory of the Lower Mississippi Valley After 800 B.C. Tristram R. Kidder. Pages 545-559. Prehistory of the Western Interior After 500 B.C. Ann M. Early. Pages 560-573. Prehistory of the Gulf Coastal Plain After 500 B.C. Ian W. Brown. Pages 574-585. Tunica, Biloxi, and Ofo. Jeffrey P. Brain, George Roth, & Willem J. de Reuse. Pages 586-597. Natchez and Neighboring Groups. Patricia Galloway & Jason Baird Jackson. Pages 598-615. Caddo. J. Daniel Rogers & George Sabo, III. Pages 616-631. Houma. Jack Campisi. Pages 632-641. Chitimacha. Robert A. Brightman. Pages 642-652. Survival and Maintenance Among Louisiana Tribes. Hiram F. Gregory, Jr. Pages 653-658. Atakapans and Neighboring Groups. William W. Newcomb, Jr. Pages 659-663. Chacato, Pensacola, Tahomé, Naniaba, and Mobila. George E. Lankford. Pages 664-668. Apalachee and Neighboring Groups. Bonnie G. McEwan. Pages 669-676. Special Topics Exchange and Interaction Until 1500. James A. Brown. Pages 677-685. Exchange and Interaction Since 1500. Gregory A. Waselkov. Pages 686-696. Social Organization. Greg Urban & Jason Baird Jackson. Pages 697-706. Mythology and Folklore. Greg Urban & Jason Baird Jackson. Pages 707-719. Music. Victoria Lindsay Levine. Pages 720-733. Ceremonialism Until 1500. Vernon James Knight. Pages 734-741. Native Christianity Since 1800. C. Blue Clark. Pages 742-752. African-Americans in Indian Societies. Tiya Miles & Celia E. Naylor-Ojurongbe. Pages 753-759. Resurgence and Recognition. Jack Campisi. Pages 760-768. Volume 15: Northeast Introduction. Bruce G. Trigger. Pages 1–3. History of Research. Elisabeth Tooker. Pages 4–13. General Prehistory Prehistory: Introduction. JAmes E. Fitting. Pages 14–15. Post-Pleistocene Adaptations. Robert E. Funk. Pages 16–27. Regional Cultural Development, 3000 to 300 B.C. James A. Tuck. Pages 28–43. Regional Cultural Development, 300 B.C. to A.D. 1000. James E. Fitting. Pages 44–57. Coastal Region Late Prehistory of the East coast. Dean R. Snow. Pages 58–69. Eastern Algonquian Languages. Ives Goddard. Pages 70–77. Early Indian-European Contacts. T.J. Brasser. Pages 78–88. Seventeenth-Century Indian Wars. Wilcomb E. Washburn. Pages 89–100. Beothuk. Barrie Reynolds. Pages 101-108. Micmac. Philip K. Bock. Pages 109-122. Maliseet-Passamaquoddy. Vincent O. Erikson. Pages 123-136. Eastern Abenaki. Dean R. Snow. Pages 137-147. Western Abenaki. Gordon M. Day. Pages 148-159. Indians of Southern New England and Long Island: Early Period. Bert Salwen. Pages 160-176. Indians of Southern New England and Long Island: Late Period. Laura E. Conkey, Ethel Boissevain, & Ives Goddard. Pages 177-189. Narragansett. William S. Simmons. Pages 190-197. Mahican. T.J. Brasser. Pages 198-212. Delaware. Ives Goddard. Pages 213-239. Nanticoke and Neighboring Tribes. Christian F. Feest. Pages 240-252. Virginia Algonquians. Christian F. Feest. Pages 253-270. North Carolina Algonquians. Christian F. Feest. Pages 271-281. Iroquoian Tribes of the Virginia-North Carolina Coastal Plain. Douglas W. Boyce. Pages 282-289, Marginal Groups. Brewton Berry. Pages 290-295. Saint Lawrence Lowlands Region Northern Iroquoian Culture Patterns. William N. Fenton. Pages 296-321. Northern Iroquoian Prehistory. James A. Tuck. Pages 322-333. Iroquoian Languages. Floyd G. Lounsbury. Pages 334-343. Early Iroquoian Contacts with Europeans. Bruce G. Trigger. Pages 344-356. Saint Lawrence Iroquoians. Bruce G. Trigger & James F. Pendergast. Pages 357-361. Susquehannock. Francis Jennings. Pages 362-367. Huron. Conrad E. Heidenreich. Pages 368-388. Huron of Lorette. Christian Morissonneau. Pages 389-393. Khionontateronon (Petun). Charles Garrad & Conrad E. Heidenreich. Pages 394-397. Wyandot. Elisabeth Tooker. Pages 398-406. Neutral and Wenro. Marian E. White. Pages 407-411. Erie. Marian E. White. Pages 412-417. The League of the Iroquois: Its History, Politics, and Ritual. Elisabeth Tooker. Pages 418-441. Origins of the Longhouse Religion. Anthony F.C. Wallace. Pages 441-448. Iroquois Since 1820. Elisabeth Tooker. Pages 449-465. Mohawk. William N. Fenton & Elisabeth Tooker. Pages 466-480. Oneida. Jack Campisi. Pages 481-490. Onondaga. Harold Blau, Jack Campisi, & Elisabeth Tooker. Pages 491-499. Cayuga. Marian E. White, William E. Engelbrecht, & Elisabeth Tooker. Pages 500-504. Seneca. Thomas S. Abler & Elisabeth Tooker. Pages 505-517. Tuscarora Among the Iroquois. David Landy. Pages 518-524. Six Nations of the Grand River, Ontario. Sally M. Weaver. Pages 525-536. Oklahoma Seneca-Cayuga. William C. Sturtevant. Pages 537-543. Iroquois in the West. Jack A. Frisch. Pages 544-546. Great Lakes-Riverine Region Late Prehistory of the Ohio Valley. James B. Griffin. Pages 547-559. Late Prehistory of the Illinois Area. Melvin L. Fowler & Robert L. Hall. Pages 560-568. Late Prehistory of the Upper Great Lakes Area. David S. Brose. Pages 569-582. Central Algonquian Languages. Ives Goddard. Pages 583-593. History of the Ohio Valley. William A. Hunter. Pages 588-593. History of the Illinois Area. J. Joseph Bauxar. Pages 594-601. History of the Upper Great Lakes Area. Lyle M. Stone & Donald Chaput. Pages 602-609. Great Lakes-Riverine Sociopolitical Organization. Charles Callender. Pages 610-621. Shawnee. Charles Callender. Pages 622-635. Fox. Charles Callender. Pages 636-647. Sauk. Charles Callender. Pages 648-655. Kickapoo. Charles Callender, Richard K. Pope, & Susan M. Pope. Pages 656-667. Mascouten. Ives Goddard. Pages 668-672. Illinois. Charles Callender. Pages 673-680. Miami. Charles Callender. Pages 681-689. Winnebago. Nancy Oestreich Lurie. Pages 690-707. Menominee. Louise S. Spindler. Pages 708-724. Potawatomi. James A. Clifton. Pages 725-742. Southwestern Chippewa. Robert E. Ritzenthaler. Pages 743-759. Southeastern Ojibwa. E.S. Rogers. Pages 760-771. Ottawa. Johanna E. Feest & Christian F. Feest. Pages 772-786. Nipissing. Gordon M. Day. Pages 787-791. Algonquin. Gordon M. Day & Bruce G. Trigger. Pages 792-797. Cultural Unity and Diversity. Bruce G. Trigger. Pages 798-804. Volume 17: Languages The map "Native Languages and Language Families of North America" compiled by Ives Goddard is included in a pocket in the inside cover along with a small photographic reproduction of John Wesley Powell's 1891 map, "Linguistic Stocks of American Indians North of Mexico". A wall size version of the former is available separately (). Introduction. Ives Goddard. Pages 1–16. The Description of the Native Languages of North America Before Boas. Ives Goddard. Pages 17–42. The Description of the Native Languages of North America: Boas and After. Marianne Mithun. Pages 43–63. Language and the Culture History of North America. Michael K. Foster. Pages 64–110. Borrowing. Catherine A. Callaghan & Geoffrey Gamble. Pages 111-116. Dynamics of Linguistic Contact. Michael Silverstein. Pages 117-136. Overview of General Characteristics. Marianne Mithun. Pages 137-157. Native Writing Systems. Willard B. Walker. Pages 158-184. Place-Names. Patricia O. Afable & Madison S. Beeler. Pages 185-199. Personal Names. David H. French & Kathrine S. French. Pages 200-221. The Ethnography of Speaking. Wick R. Miller. Pages 222-243. Discourse. M. Dale Kinkade & Anthony Mattina. Pages 244-274. Nonspeech Communication Systems. Allan R. Taylor. Pages 275-289. The Classification of the Native Languages of North America. Ives Goddard. Pages 290-324. Grammatical Sketches Sketch of Central Alaskan Yupik, an Eskimoan Language. Osahito Miyaoka. Pages 325-363. Sketch of Hupa, an Athapaskan Language. Victor Golla. Pages 364-389. Sketch of Cree, an Algonquian Language. H.C. Wolfart. Pages 390-439. Sketch of Lakhota, A Siouan Language. David S. Rood & Allan R. Taylor. Pages 440-482. Sketch of the Zuni Language. Stanley Newman. Pages 483-506. Sketch of Eastern Pomo, a Pomoan Language. Sally McLendon. Pages 507-550. Sketch of Seneca, an Iroquoian Language. Wallace L. Chafe. Pages 551-579. Sketch of Wichita, a Caddoan Language. David S. Rood. Pages 580-608. Sketch of Thompson, A Salishan Language. Laurence C. Thompson, M. Terry Thompson, & Steven M. Egesdal. Pages 609-643. Sketch of Coahuilteco, a Language Isolate of Texas. Rudolph C. Troike. Pages 644-665. Sketch of Sahaptin, a Sahaptian Language. Bruce Rigsby & Noel Rude. Pages 666-692. Sketch of Shoshone, a Uto-Aztecan Language. Wick R. Miller. Pages 693-720. Sources. Herbert J. Landar. Pages 721-761. Planned, but Unpublished Volumes With the suspension of publication, the following volumes remain unpublished. Volume 16, Technology and Visual Arts Volume 18, Biographical Dictionary Volume 19, Biographical Dictionary Volume 20, Index See also Handbook of Middle American Indians Handbook of South American Indians National Museum of the American Indian Notes Anthropology books Indigenous peoples of North America History of indigenous peoples of North America Monographic series Pre-Columbian studies books Encyclopedias of culture and ethnicity Smithsonian Institution publications

SOCET SET is a software application that performs functions related to photogrammetry. It is developed and published by BAE Systems. SOCET SET was among the first commercial digital photogrammetry software programs. Prior to the development of digital solutions, photogrammetry programs were primarily analog or custom systems built for government agencies. Features SOCET SET inputs digital aerial photographs, taken in stereo (binocular) fashion, and from those photos it automatically generates a digital elevation model, digital feature (vector data), and orthorectified images (called orthophotos). The output data is used by customers to create digital maps, and for mission planning and targeting purposes. The source images can come from film-based cameras, or digital cameras. The cameras can be mounted in an airplane, or on a satellite. A key requirement of the imagery is that there must be two or more overlapping images, taken from different vantage points. This "binocular" characteristic is what makes it mathematically possible to extract the 3-dimensional terrain and feature data from the imagery. A key step, involving very complex least squares mathematics, is triangulation which determines exactly where the cameras were positioned when the photographs were taken. Photogrammetrists that contributed to SOCET SET's Triangulation include Scott Miller, Bingcai Zhang, John Dolloff, and Fidel Paderes. If the quality of the triangulation is poor, all subsequent data will have correspondingly poor positional accuracy. The most recent major version, released in 2011, is version 5.6. Stereo display SOCET SET, like all high-end photogrammetry applications, requires a stereo display to be used to its fullest potential. Although SOCET SET can run and generate all its products on a computer with only a conventional display, a typical user will require a stereo display to view the digital data overlaid on the imagery. Interactive (manual) quality assurance requires this capability. File formats SOCET SET has the ability to read and write the following formats: VITec, Sun Raster, TIFF, TIFF 6.0 (Raster, Tiled, Tiled JPEG, and LZW), JFIF, NITF 2.0, NITF 2.0 JPEG, NITF 2.1, NITF 2.1 JPEG, ERDAS IMAGINE, JPEG 2000, Targa, COT, DGN, USGS DOQ, MrSID, Plain Raster. SOCET SET has the ability to read terrain data formats, including: DTED, USGS DEM, ASCII (user-defined), LIDAR LAS, ArcGrid, SDTS, NED, GSI, GeoTIFF. Vector formats supported include: DXF, Shapefile, ASCII (ArcGen), ASCII, TOPSCENE. Applications SOCET SET, like some photogrammetry tools, is used for the following applications: Cartography (map making) – especially topographic maps Targeting (warfare) Mission planning Mission rehearsal Remote sensing Building a 3D model of the Earth's surface for computer simulation Astrophysics Conservation-restoration About half of SOCET SET users are commercial, and half are government/military. History Development started as a Research and Development project around 1989, with Jim Gambale as the sole developer. At the time, the parent corporation was GDE Systems (formerly a subsidiary of General Dynamics). The hardware platform was a PC running Interactive Unix. After the prototype proved successful, a larger R&D effort was initiated in 1990, led by Herman Kading. One of the primary accomplishments of this effort was to migrate the product to UNIX Platforms, including Sun, SGI, HP, and IBM. Technical knowledge was provided by Helava Inc, a company based in Detroit, Michigan that specialized in photogrammetry. Helava employees Scott Miller, Janis McArthur née Thiede, and Kurt Devenecia brought in-depth experience in the field. Leadership of the project passed to Neal Olander around 1992, and after this time, SOCET SET (which before then was only sold to government customers) began to be distributed commercially. Around 1996, SOCET SET was migrated to the Microsoft Windows operating system, although the Unix system continued to be supported as well. Technical skills were provided by Tom Dawson, Kurt Reindel, Dave Mayes, Jim Colgate, Bingcai Zhang and Dave Miller. Future Starting in 2008, SOCET SET photogrammetric functionality is migrating to the next generation product, SOCET GXP (Geospatial eXploitation Product). Meaning of SOCET SET SOCET SET is an acronym that stands for SOftCopy Exploitation Toolkit. The phrase is a play on the actual tool socket set. Release history v1.0 – 1991 v2.0 – 1993 v3.0 – 1995 v4.0 – June 1997 v4.1 – Sept 1998 v4.2 – July 1999 v4.3 – Sept 2000 v4.4 – Dec 2001 v5.0 – Sept 2003 v5.1 – Apr 2004 v5.2 – Nov 2004 v5.3 – June 2006 v5.4 – Summer 2007 v5.4.1 – Jan 2008 v5.5 – Jun 2009 v5.6 – Jun 2011 Alternatives The chief competitor to SOCET SET is the Leica Photogrammetry Suite (aka LPS, owned by ERDAS), INPHO, PHOTOMOD and Intergraph, which are also leaders in the field of photogrammetry. Other related applications that have some photogrammetry functionality include ArcGIS, ENVI, and ERDAS IMAGINE, all of which are primarily GIS or remote sensing applications. See also Photogrammetry Triangulation Orthophoto Binocular vision Reconnaissance Remote Sensing Imaging Spectroscopy Least squares Related terms Image Processing GIS Topography Multispectral References External links Paper on terrain extraction Official page Photogrammetry software BAE Systems

MIDIbox is a non-commercial open source project with a series of guides on how to build musical instrument device interfaces (MIDI). Through a series of do it yourself tutorials, users are guided in the process of building a basic microcontroller that can also be used to build hardware MIDI control units for various synthesizers, multi-track recording software, and other MIDI devices; as well as stand-alone synthesizers, sequencers and other projects. History The MIDIbox Hardware Platform is the continuation of Thorsten Klose's earlier work on MIDI controllers. Designs are based around a standardized environment of reusable and exchangeable modules. Soon after the release of the first modules, a small group of enthusiasts formed and grew into a thriving open source development community. The MIDIbox Hardware Platform (MBHP) The platform focuses on well-defined and documented modules based on small, uncomplicated circuits, to allow for amateur assembly. These modules are then assembled into a complete project. All boards can be made as single-layer PCBs and prototype boards designed with a freeware CAD program. Almost all components are through-hole for easier assembly. The first MIDIbox hardware platform, (MBHP), was based its own open-source operating system– MIOS (MIDIbox Operating System) –written in PIC assembly language, for speed and accuracy. A C wrapper layer provides simplified coding. MIOS is designed and documented to allow simple reconfiguration, adaptation, and extension by hobbyists and enthusiasts. The new MIDIBox Hardware Platform, MIOS32, runs on ARM-based processors LPC1769, from NXP, and STM32F407, from STMicroelectronics, and is based on a Real Time Operating System (RTOS) derived from FreeRTOS. The toolchain for MIOS32 is based on GCC, and uses only C language. The modules Currently, about 15 separate modules are available: Microcontroller modules Core Module PIC Programmer Modules like an actual PIC-Burner or the JDM Module Input modules AIN Module Analog Input (0-5V) DIN Module Digital Input (ON/OFF) Output modules DOUT Module Digital Output (e.g. LED ON/OFF) LCD Module Liquid Crystal Display AOUT Module Analog Out to output Voltages (for Controls) Sequencer modules SEQV4 Sequencer V4 SEQV4L Sequencer V4 Lite SEQV3 Sequencer V3 Sound modules SID Module for the MOS Technology SID (as found in the Commodore 64) OPL3 Module for the FM-Chips YMF262 and YAC512 IIC SpeakJet Module for the SpeakJet SoundChip Memory expansion modules BankStick 32k / 64k Memory module MIDI I/O modules LTC Module MIDI LED Indicators + 1 MIDI-Out + 1 Thru (+ 1 optional to-COM-Port) USB Modules PC/USB Interface Miscellaneous modules MF Module to control Motorfaders IIC Modules to communicate to other (Microcontroller-)Devices via I2C RTP-MIDI module MIOS32 firmware includes direct link to KissBox OEM RTP-MIDI module over high-speed SPI The MIDIbox Operating System (MIOS) The MIDIbox Operating System (MIOS) facilitates design of flexible MIDI controller applications. MIOS adheres to a non-commercial, open platform as fundamental to the exchange of ideas and personal adaptations not possible with commercial controllers. Most controllers built by the community are based on existing documented designs, and begin life with the feature set provided by the existing firmware. End users can enhance their devices with exchangeable program code, and customize them to suit their host application, synthesizer or other MIDI device. Users can also customize to suit their own preferred workflow, or design a new project from scratch. Application source code, module schematics and PCB layouts are available free for non-commercial use as templates for modifications and improvements. Thus MIOS and the Hardware Platform allow an easy entry to hobbyist microcontroller development, while making possible applications outside the realms of the commercial, mainstream MIDI market. MIOS was licensed under the GPL until version 1.8. Later versions now require Thorsten Klose's permission for commercial use. Specifications The operating system consist of a kernel that provides user hooks to hardware and software events, and functions for interaction with Hardware Platform modules. One core module with a PIC18F452 microcontroller can handle up to 128 digital inputs up to 128 digital outputs up to 64 analog inputs character and graphical LCDs up to 8 BankSticks (I2C EEPROMs) one MIDI In and one MIDI Out, or an RS-232 serial COM port Background drivers are available for the following control tasks: MIDI I/O processing Bootstrap loader Analog conversion of up to 64 pots, faders or other analog sources with a 10-bit resolution Motor handling for up to 8 motorized moving faders with a 10-bit resolution Handling of up to 64 rotary encoders Handling of up to 128 buttons, touch sensors or similar digital input devices Handling of up to 128 LEDs, relays, Digital-Analog-Converters or similar output devices. In multiplex mode a nearly unlimited number of LEDs, LED rings and LED digits can be driven Read/Write from/to EEPROM, Flash, and BankStick Linking PIC18F Core modules via MIDIbox Link The whole operating system has been written in assembly language and has been optimized for speed. MIOS currently uses 8k of program memory and 640 bytes of RAM. Only 75 µs is required to read 128 digital input pins and to write to 128 output pins. 16 rotary encoders are handled within 100 µs. Analog inputs are scanned in the background every 200 µs; changes larger than a definable minimum range trigger a user hook. Up to 256 MIDI events can trigger dedicated functions; processing of the event list requires about 300 µS. MIDI events can also be processed by a user routine for sysex parsing or similar jobs. A user timer is available for time triggered code. Support for other high-level languages apart from C is possible. MIOS hardware The MIOS hardware is organized around the concept of MIDIBox Hardware Platform (MBHP). The MBHP are highly versatile motherboards, offering the highest possible number of connections for a given processor. Four versions of MBHP are currently available: MBHP for PIC16F877 and PIC18F452 (8 bits processors). The two chips are pin compatible, but the PCB needs a simple change between the two chips MBHP for LPC1769 (32 bits ARM7 processor) MBHP for STM32F407 (32 bits Cortex M4 processor) When a project needs less I/O than the ones available on a given MBHP, the MIDIBox concept allows to create a simplified PCB dedicated to this project. This is the approach used on Sammich MIDIBox SID and Sammich MIDIBox FM. These two kits contain the original MBHP design, but with a simplified PCB, dedicated to the connection with a SID chip or a YMF262 chip. In the case of the STM32F407 MBHP, the CPU is mounted on a module used as a daughterboard, made by ST and sold as a development board (called STM32F4 Discovery by ST). The final user does not have to deal with SMD components, the daughterboard being mounted on standard 0.1" connectors Complete solutions At this point there are 11 fully documented projects available, as well as a large number of user projects generated by the community. The official projects are as follows: MIDIbox SEQ V3: 16 Track Live Step and Morph Sequencer + advanced Arpeggiator MIDIbox SID V1: Hardware MIDI-controllable Synthesizer based on the MOS Technology SID (MOS6581) sound chip as shipped with the Commodore 64/128 MIDIbox FM V1: Hardware synthesizer based on the Yamaha YMF262 sound chip (also known as OPL3) for generating the famous FM sounds known from Soundblaster (compatible) soundcards of the early 90s MIDI Merger V1: Merges two separate MIDI inputs to a single output MIDI Router V1: Routes various MIDIboxes to a single MIDI port MIDI Processor: Provides basic functionality to receive and transmit MIDI events MIDIbox CV Provides CV and gate outputs to drive voltage controlled devices such as analog modular synthesizers MIDIbox 64: Full-fledged 64 channel MIDI controller MIDIbox 64E V2: Extended version of the MIDIbox 64 MIDIO128 V2: The MIDIO128 interface is used to drive up to 128 digital output pins and to react on up to 128 digital input pins via MIDI MIDIbox LC V1: Alternative to the MIDIbox 64/64E MIDImon V2: Reports events, which are transmitted over the MIDI cable, in a readable form See also List of music software References External links MIDIbox project website the MIDIbox wiki the MIDIbox forums ucapps.de (Non-commercial DIY Projects for MIDI Hardware Geeks website) The Protodeck: midibox controller designed for interact with Ableton Live used by Protofuse Do it yourself Microcontroller software Open-source music hardware DIY electronic music hardware MIDI

Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to another by sending pulses of infrared or visible light through an optical fiber. The light is a form of carrier wave that is modulated to carry information. Fiber is preferred over electrical cabling when high bandwidth, long distance, or immunity to electromagnetic interference is required. This type of communication can transmit voice, video, and telemetry through local area networks or across long distances. Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals, internet communication, and cable television signals. Researchers at Bell Labs have reached a record bandwidth–distance product of over kilometers per second using fiber-optic communication. Background First developed in the 1970s, fiber-optics have revolutionized the telecommunications industry and have played a major role in the advent of the Information Age. Because of its advantages over electrical transmission, optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire communications in backbone networks in the developed world. The process of communicating using fiber optics involves the following basic steps: creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, usually from an electrical signal relaying the signal along the fiber, ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or weak receiving the optical signal converting it into an electrical signal Applications Optical fiber is used by telecommunications companies to transmit telephone signals, Internet communication and cable television signals. It is also used in other industries, including medical, defense, government, industrial and commercial. In addition to serving the purposes of telecommunications, it is used as light guides, for imaging tools, lasers, hydrophones for seismic waves, SONAR, and as sensors to measure pressure and temperature. Due to lower attenuation and interference, optical fiber has advantages over copper wire in long-distance, high-bandwidth applications. However, infrastructure development within cities is relatively difficult and time-consuming, and fiber-optic systems can be complex and expensive to install and operate. Due to these difficulties, early fiber-optic communication systems were primarily installed in long-distance applications, where they can be used to their full transmission capacity, offsetting the increased cost. The prices of fiber-optic communications have dropped considerably since 2000. The price for rolling out fiber to homes has currently become more cost-effective than that of rolling out a copper-based network. Prices have dropped to $850 per subscriber in the US and lower in countries like The Netherlands, where digging costs are low and housing density is high. Since 1990, when optical-amplification systems became commercially available, the telecommunications industry has laid a vast network of intercity and transoceanic fiber communication lines. By 2002, an intercontinental network of 250,000 km of submarine communications cable with a capacity of 2.56 Tb/s was completed, and although specific network capacities are privileged information, telecommunications investment reports indicate that network capacity has increased dramatically since 2004. As of 2020, over 5 billion kilometers of fiber-optic cable has been deployed around the globe. History In 1880 Alexander Graham Bell and his assistant Charles Sumner Tainter created a very early precursor to fiber-optic communications, the Photophone, at Bell's newly established Volta Laboratory in Washington, D.C. Bell considered it his most important invention. The device allowed for the transmission of sound on a beam of light. On June 3, 1880, Bell conducted the world's first wireless telephone transmission between two buildings, some 213 meters apart. Due to its use of an atmospheric transmission medium, the Photophone would not prove practical until advances in laser and optical fiber technologies permitted the secure transport of light. The Photophone's first practical use came in military communication systems many decades later. In 1954 Harold Hopkins and Narinder Singh Kapany showed that rolled fiber glass allowed light to be transmitted. Jun-ichi Nishizawa, a Japanese scientist at Tohoku University, proposed the use of optical fibers for communications in 1963. Nishizawa invented the PIN diode and the static induction transistor, both of which contributed to the development of optical fiber communications. In 1966 Charles K. Kao and George Hockham at Standard Telecommunication Laboratories showed that the losses of 1,000 dB/km in existing glass (compared to 5–10 dB/km in coaxial cable) were due to contaminants which could potentially be removed. Optical fiber with attenuation low enough for communication purposes (about 20 dB/km) was developed in 1970 by Corning Glass Works. At the same time, GaAs semiconductor lasers were developed that were compact and therefore suitable for transmitting light through fiber optic cables for long distances. In 1973, Optelecom, Inc., co-founded by the inventor of the laser, Gordon Gould, received a contract from ARPA for one of the first optical communication systems. Developed for Army Missile Command in Huntsville, Alabama, the system was intended to allow a short-range missile with video processing to communicate by laser to the ground by means of a five-kilometer long optical fiber that unspooled from the missile as it flew. Optelecom then delivered the first commercial optical communications system to Chevron. After a period of research starting from 1975, the first commercial fiber-optic telecommunications system was developed which operated at a wavelength around 0.8 μm and used GaAs semiconductor lasers. This first-generation system operated at a bit rate of 45 Mbit/s with repeater spacing of up to 10 km. Soon on 22 April 1977, General Telephone and Electronics sent the first live telephone traffic through fiber optics at a 6 Mbit/s throughput in Long Beach, California. In October 1973, Corning Glass signed a development contract with CSELT and Pirelli aimed to test fiber optics in an urban environment: in September 1977, the second cable in this test series, named COS-2, was experimentally deployed in two lines (9 km) in Turin, for the first time in a big city, at a speed of 140 Mbit/s. The second generation of fiber-optic communication was developed for commercial use in the early 1980s, operated at 1.3 μm and used InGaAsP semiconductor lasers. These early systems were initially limited by multi-mode fiber dispersion, and in 1981 the single-mode fiber was revealed to greatly improve system performance, however practical connectors capable of working with single mode fiber proved difficult to develop. Canadian service provider SaskTel had completed construction of what was then the world's longest commercial fiber optic network, which covered and linked 52 communities. By 1987, these systems were operating at bit rates of up to with repeater spacing up to . The first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fiber was TAT-8, based on Desurvire optimized laser amplification technology. It went into operation in 1988. Third-generation fiber-optic systems operated at 1.55 μm and had losses of about 0.2 dB/km. This development was spurred by the discovery of indium gallium arsenide and the development of the indium gallium arsenide photodiode by Pearsall. Engineers overcame earlier difficulties with pulse-spreading using conventional InGaAsP semiconductor lasers at that wavelength by using dispersion-shifted fibers designed to have minimal dispersion at 1.55 μm or by limiting the laser spectrum to a single longitudinal mode. These developments eventually allowed third-generation systems to operate commercially at with repeater spacing in excess of . The fourth generation of fiber-optic communication systems used optical amplification to reduce the need for repeaters and wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) to increase data capacity. The introduction of WDM was the start of optical networking, as WDM became the technology of choice for fiber-optic bandwidth expansion. The first to market with a dense WDM system was Ciena Corp., in June 1996. The introduction of optical amplifiers and WDM caused system capacity to double every six months from 1992 until a bit rate of was reached by 2001. In 2006 a bit-rate of was reached over a single line using optical amplifiers. , Japanese scientists transmitted 319 terabits per second over 3,000 kilometers with four-core fiber cables with standard cable diameter. The focus of development for the fifth generation of fiber-optic communications is on extending the wavelength range over which a WDM system can operate. The conventional wavelength window, known as the C band, covers the wavelength range 1525–1565 nm, and dry fiber has a low-loss window promising an extension of that range to 1300–1650 nm. Other developments include the concept of optical solitons, pulses that preserve their shape by counteracting the effects of dispersion with the nonlinear effects of the fiber by using pulses of a specific shape. In the late 1990s through 2000, industry promoters, and research companies such as KMI, and RHK predicted massive increases in demand for communications bandwidth due to increased use of the Internet, and commercialization of various bandwidth-intensive consumer services, such as video on demand. Internet Protocol data traffic was increasing exponentially, at a faster rate than integrated circuit complexity had increased under Moore's Law. From the bust of the dot-com bubble through 2006, however, the main trend in the industry has been consolidation of firms and offshoring of manufacturing to reduce costs. Companies such as Verizon and AT&T have taken advantage of fiber-optic communications to deliver a variety of high-throughput data and broadband services to consumers' homes. Technology Modern fiber-optic communication systems generally include optical transmitters that convert electrical signals into optical signals, optical fiber cables to carry the signal, optical amplifiers, and optical receivers to convert the signal back into an electrical signal. The information transmitted is typically digital information generated by computers or telephone systems. Transmitters The most commonly used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes. The difference between LEDs and laser diodes is that LEDs produce incoherent light, while laser diodes produce coherent light. For use in optical communications, semiconductor optical transmitters must be designed to be compact, efficient and reliable, while operating in an optimal wavelength range and directly modulated at high frequencies. In its simplest form, an LED emits light through spontaneous emission, a phenomenon referred to as electroluminescence. The emitted light is incoherent with a relatively wide spectral width of 30–60 nm. The large spectrum width of LEDs is subject to higher fiber dispersion, considerably limiting their bit rate-distance product (a common measure of usefulness). LEDs are suitable primarily for local-area-network applications with bit rates of 10–100 Mbit/s and transmission distances of a few kilometers. LED light transmission is inefficient, with only about 1% of input power, or about 100 microwatts, eventually converted into launched power coupled into the optical fiber. LEDs have been developed that use several quantum wells to emit light at different wavelengths over a broad spectrum and are currently in use for local-area wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) applications. LEDs have been largely superseded by vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) devices, which offer improved speed, power and spectral properties, at a similar cost. However, due to their relatively simple design, LEDs are very useful for very low-cost applications. Commonly used classes of semiconductor laser transmitters used in fiber optics include VCSEL, Fabry–Pérot and distributed-feedback laser. A semiconductor laser emits light through stimulated emission rather than spontaneous emission, which results in high output power (~100 mW) as well as other benefits related to the nature of coherent light. The output of a laser is relatively directional, allowing high coupling efficiency (~50%) into single-mode fiber. Common VCSEL devices also couple well to multimode fiber. The narrow spectral width also allows for high bit rates since it reduces the effect of chromatic dispersion. Furthermore, semiconductor lasers can be modulated directly at high frequencies because of short recombination time. Laser diodes are often directly modulated, that is the light output is controlled by a current applied directly to the device. For very high data rates or very long distance links, a laser source may be operated continuous wave, and the light modulated by an external device, an optical modulator, such as an electro-absorption modulator or Mach–Zehnder interferometer. External modulation increases the achievable link distance by eliminating laser chirp, which broadens the linewidth in directly modulated lasers, increasing the chromatic dispersion in the fiber. For very high bandwidth efficiency, coherent modulation can be used to vary the phase of the light in addition to the amplitude, enabling the use of QPSK, QAM, and OFDM. "Dual-polarization quadrature phase shift keying is a modulation format that effectively sends four times as much information as traditional optical transmissions of the same speed." Receivers The main component of an optical receiver is a photodetector which converts light into electricity using the photoelectric effect. The primary photodetectors for telecommunications are made from Indium gallium arsenide. The photodetector is typically a semiconductor-based photodiode. Several types of photodiodes include p-n photodiodes, p-i-n photodiodes, and avalanche photodiodes. Metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetectors are also used due to their suitability for circuit integration in regenerators and wavelength-division multiplexers. Since light may be attenuated and distorted while passing through the fiber, photodetectors are typically coupled with a transimpedance amplifier and a limiting amplifier to produce a digital signal in the electrical domain recovered from the incoming optical signal. Further signal processing such as clock recovery from data performed by a phase-locked loop may also be applied before the data is passed on. Coherent receivers use a local oscillator laser in combination with a pair of hybrid couplers and four photodetectors per polarization, followed by high-speed ADCs and digital signal processing to recover data modulated with QPSK, QAM, or OFDM. Digital predistortion An optical communication system transmitter consists of a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), a driver amplifier and a Mach–Zehnder modulator. The deployment of higher modulation formats (>4-QAM) or higher baud Rates (>) diminishes the system performance due to linear and non-linear transmitter effects. These effects can be categorized as linear distortions due to DAC bandwidth limitation and transmitter I/Q skew as well as non-linear effects caused by gain saturation in the driver amplifier and the Mach–Zehnder modulator. Digital predistortion counteracts the degrading effects and enables Baud rates up to and modulation formats like 64-QAM and 128-QAM with the commercially available components. The transmitter digital signal processor performs digital predistortion on the input signals using the inverse transmitter model before sending the samples to the DAC. Older digital predistortion methods only addressed linear effects. Recent publications also consider non-linear distortions. Berenguer et al models the Mach–Zehnder modulator as an independent Wiener system and the DAC and the driver amplifier are modeled by a truncated, time-invariant Volterra series. Khanna et al use a memory polynomial to model the transmitter components jointly. In both approaches the Volterra series or the memory polynomial coefficients are found using indirect-learning architecture. Duthel et al records, for each branch of the Mach-Zehnder modulator, several signals at different polarity and phases. The signals are used to calculate the optical field. Cross-correlating in-phase and quadrature fields identifies the timing skew. The frequency response and the non-linear effects are determined by the indirect-learning architecture. Fiber cable types An optical fiber cable consists of a core, cladding, and a buffer (a protective outer coating), in which the cladding guides the light along the core by using the method of total internal reflection. The core and the cladding (which has a lower-refractive-index) are usually made of high-quality silica glass, although they can both be made of plastic as well. Connecting two optical fibers is done by fusion splicing or mechanical splicing and requires special skills and interconnection technology due to the microscopic precision required to align the fiber cores. Two main types of optical fiber used in optic communications include multi-mode optical fibers and single-mode optical fibers. A multi-mode optical fiber has a larger core (≥50 micrometers), allowing less precise, cheaper transmitters and receivers to connect to it as well as cheaper connectors. However, a multi-mode fiber introduces multimode distortion, which often limits the bandwidth and length of the link. Furthermore, because of its higher dopant content, multi-mode fibers are usually expensive and exhibit higher attenuation. The core of a single-mode fiber is smaller (<10 micrometers) and requires more expensive components and interconnection methods, but allows much longer and higher-performance links. Both single- and multi-mode fiber is offered in different grades. In order to package fiber into a commercially viable product, it typically is protectively coated by using ultraviolet cured acrylate polymers and assembled into a cable. After that, it can be laid in the ground and then run through the walls of a building and deployed aerially in a manner similar to copper cables. These fibers require less maintenance than common twisted pair wires once they are deployed. Specialized cables are used for long-distance subsea data transmission, e.g. transatlantic communications cable. New (2011–2013) cables operated by commercial enterprises (Emerald Atlantis, Hibernia Atlantic) typically have four strands of fiber and signals cross the Atlantic (NYC-London) in 60–70 ms. The cost of each such cable was about $300M in 2011. Another common practice is to bundle many fiber optic strands within long-distance power transmission cable using, for instance, an optical ground wire. This exploits power transmission rights of way effectively, ensures a power company can own and control the fiber required to monitor its own devices and lines, is effectively immune to tampering, and simplifies the deployment of smart grid technology. Amplification The transmission distance of a fiber-optic communication system has traditionally been limited by fiber attenuation and by fiber distortion. By using optoelectronic repeaters, these problems have been eliminated. These repeaters convert the signal into an electrical signal and then use a transmitter to send the signal again at a higher intensity than was received, thus counteracting the loss incurred in the previous segment. Because of the high complexity with modern wavelength-division multiplexed signals, including the fact that they had to be installed about once every , the cost of these repeaters is very high. An alternative approach is to use optical amplifiers which amplify the optical signal directly without having to convert the signal to the electrical domain. One common type of optical amplifier is an erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA). These are made by doping a length of fiber with the rare-earth mineral erbium and laser pumping it with light with a shorter wavelength than the communications signal (typically 980 nm). EDFAs provide gain in the ITU C band at 1550 nm. Optical amplifiers have several significant advantages over electrical repeaters. First, an optical amplifier can amplify a very wide band at once which can include hundreds of multiplexed channels, eliminating the need to demultiplex signals at each amplifier. Second, optical amplifiers operate independently of the data rate and modulation format, enabling multiple data rates and modulation formats to co-exist and enabling upgrading of the data rate of a system without having to replace all of the repeaters. Third, optical amplifiers are much simpler than a repeater with the same capabilities and are therefore significantly more reliable. Optical amplifiers have largely replaced repeaters in new installations, although electronic repeaters are still widely used when signal conditioning beyond amplification is required. Wavelength-division multiplexing Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is the technique of transmitting multiple channels of information through a single optical fiber by sending multiple light beams of different wavelengths through the fiber, each modulated with a separate information channel. This allows the available capacity of optical fibers to be multiplied. This requires a wavelength division multiplexer in the transmitting equipment and a demultiplexer (essentially a spectrometer) in the receiving equipment. Arrayed waveguide gratings are commonly used for multiplexing and demultiplexing in WDM. Using WDM technology now commercially available, the bandwidth of a fiber can be divided into as many as 160 channels to support a combined bit rate in the range of . Parameters Bandwidth–distance product Because the effect of dispersion increases with the length of the fiber, a fiber transmission system is often characterized by its bandwidth–distance product, usually expressed in units of MHz·km. This value is a product of bandwidth and distance because there is a trade-off between the bandwidth of the signal and the distance over which it can be carried. For example, a common multi-mode fiber with bandwidth–distance product of 500 MHz·km could carry a 500 MHz signal for 1 km or a 1000 MHz signal for 0.5 km. Record speeds Using wavelength-division multiplexing, each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light. The net data rate (data rate without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the forward error correction (FEC) overhead, multiplied by the number of channels (usually up to eighty in commercial dense WDM systems ). Standard fiber cables The following summarizes research using standard telecoms-grade single-mode, single-solid-core fiber cables. Specialized cables The following summarizes research using specialized cables that allow spatial multiplexing to occur, use specialized tri-mode fiber cables or similar specialized fiber optic cables. New techniques Research from DTU, Fujikura and NTT is notable in that the team was able to reduce the power consumption of the optics to around 5% compared with more mainstream techniques, which could lead to a new generation of very power-efficient optic components. Research conducted by the RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia, have developed a nanophotonic device that carries data on light waves that have been twisted into a spiral form and achieved a 100-fold increase in current attainable fiber optic speeds. The technique is known as orbital angular momentum (OAM). The nanophotonic device uses ultra-thin sheets to measure a fraction of a millimeter of twisted light. Nano-electronic device is embedded within a connector smaller than the size of a USB connector and may be fitted at the end of an optical fiber cable. Dispersion For modern glass optical fiber, the maximum transmission distance is limited not by direct material absorption but by dispersion, the spreading of optical pulses as they travel along the fiber. Dispersion limits the bandwidth of the fiber because the spreading optical pulse limits the rate which pulses can follow one another on the fiber and still be distinguishable at the receiver. Dispersion in optical fibers is caused by a variety of factors. Intermodal dispersion, caused by the different axial speeds of different transverse modes, limits the performance of multi-mode fiber. Because single-mode fiber supports only one transverse mode, intermodal dispersion is eliminated. In single-mode fiber performance is primarily limited by chromatic dispersion, which occurs because the index of the glass varies slightly depending on the wavelength of the light, and, due to modulation, light from optical transmitters necessarily occupies a (narrow) range of wavelengths. Polarization mode dispersion, another source of limitation, occurs because although the single-mode fiber can sustain only one transverse mode, it can carry this mode with two different polarizations, and slight imperfections or distortions in a fiber can alter the propagation velocities for the two polarizations. This phenomenon is called birefringence and can be counteracted by polarization-maintaining optical fiber. Some dispersion, notably chromatic dispersion, can be removed by a dispersion compensator. This works by using a specially prepared length of fiber that has the opposite dispersion to that induced by the transmission fiber, and this sharpens the pulse so that it can be correctly decoded by the electronics. Attenuation Fiber attenuation is caused by a combination of material absorption, Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering, and losses in connectors. Material absorption for pure silica is only around 0.03 dB/km. Impurities in early optical fibers caused attenuation of about 1000 dB/km. Modern fiber has attenuation around 0.3 dB/km. Other forms of attenuation are caused by physical stresses to the fiber, microscopic fluctuations in density, and imperfect splicing techniques. Transmission windows Each effect that contributes to attenuation and dispersion depends on the optical wavelength. There are wavelength bands (or windows) where these effects are weakest, and these are the most favorable for transmission. These windows have been standardized, and the currently defined bands are the following: Note that this table shows that current technology has managed to bridge the second and third windows that were originally disjoint. Historically, there was a window used below the O band, called the first window, at 800–900 nm; however, losses are high in this region so this window is used primarily for short-distance communications. The current lower windows (O and E) around 1300 nm have much lower losses. This region has zero dispersion. The middle windows (S and C) around 1500 nm are the most widely used. This region has the lowest attenuation losses and achieves the longest range. It does have some dispersion, so dispersion compensator devices are used to remove this. Regeneration When a communications link must span a larger distance than existing fiber-optic technology is capable of, the signal must be regenerated at intermediate points in the link by optical communications repeaters. Repeaters add substantial cost to a communication system, and so system designers attempt to minimize their use. Recent advances in fiber and optical communications technology have reduced signal degradation so far that regeneration of the optical signal is only needed over distances of hundreds of kilometers. This has greatly reduced the cost of optical networking, particularly over undersea spans where the cost and reliability of repeaters is one of the key factors determining the performance of the whole cable system. The main advances contributing to these performance improvements are dispersion management, which seeks to balance the effects of dispersion against non-linearity; and solitons, which use nonlinear effects in the fiber to enable dispersion-free propagation over long distances. Last mile Although fiber-optic systems excel in high-bandwidth applications, optical fiber has been slow to achieve its goal of fiber to the premises or to solve the last mile problem. However, FTTH deployment has increased significantly over the last decade and is projected to serve millions more subscribers in the near future. In Japan, for instance EPON has largely replaced DSL as a broadband Internet source. South Korea's KT also provides a service called FTTH (Fiber To The Home), which provides fiber-optic connections to the subscriber's home. The largest FTTH deployments are in Japan, South Korea, and China. Singapore started implementation of their all-fiber Next Generation Nationwide Broadband Network (Next Gen NBN), which is slated for completion in 2012 and is being installed by OpenNet. Since they began rolling out services in September 2010, network coverage in Singapore has reached 85% nationwide. In the US, Verizon Communications provides a FTTH service called FiOS to select high-ARPU (Average Revenue Per User) markets within its existing territory. The other major surviving ILEC (or Incumbent Local Exchange Carrier), AT&T, uses a FTTN (Fiber To The Node) service called U-verse with twisted-pair to the home. Their MSO competitors employ FTTN with coax using HFC. All of the major access networks use fiber for the bulk of the distance from the service provider's network to the customer. The globally dominant access network technology is EPON (Ethernet Passive Optical Network). In Europe, and among telcos in the United States, BPON (ATM-based Broadband PON) and GPON (Gigabit PON) had roots in the FSAN (Full Service Access Network) and ITU-T standards organizations under their control. Comparison with electrical transmission The choice between optical fiber and electrical (or copper) transmission for a particular system is made based on a number of trade-offs. Optical fiber is generally chosen for systems requiring higher bandwidth or spanning longer distances than electrical cabling can accommodate. The main benefits of fiber are its exceptionally low loss (allowing long distances between amplifiers/repeaters), its absence of ground currents and other parasite signal and power issues common to long parallel electric conductor runs (due to its reliance on light rather than electricity for transmission, and the dielectric nature of fiber optic), and its inherently high data-carrying capacity. Thousands of electrical links would be required to replace a single high-bandwidth fiber cable. Another benefit of fibers is that even when run alongside each other for long distances, fiber cables experience effectively no crosstalk, in contrast to some types of electrical transmission lines. Fiber can be installed in areas with high electromagnetic interference (EMI), such as alongside utility lines, power lines, and railroad tracks. Nonmetallic all-dielectric cables are also ideal for areas of high lightning-strike incidence. For comparison, while single-line, voice-grade copper systems longer than a couple of kilometers require in-line signal repeaters for satisfactory performance, it is not unusual for optical systems to go over , with no active or passive processing. Single-mode fiber cables are commonly available in lengths, minimizing the number of splices required over a long cable run. Multi-mode fiber is available in lengths up to 4 km, although industrial standards only mandate 2 km unbroken runs. In short-distance and relatively low-bandwidth applications, electrical transmission is often preferred because of its Lower material cost, where large quantities are not required Lower cost of transmitters and receivers Capability to carry electrical power as well as signals (in appropriately designed cables) Ease of operating transducers in linear mode. Optical fibers are more difficult and expensive to splice than electrical conductors. And at higher powers, optical fibers are susceptible to fiber fuse, resulting in catastrophic destruction of the fiber core and damage to transmission components. Because of these benefits of electrical transmission, optical communication is not common in short box-to-box, backplane, or chip-to-chip applications; however, optical systems on those scales have been demonstrated in the laboratory. In certain situations, fiber may be used even for short-distance or low-bandwidth applications, due to other important features: Immunity to electromagnetic interference, including nuclear electromagnetic pulses. High electrical resistance, making it safe to use near high-voltage equipment or between areas with different earth potentials. Lighter weight—important, for example, in aircraft. No sparks—important in flammable or explosive gas environments. Not electromagnetically radiating, and difficult to tap without disrupting the signal—important in high-security environments. Much smaller cable size—important where the pathway is limited, such as networking an existing building, where smaller channels can be drilled and space can be saved in existing cable ducts and trays. Resistance to corrosion due to non-metallic transmission medium Optical fiber cables can be installed in buildings with the same equipment that is used to install copper and coaxial cables, with some modifications due to the small size and limited pull tension and bend radius of optical cables. Optical cables can typically be installed in duct systems in spans of 6000 meters or more depending on the duct's condition, layout of the duct system, and installation technique. Longer cables can be coiled at an intermediate point and pulled farther into the duct system as necessary. Governing standards In order for various manufacturers to be able to develop components that function compatibly in fiber optic communication systems, a number of standards have been developed. The International Telecommunication Union publishes several standards related to the characteristics and performance of fibers themselves, including ITU-T G.651, "Characteristics of a 50/125 μm multimode graded index optical fibre cable" ITU-T G.652, "Characteristics of a single-mode optical fibre cable" Other standards specify performance criteria for fiber, transmitters, and receivers to be used together in conforming systems. Some of these standards are: 100 Gigabit Ethernet 10 Gigabit Ethernet Fibre Channel Gigabit Ethernet HIPPI Synchronous Digital Hierarchy Synchronous Optical Networking Optical transport network (OTN) TOSLINK is the most common format for digital audio cable using plastic optical fiber to connect digital sources to digital receivers. See also Dark fiber Fiber to the x Free-space optical communication Notes References Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology Fiber-Optic Technologies by Vivek Alwayn Further reading Keiser, Gerd. (2011). Optical fiber communications, 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Senior, John. (2008). Optical Fiber Communications: Principles and Practice, 3rd ed. Prentice Hall. External links "Understanding Optical Communications" An IBM redbook Fiber Optics - Internet, Cable and Telephone Communication Photonics

Mignonette is the 2004 album by the American folk rock band The Avett Brothers. The album was written and produced by Seth Avett, Scott Avett, and Bob Crawford of The Avett Brothers with additional vocals from their sister Bonnie Avett Rini and their father Jim Avett, who wrote and performed "Signs" in the 1970s. The album was preceded by the February 2004 release of the single "Swept Away" and was released on the Ramseur Records label. The album was named after an English yacht that sank in the 1880s off the Cape of Good Hope, leaving the crew of four stranded on a lifeboat. The cabin boy, Richard Parker, was killed and eaten by the others, two of whom were later put on trial and convicted of murder. Track listing Personnel Seth Avett, Scott Avett, & Bob Crawford — Audio Production, Composer, Primary Artist, Producer Jim Avett — Composer of "Signs", Primary Artist Scott Avett — Design, Drawing, Layout Design Seth Avett — Design, Drawing, Layout Design, Violin Daniel Coston — Photography Patrick Gauthier — Audio Engineer, Keyboards, Vocals, Vocals (Background) Brent Lambert — Mastering Dolph Ramseur — Audio Production, Producer Bonnie Avett Rini — Vocals References The Avett Brothers albums 2004 albums

SONOS, short for "silicon–oxide–nitride–oxide–silicon", more precisely, "polycrystalline silicon"—"silicon dioxide"—"silicon nitride"—"silicon dioxide"—"silicon", is a cross sectional structure of MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor), realized by P.C.Y. Chen of Fairchild Camera and Instrument in 1977. This structure is often used for non-volatile memories, such as EEPROM and flash memories. It is sometimes used for TFT LCD displays. It is one of CTF (charge trap flash) variants. It is distinguished from traditional non-volatile memory structures by the use of silicon nitride (Si3N4 or Si9N10) instead of "polysilicon-based FG (floating-gate)" for the charge storage material. A further variant is "SHINOS" ("silicon"—"hi-k"—"nitride"—"oxide"—"silicon"), which is substituted top oxide layer with high-κ material. Another advanced variant is "MONOS" ("metal–oxide–nitride–oxide–silicon"). Companies offering SONOS-based products include Cypress Semiconductor, Macronix, Toshiba, United Microelectronics Corporation and Floadia. Description A SONOS memory cell is formed from a standard polysilicon N-channel MOSFET transistor with the addition of a small sliver of silicon nitride inserted inside the transistor's gate oxide. The sliver of nitride is non-conductive but contains a large number of charge trapping sites able to hold an electrostatic charge. The nitride layer is electrically isolated from the surrounding transistor, although charges stored on the nitride directly affect the conductivity of the underlying transistor channel. The oxide/nitride sandwich typically consists of a 2 nm thick oxide lower layer, a 5 nm thick silicon nitride middle layer, and a 5–10 nm oxide upper layer. When the polysilicon control gate is biased positively, electrons from the transistor source and drain regions tunnel through the oxide layer and get trapped in the silicon nitride. This results in an energy barrier between the drain and the source, raising the threshold voltage Vt (the gate-source voltage necessary for current to flow through the transistor). The electrons can be removed again by applying a negative bias on the control gate. A SONOS memory array is constructed by fabricating a grid of SONOS transistors which are connected by horizontal and vertical control lines (wordlines and bitlines) to peripheral circuitry such as address decoders and sense amplifiers. After storing or erasing the cell, the controller can measure the state of the cell by passing a small voltage across the source-drain nodes; if current flows the cell must be in the "no trapped electrons" state, which is considered a logical "1". If no current is seen the cell must be in the "trapped electrons" state, which is considered as "0" state. The needed voltages are normally about 2 V for the erased state, and around 4.5 V for the programmed state. Comparison with Floating-Gate structure Generally SONOS is very similar to traditional FG (floating gate) type memory cell, but hypothetically offers higher quality storage. This is due to the smooth homogeneity of the Si3N4 film compared with polycrystalline film which has tiny irregularities. Flash requires the construction of a very high-performance insulating barrier on the gate leads of its transistors, often requiring as many as nine different steps, whereas the oxide layering in SONOS can be more easily produced on existing lines and more easily combined with CMOS logic. Additionally, traditional flash is less tolerant of oxide defects because a single shorting defect will discharge the entire polysilicon floating gate. The nitride in the SONOS structure is non-conductive, so a short only disturbs a localized patch of charge. Even with the introduction of new insulator technologies this has a definite "lower limit" around 7 to 12 nm, which means it is difficult for flash devices to scale smaller than about 45 nm linewidths. But, Intel-Micron group have realized 16 nm planar flash memory with traditional FG technology. SONOS, on the other hand, requires a very thin layer of insulator in order to work, making the gate area smaller than flash. This allows SONOS to scale to smaller linewidth, with recent examples being produced on 40 nm fabs and claims that it will scale to 20 nm. The linewidth is directly related to the overall storage of the resulting device, and indirectly related to the cost; in theory, SONOS' better scalability will result in higher capacity devices at lower costs. Additionally, the voltage needed to bias the gate during writing is much smaller than in traditional flash. In order to write flash, a high voltage is first built up in a separate circuit known as a charge pump, which increases the input voltage to between 9 V to 20 V. This process takes some time, meaning that writing to a flash cell is much slower than reading, often between 100 and 1000 times slower. The pulse of high power also degrades the cells slightly, meaning that flash devices can only be written to between 10,000 and 100,000 times, depending on the type. SONOS devices require much lower write voltages, typically 5–8 V, and do not degrade in the same way. SONOS does suffer from the converse problem however, where electrons become strongly trapped in the ONO layer and cannot be removed again. Over long usage this can eventually lead to enough trapped electrons to permanently set the cell to the "0" state, similar to the problems in flash. However, in SONOS this requires on the order of a 100 thousands write/erase cycles, 10 to 100 times worse compared with legacy FG memory cell. History Background The original MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by Egyptian engineer Mohamed M. Atalla and Korean engineer Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, and demonstrated in 1960. Kahng went on to invent the floating-gate MOSFET with Simon Min Sze at Bell Labs, and they proposed its use as a floating-gate (FG) memory cell, in 1967. This was the first form of non-volatile memory based on the injection and storage of charges in a floating-gate MOSFET, which later became the basis for EPROM (erasable PROM), EEPROM (electrically erasable PROM) and flash memory technologies. Charge trapping at the time was an issue in MNOS transistors, but John Szedon and Ting L. Chu revealed in June 1967 that this difficulty could be harnessed to produce a nonvolatile memory cell. Subsequently, in late 1967, a Sperry research team led by H.A. Richard Wegener invented the metal–nitride–oxide–semiconductor transistor (MNOS transistor), a type of MOSFET in which the oxide layer is replaced by a double layer of nitride and oxide. Nitride was used as a trapping layer instead of a floating gate, but its use was limited as it was considered inferior to a floating gate. Charge trap (CT) memory was introduced with MNOS devices in the late 1960s. It had a device structure and operating principles similar to floating-gate (FG) memory, but the main difference is that the charges are stored in a conducting material (typically a doped polysilicon layer) in FG memory, whereas CT memory stored charges in localized traps within a dielectric layer (typically made of silicon nitride). Development SONOS was first conceptualized in the 1960s. MONOS is realized in 1968 by Westinghouse Electric Corporation. In the early 1970s initial commercial devices were realized using PMOS transistors and a metal-nitride-oxide (MNOS) stack with a 45 nm nitride storage layer. These devices required up to 30V to operate. In 1977, P.C.Y. Chen of Fairchild Camera and Instrument introduced a SONOS cross sectional structured MOSFET with tunnel silicon dioxide of 30 Ångström thickness for EEPROM. According to NCR Corporation's patent application in 1980, SONOS structure required +25 volts and −25 volts for writing and erasing, respectively. It was improved to +12 V by PMOS-based MNOS (metal-nitride-oxide-semiconductor) structure. By the early 1980s, polysilicon NMOS-based structures were in use with operating voltages under 20 V. By the late 1980s and early 1990s PMOS SONOS structures were demonstrating program/erase voltages in the range of 5–12 volts. On the other hand, in 1980, Intel realized highly reliable EEPROM with double layered polysilicon structure, which is named FLOTOX, both for erase and write cycling endurance and for data retention term. SONOS has been in the past produced by Philips Semiconductors, Spansion, Qimonda and Saifun Semiconductors. Recent efforts In 2002, AMD and Fujitsu, formed as Spansion in 2003 and later merged with Cypress Semiconductor in 2014, developed a SONOS-like MirrorBit technology based on the license from Saifun Semiconductors, Ltd.'s NROM technology. As of 2011 Cypress Semiconductor developed SONOS memories for multiple processes, and started to sell them as IP to embed in other devices. UMC has already used SONOS since 2006 and has licensed Cypress for 40 nm and other nodes. Shanghai Huali Microelectronics Corporation (HLMC) has also announced to be producing Cypress SONOS at 40 nm and 55 nm. In 2006, Toshiba developed a new double tunneling layer technology with SONOS structure, which utilize Si9N10 silicon nitride. Toshiba also researches MONOS ("Metal-Oxide-Nitride-Oxide-Silicon") structure for their 20 nm node NAND gate type flash memories. Renesas Electronics uses MONOS structure in 40 nm node era. which is the result of collaboration with TSMC. While other companies still use FG (floating gate) structure. For example, GlobalFoundries use floating-gate-based split-gate SuperFlash ESF3 cell for their 40 nm products. Some new structure for FG (floating gate) type flash memories are still intensively studied. In 2016, GlobalFoundries developed FG-based 2.5V Embedded flash macro. In 2017, Fujitsu announced to license FG-based ESF3/FLOTOX structure, which is originally developed by Intel in 1980, from Silicon Storage Technology for their embedded non-volatile memory solutions. As of 2016, Intel-Micron group have disclosed that they stayed traditional FG technology in their 3-dimensional NAND flash memory. They also use FG technology for 16 nm planar NAND flash. See also Polycrystalline silicon Silicon dioxide Silicon nitride Silicon MOSFET Charge trap flash Floating-gate MOSFET EEPROM Flash memory References External links Gutmann (2001) papaer: "Data Remanence in Semiconductor Devices" USENIX Computer memory Non-volatile memory Emerging technologies MOSFETs

Tundra Semiconductor Corporation is a company headquartered in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. It is owned by Integrated Device Technology. Tundra supplies communications, computing and storage companies with System Interconnect products, intellectual property (IP) and design services backed by customer service and technical support. Tundra's track record includes bridges and switches enabling industry standards: RapidIO, PCI, PCI-X, PCI Express, Power ISA, VME, HyperTransport, Interlaken, and SPI4.2. Tundra's products enable board design and layout, with specific focus on system level signal integrity. Tundra's design services division, Silicon Logic Engineering, Inc., offers ASIC and FPGA design services, semiconductor intellectual property and product development consulting. Tundra has design centers in North America: Ottawa, Eau Claire, Wisconsin and in Hyderabad, India. Its sales offices are located in Europe, and throughout North America, and Asia Pacific. In 2004, Tundra joined with IBM and others to form Power.org, an organization devoted to drive development and adaptation of Power ISA computers. History Although Tundra was incorporated as an entity in 1995, its history goes back to 1983 as Calmos Semiconductor, which was subsequently acquired in 1989 by Newbridge Networks Corporation, where it became known as Newbridge Microsystems and in 1995 was spun out as Tundra Semiconductor. In June 2009 Tundra was acquired by IDT. Calmos Former MicroSystems International and Mosaid employee John Roberts founded Calmos Microsystems in April 1983. The company was initially run out of his home in Kanata and moved to a facility on Edgewater Road in Kanata once the company had raised $800,000 in funds. The company originally planned to design and produce gate array integrated circuits, or chips, for Canadian and U.S. customers. During the design phase, the market dried up and forced the company to focus on developing application-specific circuits. These application-specific circuits would later be incorporated into a larger circuits for other applications. It ended up being a profitable niche that saw the company through the early 1980s memory market slump. By October 1985, Calmos had raised additional funds, bringing the total to $1.4 million, had grown to 15 employees and had yearly revenue of $1.5 Million. In order to increase sales and grow the business, John Roberts looked for a CEO with experience in the U.S. semiconductor market. Adam Chowaniec, who had left Commodore International's Semiconductor division was brought on board as President, while John Roberts became the Executive VP of R&D. Newbridge Microsystems Newbridge Networks primarily acquired Calmos Microsystems for its single chip high-speed public key data encryption system, which became a selling point for Newbridge Networks systems to the U.S. federal government. The rest of the original Calmos Product line though revenue generating and profitable was not a major reason for the acquisition, these products continued to be sources of revenue well after the division was spun out as Tundra, most notably this include the 8085 variant which was sold as late as 1999. In December 1995, Newbridge Microsystems assets were sold to a new corporate entity known as Tundra Semiconductor. Newbridge Affiliate At the time of the Tundra spun out the company raised $10 Million (CDN) in third-party investment from Venture Capital Funds and Mutual funds, Terry Matthews also made a personal investment and Newbridge retained a 38% ownership in the new entity meaning Tundra Semiconductor became a member of the Newbridge affiliate program. A benefit of the spin out from direct Newbridge Networks ownership was that Tundra was now free to sell to Newbridge competitors In 1997, Canadian Industry Minister John Manley announced that Tundra Semiconductor would receive a $400,000 loan for R&D use. Chowaniec stated to a Rideau Club luncheon that Tundra had $11 million in revenue in 1996 and expected to generate $20 million or $21 million in revenue achieve profitability in 1997 and hoped to increase sales revenues by another 50 per cent in 1998. He also made reference to the fact that the company was having difficulty in recruiting the talent it needed to move the company forward with about 20 positions for engineers that were unfilled. The company employee count during this period grew from 50 to 70. Technology and Innovation In early 1990, Newbridge Microsystems licensed DY4 VME Interface Chip Set. This became the beginning of the companies involvement in system interconnect development that Tundra was later to become a leader in. At about this time Calmos Founder John Roberts left the company to become C.E.O. of the Strategic Microelectronics Consortium and later founded another startup SiGe Microsystems which also spunout Sigem. In 1994 Newbridge Microsystems also developed the SPRITE T1, the first T1 Wide Area Network access card for a Sun Microsystems Computer Co. Netra Internet Server. SPRITE T1 was an SBus card that enabled full T1 WAN service directly in to a Sun Netra Internet Server. By early 1995 Newbridge Microsystems had announced a strategic relationship with Motorola Inc. for the development of a PCI to 68K bridge product family. This was to be the beginning of a long partnership between Newbridge Microsystems (Tundra) and Motorola which continues today with Tundra's PowerPC system products. Acquisitions In February 1988 the company acquired the integrated circuit division of Siltronics for $500,000. The purchase brought with it revenue of $2 to $3 million and all of the inventory, machinery, customer lists and unfilled orders for Siltronics's bipolar integrated circuit product line. Calmos also hired 24 of the existing Siltonics staff including founder and vice-president Gyles Panther, doubling the size of Calmos's workforce. Later that year Federal Industry Minister Michel Côté announced that Calmos had won a $3.07 million Canadian Federal grant to work with European Silicon Structures of Bracknell, England for joint development of Applications Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC.) At about this time the company grew to include an assembly plant located in Nepean, on Stafford Road. In March 1989 Calmos acquired UltraMac Conversions which designed and manufactured peripherals for Apple's Macintosh computers, which subsequently operated under the name Calmos Data, the group was headed by the former president Lincoln Henthorn. By May Calmos Microsystems had grown to 55 employees, was profitable and had sales of over $4.5 million. Newbridge Networks, a Calmos customer and founded by Welsh entrepreneur Terry Matthews, who had also attended university with founder John Roberts, acquired the company. Newbridge was private at the time and subsequently went public that June, financial terms were not disclosed at the time. However, in a 1997 Ottawa Citizen interview John Roberts stated that Calmos was purchased for $5 million in Newbridge Pre-IPO shares that subsequently became worth "about $100 Million." Tundra acquired a South Portland, Maine-based chip developer for $45 million (U.S.) 90 per cent in stock and the balance in cash. Quadic Systems Inc had a relationship with Tundra, from providing expertise in the design of Tundra's recently released PowerPro and upcoming Tsi920 semiconductors. Former Quadic president David Ferris became vice president of the South Portland operation which had at the time of acquisition 37 employees. In September 2003 Tundra bought the MPC1xx family northbridge controllers for the PowerPC 7xx and 7xxx microprocessors from Motorola, which it now produces under the brand name Tsi1xx. IPO & public company The company held its first AGM on October 20, 1997 where Adam Chowaniac stated the company's intention to go public in 12–18 months. However, Tundra's hopes to go public in 1998 were dashed by the Asian financial crisis that also affected the stock markets. Although this complicated their future growth plans, Tundra continued to grow from its profits and through the continued support of its private investors. Part of this continued growth was the opening of a Mountain View office for sales and customer support. The company began trading on Monday, February 8, 1999 on the Toronto Stock Exchange. The Shares placement was at $9.25 but the shares were in such demand that they opened well above this price at $13.10 and closed their first day of trading at $13.24." The IPO also allowed Newbridge Networks to sell a portion of its ownership, cutting it from 37% to 17%. By march the company announced that its stake had fallen to 10.3%. By September 1999 the companies had completed a secondary offering of one million shares for $15.6 million and the stock was trading at $17.25. The company also announced plans to move into a mixed-retail and office space campus in the Kanata Centrum Area which never came to fruition. In February 2000 the company recorded revenues of $10.435 million and earnings of $1.222 million (eight cents a share) in the third fiscal quarter ended Jan. 30, compared with $7.311 million in revenue and $539,000 earnings (five cents a share) for the same 1999 period. The stock subsequently hit a new all-time high of $51.75. The company had an internal goal of becoming a billion dollar company in revenue by 2008. At the time the company expected revenue growth to stay at 20 to 50% annually "for the next couple years", according to an interview with Adam Chowaniac. Tundra shares, buoyed by excellent third-quarter results in late February, hit an all-time intraday high of $78 on March 8, 2000. In late April the company was added to the TSE 300 Composite, the TSE 200, and the Standard and Poor/TSE Canadian SmallCap Indices. For the fiscal year ended April 30, 2000, revenue was $40.672 million, up 46 per cent from $27.809 million the year before. Earnings for the year were $4.614 million, or 31 cents per fully diluted share, a 111% gain over the $2.184 million, or 19 cents per share. At about this time R&D initiatives that had been in the pipeline from the IPO funding started to come online. Tundra announced the deployment of a multi-port bus switch called the PowerSpan, which the company claimed was the industry's first multi-port PowerPC-to-PCI Bus Switch. While the bulk of sales came from existing VME and QSpan products, the PowerSpan and the TSI 920 (A voice signals to digital messages converter), were expected to start contributing significant revenue number in the next fiscal year. References Computer companies of Canada Companies established in 1983 Companies based in Ottawa

The following timeline lists the significant events in the invention and development of the telescope. BC 2560 BC to 1 BC c.2560 BC–c.860 BC — Egyptian artisans polish rock crystal, semi-precious stones, and latterly glass to produce facsimile eyes for statuary and mummy cases. The intent appears to be to produce an optical illusion. c.470 BC–c.390 BC — Chinese philosopher Mozi writes on the use of concave mirrors to focus the sun's rays. 424 BC Aristophanes "lens" is a glass globe filled with water.(Seneca says that it can be used to read letters no matter how small or dim) 3rd century BC Euclid is the first to study reflection and refraction using mathematical theorems based on the fact that light travels in straight lines AD 1 AD to 999 AD 2nd century AD — Ptolemy (in his work Optics) wrote about the properties of light including: reflection, refraction, and colour. 984 — Ibn Sahl completes a treatise On Burning Mirrors and Lenses, describing plano-convex and biconvex lenses, and parabolic and ellipsoidal mirrors. 1000 AD to 1999 AD 1011–1021 — Ibn al-Haytham (also known as Alhacen or Alhazen) writes the Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics) 12th century — Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics is introduced to Europe translated into Latin. 1230–1235 — Robert Grosseteste describes the use of 'optics' to "...make small things placed at a distance appear any size we want, so that it may be possible for us to read the smallest letters at incredible distances..." ("Haec namque pars Perspectivae perfecte cognita ostendit nobis modum, quo res longissime distantes faciamus apparere propinquissime positas et quo res magnas propinquas faciamus apparere brevissimas et quo res longe positas parvas faciamus apparere quantum volumus magnas, ita ut possible sit nobis ex incredibili distantia litteras minimas legere, aut arenam, aut granum, aut gramina, aut quaevis minuta numerare.") in his work De Iride. 1266 — Roger Bacon mentions the magnifying properties of transparent objects in his treatise Opus Majus. 1270 (approx) — Witelo writes Perspectiva — "Optics" incorporating much of Kitab al-Manazir. 1285–1300 spectacles are invented. 1570 — The writings of Thomas Digges describes how his father, English mathematician and surveyor Leonard Digges (1520–1559), made use of a "proportional Glass" to view distant objects and people. Some, such as the historian Colin Ronan, claim this describes a reflecting or refracting telescope built between 1540 and 1559 but its vague description and claimed performance makes it dubious. 1570s — Ottoman astronomer and engineer Taqi al-Din seems to describe a rudimentary telescope in his Book of the Light of the Pupil of Vision and the Light of the Truth of the Sights. He also states that he wrote another earlier treatise explaining the way this instrument is made and used, mentioning that he invented it some time before 1574. 1586 Giambattista della Porta writes "...to make glasses that can recognize a man several miles away" It is unclear whether he is describing a telescope or corrective glasses. 1608 — Hans Lippershey, a Dutch lensmaker, applies for a patent for a perspective glass "for seeing things far away as if they were nearby", the first recorded design for what will later be called a telescope. His patent beats fellow Dutch instrument-maker's Jacob Metius's patent by a few weeks. A claim will be made 37 years later by another Dutch spectacle-maker that his father, Zacharias Janssen, invented the telescope. 1609 — Galileo Galilei makes his own improved version of Lippershey's telescope, calling it a "perspicillum". 1611 — Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani coins the word "telescope" (from the Greek τῆλε, tele "far" and σκοπεῖν, skopein "to look or see"; τηλεσκόπος, teleskopos "far-seeing") for one of Galileo Galilei's instruments presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei. 1611 — Johannes Kepler describes the optics of lenses (see his books Astronomiae Pars Optica and Dioptrice), including a new kind of astronomical telescope with two convex lenses (the 'Keplerian' telescope). 1616 — Niccolo Zucchi claims at this time he experimented with a concave bronze mirror, attempting to make a reflecting telescope. 1630 — Christoph Scheiner constructs a telescope to Kepler's design. 1650 — Christiaan Huygens produces his design for a compound eyepiece. 1663 — Scottish mathematician James Gregory designs a reflecting telescope with paraboloid primary mirror and ellipsoid secondary mirror. Construction techniques at the time could not make it, and a workable model was not produced until 10 years later by Robert Hooke. The design is known as 'Gregorian'. 1668 — Isaac Newton produces the first functioning reflecting telescope using a spherical primary mirror and a flat diagonal secondary mirror. This design is termed the 'Newtonian'. 1672 — Laurent Cassegrain, produces a design for a reflecting telescope using a paraboloid primary mirror and a hyperboloid secondary mirror. The design, named 'Cassegrain', is still used in astronomical telescopes used in observatories in 2006. 1674 — Robert Hooke produces a reflecting telescope based on the Gregorian design. 1684 — Christiaan Huygens publishes "Astroscopia Compendiaria" in which he described the design of very long aerial telescopes. 1720 — John Hadley develops ways of aspherizing spherical mirrors to make very accurate parabolic mirrors and produces a much improved Gregorian telescope 1721 — John Hadley experiments with the neglected Newtonian telescope design and demonstrates one with a 6-inch parabolic mirror to the Royal Society. 1730s — James Short succeeds in producing a Gregorian telescopes to true paraboloidal primary and ellipsoidal secondary design specifications. 1733 — Chester Moore Hall invents the achromatic lens. 1758 — John Dollond re-invents and patents the achromatic lens. 1783 — Jesse Ramsden invents his eponymous eyepiece. 1803 — The "Observatorio Astronómico Nacional de Colombia (OAN)" is inaugurated as the first observatory in the Americas in Bogotá, Colombia. 1849 — Carl Kellner designs and manufactures the first achromatic eyepiece, announced in his paper "Das orthoskopische Ocular". 1857 — Léon Foucault improves reflecting telescopes when he introduced a process of depositing a layer of silver on glass telescope mirrors. 1860 — Georg Simon Plössl produces his eponymous eyepiece. 1880 — Ernst Abbe designs the first orthoscopic eyepiece (Kellner's was solely achromatic rather than orthoscopic, despite his description). 1897 — Largest practical refracting telescope, the Yerkes Observatorys' 40 inch (101.6 cm) refractor, is built. 1900 — The largest refractor ever, Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900 with an objective of 49.2 inch (1.25 m) diameter is temporarily exhibited at the Paris 1900 Exposition. 1910s — George Willis Ritchey and Henri Chrétien co-invent the Ritchey-Chrétien telescope used in many, if not most of the largest astronomical telescopes. 1930 — Bernhard Schmidt invents the Schmidt camera. 1932 — John Donovan Strong first “aluminizes" a telescope mirror a much longer lasting aluminium coating using thermal vacuum evaporation. 1944 — Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov invents the Maksutov telescope. 1967 — The first neutrino telescope opened in Africa. 1970 — The first space observatory, Uhuru, is launched, being also the first gamma-ray telescope. 1975 — BTA-6 is the first major telescope to use an altazimuth mount, which is mechanically simpler but requires computer control for accurate pointing. 1990 — Hubble Space Telescope (HST) was launched into low Earth orbit 2000 CE to 2025 CE 2003 — The Spitzer Space Telescope (SST), formerly the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF), is an infrared space observatory launched in 2003. It is the fourth and final of the NASA Great Observatories program 2008 — Max Tegmark and Matias Zaldarriaga created the Fast Fourier Transform Telescope. 2022 — The James Webb Space Telescope is launched by NASA. See also Catadioptric telescope Eyepiece History of telescopes List of largest optical telescopes historically NASA Reflecting telescope Refracting telescope Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology References External links Telescope Telescopes

This page is intended to list all current compilers, compiler generators, interpreters, translators, tool foundations, assemblers, automatable command line interfaces (shells), etc. Ada compilers ALGOL 60 compilers ALGOL 68 compilers cf. ALGOL 68s specification and implementation timeline Assemblers (Intel *86) Assemblers (Motorola 68*) Assemblers (Zilog Z80) Assemblers (other) BASIC compilers BASIC interpreters C compilers Notes: C++ compilers Notes: C# compilers COBOL compilers Common Lisp compilers D compilers DIBOL/DBL compilers ECMAScript interpreters Eiffel compilers Forth compilers and interpreters Fortran compilers Go compilers Haskell compilers ISLISP compilers and interpreters Java compilers Lisaac compiler Pascal compilers Perl interpreters PHP compilers PL/I compilers Python compilers and interpreters Ruby compilers and interpreters Rust compilers Smalltalk compilers Tcl interpreters DCL interpreters Rexx interpreters CLI compilers Source-to-source compilers This list is incomplete. A more extensive list of source-to-source compilers can be found here. Open source compilers Production quality, open source compilers. Amsterdam Compiler Kit (ACK) [C, Pascal, Modula-2, Occam, and BASIC] [Unix-like] Clang C/C++/Objective-C Compiler AMD Optimizing C/C++ Compiler FreeBASIC [Basic] [DOS/Linux/Windows] Free Pascal [Pascal] [DOS/Linux/Windows(32/64/CE)/MacOS/NDS/GBA/..(and many more)] GCC: C, C++ (G++), Java (GCJ), Ada (GNAT), Objective-C, Objective-C++, Fortran (GFortran), and Go (GCCGo); also available, but not in standard are: Modula-2, Modula-3, Pascal, PL/I, D, Mercury, VHDL; Linux, the BSDs, macOS, NeXTSTEP, Windows and BeOS, among others Local C compiler [C] [Linux, SPARC, MIPS] The LLVM Compiler Infrastructure which is also frequently used for research Portable C Compiler [C] [Unix-like] Open Watcom [C, C++, and Fortran] [Windows and OS/2, Linux/FreeBSD WIP] TenDRA [C/C++] [Unix-like] Tiny C Compiler [C] [Linux, Windows] Open64, supported by AMD on Linux. XPL PL/I dialect (several systems) Swift [Apple OSes, Linux, Windows (as of version 5.3)] Research compilers Research compilers are mostly not robust or complete enough to handle real, large applications. They are used mostly for fast prototyping new language features and new optimizations in research areas. Open64: A popular research compiler. Open64 merges the open source changes from the PathScale compiler mentioned. ROSE: an open source compiler framework to generate source-to-source analyzers and translators for C/C++ and Fortran, developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory MILEPOST GCC: interactive plugin-based open-source research compiler that combines the strength of GCC and the flexibility of the common Interactive Compilation Interface that transforms production compilers into interactive research toolsets. Interactive Compilation Interface – a plugin system with high-level API to transform production-quality compilers such as GCC into powerful and stable research infrastructure while avoiding developing new research compilers from scratch Phoenix optimization and analysis framework by Microsoft Edison Design Group: provides production-quality front end compilers for C, C++, and Java (a number of the compilers listed on this page use front end source code from Edison Design Group). Additionally, Edison Design Group makes their proprietary software available for research uses. See also Compiler Comparison of integrated development environments List of command-line interpreters Footnotes References External links List of C++ compilers, maintained by C++'s inventor, Bjarne Stroustrup List of free C/C++ compilers and interpreters List of compiler resources Compilers

The LatticeMico8 is an 8-bit microcontroller reduced instruction set computer (RISC) soft processor core optimized for field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) and crossover programmable logic device architecture from Lattice Semiconductor. Combining a full 18-bit wide instruction set with 32 general purpose registers, the LatticeMico8 is a flexible Verilog reference design suitable for a wide variety of markets, including communications, consumer, computer, medical, industrial, and automotive. The core consumes minimal device resources, less than 200 lookup tables (LUTs) in the smallest configuration, while maintaining a broad feature set. The LatticeMico8 is licensed under a new free (IP) core license, the first such license offered by any FPGA supplier. The main benefits of using the IP core are greater flexibility, improved portability, and no cost. This new agreement provides some of the benefits of standard open-source licenses and allows users to mix proprietary designs with the core. Further, it allows for distributing designs in bitstream or FPGA format without accompanying it with a copy of the license. Developers are required to keep the core's source code confidential and use "for the sole purposes of design documentation and preparation of Derivative Works ... to develop designs to program Lattice programmable logic devices". Features 8-bit data path 18-bit wide instructions 32 general purpose registers 32 bytes of internal scratch pad memory Input/output is performed using "Ports" (up to 256 port numbers) Optional 256 bytes of external scratch pad RAM Two cycles per instruction Lattice UART reference design peripheral References Soft microprocessors

The École Nationale Supérieure d'Électronique et de Radioélectricité de Grenoble, or ENSERG, was a grande école located in Grenoble, France. ENSERG was part of the Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble, also called INPG. Its activity was transferred in 2008 in the new school Phelma. Research 5 research labs were attached to the ENSERG: ICP : Institut de la Communication Parlée (Institute for Spoken Communication). IMEP : Institut de Microélectronique, Electromagnétisme et Photonique (Institute for Microelectronics, Electromagnetism and Photonics). LIS : Laboratoire des Images et des Signaux (Picture and Signal Laboratory). CLIPS : Communication Langagière et Intéractions Personne-Systèmes (Language Communication and Human-System Interaction). TIMA : Technique de l'Informatique, de la Microélectronique pour l'Architecture des ordinateurs (Technics of Computer Science, Microelectronics for Computer Architecture). External links The official PHELMA website Electronique et de radioélectricité de Grenoble Grenoble Tech ENSERG Educational institutions established in 1958 Educational institutions disestablished in 2008 1958 establishments in France 2008 disestablishments in France

onsemi (stylized in lowercase as "onsemi"; legally ON Semiconductor Corporation; formerly ON Semiconductor until August 5, 2021) is an American semiconductor supplier company, based in Scottsdale, Arizona and ranked #483 on the 2022 Fortune 500 based on its 2021 sales. Products include power and signal management, logic, discrete, and custom devices for automotive, communications, computing, consumer, industrial, LED lighting, medical, military/aerospace and power applications. onsemi runs a network of manufacturing facilities, sales offices and design centers in North America, Europe, and the Asia Pacific regions. Based on its 2016 revenues of $3.907 billion, onsemi ranked among the worldwide top 20 semiconductor sales leaders. History onsemi was founded in 1999. The company was originally a spinoff of Motorola's Semiconductor Components Group. It continues to manufacture Motorola's discrete, standard analog, and standard logic devices. In February 2022, it was announced that BelGaN Group BV had completed the acquisition of all shares of ON Semiconductor Belgium BV from the onsemi group. Starting March 1, 2023, onsemi's headquarters moved to the new site in Scottsdale, AZ. Acquisitions In April 2000, onsemi completed the acquisition of Cherry Semiconductor. In 2003, onsemi acquired TESLA SEZAM (manufacturer of semiconductor chips) and TEROSIL (production of silicon) in the Czech Republic. Both of these companies were the successors of the former state-owned company TESLA. In May 2006, onsemi completed the acquisition of LSI Logic Gresham, Oregon Design & Manufacturing Facility. In January 2008, onsemi completed the acquisition of the CPU Voltage and PC Thermal Monitoring Business from Analog Devices, Inc., for $184 million. In March 2008, onsemi completed the acquisition of AMI Semiconductor for $915 million. On July 17, 2008, onsemi and Catalyst Semiconductor, Inc. announced the acquisition of Catalyst Semiconductor, Inc. by onsemi for $115 million. On October 9, 2008, Catalyst Semiconductor, Inc. announced the approval of the acquisition. On October 10, 2008, onsemi announced the completion of the acquisition. In November 2009, onsemi completed the acquisition of PulseCore for $17M. In December 2009, onsemi announced the acquisition of California Micro Devices. In June 2010, onsemi completed the acquisition of Sound Design Technologies, Ltd., for $22 million. In January 2011, onsemi completed the acquisition of SANYO Semiconductor. In February 2011, onsemi completed the acquisition of the CMOS Image Sensor Business Unit from Cypress Semiconductor, for $31.4 million In May 2014, onsemi completed the acquisition of Truesense Imaging, Inc. In June 2014, onsemi announced a $400 million deal to acquire California-based Aptina Imaging Corp. In July 2014, onsemi and Fujitsu Semiconductor announced Strategic Partnership (including foundry services agreement and the definitive agreement pursuant to which onsemi will become a 10% shareholder of Fujitsu's 8-inch wafer fab in Aizuwakamatsu, Japan) In July 2015, onsemi completed the acquisition of Axsem AG. In November 2015, onsemi announced the acquisition of Fairchild Semiconductor for $2.4 billion. In August 2016, onsemi has entered into a definitive agreement with respect to the divestiture of the ignition IGBT business to Littelfuse and has also entered into a separate definitive agreement with Littelfuse to sell its transient voltage suppression diode and switching thyristor product lines, for a combined $104 million in cash. In September 2016, onsemi completed the acquisition of Fairchild Semiconductor. In March 2017, onsemi announced that it would acquire and license mmWave technology for automotive radar applications developed by IBM's Haifa, Israel, research team. It included staff, equipment, research facilities and intellectual property. In May 2018, onsemi acquired Ireland-based company, SensL Technologies Ltd. In June 2019, onsemi acquired Quantenna Communications for about $1 billion. In October 2021, Bloomberg News reported that onsemi was looking to sell off Quantenna's assets. After failing to find a buyer, onsemi shut down the division in 2022. In April 2019, onsemi agreed to acquire GlobalFoundries 300mm wafer fabrication facility in East Fishkill, New York. In February 2023, it was announced the acquisition had been completed. In August 2021 onsemi agreed to acquire GT Advanced Technologies. Products onsemi manufactures products in the following areas: Custom: ASICs; Custom Foundry Services; Custom ULP Memory; Custom CMOS Image Sensors; Integrated passive devices Discrete: Bipolar Transistors; Diodes & Rectifiers; IGBTs & FETs; Thyristors Power Management: AC/DC Controllers & Regulators; DC/DC Controllers, Converters, & Regulators; Drivers; Thermal Management; Voltage & Current Management Logic: Clock Generation; Clock & Data Distribution; Memory; Microcontrollers; Standard Logic Signal Management: Amplifiers & Comparators; Analog Switches; Audio/Video ASSP; Digital Potentiometers; EMI/RFI Filters; Interfaces; Optical, Image, & Touch Sensors In 2013, the company introduced the industry's highest resolution optical image stabilization (OIS) integrated circuit (IC) for smartphone camera modules. Operations The company has three segments: Advanced Solutions Group (ASG) Intelligent Sensing Group (ISG) Power Solutions Group (PSG) R&D There are several Solution Engineering Centers (SEC) and Design Centers around the world. Solution engineering centers United States: San Jose, California; Portland, Oregon; Detroit, Michigan; Nampa and Meridian, Idaho Germany: Munich South Korea: Seoul China: Shanghai, Shenzhen Taiwan: Taipei Japan: Osaka, Tokyo Slovakia: Piešťany Design centers United States: Phoenix, Arizona; Santa Clara, California; Sunnyvale, California; Longmont, Colorado; Pocatello, Idaho; Lower Gwynedd, Pennsylvania; East Greenwich, Rhode Island; Austin, Texas; Plano, Texas; Lindon, Utah; South Portland, Maine; Bedford, New Hampshire Canada: Burlington, Waterloo Belgium: Mechelen, Oudenaarde Czech Republic: Brno, Rožnov pod Radhoštěm France: Toulouse Germany: Munich Ireland: Limerick Romania: Bucharest Slovakia: Bratislava Switzerland: Marin, Dübendorf India: Bangalore Israel: Haifa Japan: Aizu, Gifu, Gunma South Korea: Seoul, Bucheon Taiwan: Hsinchu Australia: Epping, New South Wales Russia: Saint Petersburg Manufacturing facilities Current Canada: Burlington United States: Mountain Top, Pennsylvania (200 mm); Gresham, Oregon (200 mm); Nampa, Idaho (200 mm, 300 mm); East Fishkill, New York (300 mm) Czech Republic: Rožnov pod Radhoštěm (150 mm) China: Leshan; Shenzhen; Suzhou Japan: Gunma; Aizu-Wakamatsu (200 mm) Malaysia: Senawang, Negeri Sembilan (2 Plants, 150 mm) South Korea: Bucheon (150 mm, 200 mm) Philippines: Carmona; Tarlac City; Cebu Vietnam: Thuan An, Binh Duong; Bien Hoa, Dong Nai Sold United States: Pocatello, Idaho (200 mm); South Portland, Maine (200 mm) Belgium: Oudenaarde (150 mm) Japan: Niigata (125 mm, 150 mm) Closed United States: Phoenix, Arizona (150 mm, sold); Rochester, New York (150 mm, sold); East Greenwich, Rhode Island (150 mm, sold) Japan: Aizu (150 mm) Awards In 2000, onsemi won the Forbes Advertising Excellence best in category Industrial Machinery/Electrical Components. onsemi won the Hot 100 Electronic products of 2009 and 2012 by EDN magazine. In 2012, onsemi won the IR Magazine U.S. Awards in three fields, Best IR by a CEO or chairman for mid cap; No. 56 best company in the U.S. in terms of Investor Relations; No. 3 in Best Investor Relations in technology sector for mid/small cap companies. In 2012 the company won the "Large Company of the Year Award" from the IEEE. In 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021 and 2022, onsemi was named in World’s Most Ethical Companies by Ethisphere Institute. The company's subsidiary AMI Semiconductor (AMIS) has also won many awards, such as President's Award and Preferred Supplier from Rockwell Collins, Strategic Supplier Award from Emerson Rosemount, Inc., Outstanding Technical Support in New Product Development from Alliant Techsystems. See also Freescale Semiconductor, another Motorola semiconductor spinoff List of semiconductor fabrication plants References External links 1999 establishments in Arizona 2000 initial public offerings American brands American companies established in 1999 Companies listed on the Nasdaq Corporate spin-offs Electronics companies established in 1999 Equipment semiconductor companies Manufacturing companies based in Phoenix, Arizona Multinational companies headquartered in the United States Power-line communication Internet access Semiconductor companies of the United States

The Visual 50 is a terminal created by Visual Technology, Inc., which was located in Tewksbury, Massachusetts. Visual's slogan was "See for yourself". It merged with White Pine Software in 1993, which became CU-SeeMe Networks, in turn absorbed into RadVision in 2001. The terminal consists of a monitor which is the main component and a keyboard. It was used as a computer terminal so there are no internal drives or daughter cards. The primary component in the case is a motherboard with a modem port, keyboard port, and an aux. port. Termcap provides support for the Visual 50 by way of the entries named v50, vi50, v50am, or visual50, depending on the system. The terminal uses on an SGS (now STMicroelectronics) Z8400AB1 CPU, based on the Zilog Z80A CPU. This CPU has an 8 bit data bus and a 16 bit address bus, and runs at 4 MHz. The keyboard is a Keytronic A65-0248, attached by a 4 wire telephone cord. The keyboard uses an Intel P8048H MCU, a common MCU for keyboards. See also CU-SeeMe External links Termcap source file IRIX Admin Manual; Peripheral Devices; Chapter 1. Terminals and Modems Visual Technology Visual 1050 Character-oriented terminal

Onset refers to the beginning of a musical note or other sound. It is related to (but different from) the concept of a transient: all musical notes have an onset, but do not necessarily include an initial transient. Onset detection In signal processing, onset detection is an active research area. For example, the MIREX annual competition features an Audio Onset Detection contest. Approaches to onset detection can operate in the time domain, frequency domain, phase domain, or complex domain, and include looking for: Increases in spectral energy Changes in spectral energy distribution (spectral flux) or phase Changes in detected pitch - e.g. using a polyphonic pitch detection algorithm Spectral patterns recognisable by machine learning techniques such as neural networks. Simpler techniques such as detecting increases in time-domain amplitude can typically lead to an unsatisfactorily high amount of false positives or false negatives. The aim is often to judge onsets similarly to how a human would: so psychoacoustically-motivated strategies may be employed. Sometimes the onset detector can be restricted to a particular domain (depending on intended application), for example being targeted at detecting percussive onsets. With a narrower focus, it can be more straightforward to obtain reliable detection. See also ADSR envelope Prefix (acoustics) References Bello, J.P., Daudet, L., Abdallah, S., Duxbury, C., Davies, M., Sandler, M.B. (2005) "A Tutorial on Onset Detection in Music Signals", IEEE Transactions on Speech and Audio Processing 13(5), pp 1035–1047 Bello, J.P, Duxbury, C., Davies, M., Sandler, M. (2004). "On the use of phase and energy for musical onset detection in the complex domain". IEEE Signal Processing Letters Collins, N. (2005) "A Comparison of Sound Onset Detection Algorithms with Emphasis on Psychoacoustically Motivated Detection Functions". Proceedings of AES118 Convention Psychoacoustics Synthesizers

Single-carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA) is a frequency-division multiple access scheme. Originally known as Carrier Interferometry, it is also called linearly precoded OFDMA (LP-OFDMA). Like other multiple access schemes (TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, OFDMA), it deals with the assignment of multiple users to a shared communication resource. SC-FDMA can be interpreted as a linearly precoded OFDMA scheme, in the sense that it has an additional DFT processing step preceding the conventional OFDMA processing. SC-FDMA has drawn great attention as an attractive alternative to OFDMA, especially in the uplink communications where lower peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) greatly benefits the mobile terminal in terms of transmit power efficiency and reduced cost of the power amplifier. It has been adopted as the uplink multiple access scheme in 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE), or Evolved UTRA (E-UTRA). The performance of SC-FDMA in relation to OFDMA has been the subject of various studies. Although the performance gap is small, SC-FDMA's advantage of low PAPR makes it desirable for uplink wireless transmission in mobile communication systems, where transmitter power efficiency is of paramount importance. Transmitter and receiver structure The transmission processing of SC-FDMA is very similar to that of OFDMA. For each user, the sequence of bits transmitted is mapped to a complex constellation of symbols (BPSK, QPSK, or M-QAM). Then different transmitters (users) are assigned different Fourier coefficients. This assignment is carried out in the mapping and demapping blocks. The receiver side includes one demapping block, one IDFT block, and one detection block for each user signal to be received. Just like in OFDM, guard intervals (called cyclic prefixes) with cyclic repetition are introduced between blocks of symbols in view to efficiently eliminate inter-symbol interference from time spreading (caused by multi-path propagation) among the blocks. In SC-FDMA, multiple access among users is made possible by assigning different users different sets of non-overlapping Fourier coefficients (sub-carriers). This is achieved at the transmitter by inserting (prior to IDFT) silent Fourier coefficients (at positions assigned to other users), and removing them on the receiver side after the DFT. The distinguishing feature of SC-FDMA is that it leads to a single-carrier transmit signal, in contrast to OFDMA which is a multi-carrier transmission scheme. Subcarrier mapping can be classified into two types: localized mapping and distributed mapping. In localized mapping, the DFT outputs are mapped to a subset of consecutive subcarriers, thereby confining them to only a fraction of the system bandwidth. In distributed mapping, the DFT outputs of the input data are assigned to subcarriers over the entire bandwidth non-continuously, resulting in zero amplitude for the remaining subcarriers. A special case of distributed SC-FDMA is called interleaved SC-FDMA (IFDMA), where the occupied subcarriers are equally spaced over the entire bandwidth. Owing to its inherent single carrier structure, a prominent advantage of SC-FDMA over OFDM and OFDMA is that its transmit signal has a lower peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR), resulting in relaxed design parameters in the transmit path of a subscriber unit. Intuitively, the reason lies in the fact that where OFDM transmit symbols directly modulate multiple sub-carriers, SC-FDMA transmit symbols are first processed by an N-point DFT block. In OFDM, as well as SC-FDMA, equalization is achieved on the receiver side, after the DFT calculation, by multiplying each Fourier coefficient by a complex number. Thus, frequency-selective fading and phase distortion can be easily counteracted. The advantage is that frequency domain equalization using FFTs requires less computation than conventional time-domain equalization, which require multi-tap FIR or IIR-filters. Less computations result in less compounded round-off error, which can be viewed as numerical noise. A related concept is the combination of a single carrier transmission with the single-carrier frequency-domain-equalization (SC-FDE) scheme. The single carrier transmission, unlike SC-FDMA and OFDM, employs no IDFT or DFT at the transmitter, but introduces the cyclic prefix to transform the linear channel convolution into a circular one. After removing the cyclic prefix at the receiver, a DFT is applied to arrive in the frequency domain, where a simple single-carrier frequency-domain-equalization (SC-FDE) scheme can be employed, followed by the IDFT operation. DFT: Discrete Fourier Transform IDFT: Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform CP: Cyclic Prefix PS: Pulse Shaping DAC: Digital-to-analog converter RF: Radio Frequency signal ADC: Analog-to-digital converter LP-OFDMA: Linearly precoded OFDMA Useful properties Low PAPR (crest factor) Low sensitivity to carrier frequency offset Less sensitive to non-linear distortion and hence, it allows the use of low-cost power amplifiers Greater robustness against spectral nulls See also Carrier interferometry 3GPP Long Term Evolution OFDMA Time-division multiple access References Channel access methods

Amiya Kumar Bagchi (born 1936) is an Indian political economist. Biography His academic career began when he started teaching in Presidency College, Kolkata. In the 1960s, he taught in the Faculty of Economics in Cambridge (where he was Fellow of Jesus College), but resigned his post in 1969, to resume his academic career in Presidency College, Kolkata. In 1974 he joined the newly founded Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta. Bagchi has specialised in the history of Indian banking and finance, and acted as Official Historian of the State Bank of India (SBI) from 1976 to 1998; he played a leading role in ensuring that the unique archives of SBI are preserved for posterity. After retiring as Reserve Bank of India professor from the Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta in 2001, he became the founder-director of the Institute of Development Studies, Kolkata. Awards and honours The professional awards and honours Bagchi has received include: Padma Shri of the government of India 2005. Bibliography Bagchi has authored over 250 academic articles and has authored and edited numerous books and monographs. The books he has authored include: 2010 Colonialism and Indian Economy, Oxford University Press 2005 Perilous Passage: Mankind and the Global Ascendancy of Capital, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers 2004 The Developmental State in History and in the Twentieth Century, New Delhi: Regency 2002 Capital and Labour Redefined: India and the Third World, Anthem Press 1997 The Evolution of the State Bank of India: The Era of the Presidency Banks 1876–1920, Sage Publications 1989 The Presidency Banks and the Indian Economy 1876–1914, Bombay:. Oxford University Press 1987 Public Intervention and Industrial Restructuring in China, India and Republic of Korea, New Delhi: ILO-ARTEP 1987, reissued 2006 The Evolution of the State Bank of India. The Roots, 1806–1876, Oxford University Press; reissued by Penguin Portfolio 1982 The Political Economy of Underdevelopment, Cambridge University Press 1972 Private Investment in India 1900–1939, Cambridge University Press Edited and co-edited volumes 2007 Capture and Exclude: Developing Economies and the Poor in Global Finance (with Gary A. Dymski) New Delhi: Tulika 2005 Webs of History: Information, Communication and Technology from Early to Post-Colonial India (with D. Sinha and B. Bagchi), New Delhi: Manohar 2005 Maladies, Preventives, and Curatives: Debates in Public Health in India (with K. Soman), New Delhi: Tulika 2003 Economy and the Quality of Life: Essays in Memory of Ashok Rudra (with M. Chattopadhyay and R. Khasnabis), Kolkata: Dasgupta & Co. 2002 Money and Credit in Indian History since Early Medieval Times, New Delhi: Tulika 1999 Multiculturalism, Liberalism and Democracy (with R. Bhargava and R. Sudarshan), Oxford University Press 1999 Economy and Organization: Indian Institutions under the Neoliberal Regime, Sage Publications 1995 Democracy and Development: Proceedings of the IEA Conference Held in Barcelona, Spain, Palgrave Macmillan 1995 New Technology and the Workers’ Response: Microelectronics, Labour and Society, Sage Publications 1988 Economy, Society and Polity: Essays in the Political Economy of Indian Planning in Honour of Professor Bhabatosh Datta, Oxford University Press Chapters in books References External links Kurien, CT, Review of PERILOUS PASSAGE — Mankind and the Global Ascendancy of Capital, The Hindu (3 October 2006) Radical Notes, Capital and capitalists nannied by the states: An Interview with Amiya Kumar Bagchi, Radical Notes (18 October 2008) Murali, D, , 'Property Right Subjugation by British Land Tax,' review of an essay in Bagchi's 2010 book Colonialism and Indian Economy, The Hindu Businessline (17 July 2010). 1936 births Bengali historians Bengali Hindus Bengali writers 20th-century Bengalis Bengali scientists Presidency University, Kolkata alumni Economic historians Academic staff of Presidency University, Kolkata Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Indian institute directors 20th-century Indian economists Indian Marxists Indian Marxist writers Indian Marxist historians Marxian economists Recipients of the Padma Shri in literature & education University of Calcutta alumni Academic staff of the University of Calcutta Living people Indian political writers Indian political scientists Indian social sciences writers Indian economics writers Indian male writers 20th-century Indian writers People from Murshidabad district 20th-century Indian scientists Scientists from West Bengal Writers from West Bengal Indian non-fiction writers Indian male non-fiction writers 20th-century Indian non-fiction writers Indian economists Indian scholars 20th-century Indian scholars 21st-century Indian scholars 21st-century Indian economists Indian columnists Indian essayists Indian male essayists 20th-century Indian essayists 21st-century Indian essayists Indian social scientists 21st-century Indian social scientists Indian development economists Indian development specialists Indian sociologists

In digital logic, a don't-care term (abbreviated DC, historically also known as redundancies, irrelevancies, optional entries, invalid combinations, vacuous combinations, forbidden combinations, unused states or logical remainders) for a function is an input-sequence (a series of bits) for which the function output does not matter. An input that is known never to occur is a can't-happen term. Both these types of conditions are treated the same way in logic design and may be referred to collectively as don't-care conditions for brevity. The designer of a logic circuit to implement the function need not care about such inputs, but can choose the circuit's output arbitrarily, usually such that the simplest circuit results (minimization). Don't-care terms are important to consider in minimizing logic circuit design, including graphical methods like Karnaugh–Veitch maps and algebraic methods such as the Quine–McCluskey algorithm. In 1958, Seymour Ginsburg proved that minimization of states of a finite-state machine with don't-care conditions does not necessarily yield a minimization of logic elements. Direct minimization of logic elements in such circuits was computationally impractical (for large systems) with the computing power available to Ginsburg in 1958. Examples Examples of don't-care terms are the binary values 1010 through 1111 (10 through 15 in decimal) for a function that takes a binary-coded decimal (BCD) value, because a BCD value never takes on such values (so called pseudo-tetrades); in the pictures, the circuit computing the lower left bar of a 7-segment display can be minimized to by an appropriate choice of circuit outputs for . Write-only registers, as frequently found in older hardware, are often a consequence of don't-care optimizations in the trade-off between functionality and the number of necessary logic gates. Don't-care states can also occur in encoding schemes and communication protocols. X value "Don't care" may also refer to an unknown value in a multi-valued logic system, in which case it may also be called an X value or don't know. In the Verilog hardware description language such values are denoted by the letter "X". In the VHDL hardware description language such values are denoted (in the standard logic package) by the letter "X" (forced unknown) or the letter "W" (weak unknown). An X value does not exist in hardware. In simulation, an X value can result from two or more sources driving a signal simultaneously, or the stable output of a flip-flop not having been reached. In synthesized hardware, however, the actual value of such a signal will be either 0 or 1, but will not be determinable from the circuit's inputs. Power-up states Further considerations are needed for logic circuits that involve some feedback. That is, those circuits that depend on the previous output(s) of the circuit as well as its current external inputs. Such circuits can be represented by a state machine. It is sometimes possible that some states that are nominally can't-happen conditions can accidentally be generated during power-up of the circuit or else by random interference (like cosmic radiation, electrical noise or heat). This is also called forbidden input. In some cases, there is no combination of inputs that can exit the state machine into a normal operational state. The machine remains stuck in the power-up state or can be moved only between other can't-happen states in a walled garden of states. This is also called a hardware lockup or soft error. Such states, while nominally can't-happen, are not don't-care, and designers take steps either to ensure that they are really made can't-happen, or else if they do happen, that they create a don't-care alarm indicating an emergency state for error detection, or they are transitory and lead to a normal operational state. See also Decision table Side effect Short-circuit evaluation Incomplete address decoding Incomplete opcode decoding Logic redundancy Undefined behaviour Undefined variable Uninitialized variable Four-valued logic Nine-valued logic Notes References Further reading (1191 pages) (NB. Uses the term "don't care" data for address ranges in programmable memory chips which do not need to contain a particular value und thus can remain undefined in the programming instructions.) Logic

Tamarack is a common name for Larix laricina, a medium-size species of larch tree native to North America. Tamarack may also refer to: Trees Tamarack pine, Pinus contorta Places Canada Tamarack, Edmonton, Alberta Tamarack, Ontario United States Tamarack, California, in Calaveras County Tamarack, Michigan, an unincorporated community in Gogebic County Tamarack City, Michigan, unincorporated community in Houghton County Tamarack, Minnesota, incorporated place in Aitkin County Tamarack, Wisconsin, unincorporated community Upper Tamarack River, Minnesota Lower Tamarack River, Minnesota Little Tamarack River, Minnesota Tamarack Lake, a lake in Minnesota Tamarack River (Minnesota) Tamarack River (Michigan) Tamarack Swamp, Pennsylvania Recreational areas Camp Tamarack, California Camp Tamarack, Indiana Camp Tamarack, New Jersey Camp Tamarack (Oregon) Tamarack, Best of West Virginia, tourist attraction in Beckley, West Virginia Tamarack Flat Campground, campground in Yosemite National Park, California Tamarack Golf Club, Labrador City, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada Tamarack Resort, all-season resort southwest of Donnelly in Valley County, Idaho Tamarack Ski Area (Troy, Idaho), defunct ski hill northwest of Troy in Latah County, Idaho Other uses Tamarack (band), Canadian folk group Tamarack Developments Corporation, home builder in the Ottawa-Carleon region of Canada Tamarack Microelectronics (1987–2002), Taiwan Tamarack mine, Calumet, Michigan Tamarack Peak, a mountain in Nevada Tamarack Review, Canadian literary magazine , a United States Navy patrol vessel in commission from 1917 to 1919 See also Tamarac (disambiguation)

Jacek M. Zurada (born 31 July 1944 in Sosnowiec) is a Polish engineer who serves as a Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering Department at the University of Louisville, Kentucky. His M.S. and Ph.D. degrees are from Politechnika Gdaṅska (Gdansk University of Technology, Poland) ranked as #1 among Polish universities of technology. He has held visiting appointments at Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Princeton, Northeastern, Auburn, and at overseas universities in Australia, Chile, China, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Poland, Singapore, Spain, and South Africa. He is a Life Fellow of IEEE and a Fellow of International Neural Networks Society and Doctor Honoris Causa of Czestochowa Institute of Technology, Poland. Research achievements Dr. Zurada research contributions cover neural networks, deep learning, data mining with emphasis on data and feature understanding, rule extraction from semantic and visual information, machine learning, decomposition methods for salient feature extraction, and lambda learning rule for neural networks. His work has advanced fundamental understanding and integration of several relevant threads in neural networks and has introduced their modern taxonomy. It has formatted training algorithms in neural networks as learning in feedback systems. His more recent work has successfully addressed the lack of transparency and explanation capability due to the inherent black-box nature of neural networks. He developed a novel approach of statistical tests and network sensitivity evaluations by using the perturbation method to delete redundant inputs of perceptron networks and prune their weights. This work has led to rule extraction methods from pruned networks that produce if-then rules. His other achievements were in transparency of such deep learning architectures as auto-encoders and multilayer perceptrons with soft-max outputs and non-negative weights that can produce critical explanations. He has published 450 journal and conference papers, authored or co-authored three books, including the pioneering neural networks text "Introduction to Artificial Neural Systems" (1992), and co-edited a number of volumes in Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science. His books and articles were cited over 17,000 times (Google Scholar, 2022). Professional and editorial service Dr. Zurada has served the engineering profession as a long-time volunteer of IEEE: as 2014 IEEE Vice-President-Technical Activities (TAB Chair), as President of IEEE Computational Intelligence Society in 2004–05 and the ADCOM member in 2009–14, 2016–21 and earlier years. He chaired the IEEE TAB Strategic Planning Committee in 2015, IEEE TAB Periodicals Review and Advisory Committee in 2012–13, and the IEEE TAB Periodicals Committee in 2010–11. In 2011 he was Vice-Chair of PSP Board and a member of PSP Board Strategic Planning Committee in 2010–11. He was a candidate for 2019 and 2020 IEEE President. He was the Editor-in-Chief of IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks (1998–2003), an Associate Editor of IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, Pt. I and Pt. II, Action Editor in Neural Networks (Elsevier) and served on the Editorial Board of the Proceedings of the IEEE. He is an Associate Editor of Neurocomputing (Elsevier), Schedae Informaticae, the International Journal of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, and Editor of the Springer Natural Computing, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing and Studies in Computational Intelligence Book series or volumes. Awards and honours He has received a number of awards for distinction in research, teaching, and service including the 1993 UofL's Presidential Award for Research, Scholarship and Creative Activity, 1999 IEEE Circuits and Systems Society Golden Jubilee Medal, and the 2001 and 2014 UofL's Presidential Distinguished Service Awards for Service to the Profession. In 2013 he received the Joe Desch Innovation Award. His IEEE Distinguished Speaker contributions include IEEE Circuits and Systems Society, IEEE Computational Intelligence Society (2012–15), and IEEE SMC Society (2016–21). He also served as a Fulbright Specialist in Bulgaria (2010) and Italy (2012). In 2020 he was inducted to the IEEE Technical Activities Board Hall of Honor. In 2003 he was conferred the Title of Professor by the President of Poland. Since 2005 he has been an elected Foreign Member of the Polish Academy of Sciences. He also received five Honorary Professorships from foreign universities, including Sichuan University in Chengdu, China, and Obuda University in Budapest, Hungary. List of awards 2022 H.C. (Honoris Causa) Doctorate, awarded by Czestochowa Institute of Technology, Czestochowa, Poland, June 27, 2022 2022 J. Groszkowski Medal, awarded by the Association of Polish Electrical Engineers for leadership in building information-based society, Warsaw, Poland, May 2022 2020 IEEE Technical Activities Hall of Fame Award, by the IEEE Technical Activities Board for membership globalization and educational efforts, November 2020 2019 Certificate of Appreciation for Contributions to the 1st Societal Automation Conference from IEEE/Academy of Mining and Metallurgy, Krakow, Poland, September 2019 2018 Certificate of Recognition, by the President of IEEE Computational Intelligence Society for service on the Society Board in 2016-18 2018 Honorary Diploma of the Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland by the University President for distinguished professional career of 50 years that brought recognition to the university, August 8 2018 Certificate of Recognition, by IEEE-VP-Member and Geographical Services for dedicated service on the IEEE MGA Board in 2017 2017 Special Springer Volume “Dedicated to Professor Jacek Zurada: Advances in Data Analysis with Computational Intelligence Methods”, vol. Studies in Computational Intelligence No. 738, Eds. A.E. Gaweda. J. Kacprzyk, L. Rutkowski, G.G. Yen 2017 Certificate of Recognition, by IEEE-VP-Member and Geographical Services for dedicated service on the IEEE MGA Board in 2016 2016-17 Distinguished Speaker for IEEE Systems, Man and Cybernetics Society 2015-19 Member of the Board of Overseers, Polish Academy of Science 2015 INNS Fellow Award, by International Neural Networks Society 2015 Resolution of Appreciation, adopted by IEEE Technical Activities Board by acclamation 2015 Certificate of Appreciation and Golden Gavel, for Services as IEEE Technical Activities Board Chair 2015 Honorary Professor, conferred by the Obuda University, Budapest, Hungary 2015 Outstanding Contribution Award, by China University of Petroleum, Qingdao, China 2014 Plaque of Recognition, by IEEE Technical Activities Board for service as Board's Chair 2014 Distinguished Service Award for Service to the Profession, by the President of the University of Louisville 2014 Certificate of Recognition, by the President of IEEE Computational Intelligence Society for service on the Society Board in 2012-14 2014 Outstanding Polish American, Science Category, by Pangea Network, Chicago, May 3, 2014 2014 IEEE Life Fellow Award 2013 Joe Desch Innovation Award in Recognition of Exceptional Insights and Achievements which Advanced the Horizons of Digital Technologies, by the Engineers Club of Dayton, Ohio 2013 Certificate of Appreciation, for Services as IEEE Technical Activities Board Member 2013-15 Distinguished Speaker for IEEE Computational Intelligence Society 2012 Certificate of Successful Completion of the Fulbright Specialist Program, from the Assistant Secretary of State for Educational and Cultural Affairs, US State Department 2012 Fulbright Specialist Award for project with University of Catania, Italy, May 8-June 6, 2012 2012 Honorary Professor Award, by China University of Petroleum, Qingdao, China, April 6, 2012 2011 IES Prestigious Engineering Achievement Award “In recognition of an outstanding engineering project which has made significant contributions to Singapore’s development”, November 2011 2010-14 Member of the Board of Overseers, Polish Academy of Science 2010, 11 Certificates of Appreciation, for Services as IEEE Technical Activities Board Member 2010, 11 Certificates of Appreciation, for Services IEEE Publication Services and Products Board member 2010 Awarded the Title of an Honorary Professor, by the Sechuan University, Chengdu, China 2010-12 University Scholar, University of Louisville 2009 Fulbright Specialist Award for project with Technical University-Varna, Bulgaria, June 28-July 24, 2009 2008 IEEE Computational Intelligence Society Meritorious Service Award 2008 Award for Exceptional Contributions to the Advancement of the Neural Networks Community in Poland, awarded by the Polish Neural Networks Society 2007 Certificate of Appreciation, by the President of IEEE Computational Intelligence Society for service as IEEE CIS Past President in 2006 and for service on the Society's Board 2007-09 Distinguished University Professor, University of Louisville 2006 Awarded the Status of Fulbright Specialist for 2006-12 2006 Awarded the Title of Honorary Professor, by the Chinese University of Electronic Science and Technology, Chengdu, China 2005 Elected to the Distinction of a Foreign Member of the Polish Academy of Sciences 2005 Certificate of Recognition as 2005 IEEE Technical Activities Board Member, by the President of IEEE 2004 Certificate of Recognition as 2004 IEEE Technical Activities Board Member, by the President of IEEE 2003 Awarded the Title of an Honorary Professor, by Hebei University, China 2003 Awarded the Title of a National Professor, by Mr. Aleksander Kwasniewski, President of Poland 2003 Certificate of Appreciation, by the IASTED International Conference on Neural Networks and Computational Intelligence, Cancun, Mexico 2001 Distinguished Service Award for Service to the Profession, by the President of the University of Louisville 2000 3rd Faculty Prize in the Innovation in Biotechnology for the Poster Paper at the Research!Louisville Conference (shared with three co-authors) 2000 Certificate of Nomination in Recognition of Distinguished Service, awarded by the President of the University of Louisville 1999 IEEE Circuits and Systems Society Golden Jubilee Medal 1999 Best Poster Paper Session Award, International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (two awards for one paper co-authored each), Washington, DC, July 10–16, 1999 1998-11 Distinguished Speaker for IEEE Computational Intelligence Society 1998 Certificate of Appreciation for Outstanding Performance in Support of the 1998 IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence, Anchorage, Alaska, by IEEE Neural Networks Council 1997 Certificate of Appreciation for Services Rendered as 1992-97 Associate Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, awarded by IEEE Neural Networks Council 1997 Certificate of Appreciation for Services Rendered as 1995-97 Associate Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, Part II: Analog and Digital Signal Processing, awarded by IEEE Circuits and Systems Society 1997 Polish Ministry of National Education Award 1996 IEEE Fellow Award, awarded by IEEE Board of Directors 1996 Distinguished Service Plaque as Plenary/Special Session Committee, and Awards Committee Chair, 1996 IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks, Washington, DC 1997 Certificate of Appreciation for Services Rendered as 1993-95 Associate Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems, Part II: Analog and Digital Signal Processing, awarded by IEEE Circuits and Systems Society 1994-02 Distinguished Speaker for IEEE Circuits and Systems Society 1994 Certificate of Appreciation for Outstanding Performance in Support of the 1994 IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence, Orlando, Florida, by IEEE Neural Networks Council 1994 Louisville IEEE Section Engineering Achievement Award 1994 Japanese Society for Promotion of Science Fellowship (2 months) 1993 Research, Scholarship and Creative Activity Presidential Award, by the President of the University of Louisville 1986 Louisville IEEE Section Outstanding Electrical Engineer Award of the Year 1985 Nominee of the Electrical Engineering Department for the University of Louisville Research Award 1980 Polish Ministry of Science, Higher Education and Technology Research Team Award, First Class for the book Active RC Filters (co-authored with M. Bialko, W. Sienko, A. Guzinski) 1979 Yearly Distinction for Excellence in Teaching awarded by the Electronics Department Head, Technical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland 1976 Polish Ministry of Science, Higher Education and Technology Research Award (Third Class) for advances in the state-of-the-art in active electronic filters 1975 Ph.D. degree with Distinction 1971-77 Yearly Research Awards by the President of the Technical University of Gdansk, Gdansk, Poland References External links Home page of Dr. Jacek M. Zurada. Accessed June 14, 2008. 1944 births Artificial intelligence researchers Electrical engineering academics Living people Machine learning researchers Polish academics University of Louisville faculty Polish computer scientists Gdańsk University of Technology alumni

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylinders of one or more layers of graphene (lattice). Diameters of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) are typically 0.8 to 2 nm and 5 to 20 nm, respectively, although MWNT diameters can exceed 100 nm. CNT lengths range from less than 100 nm to 0.5 m. Individual CNT walls can be metallic or semiconducting depending on the orientation of the lattice with respect to the tube axis, which is called chirality. MWNT's cross-sectional area offers an elastic modulus approaching 1 TPa and a tensile strength of 100 GPa, over 10-fold higher than any industrial fiber. MWNTs are typically metallic and can carry currents of up to 109 A cm−2. SWNTs can display thermal conductivity of 3500 W m−1 K−1, exceeding that of diamond. , carbon nanotube production exceeded several thousand tons per year, used for applications in energy storage, device modelling, automotive parts, boat hulls, sporting goods, water filters, thin-film electronics, coatings, actuators and electromagnetic shields. CNT-related publications more than tripled in the prior decade, while rates of patent issuance also increased. Most output was of unorganized architecture. Organized CNT architectures such as "forests", yarns and regular sheets were produced in much smaller volumes. CNTs have even been proposed as the tether for a purported space elevator. Recently, several studies have highlighted the prospect of using carbon nanotubes as building blocks to fabricate three-dimensional macroscopic (>1mm in all three dimensions) all-carbon devices. Lalwani et al. have reported a novel radical initiated thermal crosslinking method to fabricated macroscopic, free-standing, porous, all-carbon scaffolds using single- and multi-walled carbon nanotubes as building blocks. These scaffolds possess macro-, micro-, and nano- structured pores and the porosity can be tailored for specific applications. These 3D all-carbon scaffolds/architectures may be used for the fabrication of the next generation of energy storage, supercapacitors, field emission transistors, high-performance catalysis, photovoltaics, and biomedical devices and implants. Biological and biomedical research Researchers from Rice University and State University of New York – Stony Brook have shown that the addition of low weight % of carbon nanotubes can lead to significant improvements in the mechanical properties of biodegradable polymeric nanocomposites for applications in tissue engineering including bone, cartilage, muscle and nerve tissue. Dispersion of low weight % of graphene (~0.02 wt.%) results in significant increases in compressive and flexural mechanical properties of polymeric nanocomposites. Researchers at Rice University, Stony Brook University, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre and University of California, Riverside have shown that carbon nanotubes and their polymer nanocomposites are suitable scaffold materials for bone tissue engineering and bone formation. CNTs exhibit dimensional and chemical compatibility with biomolecules, such as DNA and proteins. CNTs enable fluorescent and photoacoustic imaging, as well as localized heating using near-infrared radiation. SWNT biosensors exhibit large changes in electrical impedance and optical properties, which is typically modulated by adsorption of a target on the CNT surface. Low detection limits and high selectivity require engineering the CNT surface and field effects, capacitance, Raman spectral shifts and photoluminescence for sensor design. Products under development include printed test strips for estrogen and progesterone detection, microarrays for DNA and protein detection and sensors for and cardiac troponin. Similar CNT sensors support food industry, military and environmental applications. CNTs can be internalized by cells, first by binding their tips to cell membrane receptors. This enables transfection of molecular cargo attached to the CNT walls or encapsulated by CNTs. For example, the cancer drug doxorubicin was loaded at up to 60 wt % on CNTs compared with a maximum of 8 to 10 wt % on liposomes. Cargo release can be triggered by near-infrared radiation. However, limiting the retention of CNTs within the body is critical to prevent undesirable accumulation. CNT toxicity remains a concern, although CNT biocompatibility may be engineerable. The degree of lung inflammation caused by injection of well-dispersed SWNTs was insignificant compared with asbestos and with particulate matter in air. Medical acceptance of CNTs requires understanding of immune response and appropriate exposure standards for inhalation, injection, ingestion and skin contact. CNT forests immobilized in a polymer did not show elevated inflammatory response in rats relative to controls. CNTs are under consideration as low-impedance neural interface electrodes and for coating of catheters to reduce thrombosis. CNT enabled x-ray sources for medical imaging are also in development. Relying on the unique properties of the CNTs, researchers have developed field emission cathodes that allow precise x-ray control and close placement of multiple sources. CNT enabled x-ray sources have been demonstrated for pre-clinical, small animal imaging applications, and are currently in clinical trials. In November 2012 researchers at the American National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) proved that single-wall carbon nanotubes may help protect DNA molecules from damage by oxidation. A highly effective method of delivering carbon nanotubes into cells is Cell squeezing, a high-throughput vector-free microfluidic platform for intracellular delivery developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the labs of Robert S. Langer. Carbon nanotubes have furthermore been grown inside microfluidic channels for chemical analysis, based on electrochromatography. Here, the high surface-area-to-volume ratio and high hydrophobicity of CNTs are used in order to greatly decrease the analysis time of small neutral molecules that typically require large bulky equipment for analysis. Composite materials Because of the carbon nanotube's superior mechanical properties, many structures have been proposed ranging from everyday items like clothes and sports gear to combat jackets and space elevators. However, the space elevator will require further efforts in refining carbon nanotube technology, as the practical tensile strength of carbon nanotubes must be greatly improved. For perspective, outstanding breakthroughs have already been made. Pioneering work led by Ray H. Baughman at the NanoTech Institute has shown that single and multi-walled nanotubes can produce materials with toughness unmatched in the man-made and natural worlds. Carbon nanotubes are also a promising material as building blocks in hierarchical composite materials given their exceptional mechanical properties (~1 TPa in modulus, and ~100 GPa in strength). Initial attempts to incorporate CNTs into hierarchical structures (such as yarns, fibres or films) has led to mechanical properties that were significantly lower than these potential limits. The hierarchical integration of multi-walled carbon nanotubes and metal/metal oxides within a single nanostructure can leverage the potentiality of carbon nanotubes composite for water splitting and electrocatalysis. Windle et al. have used an in situ chemical vapor deposition (CVD) spinning method to produce continuous CNT yarns from CVD-grown CNT aerogels. CNT yarns can also be manufactured by drawing out CNT bundles from a CNT forest and subsequently twisting to form the fibre (draw-twist method, see picture on right). The Windle group have fabricated CNT yarns with strengths as high as ~9 GPa at small gage lengths of ~1 mm, however, strengths of only about ~1 GPa were reported at the longer gage length of 20 mm. The reason why fibre strengths have been low compared to the strength of individual CNTs is due to a failure to effectively transfer load to the constituent (discontinuous) CNTs within the fibre. One potential route for alleviating this problem is via irradiation (or deposition) induced covalent inter-bundle and inter-CNT cross-linking to effectively 'join up' the CNTs, with higher dosage levels leading to the possibility of amorphous carbon/carbon nanotube composite fibres. Espinosa et al. developed high performance DWNT-polymer composite yarns by twisting and stretching ribbons of randomly oriented bundles of DWNTs thinly coated with polymeric organic compounds. These DWNT-polymer yarns exhibited an unusually high energy to failure of ~100 J·g−1 (comparable to one of the toughest natural materials – spider silk), and strength as high as ~1.4 GPa. Effort is ongoing to produce CNT composites that incorporate tougher matrix materials, such as Kevlar, to further improve on the mechanical properties toward those of individual CNTs. Because of the high mechanical strength of carbon nanotubes, research is being made into weaving them into clothes to create stab-proof and bulletproof clothing. The nanotubes would effectively stop the bullet from penetrating the body, although the bullet's kinetic energy would likely cause broken bones and internal bleeding. Carbon nanotubes can also enable shorter processing times and higher energy efficiencies during composite curing with the use of carbon nanotube structured heaters. Autoclaving is the ‘gold standard’ for composite curing however, it comes at a high price and introduces part size limitations. Researchers estimate that curing a small section of the Boeing 787 carbon fiber/epoxy fuselage requires 350 GJ of energy and produces 80 tons of carbon dioxide. This is about the same amount of energy that nine households would consume in one year. In addition, eliminating part size limitations eliminates the need to join small composite components to create large scale structures. This saves manufacturing time and results in higher strength structures. Carbon nanotube structured heaters show promise in replacing autoclaves and conventional ovens for composite curing because of their ability to reach high temperatures at fast ramping rates with high electrical efficiency and mechanical flexibility. These nanostructured heaters can take the form of a film and be applied directly to the composite. This results in conductive heat transfer as opposed to convective heat transfer used by autoclaves and conventional ovens. Lee et al. reported that only 50% of the thermal energy introduced in an autoclave is transferred to the composite being cured regardless of part size, while about 90% of the thermal energy is transferred in a nanostructured film heater depending on the process. Lee et al. were able to successfully cure aerospace-grade composites using a CNT heater made by “domino-pushing” a CNT forest onto a Teflon film. This film was then laid on top of an 8-ply OOA prepreg layup. Thermal insulation was incorporated around the assembly. The entire setup was subsequently vacuum bagged and heated using a 30V DC power supply. Degree-of-cure and mechanical tests were conducted to compare conventionally cured composites against their OOA set-up. Results showed that there was no difference in the quality of the composite created. However, the amount of energy required to cure the composite OOA was reduced by two orders of magnitude from 13.7 MJ to 118.8 kJ. Before carbon nanotubes can be used to cure Boeing 787 fuselages however, further development needs to occur. The largest challenge associated with creating reliable carbon nanotube structured heaters is being able to create a uniform carbon nanotube dispersion in a polymer matrix to ensure heat is applied evenly. CNTs high surface area results in strong Van Der Waals forces between individual CNTs, causing them to agglomerate together and yielding non-uniform heating properties. In addition, the polymer matrix chosen needs to be carefully chosen such that it can withstand the high temperatures generated and the repetitive thermal cycling required to cure multiple composite components. Mixtures MWNTs were first used as electrically conductive fillers in metals, at concentrations as high as 83.78 percent by weight (wt%). MWNT-polymer composites reach conductivities as high as 10,000 S m−1 at 10 wt % loading. In the automotive industry, CNT plastics are used in electrostatic-assisted painting of mirror housings, as well as fuel lines and filters that dissipate electrostatic charge. Other products include electromagnetic interference (EMI)–shielding packages and silicon wafer carriers. For load-bearing applications, CNT powders are mixed with polymers or precursor resins to increase stiffness, strength and toughness. These enhancements depend on CNT diameter, aspect ratio, alignment, dispersion and interfacial interaction. Premixed resins and master batches employ CNT loadings from 0.1 to 20 wt%. Nanoscale stick-slip among CNTs and CNT-polymer contacts can increase material damping, enhancing sporting goods, including tennis racquets, baseball bats and bicycle frames. CNT resins enhance fiber composites, including wind turbine blades and hulls for maritime security boats that are made by enhancing carbon fiber composites with CNT-enhanced resin. CNTs are deployed as additives in the organic precursors of stronger 1-μm diameter carbon fibers. CNTs influence the arrangement of carbon in pyrolyzed fiber. Toward the challenge of organizing CNTs at larger scales, hierarchical fiber composites are created by growing aligned forests onto glass, silicon carbide (SiC), alumina and carbon fibers, creating so-called "fuzzy" fibers. Fuzzy epoxy CNT-SiC and CNT-alumina fabric showed 69% improved crack-opening (mode I) and/or in-plane shear interlaminar (mode II) toughness. Applications under investigation include lightning-strike protection, deicing, and structural health monitoring for aircraft. MWNTs can be used as a flame-retardant additive to plastics due to changes in rheology by nanotube loading. Such additives can replace halogenated flame retardants, which face environmental restrictions. CNT/Concrete blends offer increased tensile strength and reduced crack propagation. Buckypaper (nanotube aggregate) can significantly improve fire resistance due to efficient heat reflection. Textiles The previous studies on the use of CNTs for textile functionalization were focused on fiber spinning for improving physical and mechanical properties. Recently a great deal of attention has been focused on coating CNTs on textile fabrics. Various methods have been employed for modifying fabrics using CNTs. produced intelligent e-textiles for Human Biomonitoring using a polyelectrolyte-based coating with CNTs. Additionally, Panhuis et al. dyed textile material by immersion in either a poly (2-methoxy aniline-5-sulfonic acid) PMAS polymer solution or PMAS-SWNT dispersion with enhanced conductivity and capacitance with a durable behavior. In another study, Hu and coworkers coated single-walled carbon nanotubes with a simple “dipping and drying” process for wearable electronics and energy storage applications. In the recent study, Li and coworkers using elastomeric separator and almost achieved a fully stretchable supercapacitor based on buckled single-walled carbon nanotube macrofilms. The electrospun polyurethane was used and provided sound mechanical stretchability and the whole cell achieve excellent charge-discharge cycling stability. CNTs have an aligned nanotube structure and a negative surface charge. Therefore, they have similar structures to direct dyes, so the exhaustion method is applied for coating and absorbing CNTs on the fiber surface for preparing multifunctional fabric including antibacterial, electric conductive, flame retardant and electromagnetic absorbance properties. Later, CNT yarns and laminated sheets made by direct chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or forest spinning or drawing methods may compete with carbon fiber for high-end uses, especially in weight-sensitive applications requiring combined electrical and mechanical functionality. Research yarns made from few-walled CNTs have reached a stiffness of 357 GPa and a strength of 8.8 GPa for a gauge length comparable to the millimeter-long CNTs within the yarn. Centimeter-scale gauge lengths offer only 2-GPa gravimetric strengths, matching that of Kevlar. Because the probability of a critical flaw increases with volume, yarns may never achieve the strength of individual CNTs. However, CNT's high surface area may provide interfacial coupling that mitigates these deficiencies. CNT yarns can be knotted without loss of strength. Coating forest-drawn CNT sheets with functional powder before inserting twist yields weavable, braidable and sewable yarns containing up to 95 wt % powder. Uses include superconducting wires, battery and fuel cell electrodes and self-cleaning textiles. As yet impractical fibers of aligned SWNTs can be made by coagulation-based spinning of CNT suspensions. Cheaper SWNTs or spun MWNTs are necessary for commercialization. Carbon nanotubes can be dissolved in superacids such as fluorosulfuric acid and drawn into fibers in dry jet-wet spinning. DWNT-polymer composite yarns have been made by twisting and stretching ribbons of randomly oriented bundles of DWNTs thinly coated with polymeric organic compounds. Body armor—combat jackets Cambridge University developed the fibres and licensed a company to make them. In comparison, the bullet-resistant fiber Kevlar fails at 27–33 J/g. Synthetic muscles offer high contraction/extension ratio given an electric current. SWNT are in use as an experimental material for removable, structural bridge panels. In 2015, researchers incorporated CNTs and graphene into spider silk, increasing its strength and toughness to a new record. They sprayed 15 Pholcidae spiders with water containing the nanotubes or flakes. The resulting silk had a fracture strength up to 5.4 GPa, a Young's modulus up to 47.8 GPa and a toughness modulus up to 2.1 GPa, surpassing both synthetic polymeric high performance fibres (e.g. Kevlar49) and knotted fibers. Carbon nanotube springs "Forests" of stretched, aligned MWNT springs can achieve an energy density 10 times greater than that of steel springs, offering cycling durability, temperature insensitivity, no spontaneous discharge and arbitrary discharge rate. SWNT forests are expected to be able to store far more than MWNTs. Alloys Adding small amounts of CNTs to metals increases tensile strength and modulus with potential in aerospace and automotive structures. Commercial aluminum-MWNT composites have strengths comparable to stainless steel (0.7 to 1 GPa) at one-third the density (2.6 g cm−3), comparable to more expensive aluminium-lithium alloys. Coatings and films CNTs can serve as a multifunctional coating material. For example, paint/MWNT mixtures can reduce biofouling of ship hulls by discouraging attachment of algae and barnacles. They are a possible alternative to environmentally hazardous biocide-containing paints. Mixing CNTs into anticorrosion coatings for metals can enhance coating stiffness and strength and provide a path for cathodic protection. CNTs provide a less expensive alternative to ITO for a range of consumer devices. Besides cost, CNT's flexible, transparent conductors offer an advantage over brittle ITO coatings for flexible displays. CNT conductors can be deposited from solution and patterned by methods such as screen printing. SWNT films offer 90% transparency and a sheet resistivity of 100 ohm per square. Such films are under development for thin-film heaters, such as for defrosting windows or sidewalks. Carbon nanotubes forests and foams can also be coated with a variety of different materials to change their functionality and performance. Examples include silicon coated CNTs to create flexible energy-dense batteries, graphene coatings to create highly elastic aerogels and silicon carbide coatings to create a strong structural material for robust high-aspect-ratio 3D-micro architectures. There is a wide range of methods how CNTs can be formed into coatings and films. Optical power detectors A spray-on mixture of carbon nanotubes and ceramic demonstrates unprecedented ability to resist damage while absorbing laser light. Such coatings that absorb the energy of high-powered lasers without breaking down are essential for optical power detectors that measure the output of such lasers. These are used, for example, in military equipment for defusing unexploded mines. The composite consists of multiwall carbon nanotubes and a ceramic made of silicon, carbon and nitrogen. Including boron boosts the breakdown temperature. The nanotubes and graphene-like carbon transmit heat well, while the oxidation-resistant ceramic boosts damage resistance. Creating the coating involves dispersing the nanotubes in toluene, to which a clear liquid polymer containing boron was added. The mixture was heated to . The result is crushed into a fine powder, dispersed again in toluene and sprayed in a thin coat on a copper surface. The coating absorbed 97.5 percent of the light from a far-infrared laser and tolerated 15 kilowatts per square centimeter for 10 seconds. Damage tolerance is about 50 percent higher than for similar coatings, e.g., nanotubes alone and carbon paint. Radar absorption Radars work in the microwave frequency range, which can be absorbed by MWNTs. Applying the MWNTs to the aircraft would cause the radar to be absorbed and therefore seem to have a smaller radar cross-section. One such application could be to paint the nanotubes onto the plane. Recently there has been some work done at the University of Michigan regarding carbon nanotubes' usefulness as stealth technology on aircraft. It has been found that in addition to the radar absorbing properties, the nanotubes neither reflect nor scatter visible light, making it essentially invisible at night, much like painting current stealth aircraft black except much more effective. Current limitations in manufacturing, however, mean that the current production of nanotube-coated aircraft is not possible. One theory to overcome these current limitations is to cover small particles with the nanotubes and suspend the nanotube-covered particles in a medium such as paint, which can then be applied to a surface, like a stealth aircraft. In 2010, Lockheed Martin Corporation applied for a patent for just such a CNT based radar-absorbent material, which was reassigned and granted to Applied NanoStructure Solutions, LLC in 2012. Some believe that this material is incorporated in the F-35 Lightning II. Microelectronics Nanotube-based transistors, also known as carbon nanotube field-effect transistors (CNTFETs), have been made that operate at room temperature and that are capable of digital switching using a single electron. However, one major obstacle to realization of nanotubes has been the lack of technology for mass production. In 2001, IBM researchers demonstrated how metallic nanotubes can be destroyed, leaving semiconducting ones behind for use as transistors. Their process is called "constructive destruction," which includes the automatic destruction of defective nanotubes on the wafer. This process, however, only gives control over the electrical properties on a statistical scale. SWNTs are attractive for transistors because of their low electron scattering and their bandgap. SWNTs are compatible with field-effect transistor (FET) architectures and high-k dielectrics. Despite progress following the CNT transistor's appearance in 1998, including a tunneling FET with a subthreshold swing of <60 mV per decade (2004), a radio (2007) and an FET with sub-10-nm channel length and a normalized current density of 2.41 mA μm−1 at 0.5 V, greater than those obtained for silicon devices. However, control of diameter, chirality, density and placement remains insufficient for commercial production. Less demanding devices of tens to thousands of SWNTs are more immediately practical. The use of CNT arrays/transistor increases output current and compensates for defects and chirality differences, improving device uniformity and reproducibility. For example, transistors using horizontally aligned CNT arrays achieved mobilities of 80 cm2 V−1 s−1, subthreshold slopes of 140 mV per decade and on/off ratios as high as 105. CNT film deposition methods enable conventional semiconductor fabrication of more than 10,000 CNT devices per chip. Printed CNT thin-film transistors (TFTs) are attractive for driving organic light-emitting diode displays, showing higher mobility than amorphous silicon (~1 cm2 V−1 s−1) and can be deposited by low-temperature, nonvacuum methods. Flexible CNT TFTs with a mobility of 35 cm2 V−1 s−1 and an on/off ratio of 6 were demonstrated. A vertical CNT FET showed sufficient current output to drive OLEDs at low voltage, enabling red-green-blue emission through a transparent CNT network. CNTs are under consideration for radio-frequency identification tags. Selective retention of semiconducting SWNTs during spin-coating and reduced sensitivity to adsorbates were demonstrated. The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors suggests that CNTs could replace Cu interconnects in integrated circuits, owing to their low scattering, high current-carrying capacity, and resistance to electromigration. For this, vias comprising tightly packed (>1013 cm−2) metallic CNTs with low defect density and low contact resistance are needed. Recently, complementarymetaloxide semiconductor (CMOS)-compatible 150-nm-diameter interconnects with a single CNT–contact hole resistance of 2.8 kOhm were demonstrated on full 200-mm-diameter wafers. Also, as a replacement for solder bumps, CNTs can function both as electrical leads and heat dissipaters for use in high-power amplifiers. Last, a concept for a nonvolatile memory based on individual CNT crossbar electromechanical switches has been adapted for commercialization by patterning tangled CNT thin films as the functional elements. This required development of ultrapure CNT suspensions that can be spin-coated and processed in industrial clean room environments and are therefore compatible with CMOS processing standards. Transistors Carbon nanotube field-effect transistors (CNTFETs) can operate at room temperature and are capable of digital switching using a single electron. In 2013, a CNT logic circuit was demonstrated that could perform useful work. Major obstacles to nanotube-based microelectronics include the absence of technology for mass production, circuit density, positioning of individual electrical contacts, sample purity, control over length, chirality and desired alignment, thermal budget and contact resistance. One of the main challenges was regulating conductivity. Depending on subtle surface features, a nanotube may act as a conductor or as a semiconductor. Another way to make carbon nanotube transistors has been to use random networks of them. By doing so one averages all of their electrical differences and one can produce devices in large scale at the wafer level. This approach was first patented by Nanomix Inc. (date of original application June 2002). It was first published in the academic literature by the United States Naval Research Laboratory in 2003 through independent research work. This approach also enabled Nanomix to make the first transistor on a flexible and transparent substrate. Since the electron mean free path in SWCNTs can exceed 1 micrometer, long channel CNTFETs exhibit near-ballistic transport characteristics, resulting in high speeds. CNT devices are projected to operate in the frequency range of hundreds of gigahertz. Nanotubes can be grown on nanoparticles of magnetic metal (Fe, Co) that facilitates production of electronic (spintronic) devices. In particular control of current through a field-effect transistor by magnetic field has been demonstrated in such a single-tube nanostructure. History In 2001, IBM researchers demonstrated how metallic nanotubes can be destroyed, leaving semiconducting nanotubes for use as components. Using "constructive destruction", they destroyed defective nanotubes on the wafer. This process, however, only gives control over the electrical properties on a statistical scale. In 2003, room-temperature ballistic transistors with ohmic metal contacts and high-k gate dielectric were reported, showing 20–30x more current than state-of-the-art siliconMOSFETs. Palladium is a high-work function metal that was shown to exhibit Schottky barrier-free contacts to semiconducting nanotubes with diameters >1.7 nm. The potential of carbon nanotubes was demonstrated in 2003 when room-temperature ballistic transistors with ohmic metal contacts and high-k gate dielectric were reported, showing 20–30x higher ON current than state-of-the-art Si MOSFETs. This presented an important advance in the field as CNT was shown to potentially outperform Si. At the time, a major challenge was ohmic metal contact formation. In this regard, palladium, which is a high-work function metal was shown to exhibit Schottky barrier-free contacts to semiconducting nanotubes with diameters >1.7 nm. The first nanotube integrated memory circuit was made in 2004. One of the main challenges has been regulating the conductivity of nanotubes. Depending on subtle surface features a nanotube may act as a plain conductor or as a semiconductor. A fully automated method has however been developed to remove non-semiconductor tubes. In 2013, researchers demonstrated a Turing-complete prototype micrometer-scale computer. Carbon nanotube transistors as logic-gate circuits with densities comparable to modern CMOS technology has not yet been demonstrated. In 2014, networks of purified semiconducting carbon nanotubes were used as the active material in p-type thin film transistors. They were created using 3-D printers using inkjet or gravure methods on flexible substrates, including polyimide and polyethylene (PET) and transparent substrates such as glass. These transistors reliably exhibit high-mobilities (> 10 cm2 V−1 s−1) and ON/OFF ratios (> 1000) as well as threshold voltages below 5 V. They offer current density and low power consumption as well as environmental stability and mechanical flexibility. Hysterisis in the current-voltage curses as well as variability in the threshold voltage remain to be solved. In 2015, researchers announced a new way to connect wires to SWNTs that make it possible to continue shrinking the width of the wires without increasing electrical resistance. The advance was expected to shrink the contact point between the two materials to just 40 atoms in width and later less. They tubes align in regularly spaced rows on silicon wafers. Simulations indicated that designs could be optimized either for high performance or for low power consumption. Commercial devices were not expected until the 2020s. Thermal management Large structures of carbon nanotubes can be used for thermal management of electronic circuits. An approximately 1 mm–thick carbon nanotube layer was used as a special material to fabricate coolers, this material has very low density, ~20 times lower weight than a similar copper structure, while the cooling properties are similar for the two materials. Buckypaper has characteristics appropriate for use as a heat sink for chipboards, a backlight for LCD screens or as a faraday cage. Solar cells One of the promising applications of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) is their use in solar panels, due to their strong UV/Vis-NIR absorption characteristics. Research has shown that they can provide a sizable increase in efficiency, even at their current unoptimized state. Solar cells developed at the New Jersey Institute of Technology use a carbon nanotube complex, formed by a mixture of carbon nanotubes and carbon buckyballs (known as fullerenes) to form snake-like structures. Buckyballs trap electrons, but they can't make electrons flow. Add sunlight to excite the polymers, and the buckyballs will grab the electrons. Nanotubes, behaving like copper wires, will then be able to make the electrons or current flow. Additional research has been conducted on creating SWNT hybrid solar panels to increase the efficiency further. These hybrids are created by combining SWNT's with photo-excitable electron donors to increase the number of electrons generated. It has been found that the interaction between the photo-excited porphyrin and SWNT generates electro-hole pairs at the SWNT surfaces. This phenomenon has been observed experimentally, and contributes practically to an increase in efficiency up to 8.5%. Nanotubes can potentially replace indium tin oxide in solar cells as a transparent conductive film in solar cells to allow light to pass to the active layers and generate photocurrent. CNTs in organic solar cells help reduce energy loss (carrier recombination) and enhance resistance to photooxidation. Photovoltaic technologies may someday incorporate CNT-Silicon heterojunctions to leverage efficient multiple-exciton generation at p-n junctions formed within individual CNTs. In the nearer term, commercial photovoltaics may incorporate transparent SWNT electrodes. Hydrogen storage In addition to being able to store electrical energy, there has been some research in using carbon nanotubes to store hydrogen to be used as a fuel source. By taking advantage of the capillary effects of the small carbon nanotubes, it is possible to condense gases in high density inside single-walled nanotubes. This allows for gases, most notably hydrogen (H2), to be stored at high densities without being condensed into a liquid. Potentially, this storage method could be used on vehicles in place of gas fuel tanks for a hydrogen-powered car. A current issue regarding hydrogen-powered vehicles is the on-board storage of the fuel. Current storage methods involve cooling and condensing the H2 gas to a liquid state for storage which causes a loss of potential energy (25–45%) when compared to the energy associated with the gaseous state. Storage using SWNTs would allow one to keep the H2 in its gaseous state, thereby increasing the storage efficiency. This method allows for a volume to energy ratio slightly smaller to that of current gas powered vehicles, allowing for a slightly lower but comparable range. An area of controversy and frequent experimentation regarding the storage of hydrogen by adsorption in carbon nanotubes is the efficiency by which this process occurs. The effectiveness of hydrogen storage is integral to its use as a primary fuel source since hydrogen only contains about one fourth the energy per unit volume as gasoline. Studies however show that what is the most important is the surface area of the materials used. Hence activated carbon with surface area of 2600 m2/g can store up to 5,8% w/w. In all these carbonaceous materials, hydrogen is stored by physisorption at 70-90K. Experimental capacity One experiment sought to determine the amount of hydrogen stored in CNTs by utilizing elastic recoil detection analysis (ERDA). CNTs (primarily SWNTs) were synthesized via chemical vapor disposition (CVD) and subjected to a two-stage purification process including air oxidation and acid treatment, then formed into flat, uniform discs and exposed to pure, pressurized hydrogen at various temperatures. When the data was analyzed, it was found that the ability of CNTs to store hydrogen decreased as temperature increased. Moreover, the highest hydrogen concentration measured was ~0.18%; significantly lower than commercially viable hydrogen storage needs to be. A separate experimental work performed by using a gravimetric method also revealed the maximum hydrogen uptake capacity of CNTs to be as low as 0.2%. In another experiment, CNTs were synthesized via CVD and their structure was characterized using Raman spectroscopy. Utilizing microwave digestion, the samples were exposed to different acid concentrations and different temperatures for various amounts of time in an attempt to find the optimum purification method for SWNTs of the diameter determined earlier. The purified samples were then exposed to hydrogen gas at various high pressures, and their adsorption by weight percent was plotted. The data showed that hydrogen adsorption levels of up to 3.7% are possible with a very pure sample and under the proper conditions. It is thought that microwave digestion helps improve the hydrogen adsorption capacity of the CNTs by opening up the ends, allowing access to the inner cavities of the nanotubes. Limitations on efficient hydrogen adsorption The biggest obstacle to efficient hydrogen storage using CNTs is the purity of the nanotubes. To achieve maximum hydrogen adsorption, there must be minimum graphene, amorphous carbon, and metallic deposits in the nanotube sample. Current methods of CNT synthesis require a purification step. However, even with pure nanotubes, the adsorption capacity is only maximized under high pressures, which are undesirable in commercial fuel tanks. Electronic components Various companies are developing transparent, electrically conductive CNT films and nanobuds to replace indium tin oxide (ITO) in LCDs, touch screens and photovoltaic devices. Nanotube films show promise for use in displays for computers, cell phones, Personal digital assistants, and automated teller machines. CNT diodes display a photovoltaic effect. Multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT coated with magnetite) can generate strong magnetic fields. Recent advances show that MWNT decorated with maghemite nanoparticles can be oriented in a magnetic field and enhance the electrical properties of the composite material in the direction of the field for use in electric motor brushes. A layer of 29% iron enriched single-walled nanotubes (SWNT) placed on top of a layer of explosive material such as PETN can be ignited with a regular camera flash. CNTs can be used as electron guns in miniature cathode ray tubes (CRT) in high-brightness, low-energy, low-weight displays. A display would consist of a group of tiny CRTs, each providing the electrons to illuminate the phosphor of one pixel, instead of having one CRT whose electrons are aimed using electric and magnetic fields. These displays are known as field emission displays (FEDs). CNTs can act as antennas for radios and other electromagnetic devices. Conductive CNTs are used in brushes for commercial electric motors. They replace traditional carbon black. The nanotubes improve electrical and thermal conductivity because they stretch through the plastic matrix of the brush. This permits the carbon filler to be reduced from 30% down to 3.6%, so that more matrix is present in the brush. Nanotube composite motor brushes are better-lubricated (from the matrix), cooler-running (both from better lubrication and superior thermal conductivity), less brittle (more matrix, and fiber reinforcement), stronger and more accurately moldable (more matrix). Since brushes are a critical failure point in electric motors, and also don't need much material, they became economical before almost any other application. Wires for carrying electric current may be fabricated from nanotubes and nanotube-polymer composites. Small wires have been fabricated with specific conductivity exceeding copper and aluminum; the highest conductivity non-metallic cables. CNT are under investigation as an alternative to tungsten filaments in incandescent light bulbs. Interconnects Metallic carbon nanotubes have aroused research interest for their applicability as very-large-scale integration (VLSI) interconnects because of their high thermal stability, high thermal conductivity and large current carrying capacity. An isolated CNT can carry current densities in excess of 1000 MA/cm2 without damage even at an elevated temperature of , eliminating electromigration reliability concerns that plague Cu interconnects. Recent modeling work comparing the two has shown that CNT bundle interconnects can potentially offer advantages over copper. Recent experiments demonstrated resistances as low as 20 Ohms using different architectures, detailed conductance measurements over a wide temperature range were shown to agree with theory for a strongly disordered quasi-one-dimensional conductor. Hybrid interconnects that employ CNT vias in tandem with copper interconnects may offer advantages from a reliability/thermal-management perspective. In 2016, the European Union has funded a four million euro project over three years to evaluate manufacturability and performance of composite interconnects employing both CNT and copper interconnects. The project named CONNECT (CarbON Nanotube compositE InterconneCTs) involves the joint efforts of seven European research and industry partners on fabrication techniques and processes to enable reliable Carbon NanoTubes for on-chip interconnects in ULSI microchip production. Electrical cables and wires Wires for carrying electric current may be fabricated from pure nanotubes and nanotube-polymer composites. It has already been demonstrated that carbon nanotube wires can successfully be used for power or data transmission. Recently small wires have been fabricated with specific conductivity exceeding copper and aluminum; these cables are the highest conductivity carbon nanotube and also highest conductivity non-metal cables. Recently, composite of carbon nanotube and copper have been shown to exhibit nearly one hundred times higher current-carrying-capacity than pure copper or gold. Significantly, the electrical conductivity of such a composite is similar to pure Cu. Thus, this Carbon nanotube-copper (CNT-Cu) composite possesses the highest observed current-carrying capacity among electrical conductors. Thus for a given cross-section of electrical conductor, the CNT-Cu composite can withstand and transport one hundred times higher current compared to metals such as copper and gold. Energy storages behind CNT The use of CNTs as a catalyst support in fuel cells can potentially reduce platinum usage by 60% compared with carbon black. Doped CNTs may enable the complete elimination of Pt. Supercapacitor MIT Research Laboratory of Electronics uses nanotubes to improve supercapacitors. The activated charcoal used in conventional ultracapacitors has many small hollow spaces of various size, which create together a large surface to store electric charge. But as charge is quantized into elementary charges, i.e. electrons, and each such elementary charge needs a minimum space, a significant fraction of the electrode surface is not available for storage because the hollow spaces are not compatible with the charge's requirements. With a nanotube electrode the spaces may be tailored to size—few too large or too small—and consequently the capacity should be increased considerably. A 40-F supercapacitor with a maximum voltage of 3.5 V that employed forest-grown SWNTs that are binder- and additive-free achieved an energy density of 15.6 Wh kg−1 and a power density of 37 kW kg−1. CNTs can be bound to the charge plates of capacitors to dramatically increase the surface area and therefore energy density. Batteries Carbon nanotubes' (CNTs) exciting electronic properties have shown promise in the field of batteries, where typically they are being experimented as a new electrode material, particularly the anode for lithium ion batteries. This is due to the fact that the anode requires a relatively high reversible capacity at a potential close to metallic lithium, and a moderate irreversible capacity, observed thus far only by graphite-based composites, such as CNTs. They have shown to greatly improve capacity and cyclability of lithium-ion batteries, as well as the capability to be very effective buffering components, alleviating the degradation of the batteries that is typically due to repeated charging and discharging. Further, electronic transport in the anode can be greatly improved using highly metallic CNTs. More specifically, CNTs have shown reversible capacities from 300 to 600 mAhg−1, with some treatments to them showing these numbers rise to up to 1000 mAhg−1. Meanwhile, graphite, which is most widely used as an anode material for these lithium batteries, has shown capacities of only 320 mAhg−1. By creating composites out of the CNTs, scientists see much potential in taking advantage of these exceptional capacities, as well as their excellent mechanical strength, conductivities, and low densities. MWNTs are used in lithium ion batteries cathodes. In these batteries, small amounts of MWNT powder are blended with active materials and a polymer binder, such as 1 wt % CNT loading in cathodes and graphite anodes. CNTs provide increased electrical connectivity and mechanical integrity, which enhances rate capability and cycle life. Paper batteries A paper battery is a battery engineered to use a paper-thin sheet of cellulose (which is the major constituent of regular paper, among other things) infused with aligned carbon nanotubes. The potential for these devices is great, as they may be manufactured via a roll-to-roll process, which would make it very low-cost, and they would be lightweight, flexible, and thin. In order to productively use paper electronics (or any thin electronic devices), the power source must be equally thin, thus indicating the need for paper batteries. Recently, it has been shown that surfaces coated with CNTs can be used to replace heavy metals in batteries. More recently, functional paper batteries have been demonstrated, where a lithium-ion battery is integrated on a single sheet of paper through a lamination process as a composite with Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) or LiCoO2 (LCO). The paper substrate would function well as the separator for the battery, where the CNT films function as the current collectors for both the anode and the cathode. These rechargeable energy devices show potential in RFID tags, functional packaging, or new disposable electronic applications. Improvements have also been shown in lead-acid batteries, based on research performed by Bar-Ilan University using high quality SWCNT manufactured by OCSiAl. The study demonstrated an increase in the lifetime of lead acid batteries by 4.5 times and a capacity increase of 30% on average and up to 200% at high discharge rates. Chemical CNT can be used for water transport and desalination. Water molecules can be separated from salt by forcing them through electrochemically robust nanotube networks with controlled nanoscale porosity. This process requires far lower pressures than conventional reverse osmosis methods. Compared to a plain membrane, it operates at a 20 °C lower temperature, and at a 6x greater flow rate. Membranes using aligned, encapsulated CNTs with open ends permit flow through the CNTs' interiors. Very-small-diameter SWNTs are needed to reject salt at seawater concentrations. Portable filters containing CNT meshes can purify contaminated drinking water. Such networks can electrochemically oxidize organic contaminants, bacteria and viruses. CNT membranes can filter carbon dioxide from power plant emissions. CNT can be filled with biological molecules, aiding biotechnology. CNT have the potential to store between 4.2 and 65% hydrogen by weight. If they can be mass-produced economically, of CNT could contain the same amount of energy as a gasoline tank. CNTs can be used to produce nanowires of other elements/molecules, such as gold or zinc oxide. Nanowires in turn can be used to cast nanotubes of other materials, such as gallium nitride. These can have very different properties from CNTs—for example, gallium nitride nanotubes are hydrophilic, while CNTs are hydrophobic, giving them possible uses in organic chemistry. Mechanical Oscillators based on CNT have achieved speeds of > 50 GHz. CNT electrical and mechanical properties suggest them as alternatives to traditional electrical actuators. Actuators The exceptional electrical and mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes have made them alternatives to the traditional electrical actuators for both microscopic and macroscopic applications. Carbon nanotubes are very good conductors of both electricity and heat, and they are also very strong and elastic molecules in certain directions. Loudspeaker Carbon nanotubes have also been applied in the acoustics (such as loudspeaker and earphone). In 2008, it was shown that a sheet of nanotubes can operate as a loudspeaker if an alternating current is applied. The sound is not produced through vibration but thermoacoustically. In 2013, a carbon nanotube (CNT) thin yarn thermoacoustic earphone together with CNT thin yarn thermoacoustic chip was demonstrated by a research group of Tsinghua-Foxconn Nanotechnology Research Center in Tsinghua University, using a Si-based semi-conducting technology compatible fabrication process. Near-term commercial uses include replacing piezoelectric speakers in greeting cards. Optical See additional applications in: Optical properties of carbon nanotubes Carbon nanotube photoluminescence (fluorescence) can be used to observe semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotube species. Photoluminescence maps, made by acquiring the emission and scanning the excitation energy, can facilitate sample characterization. Nanotube fluorescence is under investigation for biomedical imaging and sensors. The reflectivity of buckypaper produced with "super-growth" chemical vapor deposition is 0.03 or less, potentially enabling performance gains for pyroelectric infrared detectors. Environmental Environmental remediation A CNT nano-structured sponge (nanosponge) containing sulfur and iron is more effective at soaking up water contaminants such as oil, fertilizers, pesticides and pharmaceuticals. Their magnetic properties make them easier to retrieve once the clean-up job is done. The sulfur and iron increases sponge size to around . It also increases porosity due to beneficial defects, creating buoyancy and reusability. Iron, in the form of ferrocene makes the structure easier to control and enables recovery using magnets. Such nanosponges increase the absorption of the toxic organic solvent dichlorobenzene from water by 3.5 times. The sponges can absorb vegetable oil up to 150 times their initial weight and can absorb engine oil as well. Earlier, a magnetic boron-doped MWNT nanosponge that could absorb oil from water. The sponge was grown as a forest on a substrate via chemical vapor disposition. Boron puts kinks and elbows into the tubes as they grow and promotes the formation of covalent bonds. The nanosponges retain their elastic property after 10,000 compressions in the lab. The sponges are both superhydrophobic, forcing them to remain at the water's surface and oleophilic, drawing oil to them. Water treatment It has been shown that carbon nanotubes exhibit strong adsorption affinities to a wide range of aromatic and aliphatic contaminants in water, due to their large and hydrophobic surface areas. They also showed similar adsorption capacities as activated carbons in the presence of natural organic matter. As a result, they have been suggested as promising adsorbents for removal of contaminant in water and wastewater treatment systems. Moreover, membranes made out of carbon nanotube arrays have been suggested as switchable molecular sieves, with sieving and permeation features that can be dynamically activated/deactivated by either pore size distribution (passive control) or external electrostatic fields (active control). Other applications Carbon nanotubes have been implemented in nanoelectromechanical systems, including mechanical memory elements (NRAM being developed by Nantero Inc.) and nanoscale electric motors (see Nanomotor or Nanotube nanomotor). Carboxyl-modified single-walled carbon nanotubes (so called zig-zag, armchair type) can act as sensors of atoms and ions of alkali metals Na, Li, K. In May 2005, Nanomix Inc. placed on the market a hydrogen sensor that integrated carbon nanotubes on a silicon platform. Eikos Inc of Franklin, Massachusetts and Unidym Inc. of Silicon Valley, California are developing transparent, electrically conductive films of carbon nanotubes to replace indium tin oxide (ITO). Carbon nanotube films are substantially more mechanically robust than ITO films, making them ideal for high-reliability touchscreens and flexible displays. Printable water-based inks of carbon nanotubes are desired to enable the production of these films to replace ITO. Nanotube films show promise for use in displays for computers, cell phones, PDAs, and ATMs. A nanoradio, a radio receiver consisting of a single nanotube, was demonstrated in 2007. The use in tensile stress or toxic gas sensors was proposed by Tsagarakis. A flywheel made of carbon nanotubes could be spun at extremely high velocity on a floating magnetic axis in a vacuum, and potentially store energy at a density approaching that of conventional fossil fuels. Since energy can be added to and removed from flywheels very efficiently in the form of electricity, this might offer a way of storing electricity, making the electrical grid more efficient and variable power suppliers (like wind turbines) more useful in meeting energy needs. The practicality of this depends heavily upon the cost of making massive, unbroken nanotube structures, and their failure rate under stress. Carbon nanotube springs have the potential to indefinitely store elastic potential energy at ten times the density of lithium-ion batteries with flexible charge and discharge rates and extremely high cycling durability. Ultra-short SWNTs (US-tubes) have been used as nanoscaled capsules for delivering MRI contrast agents in vivo. Carbon nanotubes provide a certain potential for metal-free catalysis of inorganic and organic reactions. For instance, oxygen groups attached to the surface of carbon nanotubes have the potential to catalyze oxidative dehydrogenations or selective oxidations. Nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes may replace platinum catalysts used to reduce oxygen in fuel cells. A forest of vertically aligned nanotubes can reduce oxygen in alkaline solution more effectively than platinum, which has been used in such applications since the 1960s. Here, the nanotubes have the added benefit of not being subject to carbon monoxide poisoning. Wake Forest University engineers are using multiwalled carbon nanotubes to enhance the brightness of field-induced polymer electroluminescent technology, potentially offering a step forward in the search for safe, pleasing, high-efficiency lighting. In this technology, moldable polymer matrix emits light when exposed to an electric current. It could eventually yield high-efficiency lights without the mercury vapor of compact fluorescent lamps or the bluish tint of some fluorescents and LEDs, which has been linked with circadian rhythm disruption. Candida albicans has been used in combination with carbon nanotubes (CNT) to produce stable electrically conductive bio-nano-composite tissue materials that have been used as temperature sensing elements. The SWNT production company OCSiAl developed a series of masterbatches for industrial use of single-wall CNTs in multiple types of rubber blends and tires, with initial trials showing increases in hardness, viscosity, tensile strain resistance and resistance to abrasion while reducing elongation and compression In tires the three primary characteristics of durability, fuel efficiency and traction were improved using SWNTs. The development of rubber masterbatches built on earlier work by the Japanese National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology showing rubber to be a viable candidate for improvement with SWNTs. Introducing MWNTs to polymers can improve flame retardancy and retard thermal degradation of polymer. The results confirmed that combination of MWNTs and ammonium polyphosphates show a synergistic effect for improving flame retardancy. References External links Applications of Carbon Nanotubes Carbon nanotubes Electronic design automation Open problems

Joseph Mayo Pettit (July 15, 1916 – September 15, 1986) was an engineer who became dean of the Stanford University School of Engineering from 1958 to 1972, and president of the Georgia Institute of Technology from 1972 to 1986. While president of Georgia Tech, Pettit advanced the causes of research and industrial development at the school; Tech's research budget surpassed the $100 million mark and Pettit headed Tech's $100 million Centennial Campaign. Early life and career Joseph M. Pettit was born in Rochester, Minnesota. He earned a B.S. degree from the University of California, Berkeley, in 1938, an engineering degree from Stanford University in 1940, and a Ph.D. from Stanford in 1942. From 1940 to 1942, Pettit served as an instructor at the University of California. He then joined the World War II radar countermeasures project at the Radio Research Laboratory of Harvard University. Following the war effort, Pettit became supervising engineer with Airborne Instruments Laboratory in New York. In 1947, Pettit joined the faculty of Stanford University, and was named Professor of Electrical Engineering in 1954. He was named Dean of the Stanford School of Engineering in 1958, and would remain in the position until 1972. Georgia Tech Pettit became president of the Georgia Institute of Technology in 1972. During his 14-year tenure as president, Pettit was credited with turning Georgia Tech into a top tier research institution. Pettit has also received credit for shifting Georgia Tech back to its roots with regards to providing assistance with economic development within the state of Georgia. In the decades known for the Vietnam War and the launch of Sputnik, research at Georgia Tech and the Georgia Tech Research Institute had become so tied with NASA and the Department of Defense that local industrial development had been largely forgotten. In 1975, the Georgia General Assembly designated the Engineering Experiment Station (now the Georgia Tech Research Institute) as the "Georgia Productivity Center". Georgia was the first state to designate such a center to encourage business productivity. In the aftermath of the launch of Scientific Atlanta by Glen P. Robinson and the subsequent disputes, Georgia Tech's culture encouraged hard work, but did not encourage start-ups. This changed during Joseph Pettit's administration; Pettit was at Stanford during the development of Silicon Valley and worked to change the culture to inspire something similar in Atlanta. "That was when Tech began actively encouraging faculty, staff and students to be entrepreneurial... In some ways it was a shift back to our roots, with Tech beginning to reconnect with the state through the Advanced Technology Development Center, the Economic Development Institute and the Georgia Research Alliance", according to Bob McMath. During Pettit's tenure as Georgia Tech's president, the Institute progressed into top tier of technological education institutions. Under his leadership, Tech's research budget surpassed the $100 million mark for the first time in its history. In addition, Pettit spearheaded Tech's historic $100 million Centennial Campaign. A total of $202.7 million was raised during the Centennial Campaign, which was Georgia Tech's first major fundraising effort. Pettit worked closely with J. Erskine Love, Jr. with regards to these fundraising efforts; Love was later asked to deliver the eulogy at Pettit's funeral. Numerous research centers were established during Pettit's tenure at Georgia Tech. In 1978, Georgia Tech established the Georgia Mining Resources Institute, which was linked to the U. S. Bureau of Mines; they also established the Fracture and Fatigue Research Laboratory. Other centers established around this time included the Computational Mechanics Center in 1979; the Center for Rehabilitation Technology in 1980; the Advance Technology Center, the Technology Policy and Assessment Center, and the Microelectronics Research Center in 1981; the Materials Handling Research Center, Center for Architecture Conservation, Center for Excellence in Rotary Wing Aircraft, and Communication Research Center in 1982; the Research Center for Biotechnology in 1983; and the Center for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning, and the College of Architecture Construction Research Center in 1986. The general assembly granted $15 million in funding for the Center of Excellence in Microelectronics in 1985. Pettit also oversaw Georgia Tech's application and admittance into the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), an athletic league founded in 1953 which included seven charter members. Georgia Tech had withdrawn from the Southeastern Conference in January 1964 and had operated as an Independent until 1975 when Georgia Tech joined the Metro Conference. Georgia Tech was admitted to the ACC on April 3, 1978. The ACC has expanded from 8 to 12 members since that time. Pettit died of cancer in 1986, and his vice president of academic affairs, Henry C. Bourne, Jr., served as interim president. Honors and awards Pettit was awarded the President's Certificate of Merit in 1949 for his contributions during World War II. He was named a Fellow of the Institute of Radio Engineers (now part of IEEE) in 1954 and served on that organization's board of directors from 1954 to 1955. He was elected as a life member of IEEE in 1982. While in IRE and later IEEE, Pettit founded two academic conferences: Wescon in 1949 and Southcon in 1981. Pettit was also involved in the American Society for Engineering Education, serving two terms on their board of directors and one term, 1972-1973, as their president. He served on the National Science Board from 1977 to 1982, and also served as an advisor to the National Science Foundation. The Joseph Mayo Pettit Distinguished Service Award, conferred by the Georgia Tech Alumni Association, is named after Pettit. See also History of Georgia Tech#Research expansion References External links IEEE Profile of Joseph M. Pettit Presidents of Georgia Tech University of California, Berkeley alumni Stanford University alumni People from Rochester, Minnesota 1916 births 1989 deaths Fellow Members of the IEEE Presidents of the American Society for Engineering Education 20th-century American academics

The King's Buildings (colloquially known as just King's or KB) is a campus of the University of Edinburgh in Scotland. Located in the suburb of Blackford, the site contains most of the schools within the College of Science and Engineering, excepting only the School of Informatics and part of the School of Geosciences, which are located at the central George Square campus. The campus lies south of West Mains Road, west of Mayfield Road and east of Blackford Hill, about south of George Square. Scotland's Rural College (SRUC) and Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland (BioSS) also have facilities there. History In 1919 Edinburgh University bought the land of West Mains Farm in the south of the city with the intention of building a satellite campus specialising in the Sciences. The first building was the Chemistry Building (renamed the Joseph Black Building) designed by Arthur Forman Balfour Paul in 1919. Building started in 1920 and was completed after 1924 by John Fraser Matthew. This was followed by the Zoology Building (renamed the Ashworth Laboratories) dating from 1929, also by Matthew. The name "King's Buildings" is a reference to then-king George V. During World War II, the Genetics Institute part of King's Buildings was used as the location for the first War Office Selection Board. University of Edinburgh celebrated more than 100 years of the site in 2021 with their KB101 campaign which included a lecture series and newly commissioned artworks by Katie Paterson. Street and building names All the campus properties shared one of two addresses until, in 2014, the University approached the City of Edinburgh Council, as the road naming authority, with a request to name all the individual roads within the campus to honour famous scientists and mathematicians associated with the University. When the proposed changes were discussed in City of Edinburgh Development Management Sub-Committee, it was pointed out that some of the names were overly long and cumbersome. Two of the proposed names were rejected as unsuitable as Christina Miller was deemed to be too similar sounding to Christie Miller, who already appears in three street names; and Robert Edwards did not meet the Council’s 10-year waiting period for deceased people. The University eventually substituted Marion Ross Road for Christina Miller Road and James Dewar Road for Robert Edwards Road. The final agreed street system was: Charlotte Auerbach Road Thomas Bayes Road Max Born Crescent David Brewster Road Alexander Crum Brown Road James Dewar Road James Hutton Road KB Square Colin MacLaurin Road Marion Ross Road Peter Guthrie Tait Road Robert Stevenson Road Nicholas Kemmer Road Buildings Building names at KB reflect the spectrum of British science: Alexander Graham Bell Building Alrick Building Ann Walker Building Ashworth Laboratories Biospace Centre for Science at Extreme Conditions Christina Miller Building Computing Services Crew Building Crew Laboratory (previously the William Dudgeon Labs and earlier Mouse House) Daniel Rutherford Building Darwin Building Engineering Lecture Theatre Erskine Williamson Building Faraday Building Fleeming Jenkin Building Grant Institute Hudson Beare Building James Clerk Maxwell Building John Muir Building John Murray Labs Joseph Black Building Kenneth Denbigh Building King's Buildings Centre King's Buildings House March Building Mary Brück Building Michael Swann Building Murchison House Noreen and Kenneth Murray Library The Nucleus Ocean Energy Research Facility Peter Wilson Building Robertson Engineering & Science Library Roger Land Building Sanderson Building Scottish Microelectronics Centre Structures Lab Swann Building Waddington Building William Rankine Building On 5 August 2014, FloWave TT was inaugurated by Amber Rudd, UK Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change. The FloWave Ocean Energy Research Facility is a world-unique, diameter wave and current tank primarily focused on testing marine energy technologies and projects. In 2019 the data centre in the James Clerk Maxwell Building was named in honour of Mary Somerville and in 2020 the IT skills training room was named in honour of Xia Peisu. Other facilities King's Buildings House, also known as KB House, is the student union at King's Buildings, run by Edinburgh University Students' Association (EUSA). The Mayfield Bar and Blackford Lounge serve hot food and drinks on the ground floor, along with the KB House Shop and a games room. A full servery, Common Room and Kitchen, can be found upstairs, serving a wider variety of hot food. The union is also home to The Advice Place student advisory service and KB Gym, which includes two badminton and two squash courts. KB Centre Shop is another EUSA-run shop, located in the KB Centre. The store stocks convenience products, alongside hot drinks, made-to-order sandwiches and hot food to take away. Cafés include The Magnet Café in the James Clerk Maxwell Building, KB Café in the Noreen and Kenneth Murray Library, Upstairs Café in the Swann Building, XY Café in the Roger Land Building, Brucks Café in the Mary Bruck building, and The Eng Inn in the Hudson Beare Building. King's Buildings 5 Mile Road Race The KB 5 Road Race is organised every year by the Edinburgh University Hare and Hounds Running Club. It is usually held in late February or early March. The race starts and finishes inside the King's Buildings campus. The course consists of a road loop around the streets of south Edinburgh, with quite a few hills, though none of them steep. The race is popular with student and local club runners and usually attracts around 250 participants. Notes References External links College of Science and Engineering website University of Edinburgh website University of Edinburgh – King's Buildings campus map Buildings and structures of the University of Edinburgh University and college campuses in the United Kingdom University of Edinburgh

Microprocessors belonging to the PowerPC/Power ISA architecture family have been used in numerous applications. Personal Computers Apple Computer was the dominant player in the market of personal computers based on PowerPC processors until 2006 when it switched to Intel-based processors. Apple used PowerPC processors in the Power Mac, iMac, eMac, PowerBook, iBook, Mac mini, and Xserve. Classic Macintosh accelerator boards using PowerPCs were made by DayStar Digital, Newer Technology, Sonnet Technologies, and TotalImpact. There have been several attempts to create PowerPC reference platforms for computers by IBM and others: The IBM PReP (PowerPC Reference Platform) is a system standard intended to ensure compatibility among PowerPC-based systems built by different companies; IBM POP (PowerPC Open Platform) is an open and free standard and design of PowerPC motherboards. Pegasos Open Desktop Workstation (ODW) is an open and free standard and design of PowerPC motherboards based on Marvell Discovery II (MV64361) chipset; PReP standard specifies the PCI bus, but will also support ISA, MicroChannel, and PCMCIA. PReP-compliant systems will be able to run OS/2, AIX, Solaris, Taligent, and Windows NT; and the CHRP (Common Hardware Reference Platform) is an open platform agreed on by Apple, IBM, and Motorola. All CHRP systems will be able to run Mac OS, OS/2-PPC, Windows NT, AIX, Solaris, Novell Netware. CHRP is a superset of PReP and the PowerMac platforms. Power.org has defined the Power Architecture Platform Reference (PAPR) that provides the foundation for development of computers based on the Linux operating system. List of computers based on PowerPC: Amiga accelerator boards: Phase5 Blizzard PPC. Phase5 CyberStorm PPC. Apple iMac PowerMac Xserve Mac mini iBook PowerBook Eyetech AmigaOne Genesi Pegasos Open Desktop Workstation (ODW). EFIKA IBM RS/6000 AIX workstations ACube Systems Srl Sam440 (Samantha) Sam460ex (Samantha) Servers Apple Xserve Rack server. Genesi Open Server Workstation (OSW) with dual IBM PowerPC 970MP CPU. High density blade server (rack server). IBM Rack server. Supercomputers IBM Blue Gene/L and Blue Gene/P Supercomputer, keeping the top spots of supercomputers since 2004, also being the first systems to performa faster than one Petaflops. System p with POWER5 processors are used as the base for many supercomputers as they are made to scale well and have powerful CPUs. All supercomputers of Spanish Supercomputing Network, built using PowerPC 970 based blade servers. Magerit and Marenostrum are the most powerful supercomputers of the network. Roadrunner is a new Cell/Opteron based supercomputer that will be operational in 2008, pushing the 1 PetaFLOPS mark. Summit and Sierra, currently the world's first and second fastest supercomputers, respectively. Apple System X of Virginia Tech is a supercomputer based on 1100 Xserves (PowerPC 970) running Mac OS X. First built using stock PowerMac G5s making it one of the cheapest and most powerful supercomputer in its day. Cray The XT3, XT4 and XT5 supercomputers have Opteron CPUs but PowerPC 440 based SeaStar communications processors connecting the CPUs to a very high bandwidth communications grid. Sony The PlayStation 3 is the base of Cell based supercomputer grids running Yellow Dog Linux. Personal digital assistants (smartphones and tablets) IBM released a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) reference platform ("Arctic") based on PowerPC 405LP (Low Power). This project is discontinued after IBM sold PowerPC 4XX design to AMCC. Game consoles All three major seventh-generation game consoles contain PowerPC-based processors. Sony's PlayStation 3 console, released in November 2006, contains a Cell processor, including a 3.2 GHz PowerPC control processor and eight closely threaded DSP-like accelerator processors, seven active and one spare; Microsoft's Xbox 360 console, released in 2005, includes a 3.2 GHz custom IBM PowerPC chip with three symmetrical cores, each core SMP-capable at two threads, and Nintendo's Wii console, also released in November 2006, contains an extension of the PowerPC architecture found in their previous system, the GameCube. TV Set Top Boxes/Digital Recorder IBM, Sony, and Zarlink Semiconductor had released several Set Top Box (STB) reference platforms based on IBM PowerPC 405 cores and IBM Set Top Box (STB) System-On-Chip (SOC) Sony Set top box (STB). Motorola Set top box. Dreambox Set Top Box. TiVo (Series1) personal TV/video digital recorder (VDR). Printers/Graphics Global Graphics, YARC Raster Image Processing (RIP) system for professional printers. Hewlett-Packard, Kyocera, Konica-Minolta, Lexmark, Xerox laser and inkjet printers. Network/USB Devices Buffalo Technology Kuro Box/LinkStation/TeraStation network-attached storage devices Cisco routers Culturecom - VoIP in China. Realm Systems BlackDog Plug-in USB mobile Linux Server Automotive Ford, Daimler Benz cars and other car manufacturers. Medical Equipment Horatio - patient simulator for training doctor and nurse. Matrox image processing subsystem for medical equipment: MRI, CAT, PET, USG Military and Aerospace The RAD750 (234A510, 234A511, 244A325) radiation-hardened processors, used in several spacecraft. Maxwell radiation hardened Single-board computer (SBC) for space and military projects. U.S. Navy submarine sonar systems. Canadarm for International Space Station (ISS) created by MacDonald, Detwiller & Associates (MDA). Leclerc main battle tank fire control Point of Sales Culturecom - Tax Point of Sales terminal in China. Test and Measurement Equipment LeCroy digital oscilloscopes (certain series). References External links The OpenPOWER Foundation P PowerPC architecture

Robotix is an annual robotics and programming event that is organised by the Technology Robotix Society at the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur (IIT Kharagpur). It is held during Kshitij, the institute's annual techno-management festival. Participation is open to college students. The event gives contestants an opportunity to showcase their talents in the fields of mechanical robotics, autonomous robotics and programming. History Robotix started in 2001 as an in-house event for the students of IIT Kharagpur. Kunal Sinha, Saurabh Prasad and Varun Rai created the event for IDEON, the school's techno-management festival. The inaugural event hosted eight teams. In 2003, the IDEON festival was reorganized and renamed to Kshitij. Robotix is now organized under Kshitij. Event participation has increased over the years: Robotix 2006 had 220 teams, Robotix 2007 had 546 teams, and Robotix 2008 had over 1000 teams. Robotix celebrated its tenth edition in 2010 with an array of challenging problem statements. Robotix 2011 conducted a water surface event, R.A.F.T., in which over 250 teams participated. Events Events during Robotix are conducted under three categories: manual, autonomous and programming/online. In the manual events, the participant handles the robot by using a remote control. The remote system may be wired or unwired. The robot then has to perform the specified task, which is usually something mechanical. In the autonomous events, the robots act independently; participants are not allowed to control them during their run. These robots typically use programmed micro-controllers to make decisions. Some events involve more than one robot, and can be a mix of autonomous and manually controlled robots. In the programming events, the participants are given a problem statement and submit code to solve the problem; the competitors are also allowed to submit their solutions online. The manual and autonomous events are further classified by competition type. In the solo runs, the robot team performs the tasks without other competitors in the field; they are evaluated on marking criteria such as time elapsed, goal completion, and efficiency. In the tournaments, two or more teams participate at a time, and only one team advances to the next round. Past events Robotix 2018 Robotix 2018 will be held from 19–21 January 2018. The events of 2018 edition are: Poles Apart: Build a manually controlled robot, which is capable of picking and placing blocks with accuracy and changing its interaxial distance to make its way through a series of hurdles. STAX: Build a robot which can rearrange blocks of different colors from a stack in a pattern by identifying the colors simultaneously moving across the stacks using line following. Fortress: Build an image processing robot that can recognize useful patterns by pattern recognition while avoiding other obstacles. Robotix 2017 Robotix 2017 was held from 27–29 January 2017. The events of 2017 edition are: Bomb Disposal: Build a manually controlled robot which is capable of cutting the required wires and lifting objects. B.R.I.C.K.S.: Build a robot that is capable of segregating building materials by differentiating between hollow and solid bricks by successful autonomous weight detection. Conquest: Build an image processing robot that can collect resources like food and wood from the arena while avoiding different obstacles. Robotix 2016 Robotix 2016 was held from 21–24 January 2016. The events of 2016 edition are: Summit: Build a manually controlled robot capable of climbing staircases, whilst picking storing and placing objects on its way. Sherlock: Build an autonomous robot that can decode encoded wireless signals to navigate in a featureless arena using only a digital compass. Warehouse: Build a gesture controlled semi-autonomous robot that is capable of sorting blocks on multi-layered platforms according to their RFID tags. S.H.E.L.D.O.N.: Build an image processing robot capable of detecting characters, using an overhead camera and traversing them such that the equation generated by the traversal fulfills a certain condition. Robotix 2015 The events of 2015 edition are: AugHit:Build an Image Processing robot which can play the Brick Break game. Minefield:Build a semi-autonomous robot which is capable of moving around and clasping objects using gesture recognition and implement metal-detection autonomously. Cascade:Build a manually controlled robot capable of traversing vertical rods while shooting terrorists and extinguishing fire. Shipment:Build a manually controlled robot that carries out shipment of parcels from dock to vessel. Step Up:Build an autonomous robot that is capable of traversing a grid and arranging the blocks placed on nodes in the increasing order of height. Sudocode:Write a code to optimise your strategy to find and destroy enemy bunkers in a jungle. Write a code to find and attack enemy troops in the jungle. Robotix 2014 Robotix 2014 was held from 31 January 3 February 2014. The events of 2014 edition were: Geo-Aware: Create a vision-guided robot which can use onboard video feed to navigate an environment based on an overhead image as a map. Tremors: Build an Autonomous robot that can seek out victims present in the arena while detecting and avoiding earthquake affected vibration zones present in the arena. Canyon Rush: Build a manually controlled robot capable of traversing an arena similar to a canyon and saving victims stranded at certain depths. Inspiralon:Build a manually controlled robot capable of traversing a broken pipe and repairing it on the way, in this case, popping corks plugged in the pipe. Transporter:Build an autonomous robot which can traverse a grid and place blocks in voids on the grid such that it optimises its path while completing this task. Sudocode:SudoCode was an online coding event including different Problem Statements to be judged by an online evaluator. Robotix 2013 Robotix 2013 was held from 1–4 February 2013. It features the following events: Abyss: The manually controlled robot uses ropes to descend a rocky surface. The goal is to retrieve people, represented by rings, and bring them to a station, represented by a pole. Overhaul: The manually controlled robot traverses various terrains and crevasses in a broken landscape by constructing a path. The goal is to reach victims trapped at an accident site. A.C.R.O.S.S. (Automated Constructions Robot Operations Systems): The event involves a pair of autonomous robots which must work together to navigate a series of chasms and buildings. One robot is placed on top and the other below. Lumos: The autonomous robot navigates a dark arena that has light sources of varying luminosities. The goal is to turn off the sources by bumping into them, but not hit the unlit sources. Seeker: The autonomous robot navigates an indoor environment. It must recognize signs and directions so as to reach the targets and to eventually find its way out. Marauder's Map: Design an algorithm that will plan an itinerary for a Marauder to loot various cities around the world. It considers factors such as account terrain, travel time, and cost of transportation (e.g. hiring vehicles, purchasing fuel). Robotix 2012 Robotix 2012 was held from 27–30 January 2012. It consisted of the following events: Inferno: The manual robots play the role of firemen by dousing fires and saving people (cylinders) from a burning building. Vertigo: The robot rides a zip-line and shoots at targets below it. Stasis: The autonomous robot must balance a water reservoir compartment, and guide it through a variety of terrains. Stalker: A pair of autonomous robots that communicate so that one guides the other. The first robot follows a line, and communicates with the second robot so that the latter can trace a similar path on another arena that does not have any markings. Nuke Clear: The autonomous robot uses image processing to navigate an arena to detect and to defuse bombs. Echelon: In the online event, the idea is to make a machine capable of ‘understanding’ our world, and the following problem statement aims at putting together basic NLP (natural language programming) tasks towards a useful end. Robotix 2011 Robotix 2011 was held from 28–31 January 2011. It featured the following events: R.A.F.T.: The manually controlled robot or group of robots use a water raft to retrieve people (balls) from flood affected areas (platforms), and bring them to safety (designated zone). Pirate Bay: The manually controlled robot searches and digs for buried treasure, and then rescues fellow pirates. The Fugitives: A team of up to four autonomous robots communicate and collaborate to detect and corner fugitive robots. Ballista: The autonomous robot shoots ping-pong balls into a basket from different locations. Judging is based on accuracy and range. Robocop: The autonomous robot uses on-board image processing to identify and knock out statuettes of a certain color. The Negotiators: In the online event, the participants submit a computer program that can negotiate with other opponents in order to complete a configuration of blocks on a virtual arena. Robotix 2010 The tenth edition of Robotix was held from 28–31 January 2010. All events had an X in their name to indicate ten years. The competition featured the following events: Xplode: The theme of the event was inspired by the land mine problem in some of the African countries. Each team presents a pair of autonomous robots. The first mine-detecting robot maps the arena, and transmits its information regarding the location of the mines to the second robot. The mine-avoiding robot attempts to reach the goal in the shortest time while it avoids the mines. Xtension: The robots coordinate amongst themselves to traverse a series of chasms. There was no restriction on the number of robots one could build, but at least one robot must be autonomous. 8MileX: The autonomous robots travel outdoors on an actual road and follow traffic rules. It is similar to the Robotix 2009 8 Mile event, and is a scaled down version of the DARPA Grand Challenge. TribotX Championship: A three-tier tournament that required participants to use their manually-controlled robots to perform three tasks over three days of the festival. The teams with the highest cumulative scores after the first two tasks advanced to final knockout stage. The tasks were selected from a pool of modules. Contestants were then informed of the day's task 12 hours before the start. eXplore: In the underwater event, the manually-controlled robots dive and release several light weight balls held at different coordinates in a large water tank. The robots then collect the balls that are floating on the surface and bring them to the designed area of the arena called the victory zone. Xants: The programming/online event that is inspired by ant colonies and the principles of swarm intelligence and collective intelligence. In a simulation of an ant colony and several energy packets distributed across the arena, where individual ants cannot sense beyond a certain range, and can only leave a scent trail for other ants to follow, participants had to design an algorithm to optimize this coordination and to procure the energy packets efficiently. Robotix 2009 Robotix 2009 was held from 29 January – 1 February 2009. It featured the following events: 8 Mile: The autonomous battery-powered vehicles traverse the road, and must follow traffic rules from traffic lights to zebra crossings. 12 Doors Down: The autonomous robot is placed in a labyrinth of cells. The participants use a manually controlled robot to guide it out of the grid by opening and closing doors. Micro Mouse 4D: In the programming/online event, participants code a function in a pre-programmed template to run a simulation to address the micro-mouse robotics problem. It was simulated with Microsoft Robotics Studio. FramED9211: In the programming/online event that involves image processing, participants submit a code in a language of their choice to recognize the number plates of fast moving cars among all cars in a real life video. wEDGED: The event was inspired by Nintendo platform games. The manually controlled robots climb a wooden wedge while they avoid the swinging pendulums. They grab a plank by its handle and swing on to a lower platform. It was a one-on-one competition. "#mEsh": The manually controlled robot climbs up and down an inclined metallic mesh. The size of a unit square of mesh is 7 cm x 7 cm. Robo-Relay: ?? Robotix 2008 Robotix 2008 was held from 31 January – 3 February 2008. It featured the following events, two of which were not disclosed beforehand: I.M.A.G.E.: An autonomous robot, with the help of maximum two cameras, navigates the arena while avoiding obstacles, in order to pass various checkpoints and reach the end point. Robo-Relay: Two autonomous robots traverse an irregular track while carrying a baton. The robots are synchronized so that they pass the baton and run one after the other. On Spot Robotics (Autonomous): This was an undisclosed event where the participants build an autonomous robot that only uses logic gate circuits (i.e. no microcontrollers). Stackistics: The manually controlled robot assembles blocks of various pre-specified shapes and sizes to form a given spatial structure. Terra Ranger: The manually controlled robot travels on varied land terrains and also water surfaces. On Spot robotics (Manual): This was an undisclosed event where the task was to build a manually controlled robot and controller to fulfill the requirement of the problem statement. Mission Mars: In the programming event, the participants code robot ants which coordinate among themselves during their mission to explore an area. Robotix 2007 Robotix 2007 was held from 1–4 February 2007. It featured the following events: Rail Track Inspector: The automated robot follows two parallel white lines, 5 cm apart, on a black blackground, and reports any errors it encounters. The errors were of two types. First, it reports when the distance between the lines is different from their specified gap. Second, it reports if either of the white lines are discontinuous. The errors must be classified separately. Grid Navigator: The autonomous robots move in an 8-foot square maze and detect the positions of obstacles placed in the maze without dislocating them. The maze is in the form of a two dimensional numbered grid. Squares are marked with white lines on a black background. The robot starts in one corner of the maze and exits on the diagonally-opposite corner after identifying all the obstacles. The robot is free to roam in the grid in any given way. Mission Mars: A repeat of the previous year's event. In this programming/online event, the participants write code to control robot ants on a simulated Martian surface, so that it can cover the maximum area in a given time. Multiple instances of the same program were run at the same time, with each instance able to communicate with the others to prevent collisions which would render both robots extinct. The participants were allowed to code in C, C++ or Java. Jigsaw: In this programming/online event, the participants write code to solve a jumbled up picture. The picture is broken into fragments and is scrambled by using a program. Only the top left corner of the jumbled picture is the same as the original picture. The participants code in either C or C++. Load runner: The manually controlled robot uses a hooking mechanism to attach freights and link them together to form a train. It then has to act as the engine of the same train and pull it to its destination. Use of magnetic material to attach to the freights is prohibited. Step climber: The manually controlled robot climbs up and down a flight of stairs. The height of the steps varies. Robotix 2006 Robotix 2006 was held from 2–5 February 2006. It featured the following events: Distance Tracker: The autonomous robot travels a certain path and reports the distance traversed in a digital format. The paths varied from a simple circle to an arbitrary route. Match Maker: The autonomous robot moves white blocks placed in the arena to regions of their corresponding shape. Mission Mars: In the programming/online event, participants code robot ants to cover as much area of the Martian surface within a given time. Top-sy Turvy: The manually controlled robot takes balls at different heights and surfaces, and throw them in a goal post within a limited time. Water Polo: The manually controlled robot races on a water surface to place five balls inside a certain goal post in the fastest time. Winners Robotix 2008 Stakistics 1st Prize: Sobhan Kumar Lenka (DRIEMS) See also Kshitij (festival) References External links Robotix Archives Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur Robotics competitions Recurring events established in 2001

A multipoint ground is an alternate type of electrical installation that attempts to solve the ground loop and mains hum problem by creating many alternate paths for electrical energy to find its way back to ground. The distinguishing characteristic of a multipoint ground is the use of many interconnected grounding conductors into a loose grid configuration. There will be many paths between any two points in a multipoint grounding system, rather than the single path found in a star topology ground. This type of ground may also be known as a Signal Reference Grid or Ground (SRG) or an Equipotential Ground. Advantages If installed correctly, it can maintain reference ground potential much better than a star topology in a similar application across a wider range of frequencies and currents. Disadvantages A multipoint ground system is more complicated to install and maintain over the long term, and can be more expensive to install. Star topology systems can be converted to multipoint systems by installing new conductors between old existing ones. However, this should be done with care as it can inadvertently introduce noise onto signal lines during the conversion process. The noise can be diminished over time as noisy and failed components are removed and repaired, but some isolation of high current (e.g. motors and lighting) and sensitive low current (e.g. amplifiers and radios) equipment may always be necessary. Design considerations A multipoint grounding system can solve several problems, but they must all be addressed in turn. The size of the conductors must be designed to meet the expected load in operations and in lightning protection. The amount of cross bonding, and the topology of the grids, is determined by the expected frequencies in the signals to be carried and the uses the installation will be put to. A ground grid is provided primarily for safety, and the size of the conductors is probably governed by local building or electrical code. One factor to keep in mind is that since the final grid will have multiple paths to ground, the final system resistance to ground will likely be lower than for a typical star ground. But this does not change the need for adequate conductor size to any given piece of equipment in case of a fault. Lightning protection is provided by bonding the multipoint ground grid to one or more grounding rods under or at the perimeter of the building, and then up to the lightning rods. If the building has significant metal framing elements, these should be bonded to the lightning rods and grounding rods as well. If the building has large motors, driving such things as fans, pumps, elevators, etc., these should also be on the multipoint grid. However, they should not be on segments of the grid that will service equipment such as audio amplifiers, small signal radio circuits, computer networks, sensitive electrical instrumentation, etc. Since building two grids into the same building may be prohibitively expensive, a good compromise is to connect the low frequency, high current equipment to the grid at or near the ground rods and entrance transformers, in such a way that their load will not flow across the segment of the grid connected to the low current equipment. Thus the system is still an electrically continuous unit, but motor noise does not impinge directly into signal paths. The cross bonding is governed by the frequencies and wavelengths to be protected against. A multipoint ground is at its best when it allows currents of many different frequencies to find a path to ground. If the system is expected to always have no more than main current present, the wavelengths involved at 50 or 60 Hz will cause the system design to become a star topology. But if higher frequencies are present, they need to be closer. In general, the spacing between nodes should be less than 1/8 of the shortest wavelength present. This will guarantee that current can always flow no matter which path it tries to take. If less than 1/8 wavelength node spacing cannot be achieved, then at least include as many cross connects as possible, as closely spaced as possible. External links Mil-HDBK-419A Grounding, Bonding & Shielding for Electronic Equipment & Facilities, Volume 1 & 2 Mil-HDBK-188-124 Grounding, Bonding and Shielding For Common Long Haul/Tactical Communication Systems Including Ground Based Communications-Electronics Facilities and Equipments Electrical circuits Electric power Electrical safety Electrical wiring

In model railroading, a layout is a diorama containing scale track for operating trains. The size of a layout varies, from small shelf-top designs to ones that fill entire rooms, basements, or whole buildings. Attention to modeling details such as structures and scenery is common. Simple layouts are generally situated on a table, although other methods are used, including doors. More permanent construction methods involve attaching benchwork framing to the walls of the room or building in which the layout is situated. Track layout An important aspect of any model railway is the layout of the track itself. Apart from the stations, there are four basic ways of arranging the track, and innumerable variations: Continuous loop. A circle or oval, with trains going round and round. Used in train sets. Point to point. A line with a station at each end, with trains going from one station to the other. Out and back. A pear shaped track, with trains leaving a station, going round a reversing loop, and coming back to the same station. Shunting (US: Switching). Either a station, a motive power depot or a yard where the primary mode of operation is shunting. This includes layouts which are built as a train shunting puzzle such as Timesaver and Inglenook Sidings Common variations: On a point to point layout, the train can increase the time it takes to get from A to B by going around a continuous loop a few times. Single or double track or more, so more trains can run at the same time. Intermediate stations, to distinguish between express trains which go straight through and local trains which stop briefly. Branch lines, to add an excuse for more stations and different types of trains. Use of multiple levels. Arranging the continuous loop as a figure-of-8, possibly with one track going over the other instead of having tracks crossing on the same level. Folding one loop of a figure-of-8 over the other loop to produce a looped-8, so as to reduce the amount of space needed while keeping a long continuous run. Using one or more fiddle yards (US: staging tracks) to represent the rest of the railway system. A fiddle yard is regarded as off-scene; it may hold multiple complete trains, and may also be subject to direct human intervention (fiddling) to re-arrange trains, Dog-bone arrangement of a continuous loop; the sides of an oval are squeezed together so it looks like a double-track section with a loop at each end where the trains turn around. Rabbit warren; a continuous loop folded over itself several times with multiple levels and many tunnels for trains to pop in and out of - often a small layout with sharp curves and short trains. Station layout There are three basic types of station, and sometimes combinations of these types: Terminus or terminal station. As the name implies, all trains stop here, and then go back to where they came from. Through station. Trains can go through this station; express trains don't stop, while local trains do stop briefly before continuing their journey. Junction. The tracks diverge/join here. Other factors which affect the track layout of a station include: For passengers only, or for goods only, or for both passengers and goods. Use of steam engines and/or diesel/electric engines. Use of trains which can be driven from either end, e.g. Diesel Multiple Units. The simplest possible station for passengers consists of just a platform beside the track, with no points (US: switches) or sidings. Both terminal and through stations can be as simple as this; a junction requires at least one point. References "Adventurous Model Railway Plans." A. Postlethwaite. . Basic configurations, page 9. "Basic Model Railroading: Getting Started in the Hobby." Kent J Johnson. , Kalmbach Publishing, 1998. "Railway Modeling." N Simmons, 8th edition, . Planning the layout Chapter 5. "Track Plans", C. J. Freezer. Peco Publications, 2nd edition. Layout Design Special Interest Group see subpage: Design Primer/Introduction to the wide variety of layouts possible External links http://www.plasticoferroviario.it – Hints and tips for model railroaders http://modeltrains.about.com – Online resource for model railroaders http://www.gatewaynmra.org/project.htm – Small model railroad project layouts http://carendt.com/ – Micro/Small Layouts for Model Railroads showing hundreds of examples Rail transport modelling