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4021955

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20WB%20100%2B%20Station%20Group

The WB 100+ Station Group

The WB 100+ Station Group (originally called The WeB from its developmental stages until March 1999) was a national programming service of The WB—owned by the Warner Bros. Entertainment division of Time Warner, the Tribune Company, and group founder and longtime WB network president Jamie Kellner—intended primarily for American television markets ranked #100 and above by Nielsen Media Research estimates. Operating from September 21, 1998 to September 17, 2006, The WB 100+ comprised an affiliate group that was initially made exclusively of individually branded cable television channels serving areas that lacked availability for a locally based WB broadcast affiliate and supplied a nationalized subfeed consisting of WB network and syndicated programs; in the network's waning years, the WB 100+ group began maintaining primary affiliations on full-power and low-power stations in certain markets serviced by the feed. The WB 100+ Station Group was also essentially structured as a de facto national feed of The WB, and maintained a master schedule of syndicated and brokered programs for broadcast on all affiliates of the feed outside of time periods designated for The WB's prime time, daytime and Saturday morning programming. Programming and promotional services for The WB 100+ were housed at The WB's corporate headquarters in Burbank, California; engineering and master control operations were based at the California Video Center in Los Angeles. History Pre-launch The history of The WB 100+ can be traced back to a charter affiliation agreement reached on December 3, 1993, between The WB and Tribune Broadcasting (whose corporate parent, the Tribune Company (later Tribune Media), held minority ownership in the network), which resulted in Tribune's Chicago television flagship WGN-TV carrying The WB's prime time programming (the Kids' WB block – which debuted in September 1995, eight months after The WB's launch – would air instead on independent station WCIU-TV before moving to WGN-TV in September 2004). Through that deal, WGN's national superstation feed (later separately branded as WGN America and operating as a conventional basic cable channel) would act as a default WB affiliate for select markets where the network would have difficulty securing an affiliation with a broadcast television station at The WB's launch on January 11, 1995 (either due to the lack of available over-the-air stations or the absence of a secondary affiliation with an existing station within the market). This arrangement was conceived to give the network enough time to find affiliates in those "white areas" (a term referring to areas in which a national broadcaster does not have market clearance), allowing the WGN superstation feed to nationally distribute The WB's programming to a broader audience than would be possible without such an agreement in the interim. Some cable providers also carried either KTLA (for areas in the Pacific Time Zone) or WPIX (for areas in the Eastern Time Zone) depending on the location in addition to or in lieu of WGN's national feed. Development and launch Jamie Kellner – co-founder, and original president of The WB – conceived the concept of a cable-originated programming service that would serve smaller markets, originally titled The WeB, in June 1996; the network formally presented its concept for the service, which would function similarly to the reasoning behind the agreement with the WGN superstation feed, to cable providers on September 24 of that year. Kellner had previous experience in developing such a service; during his tenure as Fox's original network president from 1986 to 1993, Kellner developed a similar (but less localized) service, Foxnet, a cable channel owned by News Corporation (the corporate parent of Fox at the time) that operated from June 1991 to September 2006, and was the first cable channel that designed to distribute a broadcast network's programming directly to cable providers in smaller markets where the network could not maintain an exclusive affiliation due to the limited number of available commercial television stations. After Russell Myerson (who would serve as the group's executive vice president and general manager) joined The WB in 1997, Kellner came to Myerson with his idea for a national cable feed of the network that would distribute WB programming to these "white area" markets with five or fewer commercial stations (including some markets where UPN, which debuted five days after The WB launched, managed to obtain an affiliation). Time Warner, the network's majority owner, commissioned IBM (for hardware and infrastructure) and Enterprise Systems Group (later known as Encoda and then Harris Corporation; contracted for software systems at the national and local level) to develop a national data server network that would digitally transmit local and national advertisements, promos, station identifications and customized logo bugs for each individual affiliate to headends operating the local WB 100+ affiliate in their home market. The network would be relayed to a "station in a box" (SIB), a wireless PC-based system that was programmed to download (through a data feed distributed via satellite), store and insert advertising appropriate to the individual affiliate's home market in pre-determined time periods set through a playlist over the satellite-delivered national feed as well as to transfer the programming feeds, via a disseminated address header based on the affiliate's designated call letters. The SIB units – which cost $9,000 per unit – were sold to each prospective affiliate operator with costs fully shouldered by The WB; the SIBs held 90 minutes of programming material at a time, in addition to transmitting advertisements and program promotions, and logging previously aired ad spots. Affiliates trafficked local advertising via logfiles sent over the Internet to a Novar management system located at The WB's corporate offices, that handled trafficking, programming feed dissemination and local insertion to individual affiliates. All programming provided by the service was distributed to WB 100+ affiliates via a centralcasting hub based at the California Video Center in southwestern Los Angeles (near Los Angeles International Airport). Originally slated for a September 8 launch, The WeB was launched at 7:00 p.m. Eastern Time on September 21, 1998 on 80 cable-only affiliates, reaching 2.8 million cable television subscribers in the United States – the largest simultaneous launch of a station group in the history of American television. The service (which was renamed The WB 100+ Station Group in March 1999) was created to serve a similar capacity that Superstation WGN held as a national distributor of The WB – the difference being that stations within The WB 100+ group were structured in the manner of a local broadcast station: local WB 100+ affiliates were managed by either a local cable provider or an affiliate of a larger over-the-air television station (usually those affiliated with networks that were established long before The WB debuted in January 1995), which may have produced some local programming – such as a prime time newscast – or televised local sporting events. WB 100+ stations also aired local commercial inserts and promotions, although promotions for syndicated programs aired on the service omitted affiliate references (either in the form of verbal identification or use of the affiliate's logo) in favor of network branding and were not customized to reference the program's local airtime (all airtimes listed in syndicated program promos were based on their scheduling in the Eastern and Central Time Zones), with the announcer being used to read the promo's airtime card only identifying that the program airs "[today/tonight/tomorrow/day of week] on The WB". Each affiliate had their own individual branding (usually in the form of a fictional call sign, the combination of "The WB" name with either the parent station's city of license/cable franchise's service area or a regional descriptor of the area, or both). As part of the initial six-year affiliation agreements signed in late 1997 and throughout 1998, cable providers that operated local WB 100+ affiliates received the service's programming free of charge, instead of being required to pay a carriage fee directly to the network (as providers were required to do when they agreed to carry Foxnet at its launch); in addition, affiliates and their advertising sales partners shared a percentage of the revenue earned through the sale of local ads. The WB 100+ was designed to comply with Nielsen regulations defining what constitutes a local station; this allowed viewership totals from the cable-only affiliates to be counted alongside the network's conventional broadcast affiliates to accurately count toward the national ratings for WB network programming. As time went on, The WB 100+ expanded, increasing its body of cable-only affiliates, while also adding affiliations with conventional broadcast television stations in a few markets. By September 2001, The WB 100+'s national availability had increased to 7.4 million households. The service's programming reached 109 out of 111 television markets within those eligible to affiliate with The WB 100+, totaling nine million households by January 2005. By the time The WB ceased operations in September 2006, the only eligible market never to have been served by a WB 100+ affiliate was Lafayette, Indiana, which received WB programming via WTTK (a satellite station of WTTV, which later became a CW affiliate and is now a CBS affiliate) in the adjacent Indianapolis market. In some markets where a local cable provider carried Superstation WGN upon the initial rollout of the service, a WB 100+ affiliate supplanted WGN as the local WB affiliate; though for a year following the launch of The WB 100+, programming duplication between the local WB 100+ affiliate and WGN persisted in some areas where a cable provider did not black out WB programming airing over the WGN superstation feed. As additional WB 100+ affiliates signed on, network management deemed that The WB's affiliate footprint was large enough to request that WGN drop its programming from the station's national feed in October 1999; the local WGN-TV Chicago signal remained a WB affiliate until the network's September 2006 shutdown (the WGN local feed – which later became a CW affiliate, and is now an independent station – would become available to U.S. viewers outside of the Chicago market in the spring of 2015, when it was added as part of the initial offerings of Channel Master's LinearTV service). Transition to The CW Plus On January 24, 2006, Time Warner and CBS Corporation announced that The WB and UPN would each be shut down; in turn, the two companies would partner to launch The CW Television Network, a new network that would feature some programs from The WB and UPN initially forming the nuclei of its schedule in September of that year. To coincide with the change, The CW announced on February 24, that it would start a service called The CW Plus, a group of primarily digital subchannels, analog and non-broadcast cable television outlets affiliated with the network, serving areas of the United States ranked below the top 99 television markets; this service is nearly identical in structure to The WB 100+, albeit with a more diversified body of affiliates. There was no guarantee that existing affiliates of The WB 100+ would automatically join The CW Plus, although the vast majority ultimately did, and programming transitioned seamlessly from The WB 100+ to the successor CW Plus service (for example, The Daily Buzz remained on The CW Plus until September 2014). Since digital television allows multiple "subchannels" to be carried on a single over-the-air signal, most of the CW Plus' affiliates air on the multicast feeds of those stations that manage the affiliates. Thus, they are no longer technically "cable-only" and must now use the parent station's licensed callsigns instead of a fictional one (although some of the service's over-the-air affiliates use altered versions of the parent station's call letters – with an "E" often replacing the leader "W" or "K" – merely for identification purposes, both on-air and in Nielsen diary-tabulated ratings reports). However, some stations (such as WBVC in Northern Michigan; WBWO in Wheeling, West Virginia; CW Glendive in Glendive, Montana; KWMK in Bismarck, North Dakota; WBAE in Alpena, Michigan and KSXF in Joplin, Missouri) remain cable-exclusive outlets. Programming The WB 100+ utilized a dual programming model which differed from the traditional network affiliate model used by WB-affiliated stations in large and medium-sized markets, in which the affiliate handled complete responsibility of providing syndicated and local programming to fill non-network timeslots. Instead, dayparts on WB 100+ affiliates without WB programming were programmed by the network, primarily with programs that were being carried at the time in national syndication – along with syndicated film packages that filled select weekend timeslots, and brokered programming (such as infomercials and religious programs) that was time-leased by The WB to fill most overnight and some early afternoon timeslots on the service; this relieved the WB 100+ affiliate's local owner of the duty of acquiring syndicated programming to fill timeslots not occupied by network content from The WB. This was similar to the programming strategy of Foxnet, though unlike The WB 100+, Foxnet was distributed as a conventional cable channel and local operators were not allowed to tailor the service to their local market with their own branding, or carry local news or sports programming. In addition to the hour of programming provided by the Kids' WB Saturday morning block that featured content complying with the regulations, the remaining two hours of programming that fulfilled educational programming guidelines defined by the Children's Television Act was taken care of by The WB 100+, which carried syndicated E/I programs for broadcast on early Saturday afternoons immediately after the conclusion of the block for much of The WB 100+'s existence. The parent station or cable franchise operator of the local WB 100+ affiliate maintained responsibility of selling local advertising for the station or cable-only outlet, with the service allocating time to affiliates to incorporate local commercial inserts during WB network and WB 100+-acquired syndicated programming. The WB offered a multi-tiered advertising sales plan to prospective affiliates allowing for the sale and transmission of commercials for local, regional and national businesses on the customized feed; it also handled responsibility for marketing campaigns customized for each affiliate that were developed through an in-house marketing department operated by The WB for the station group. The affiliate operator also held responsibility of acquiring alternative syndicated programming to substitute those provided by The WB 100+, if the rights to that program are held by another station in their market. Though The WB itself never carried any national news programming of its own throughout its 11-year existence, in September 2002, The WB acquired the syndication rights to The Daily Buzz – a morning news and lifestyle program that, at the time, was produced by ACME Communications (a now-defunct media company founded by The WB's original CEO Jamie Kellner, which had all except one of its television stations affiliated with The WB, and was named after the Acme Corporation running gag seen in Warner Bros.' Looney Tunes animated shorts) – for broadcast on The WB 100+; the program was also syndicated to stations in markets that were not covered by either The WB 100+ or where ACME did not own a station. The WB 100+ feed was originally designed for the Eastern and Pacific Time Zones, whose master schedules were formatted to align the start time of The WB's prime time programming with the network's broadcast affiliate feed; a Central Time Zone feed was added by the early 2000s, followed by an Alaska Time Zone feed that launched in 2005. As such, the Kids' WB and (from January to September 2006, following the conclusion of the weekday afternoon Kids' WB lineup) Daytime WB blocks, which were designed to be tape-delayed, were aired an hour earlier on affiliates – compared to their preferred scheduling – on affiliates in the Central, Mountain and Alaska time zones. List of WB 100+ affiliates This is a list of WB 100+ stations, ranked by designated market area (DMA), as of September 2006, when The WB ceased operations as a broadcast network. Note that most "call letters" below are informal, as these stations did not broadcast over-the-air and as such, were not licensed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC); the meanings of each affiliate's "call sign" are also included. There were a few exceptions – actual FCC-licensed broadcast stations are indicated in italics. Some of the "fake" calls used by the cable-only WB affiliates (which are identified with quotation marks) may be the same as calls used by actual over-the-air stations, and may create confusion for some; such stations are identified in this list for disambiguation. After each station's name is the status of the CW affiliation, . If no status is part of the station's listing, The CW does not have a confirmed affiliate in the market that the WB 100+ station served. The rankings for each market are as of the 2005–06 television season. 1 The cable-only "KMWB" is not to be confused with the former callsign used by Minneapolis–St. Paul, Minnesota CW affiliate WUCW as a WB affiliate. 2 The cable-only "KWYP" is not to be confused with Laramie, Wyoming PBS member station KWYP-DT. 3 The cable-only "KIWB" is not to be confused with Boise, Idaho low-power station KIWB-LD. 4 The cable-only "WBWP" is not to be confused with West Palm Beach, Florida Mega TV affiliate WBWP-LD. 5 The cable-only "KCWB" is not to be confused with the former callsign used by Fresno, California Tvida Vision affiliate KVBC-LP, or by Kansas City, Missouri CW affiliate KCWE as a WB affiliate. 6 The cable-only "WBXI" is not to be confused with Indianapolis, Indiana Tr3́s affiliate WBXI-CA. 7 The cable-only "KWBM" is not to be confused with the Springfield, Missouri Daystar affiliate of the same callsign. 8 The cable-only "WBMM" is not to be confused with Montgomery, Alabama CW affiliate of the same callsign. 9 The cable-only "KWBT" is not to be confused with the former callsign used by Tulsa, Oklahoma CW affiliate KQCW-DT as a WB affiliate. See also The CW Plus – successor of The WB 100+; most of the remaining cable-only channels and some over-the-air stations that are outlets of The CW Plus formerly served as affiliates of The WB 100+ WGN America – Chicago-based cable channel that is available throughout the United States on cable and satellite television; prior to the launch of The WB 100+, as the national superstation feed of WGN-TV, the channel served as a de facto WB affiliate for U.S. markets without an over-the-air affiliate from 1995 to 1999 CW-W – a standard definition-only feed of either KSWB-TV or XETV-TDT/San Diego for markets without a CW affiliate carried on DirecTV CW-E – a standard definition-only feed of WDCW/Washington, D.C. for markets without a CW affiliate carried on DirecTV Foxnet – a similar cable-only network for markets without a Fox affiliate, that operated from 1991 to 2006 Univision – American Spanish-language network that offers a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate UniMás – American Spanish-language network that offers a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate Telemundo – American Spanish-language network that offers a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate Azteca América – American Spanish-language network that offers a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate Estrella TV – American Spanish-language network that offers a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate CTV Two Alberta – a similar cable-only affiliate of CTV Two in the Canadian province of Alberta; formerly Access CTV Two Atlantic – a similar cable-only affiliate of CTV Two in Atlantic Canada; formerly the Atlantic Satellite Network (ASN) and A Atlantic City Saskatchewan – a similar cable-only affiliate of City in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan References The WB Nexstar Media Group Defunct television networks in the United States Television channels and stations established in 1998 Television channels and stations disestablished in 2006

4022004

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandoren

Vandoren

Vandoren is a manufacturer of mouthpieces, reeds, and accessories for the clarinet and saxophone families. History Vandoren was founded in 1905 by Eugène Van Doren (1873-1940), a clarinetist for the Paris Opera. The original location was eventually moved to 56 Rue Lepic, Paris, where his son, Robert Van Doren (1904-1996), took over the business around 1935 and designed the 5RV mouthpiece. In 1967, Bernard Van Doren (b. 1945), grandson of the aforementioned Eugène Van Doren, took over the company and designed the B45 clarinet mouthpiece. Bernard also introduced new machinery to the company, and moved the factory to its current location in Paris at Bormes les Mimosas in 1990. With the improvements in technology, Vandoren was able to increase production, becoming a major manufacturer of reeds and mouthpieces for woodwind instruments. Mouthpieces Vandoren clarinet and saxophone mouthpieces are made of vulcanised rubber called ebonite. Their V16 tenor saxophone mouthpieces are also available in a metal variant. Reeds The company produces clarinet reeds in a variety of styles for French, German and Austrian style clarinets. French styled clarinet reeds Traditional reeds (blue packaging) are the most widely played style of reed. They are available in strengths from 1.5 to 5. They are made with a .09 mm thickness at the tip and a thickness of 2.8 mm at the heel. Vandoren V.12 reeds are produced from the thicker cane that is used to make saxophone reeds. At the tip, V.12 reeds have a thickness of .10 mm and at the heel, they have a thickness of 3.15 mm. This is equal to .124 inches, which is where the name V.12 comes from. The V.12 reeds come in strengths from 2.5 to 5. These strengths do not correspond to those of Vandoren traditional reeds (a strength 4 V.12 has a similar hardness to a strength 3.5 traditional reed). The V12 reed produces a darker tone than the traditional reed. The 56 rue Lepic reeds (black packaging) are named after the address of the Vandoren central offices on 56 rue Lepic, Paris. They differ from the other two types of Vandoren reeds in that they come from the thickest cane. At the tip, 56 rue Lepic reeds have a thickness of .11 mm and at the heel, they have a thickness of 3.25 mm. They are very similar to German style reeds. V21 reeds were released from in 2015. They combine the shape of a 56 rue Lepic reed with a V.12 profile. German styled clarinet reeds The White Master is designed for German clarinet players, respectively. Their cut is calculated to suit the characteristics of the German system clarinet mouthpieces. Black Master reeds have a larger and thicker cut than White Master reeds. Austrian styled clarinet reeds The Black Master is designed for Austrian clarinet players, respectively. They are available in two different models. The Black Master reed is designed for Austrian mouthpieces. This cut can also suit the Boehm system mouthpieces. The Black Master Traditional reed is designed in the tradition of the Viennese School for very closed Austrian mouthpieces with a long facing. Saxophone reeds Like clarinet reeds, Vandoren saxophone reeds come in a variety of styles. The most basic style is the Traditional reed (also known as the "Blue Box" reed), which is very similar to the Traditional clarinet reed. It features a thin tip and a strong heart. Although the Traditional reed is seen as a "classical" saxophone reed, it is extremely versatile and is used by many saxophonists in a variety of musical styles. The JAVA reed, available in filed and unfiled varieties, is for playing jazz: the filed JAVA Red cut is more flexible with a slightly stronger tonal body than the original (green, unfiled) JAVA cut. In 1993, Vandoren began producing V16 reeds, also for jazz, which have a thicker tip and a longer pallet than the JAVAs. The ZZ is also intended for jazz. Vandoren released in 2009 the V12 for classical music which is modeled after the success of the Vandoren V12 reed for clarinet. Then in 2016, the V21 reeds, a versatile model for various styles of music. Accessories Vandoren has a large range of accessories for clarinet and saxophone: these include ligatures, reed cases, cleaning swabs, mouthpiece cushions and cork grease, and even instrument harnesses and neck straps. Some other accessories include mouthpiece pouches, reed trimmers and reed resurfacers. Saxophone and clarinet ligatures Vandoren produces a wide range of ligatures for clarinet and saxophone players. They are made from materials such as metal, leather, and woven materials. These ligatures can be found for the B♭ clarinet, Bass clarinet, E♭ clarinet, and Alto clarinet. The same materials are used for saxophonists and can be found for the soprano saxophone, alto saxophone, tenor saxophone and baritone saxophone. Vandoren's Optimum, M/O, Klassik ligature, and leather ligature are all available for the clarinet and saxophone families. References External links Bernard Van Doren Interview NAMM Oral History Library (2017) Musical instrument manufacturing companies based in Paris Manufacturing companies established in 1905 Clarinet manufacturing companies French brands French companies established in 1905

4022019

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirrus%20SR22

Cirrus SR22

The Cirrus SR22 is a single-engine four- or five-seat composite aircraft built from 2001 by Cirrus Aircraft of Duluth, Minnesota. It is a development of the Cirrus SR20, with a larger wing, higher fuel capacity, and a more powerful, 310-horsepower (231 kW) engine. The SR22 series has been the world's best-selling general aviation (GA) airplane every year since 2003. With 7,240 units delivered from 2001–22, and in combination with the SR20, a total of 8,936, it is the most-produced GA aircraft of the 21st century, and is the single most-produced GA aircraft made from composite material, accounting for over 30% of the entire piston aircraft market. The Cirrus SR22 is equipped with a whole-plane emergency recovery parachute system: the Cirrus Airframe Parachute System (CAPS). This has contributed to its market success and has given it the nickname "the plane with the parachute". Design and development The SR22, certified in November 2000, is a more powerful version of the earlier SR20. Production of the aircraft started in 2001. The SR22 is a low-wing cantilever monoplane of composite construction, featuring fixed (non-retractable) tricycle landing gear with a castering nose wheel and steering via differential braking on the main wheels. It is powered by a nose-mounted 310 hp (231 kW) Continental IO-550-N piston engine. The four-seat cabin is accessed through doors on both sides of the fuselage. The SR-series remains the only production airplane in its class to include side stick flight controls that combine aspects of a traditional yoke handle (referred to in the industry as a "side yoke"). The Cirrus SR22, like the SR20, is equipped with the Cirrus Airframe Parachute System (CAPS), which can lower the entire aircraft to the ground relatively gently in an emergency. In 2004, the company introduced the SR22 G2 (Generation 2) and in 2007 the SR22 G3 (Generation 3). Both were defined by airframe modifications, G2 by fuselage and G3 by modified wing and landing gear. In a 2012 Flying magazine review, then editor-in-chief Robert Goyer wrote that the Cirrus SR22 "is the most sophisticated single-engine civilian airplane ever built and by a long shot." In 2013, the manufacturer introduced the SR22 G5 (Generation 5) (there was no G4). Key changes were an increase in gross weight to and a standard five-seat cabin arrangement. The G5 received only minor changes for 2014, including integrated LED lighting and Beringer brakes. In 2014, the SR22 and SR22T had been the best-selling four- to five-seat fixed-wing aircraft in the world for 12 years in a row. In 2016, Cirrus introduced improvements to the SR Series, including Bluetooth wireless connectivity, remote keyless entry, a convenience lighting system, and an easy-access door latch. In 2017, the company introduced the SR22 G6 (Generation 6), with several major upgrades to the avionics and new navigation lighting. In September 2019, Cirrus unveiled the TRAC, a training-oriented version of the SR-series with a simplified interior, more durable seat material, backseat radio transmit switch to allow an observer to communicate with air traffic control, integrated engine indication and crew alerting/warning systems, and simulated retractable landing gear controls and position lights to allow cadets and instructors to feign landing gear operation and failures during instructional flights (the actual landing gear remains permanently fixed). In January 2020, the company introduced a new mobile app for the SR Series, called "Cirrus IQ", which enables remote aircraft communication including access to pre-flight status information like fuel and oxygen levels, battery voltage, oil temperature, aircraft location and flight hours. In October 2020, it was revealed that a 2003 SR22 would be displayed in the new general aviation exhibition "We All Fly" in the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum, which opened in 2022. In January 2022, Cirrus announced speed and aesthetic improvements to the G6 SR-series, with a increased cruise speed, upgrades to the mobile IQ app, USB-A and USB-C charging ports and more. Turbocharged models Cirrus introduced the SR22 Turbo in 2006, with a Tornado Alley turbonormalizing upgrade kit that is factory installed under a Supplemental Type Certificate. It included twin turbonormalizers and twin intercoolers. The conversion includes built-in oxygen and a Hartzell three-blade (later four-blade as optional) lightweight composite propeller. The weight of the conversion reduces the SR22's useful load. Air conditioning is available with the SR22 Turbo, but this further reduces the useful load. The turbo version has a certified ceiling of , a maximum cruise speed of 211 knots (391 km/h), and a top speed of . In 2010, Cirrus introduced the SR22T. This used a new engine, the Continental TSIO-550K, which produces with a 7.5:1 compression ratio and can run on 94 octane fuel. Glass cockpit SR22s and SR20s built before 2003 were equipped with traditional analog instruments and a 10" (later 12") Multi-function display (MFD). In February 2003, Cirrus began offering SR22s with the Avidyne Entegra primary flight display (PFD), making the plane the first of its kind to come with a glass cockpit. Later that year, this instrumentation became standard equipment on all SR-series aircraft and sparked a major transition in general aviation, whereby over 90% of all new light aircraft by the year 2006 were equipped with glass cockpits. Retrofits are available for the older SR aircraft that replace the analog instrument panels with one that includes a PFD, a new MFD and the installation of back-up mechanical instruments. On 22 May 2008, Cirrus revealed the "Cirrus Perspective" glass cockpit (by Garmin). Both cockpits were available for a while (the Avidyne cockpit was initially standard equipment) and after 2008 the SR22 was sold with only the Perspective panel. In 2009, the third-generation Cirrus SR22 GTS came equipped with a new enhanced vision system (EVS), a sophisticated dual-wavelength instrument that offers both infrared and synthetic vision. At the 2010 EAA AirVenture, Cirrus announced its plans to certify Garmin's ESP system (Electronic Stability and Protection) on the Cirrus SR22. It included advanced flight envelope protection that could stabilize the aircraft with the push of a button, to avoid spiral from developing. The Cirrus Perspective-Plus avionics flight deck was introduced in 2017, with a faster processing speed, animated datalink weather, payload management, visual approach capabilities, wireless database uploads, glass back-up instruments, and more. In 2020, the Perspective-Plus flight deck included a new stabilized approach advisory system which provides alerts to the pilot of unstable conditions during approach. Flight into known icing Cirrus completed testing for flight into known icing conditions (FIKI) on 12 January 2009. The equipment change involved installing a larger fluid tank for the TKS Ice Protection System and protecting more areas of the aircraft. The FAA approved the new installation in April 2009. Operational history For several years, the largest fleet of Cirrus SR22s was operated by ImagineAir, which was in operation from 2007–2018. Previously to this, the largest fleet had been operated by SATSair with 26 aircraft. It began operations in 2004 and went out of business in 2009. The largest European operator is Fly Aeolus, a Belgian fractional ownership company established in 2009 that operates 13 SR22s. In May 2022, California-based air taxi company Joby Aviation received Part 135 air service certification from the FAA to operate a fleet of SR22s, pending certification of its eVTOL aircraft. Australian pilot Ryan Campbell used an SR22 to become the youngest pilot to fly solo around the world (a title which he held for nearly a year), at age nineteen. He completed his trip on 7 September 2013 in Wollongong. His SR22, Spirit of the Sapphire Coast, was modified by removing three seats and adding a fuselage tank for a total of usable. The French Air and Space Force uses six SR22s as training aircraft, and the Royal Saudi Air Force acquired 25 SR22s in 2013, replacing Cessna 172s as primary trainers at the King Faisal Air Academy. In 2015 Emirates purchased 22 aircraft for training purposes. The Minnesota State Patrol uses a special missions "Cirrus Perception" SR22 for law enforcement operations, surveillance, search and rescue missions and more. Safety record Between 2001 and May 2014, 147 US-registered Cirrus SR22 aircraft crashed, resulting in 122 fatalities. In 2011, the accident record of the SR20/SR22 was examined by Aviation Consumer magazine. It found that the series' overall accident record is better than average for light aircraft, exceeded only by the Diamond DA40 and DA42. However its fatal accident rate is worse, at 1.6 per 100,000 flight hours—which places it higher than the United States general aviation rate of 1.2, and higher than the Diamond DA40 (0.35), Cessna 172 (0.45), Diamond DA42 (0.54), Cessna 182 (0.69), and the Cessna 400 (1.0), despite the SR22's full aircraft parachute system. By the end of 2013, the accident rate had been reduced to a fatality rate of 1.01 per 100,000 flight hours. This was attributed to better training, particularly in use of the ballistic parachute system. The accident rate continued to decrease in 2014, with a fatal rate of .42 per 100,000 flight hours, one of the industry's lowest. This marked the fewest fatalities in a single year for Cirrus since 2001, and the first year where the number of CAPS deployments (12) exceeded the number of fatal accidents (3). As of September 2018, the SR-series has had its parachute system deployed 79 times, with 163 survivors. Following a March 2021 non-fatal accident involving an SR22 that resulted in a failed CAPS deployment, Cirrus issued a service bulletin and replaced all firing mechanisms in the CAP systems (which control the primer material that ignites the chute’s rocket) for 347 Cirrus SR aircraft and 26 SF50 Vision jets. Variants SR22 Original version SR22 G2 Improved variant SR22 Turbo G2 In July 2006, Cirrus announced a turbo normalized SR22. Some initial limited models were identified as Signature Edition SE22 G2s—equipped with additional features including an unequally painted exterior, black leather seats, and the signatures of Cirrus founders Dale and Alan Klapmeier on the cowling. SR22TN Version with a Tornado Alley turbo-normalizing kit added to the Continental IO-550-N engine producing . SR22 G3 Launched in April 2007, the SR22 G3 variant has an increased range and fuel capacity, from , a lighter carbon fiber wing spar and longer landing gear for increased prop clearance. Upgraded models, such as the GTS, come with airbag seatbelts. SR22T Introduced in June 2010, with a turbocharged Continental TSIO-550-K producing . The engine has low-compression pistons, producing a 7.5 to 1 compression ratio to allow the engine to run on lower octane fuel, 94UL. The SR22T has a maximum cruise speed of , empty weight of , and a maximum operating altitude of . This model also has a decreased useful load of and reduced range of , as well as a Hartzell three-blade lightweight composite prop. SR22/22T G5 On 17 January 2013, Cirrus Aircraft announced the fourth generation of the SR22 and SR22T (skipping G4 as a designation for the new version of the aircraft). Features included a increase in the maximum takeoff weight, and some previous options—60/40 split back seat, ADS-B transponder, and Garmin GFC700 autopilot—became standard equipment. The wheel pants were redesigned and included an access door for the inflator valve. Cirrus improved the aircraft's ballistic parachute using a larger canopy to account for the higher takeoff weight, and a more powerful rocket. The rocket firing changed to a fail-safe electronic ignition, with a maximum operating speed of 140 knots (up from 133 knots). Earlier versions used a pyrotechnic rocket ignition system. Maximum flap speeds were increased to 150 knots (first notch); 110 knots (second notch); and added another 3.5 degrees of extension. Fuel burn slightly increased at cruise speeds, rate of climb was reduced, liftoff speed increased to 80 knots (from 72 knots), and stall speed increased to 60 knots (from 58 knots). SR22/22T G6 Introduced in January 2017, the G6 model adds new LED wingtip lights and an updated Garmin avionics flight deck (known as "Cirrus Perspective-Plus") with a 10-times faster instrument processing speed and several other upgrades. TRAC Introduced in September 2019, the TRAC is a flight-training version SR22/22T with a simplified, more durable interior, Perspective+ flight deck, rear seat push-to-talk functionality, and simulated landing gear controls. Operators Civil The aircraft is used by flying schools, several air charter and small air taxi carriers, as well as private individuals and companies. Military and government Chilean Air Force – 8 French Air and Space Force – 6 Royal Saudi Air Force – 25 Emirates Flight Training Academy – 22 Minnesota State Patrol – 1 Salvadoran Air Force – 2 Accidents and incidents SR22s have been involved in numerous accidents and incidents, with some of the most notable being: On November 3, 2015, former Walmart CEO William S. Simon deployed CAPS in his SR22T over Fayetteville, Arkansas, near the University of Arkansas when the plane experienced engine trouble. A vehicle struck the aircraft on a busy road after it had touched down. All parties involved suffered only minor injuries. On May 12, 2021, a Swearingen Metroliner SA226-TC and an SR22 collided on approach to Centennial Airport near Denver, Colorado. The Cirrus pilot deployed CAPS and made a safe off-airport parachute-assisted landing; the Metroliner pilot landed safely at Centennial with damage to the cabin and empennage, and a failed engine. No injuries were reported. The accident was caused by the SR22 pilot overshooting his turn from base to final and ATC not informing the Metroliner pilot of the traffic. Specifications (SR22-G5) See also References Notes External links SR22 2000s United States civil utility aircraft Single-engined tractor aircraft Low-wing aircraft

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian%20War%20of%20Independence

Croatian War of Independence

The Croatian War of Independence was fought from 1991 to 1995 between Croat forces loyal to the Government of Croatia—which had declared independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY)—and the Serb-controlled Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and local Serb forces, with the JNA ending its combat operations in Croatia by 1992. In Croatia, the war is primarily referred to as the "Homeland War" () and also as the "Greater-Serbian Aggression" (). In Serbian sources, "War in Croatia" () and (rarely) "War in Krajina" () are used. A majority of Croats wanted Croatia to leave Yugoslavia and become a sovereign country, while many ethnic Serbs living in Croatia, supported by Serbia, opposed the secession and wanted Serb-claimed lands to be in a common state with Serbia. Most Serbs sought a new Serb state within a Yugoslav federation, including areas of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina with ethnic Serb majorities or significant minorities, and attempted to conquer as much of Croatia as possible. Croatia declared independence on 25 June 1991, but agreed to postpone it with the Brioni Agreement and cut all remaining ties with Yugoslavia on 8 October 1991. The JNA initially tried to keep Croatia within Yugoslavia by occupying all of Croatia. After this failed, Serb forces established the self-proclaimed proto-state Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) within Croatia which began with the Log Revolution. After the ceasefire of January 1992 and international recognition of the Republic of Croatia as a sovereign state, the front lines were entrenched, the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) was deployed, and combat became largely intermittent in the following three years. During that time, the RSK encompassed , more than a quarter of Croatia. In 1995, Croatia launched two major offensives known as Operation Flash and Operation Storm; these offensives effectively ended the war in its favor. The remaining United Nations Transitional Authority for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium (UNTAES) zone was peacefully reintegrated into Croatia by 1998. The war ended with Croatian victory, as it achieved the goals it had declared at the beginning of the war: independence and preservation of its borders. Approximately 21–25% of Croatia's economy was ruined, with an estimated US$37 billion in damaged infrastructure, lost output, and refugee-related costs. Over 20,000 people were killed in the war, and refugees were displaced on both sides. The Serbian and Croatian governments began to progressively cooperate with each other, but tensions remain, in part due to verdicts by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and lawsuits filed by each country against the other. In 2007, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) returned a guilty verdict against Milan Martić, one of the Serb leaders in Croatia, for having colluded with Slobodan Milošević and others to create a "unified Serbian state". Between 2008 and 2012, the ICTY had prosecuted Croatian generals Ante Gotovina, Mladen Markač and Ivan Čermak for alleged involvement in the crimes related to Operation Storm. Čermak was acquitted outright, and the convictions of Gotovina and Markač were later overturned by an ICTY Appeals Panel. The International Court of Justice dismissed mutual claims of genocide by Croatia and Serbia in 2015. The Court reaffirmed that, to an extent, crimes against civilians had taken place, but it ruled that specific genocidal intent was not present. Background Political changes in Yugoslavia In the 1970s, Yugoslavia's socialist regime became severely splintered into a liberal-decentralist nationalist faction led by Croatia and Slovenia that supported a decentralized federation to give greater autonomy to Croatia and Slovenia, versus a conservative-centralist nationalist faction led by Serbia that supported a centralized federation to secure Serbia's and the Serbs' interests across Yugoslavia—as they were the largest ethnic group in the country as a whole. From 1967 to 1972 in Croatia and 1968 and 1981 protests in Kosovo, nationalist doctrines and actions caused ethnic tensions that destabilized Yugoslavia. The suppression by the state of nationalists is believed to have had the effect of identifying Croat nationalism as the primary alternative to communism itself and made it a strong underground movement. A crisis emerged in Yugoslavia with the weakening of the communist states in Eastern Europe towards the end of the Cold War, as symbolized by the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. In Croatia, the regional branch of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, the League of Communists of Croatia, had lost its ideological potency. Slovenia and Croatia wanted to move towards decentralization. SR Serbia, headed by Slobodan Milošević, adhered to centralism and single-party rule, and in turn effectively ended the autonomy of the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina by March 1989, taking command of their votes in the Yugoslav federal presidency. Nationalist ideas started to gain influence within the ranks of the still-ruling League of Communists, while Milošević's speeches, notably the 1989 Gazimestan speech in which he talked of "battles and quarrels", favored continuation of a unified Yugoslav state — one in which all power would continue to be centralized in Belgrade. In the autumn of 1989, the Serbian government pressured the Croatian government to allow a series of Serb nationalist rallies in the country, and the Serbian media and various Serbian intellectuals had already begun to refer to the Croatian leadership as "Ustaše", and began to make reference to genocide and other crimes committed by the Ustaše between 1941 and 1945. The Serbian political leadership approved of the rhetoric and accused the Croatian leadership of being "blindly nationalistic" when it objected. Having completed the anti-bureaucratic revolution in Vojvodina, Kosovo, and Montenegro, Serbia secured four out of eight federal presidency votes in 1991, which rendered the governing body ineffective as other republics objected and called for reform of the Federation. In 1989, political parties were allowed and a number of them had been founded, including the Croatian Democratic Union () (HDZ), led by Franjo Tuđman, who later became the first president of Croatia. Tuđman ran on a nationalist platform with a program of "national reconciliation" between Croatian communists and former Ustašes (fascists) being a key component of his party's political program. Accordingly, he also integrated former Ustaše members into the party and state's apparatus. In January 1990, the League of Communists broke up on ethnic lines, with the Croatian and Slovene factions demanding a looser federation at the 14th Extraordinary Congress. At the congress, Serbian delegates accused the Croatian and Slovene delegates of "supporting separatism, terrorism and genocide in Kosovo". The Croatian and Slovene delegations, including most of their ethnic Serb members, eventually left in protest, after Serbian delegates rejected every proposed amendment. January 1990 also marked the beginning of court cases being brought to Yugoslavia's Constitutional Court on the matter of secession. The first was the Slovenian Constitutional Amendments case after Slovenia claimed the right to unilateral secession pursuant to the right of self-determination. The Constitutional Court ruled that secession from the federation was only permitted if there was the unanimous agreement of Yugoslavia's republics and autonomous provinces. The Constitutional Court noted that 1974 Constitution's Section I of the Basic Principles of the Constitution identified that self-determination including secession "belonged to the peoples of Yugoslavia and their socialist republics". The matter of Kosovo secession was addressed in May 1991 with the court claiming that "only the peoples of Yugoslavia" had the right to secession, Albanians were considered a minority and not a people of Yugoslavia. The 1990 survey conducted among Yugoslav citizens showed that ethnic animosity existed on a small scale. Compared to the results from 25 years before, Croatia was the republic with the highest increase in ethnic distance. Furthermore, there was significant increase of ethnic distance among Serbs and Montenegrins toward Croats and Slovenes and vice versa. Of all respondents, 48% of Croats said that their affiliation with Yugoslavia is very important to them. In February 1990, Jovan Rašković founded the Serb Democratic Party (SDS) in Knin, whose program aimed to change the regional division of Croatia to be aligned with ethnic Serb interests. Prominent members of the RSK government, including Milan Babić and Milan Martić, later testified that Belgrade directed a propaganda campaign portraying the Serbs in Croatia as being threatened with genocide by the Croat majority. On 4 March 1990, 50,000 Serbs rallied at Petrova Gora and shouted negative remarks aimed at Tuđman, chanted "This is Serbia", and expressed support for Milošević. The first free elections in Croatia and Slovenia were scheduled for a few months later. The first round of elections in Croatia was held on 22 April, and the second round on 6 May. The HDZ based its campaign on greater sovereignty (eventually outright independence) for Croatia, fueling a sentiment among Croats that "only the HDZ could protect Croatia from the aspirations of Milošević towards a Greater Serbia". It topped the poll in the elections (followed by Ivica Račan's reformed communists, Social Democratic Party of Croatia) and was set to form a new Croatian Government. A tense atmosphere prevailed on May 13, 1990, when a football game was held at Zagreb in Maksimir Stadium between Zagreb's Dinamo team and Belgrade's Red Star. The game erupted into violence between the Croatian and Serbian fans and with the police. On 30 May 1990, the new Croatian Parliament held its first session. President Tuđman announced his manifesto for a new Constitution (ratified at the end of the year) and a multitude of political, economic, and social changes, notably to what extent minority rights (mainly for Serbs) would be guaranteed. Local Serb politicians opposed the new constitution. In 1991, Croats represented 78.1% and Serbs 12.2% of the total population of Croatia, but the latter held a disproportionate number of official posts: 17.7% of appointed officials in Croatia, including police, were Serbs. An even greater proportion of those posts had been held by Serbs in Croatia earlier, which created a perception that the Serbs were guardians of the communist regime. Serbian politician and sociologist Vesna Pešić states that this caused discontent among the Croats but that it never actually undermined their own dominance in SR Croatia. After the HDZ came to power, many Serbs employed in the public sector, especially the police, were fired and replaced by Croats. This, combined with Tuđman's remarks, i.e. "Thank God my wife is not a Jew or a Serb", were distorted by Milošević's media to spark fear that any form of an independent Croatia would be a new "Ustashe state". In one instance, TV Belgrade showed Tuđman shaking hands with German Chancellor Helmut Kohl (who would be the first government leader in the world to recognise independent Croatia and Slovenia) accusing the two of plotting "a Fourth Reich". Aside from the firing of many Serbs from public sector positions, another concern among Serbs living in Croatia was the HDZ's public display of the šahovnica (Croatian checkerboard) in the Croatian coat of arms, which was associated with the fascist Ustaše regime. This was a misconception as the checkerboard had a history going back to the fifteenth century and was not identical to the one that was used in the WW2-era Independent State of Croatia. However, Tuđman's xenophobic rhetoric and attitude towards Croatian Serbs as well as his support for former Ustaše leaders did little to ease Serb fears. Civil unrest and demands for autonomy Immediately after the Slovenian parliamentary election and the Croatian parliamentary election in April and May 1990, the JNA announced that the Tito-era doctrine of "general people's defense", in which each republic maintained a Territorial defense force () (TO), would henceforth be replaced by a centrally directed system of defense. The republics would lose their role in defense matters, and their TOs would be disarmed and subordinated to JNA headquarters in Belgrade, but the new Slovenian government acted quickly to retain control over their TO. On 14 May 1990, the weapons of the TO of Croatia, in Croat-majority regions, were taken away by the JNA, preventing the possibility of Croatia having its own weapons as was done in Slovenia. Borisav Jović, Serbia's representative in the Federal Presidency and a close ally of Slobodan Milošević, claimed that this action came at the behest of Serbia. According to Jović, on 27 June 1990 he and Veljko Kadijević, the Yugoslav Defence Minister, met and agreed that they should, regarding Croatia and Slovenia, "expel them forcibly from Yugoslavia, by simply drawing borders and declaring that they have brought this upon themselves through their decisions". According to Jović, the next day he obtained the agreement of Milošević. However, Kadijević, of mixed Serb-Croat heritage and a Yugoslav Partisan in World War II, was loyal to Yugoslavia and not a Greater Serbia; Kadijević believed that if Slovenia left Yugoslavia the state would collapse and thus he discussed with Jović about possibly using the JNA to impose martial law in Slovenia to prevent this potential collapse and was willing to wage war with the secessionist republics to prevent their secession. Kadijević considered the political crisis and ethnic conflict to have been caused by the actions of foreign governments, particularly Germany, which he accused of seeking to break up Yugoslavia to allow Germany to exercise a sphere of influence in the Balkans. Kadijević regarded the Croatian government of Tuđman to be a fascist-inspired and that Serbs had the right to be protected from Croatian "armed formations". After the election of Tuđman and the HDZ, a Serb Assembly was established in Srb, north of Knin, on 25 July 1990 as the political representation of the Serb people in Croatia. The Serb Assembly declared "sovereignty and autonomy of the Serb people in Croatia". The new Croatian government implemented policies that were seen as openly nationalistic and anti-Serbian in nature, such as the removal of the Serbian Cyrillic script from correspondence in public offices. In August 1990, an unrecognized mono-ethnic referendum was held in regions with a substantial Serb population which would later become known as the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) (bordering western Bosnia and Herzegovina) on the question of Serb "sovereignty and autonomy" in Croatia. This was an attempt to counter changes made to the constitution. The Croatian government sent police forces to police stations in Serb-populated areas to seize their weapons. Among other incidents, local Serbs from the southern hinterlands of Croatia, mostly around the city of Knin, blocked roads to tourist destinations in Dalmatia. This incident is known as the "Log Revolution". Years later, during Martić's trial, Babić claimed he was tricked by Martić into agreeing to the Log Revolution, and that it and the entire war in Croatia was Martić's responsibility, and had been orchestrated by Belgrade. The statement was corroborated by Martić in an interview published in 1991. Babić confirmed that by July 1991 Milošević had taken over control of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA). The Croatian government responded to the blockade of roads by sending special police teams in helicopters to the scene, but were intercepted by SFR Yugoslav Air Force fighter jets and forced to turn back to Zagreb. The Serbs felled pine trees or used bulldozers to block roads to seal off towns like Knin and Benkovac near the Adriatic coast. On 18 August 1990, the Serbian newspaper Večernje novosti claimed "almost two million Serbs were ready to go to Croatia to fight". On 21 December 1990, the SAO Krajina was proclaimed by the municipalities of the regions of Northern Dalmatia and Lika, in south-western Croatia. Article 1 of the Statute of the SAO Krajina defined the SAO Krajina as "a form of territorial autonomy within the Republic of Croatia" in which the Constitution of the Republic of Croatia, state laws, and the Statute of the SAO Krajina were applied. On 22 December 1990, the Parliament of Croatia ratified the new constitution, which was seen by Serbs as taking away rights that had been granted by the Socialist constitution. The constitution did define Croatia as "the national state of the Croatian nation and a state of members of other nations and minorities who are its citizens: Serbs ... who are guaranteed equality with citizens of Croatian nationality ..." Following Tuđman's election and the perceived threat from the new constitution, Serb nationalists in the Kninska Krajina region began taking armed action against Croatian government officials. Croatian government property throughout the region was increasingly controlled by local Serb municipalities or the newly established "Serbian National Council". This would later become the government of the breakaway Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK). After it was discovered that Martin Špegelj had pursued a campaign to acquire arms through the black market in January 1991 an ultimatum was issued requesting disarming and disbanding of Croatian military forces considered illegal by the Yugoslav authorities. Croatian authorities refused to comply, and the Yugoslav army withdrew the ultimatum six days after it was issued. On 12 March 1991, the leadership of the Army met with the Presidency of the SFRY in an attempt to convince them to declare a state of emergency which would allow for the army to take control of the country. Yugoslav army chief Veljko Kadijević declared that there was a conspiracy to destroy the country, saying: Jović claims that Kadijević and the Army in March 1991 supported a coup d'état as a way out of the crisis but then changed their minds four days later. Kadijević's response to this was that "Jović is lying". Kadijević claims he was invited to a meeting in March 1991 in Jović's office, two days after huge protests organized by Vuk Drašković on the streets of Belgrade, where Milošević, according to Kadijević, requested that the army take control of the country through a military coup. Kadijević's apparent response was to inform Milošević that he could not make such a decision by himself, and that he'd discuss the request with army leaders and later inform Jović's office about their decision. Kadijević then said that their decision was against the putsch and that he informed Jović's office in written form about it. Jović claims that such document doesn't exist. Ante Marković has described that after the Presidency meeting failed to achieve the results the Army wanted that Kadijević met with him with the proposed coup d'état against the secessionist republics. During the meeting Marković responded to Kadijević by saying that the plan failed to arrest Milošević. Kadijević replied "He is only one fighting for Yugoslavia. Without him, we could not be proposing this." Marković rejected the plan and afterwards communication between Kadijević and Marković broke down. Military forces Serb and Yugoslav People's Army forces The JNA was initially formed during World War II to carry out guerrilla warfare against occupying Axis forces. The success of the Partisan movement led to the JNA basing much of its operational strategy on guerrilla warfare, as its plans normally entailed defending against NATO or Warsaw Pact attacks, where other types of warfare would put the JNA in a comparatively poor position. That approach led to maintenance of a Territorial Defense system. On paper, the JNA seemed a powerful force, with 2,000 tanks and 300 jet aircraft (mainly Soviet or locally produced). However, by 1991, the majority of this equipment was 30 years old, as the force consisted primarily of T-54/55 tanks and MiG-21 aircraft. Still, the JNA operated around 300 M-84 tanks (a Yugoslav version of the Soviet T-72) and a sizable fleet of ground-attack aircraft, such as the Soko G-4 Super Galeb and the Soko J-22 Orao, whose armament included AGM-65 Maverick guided missiles. By contrast, more modern cheap anti-tank missiles (like the AT-5) and anti-aircraft missiles (like the SA-14) were abundant and were designed to destroy much more advanced weaponry. Before the war the JNA had 169,000 regular troops, including 70,000 professional officers. The fighting in Slovenia brought about a great number of desertions, and the army responded by mobilizing Serbian reserve troops. Approximately 100,000 evaded the draft, and the new conscripts proved an ineffective fighting force. The JNA resorted to reliance on irregular militias. Paramilitary units like the White Eagles, Serbian Guard, Dušan Silni, and Serb Volunteer Guard, which committed a number of massacres against Croat and other non-Serbs civilians, were increasingly used by the Yugoslav and Serb forces. There were also foreign fighters supporting the RSK, mostly from Russia. With the retreat of the JNA forces in 1992, JNA units were reorganized as the Army of Serb Krajina, which was a direct heir to the JNA organization, with little improvement. By 1991, the JNA officer corps was dominated by Serbs and Montenegrins; they were overrepresented in Yugoslav federal institutions, especially the army. 57.1% of JNA officers were Serbs, while Serbs formed 36.3% of the population of Yugoslavia. A similar structure was observed as early as 1981. Even though the two peoples combined comprised 38.8% of the population of Yugoslavia, 70% of all JNA officers and non-commissioned officers were either Serbs or Montenegrins. In July 1991, the JNA was instructed to "completely eliminate Croats and Slovenes from the army", most of whom had already begun to desert en masse. Croatian forces The Croatian military was in a much worse state than that of the Serbs. In the early stages of the war, lack of military units meant that the Croatian Police force would take the brunt of the fighting. The Croatian National Guard (), the new Croatian military, was formed on 11 April 1991, and gradually developed into the Croatian Army () by 1993. Weaponry was in short supply, and many units were either unarmed or were equipped with obsolete World War II-era rifles. The Croatian Army had only a handful of tanks, including World War II-surplus vehicles such as the T-34, and its Air Force was in an even worse state, consisting of only a few Antonov An-2 biplane crop-dusters that had been converted to drop makeshift bombs. In August 1991, the Croatian Army had fewer than 20 brigades. After general mobilization was instituted in October, the size of the army grew to 60 brigades and 37 independent battalions by the end of the year. In 1991 and 1992, Croatia was also supported by 456 foreign fighters, including British (139), French (69), and German (55). The seizure of the JNA's barracks between September and December helped to alleviate the Croatians' equipment shortage. By 1995, the balance of power had shifted significantly. Serb forces in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina were capable of fielding an estimated 130,000 troops; the Croatian Army, Croatian Defence Council () (HVO), and the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina could field a combined force of 250,000 soldiers and 570 tanks. Course of the war 1991: Open hostilities begin First armed incidents Ethnic hatred grew as various incidents fueled the propaganda machines on both sides. During his testimony before the ICTY, one of the top Krajina leaders, Milan Martić, stated that the Serb side started using force first. The conflict escalated into armed incidents in the majority-Serb populated areas. The Serbs attacked Croatian police units in Pakrac in early March, while one Josip Jović is widely reported as the first police officer killed by Serb forces as part of the war, during the Plitvice Lakes incident in late March 1991. In March and April 1991, Serbs in Croatia began to make moves to secede from that territory. It is a matter of debate to what extent this move was locally motivated and to what degree the Milošević-led Serbian government was involved. In any event, the SAO Krajina was declared, which consisted of any Croatian territory with a substantial Serb population. The Croatian government viewed this move as a rebellion. From the beginning of the Log Revolution and the end of April 1991, nearly 200 incidents involving the use of explosive devices and 89 attacks on the Croatian police were recorded. The Croatian Ministry of the Interior started arming an increasing number of special police forces, and this led to the building of a real army. On 9 April 1991, Croatian President Tuđman ordered the special police forces to be renamed Zbor Narodne Garde ("National Guard"); this marks the creation of a separate military of Croatia. Significant clashes from this period included the siege of Kijevo, where over a thousand people were besieged in the inner Dalmatian village of Kijevo, and the Borovo Selo killings, where Croatian policemen engaged Serb paramilitaries in the eastern Slavonian village of Borovo and suffered twelve casualties. Violence gripped eastern Slavonian villages: in Tovarnik, a Croat policeman was killed by Serb paramilitaries on 2 May, while in Sotin, a Serb civilian was killed on 5 May when he was caught in a crossfire between Serb and Croat paramilitaries. On 6 May, the 1991 protest in Split against the siege of Kijevo at the Navy Command in Split resulted in the death of a Yugoslav People's Army soldier. On 15 May, Stjepan Mesić, a Croat, was scheduled to be the chairman of the rotating presidency of Yugoslavia. Serbia, aided by Kosovo, Montenegro, and Vojvodina, whose presidency votes were at that time under Serbian control, blocked the appointment, which was otherwise seen as largely ceremonial. This maneuver technically left Yugoslavia without a head of state and without a commander-in-chief. Two days later, a repeated attempt to vote on the issue failed. Ante Marković, prime minister of Yugoslavia at the time, proposed appointing a panel which would wield presidential powers. It was not immediately clear who the panel members would be, apart from defense minister Veljko Kadijević, nor who would fill position of JNA commander-in-chief. The move was quickly rejected by Croatia as unconstitutional. The crisis was resolved after a six-week stalemate, and Mesić was elected president — the first non-communist to become Yugoslav head of state in decades. Throughout this period, the federal army, the JNA, and the local Territorial Defense Forces continued to be led by federal authorities controlled by Milošević. Helsinki Watch reported that Serb Krajina authorities executed Serbs who were willing to reach an accommodation with Croat officials. Declaration of independence On 19 May 1991, the Croatian authorities held a referendum on independence with the option of remaining in Yugoslavia as a looser union. Serb local authorities issued calls for a boycott, which were largely followed by Croatian Serbs. The referendum passed with 94% in favor. The newly constituted Croatian military units held a military parade and review at Stadion Kranjčevićeva in Zagreb on 28 May 1991. The parliament of Croatia declared Croatia's independence and dissolved its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991. The Croatian parliament's decision was partially boycotted by left-wing parliament deputies. The European Community and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe urged Croatian authorities to place a three-month moratorium on the decision. The government of Yugoslavia responded to the declarations of independence of Croatia and Slovenia with Yugoslav Prime Minister Ante Marković declaring the secessions to be illegal and contrary to the Constitution of Yugoslavia, and supported the JNA taking action to secure the integral unity of Yugoslavia. In June and July 1991, the short armed conflict in Slovenia came to a speedy end, partly because of the ethnic homogeneity of the population of Slovenia. It was later revealed that a military strike against Slovenia, followed by a planned withdrawal, was conceived by Slobodan Milošević and Borisav Jović, then president of the SFR Yugoslavia presidency. Jović published his diary containing the information and repeated it in his testimony at the Milošević trial at the ICTY. Croatia agreed to the Brioni Agreement that involved freezing its independence declaration for three months, which eased tensions a little. Escalation of the conflict In July, in an attempt to salvage what remained of Yugoslavia, JNA forces were involved in operations against predominantly Croat areas. In July the Serb-led Territorial Defence Forces started their advance on Dalmatian coastal areas in Operation Coast-91. By early August, large areas of Banovina were overrun by Serb forces. With the start of military operations in Croatia, Croats and a number of Serbian conscripts started to desert the JNA en masse, similar to what had happened in Slovenia. Albanians and Macedonians started to search for a way to legally leave the JNA or serve their conscription term in Macedonia; these moves further homogenized the ethnic composition of JNA troops in or near Croatia. One month after Croatia declared its independence, the Yugoslav army and other Serb forces held something less than one-third of the Croatian territory, mostly in areas with a predominantly ethnic Serb population. The JNA military strategy partly consisted of extensive shelling, at times irrespective of the presence of civilians. As the war progressed, the cities of Dubrovnik, Gospić, Šibenik, Zadar, Karlovac, Sisak, Slavonski Brod, Osijek, Vinkovci, and Vukovar all came under attack by Yugoslav forces. The United Nations (UN) imposed a weapons embargo; this did not affect JNA-backed Serb forces significantly, as they had the JNA arsenal at their disposal, but it caused serious trouble for the newly formed Croatian army. The Croatian government started smuggling weapons over its borders. In August 1991, the Battle of Vukovar began. Eastern Slavonia was gravely impacted throughout this period, starting with the Dalj massacre, and fronts developed around Osijek and Vinkovci in parallel to the encirclement of Vukovar. In September, Serbian troops completely surrounded the city of Vukovar. Croatian troops, including the 204th Vukovar Brigade, entrenched themselves within the city and held their ground against elite armored and mechanized brigades of the JNA, as well as Serb paramilitary units. Vukovar was almost completely devastated; 15,000 houses were destroyed. Some ethnic Croatian civilians had taken shelter inside the city. Other members of the civilian population fled the area en masse. Death toll estimates for Vukovar as a result of the siege range from 1,798 to 5,000. A further 22,000 were exiled from Vukovar immediately after the town was captured. Some estimates include 220,000 Croats and 300,000 Serbs internally displaced for the duration of the war in Croatia. In many areas, large numbers of civilians were forced out by the military. It was at this time that the term ethnic cleansing—the meaning of which ranged from eviction to murder—first entered the English lexicon. On October 3, the Yugoslav Navy renewed its blockade of the main ports of Croatia. This move followed months of standoff for JNA positions in Dalmatia and elsewhere now known as the Battle of the Barracks. It also coincided with the end of Operation Coast-91, in which the JNA failed to occupy the coastline in an attempt to cut off Dalmatia's access to the rest of Croatia. On October 5, President Tuđman made a speech in which he called upon the whole population to mobilize and defend against "Greater Serbian imperialism" pursued by the Serb-led JNA, Serbian paramilitary formations, and rebel Serb forces. On 7 October, the Yugoslav air force attacked the main government building in Zagreb, an incident referred to as the bombing of the Banski Dvori. The next day, as a previously agreed three-month moratorium on implementation of the declaration of independence expired, the Croatian Parliament severed all remaining ties with Yugoslavia. 8 October is now celebrated as Independence Day in Croatia. The bombing of the government offices and the Siege of Dubrovnik that started in October were contributing factors that led to European Union (EU) sanctions against Serbia. On 15 October after the capture of Cavtat by the JNA, local Serbs led by Aco Apolonio proclaimed the Dubrovnik Republic. The international media focused on the damage to Dubrovnik's cultural heritage; concerns about civilian casualties and pivotal battles such as the one in Vukovar were pushed out of public view. Nonetheless, artillery attacks on Dubrovnik damaged 56% of its buildings to some degree, as the historic walled city, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, sustained 650 hits by artillery rounds. Peak of the war In response to the 5th JNA Corps advance across the Sava River towards Pakrac and further north into western Slavonia, the Croatian army began a successful counterattack in early November 1991, its first major offensive operation of the war. Operation Otkos 10 (31 October to 4 November) resulted in Croatia recapturing an area between the Bilogora and Papuk mountains. The Croatian Army recaptured approximately of territory in this operation. The Vukovar massacre took place in November; the survivors were transported to prison camps such as Ovčara and Velepromet, with the majority ending up in Sremska Mitrovica prison camp. The sustained siege of Vukovar attracted heavy international media attention. Many international journalists were in or near Vukovar, as was UN peace mediator Cyrus Vance, who had been Secretary of State to former US President Carter. Also in eastern Slavonia, the Lovas massacre occurred in October and the Erdut massacre in November 1991, before and after the fall of Vukovar. At the same time, the Škabrnja massacre and Gospić massacre occurred in the Dalmatian hinterland. On 14 November, the Navy blockade of Dalmatian ports was challenged by civilian ships. The confrontation culminated in the Battle of the Dalmatian channels, when Croatian coastal and island based artillery damaged, sank, or captured a number of Yugoslav navy vessels, including Mukos PČ 176, later rechristened PB 62 Šolta. After the battle, the Yugoslav naval operations were effectively limited to the southern Adriatic. Croatian forces made further advances in the second half of December, including Operation Orkan 91. In the course of Orkan '91, the Croatian army recaptured approximately of territory. The end of the operation marked the end of a six-month-long phase of intense fighting: 10,000 people had died; hundreds of thousands had fled and tens of thousands of homes had been destroyed. On December 19, as the intensity of the fighting increased, Croatia won its first diplomatic recognition by a western nation—Iceland—while the Serbian Autonomous Oblasts in Krajina and western Slavonia officially declared themselves the Republic of Serbian Krajina. Four days later, Germany recognized Croatian independence. On December 26, 1991, the Serb-dominated federal presidency announced plans for a smaller Yugoslavia that could include the territory captured from Croatia during the war. However, on December 21, 1991 for the first time in the war Istria was under attack. The Serbian Forces attacked the airport near the city of Vrsar, situated in the south-western of the peninsula between the city of Poreč and Rovinj, with two MiG-21 and two Galeb G-2. Afterwards, Yugoslav airplanes carpet bombed Vrsar's Crljenka airport, resulting in two deaths. Mediated by foreign diplomats, ceasefires were frequently signed and frequently broken. Croatia lost much territory, but expanded the Croatian Army from the seven brigades it had at the time of the first ceasefire to 60 brigades and 37 independent battalions by December 31, 1991. The Arbitration Commission of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia, also referred to as Badinter Arbitration Committee, was set up by the Council of Ministers of the European Economic Community (EEC) on August 27, 1991, to provide the Conference on Yugoslavia with legal advice. The five-member Commission consisted of presidents of Constitutional Courts in the EEC. Starting in late November 1991, the committee rendered ten opinions. The Commission stated, among other things, that SFR Yugoslavia was in the process of dissolution and that the internal boundaries of Yugoslav republics may not be altered unless freely agreed upon. Factors in favour of Croatia's preservation of its pre-war borders were the Yugoslav Federal Constitution Amendments of 1971, and the Yugoslav Federal Constitution of 1974. The 1971 amendments introduced a concept that sovereign rights were exercised by the federal units, and that the federation had only the authority specifically transferred to it by the constitution. The 1974 Constitution confirmed and strengthened the principles introduced in 1971. The borders had been defined by demarcation commissions in 1947, pursuant to decisions of AVNOJ in 1943 and 1945 regarding the federal organization of Yugoslavia. 1992: Ceasefire A new UN-sponsored ceasefire, the fifteenth in just six months, was agreed on January 2, 1992, and came into force the next day. This so-called Sarajevo Agreement became a lasting ceasefire. Croatia was officially recognized by the European Community on January 15, 1992. Even though the JNA began to withdraw from Croatia, including Krajina, the RSK clearly retained the upper hand in the occupied territories due to support from Serbia. By that time, the RSK encompassed of territory. The area size did not encompass another of occupied territory near Dubrovnik, as that area was not considered part of the RSK. Ending the series of unsuccessful ceasefires, the UN deployed a protection force in Serbian-held Croatia—the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR)—to supervise and maintain the agreement. The UNPROFOR was officially created by UN Security Council Resolution 743 on February 21, 1992. The warring parties mostly moved to entrenched positions, and the JNA soon retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina, where a new conflict was anticipated. Croatia became a member of the UN on May 22, 1992, which was conditional upon Croatia amending its constitution to protect the human rights of minority groups and dissidents. Expulsions of the non-Serb civilian population remaining in the occupied territories continued despite the presence of the UNPROFOR peacekeeping troops, and in some cases, with UN troops being virtually enlisted as accomplices. The Yugoslav People's Army took thousands of prisoners during the war in Croatia, and interned them in camps in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro. The Croatian forces also captured some Serbian prisoners, and the two sides agreed to several prisoner exchanges; most prisoners were freed by the end of 1992. Some infamous prisons included the Sremska Mitrovica camp, the Stajićevo camp, and the Begejci camp in Serbia, and the Morinj camp in Montenegro. The Croatian Army also established detention camps, such as the Lora prison camp in Split. Armed conflict in Croatia continued intermittently on a smaller scale. There were several smaller operations undertaken by Croatian forces to relieve the siege of Dubrovnik, and other Croatian cities (Šibenik, Zadar and Gospić) from Krajina forces. Battles included the Miljevci plateau incident (between Krka and Drniš), on June 21–22, 1992, Operation Jaguar at Križ Hill near Bibinje and Zadar, on May 22, 1992, and a series of military actions in the Dubrovnik hinterland: Operation Tigar, on 1–13 July 1992, in Konavle, on 20–24 September 1992, and at Vlaštica on September 22–25, 1992. Combat near Dubrovnik was followed by the withdrawal of JNA from Konavle, between September 30 and October 20, 1992. The Prevlaka peninsula guarding entrance to the Bay of Kotor was demilitarized and turned over to the UNPROFOR, while the remainder of Konavle was restored to the Croatian authorities. 1993: Croatian military advances Fighting was renewed at the beginning of 1993, as the Croatian army launched Operation Maslenica, an offensive operation in the Zadar area on January 22. The objective of the attack was to improve the strategic situation in that area, as it targeted the city airport and the Maslenica Bridge, the last entirely overland link between Zagreb and the city of Zadar until the bridge area was captured in September 1991. The attack proved successful as it met its declared objectives, but at a high cost, as 114 Croat and 490 Serb soldiers were killed in a relatively limited theater of operations. While Operation Maslenica was in progress, Croatian forces attacked Serb positions to the east. They advanced towards the Peruća Hydroelectric Dam and captured it by January 28, 1993, shortly after Serb militiamen chased away the UN peacekeepers protecting the dam. UN forces had been present at the site since the summer of 1992. They discovered that the Serbs had planted 35 to 37 tons of explosives spread over seven different sites on the dam in a way that prevented the explosives' removal; the charges were left in place. Retreating Serb forces detonated three of explosive charges totaling 5 tons within the high dam in an attempt to cause it to fail and flood the area downstream. The disaster was prevented by Mark Nicholas Gray, a colonel in the British Royal Marines, a lieutenant at the time, who was a UN military observer at the site. He risked being disciplined for acting beyond his authority by lowering the reservoir level, which held of water, before the dam was blown up. His action saved the lives of 20,000 people who would otherwise have drowned or become homeless. Operation Medak Pocket took place in a salient south of Gospić, from September 9–17. The offensive was undertaken by the Croatian army to stop Serbian artillery in the area from shelling nearby Gospić. The operation met its stated objective of removing the artillery threat, as Croatian troops overran the salient, but it was marred by war crimes. The ICTY later indicted Croatian officers for war crimes. The operation was halted amid international pressure, and an agreement was reached that the Croatian troops were to withdraw to positions held prior to September 9, while UN troops were to occupy the salient alone. The events that followed remain controversial, as Canadian authorities reported that the Croatian army intermittently fought against the advancing Canadian Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry before finally retreating after sustaining 27 fatalities. The Croatian ministry of defense and UN officer's testimonies given during the Ademi-Norac trial deny that the battle occurred. On February 18, 1993, Croatian authorities signed the Daruvar Agreement with local Serb leaders in Western Slavonia. The aim of the secret agreement was normalizing life for local populations near the frontline. However, authorities in Knin learned of this and arrested the Serb leaders responsible. In June 1993, Serbs began voting in a referendum on merging Krajina territory with Republika Srpska. Milan Martić, acting as the RSK interior minister, advocated a merger of the "two Serbian states as the first stage in the establishment of a state of all Serbs" in his April 3 letter to the Assembly of the Republika Srpska. On January 21, 1994, Martić stated that he would "speed up the process of unification and pass on the baton to all Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević" if elected president of the RSK". These intentions were countered by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) Resolution 871 in October 1993, when the UNSC affirmed for the first time that the United Nations Protected Areas, i.e. the RSK held areas, were an integral part of the Republic of Croatia. During 1992 and 1993, an estimated 225,000 Croats, as well as refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia, settled in Croatia. Croatian volunteers and some conscripted soldiers participated in the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In September 1992, Croatia had accepted 335,985 refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina, most of whom were Bosniak civilians (excluding men of drafting age). The large number of refugees significantly strained the Croatian economy and infrastructure. The American Ambassador to Croatia, Peter Galbraith, tried to put the number of Muslim refugees in Croatia into a proper perspective in an interview on 8 November 1993. He said the situation would be the equivalent of the United States taking in 30,000,000 refugees. 1994: Erosion of support for Krajina In 1992, the Croat-Bosniak conflict erupted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, just as each was fighting with the Bosnian Serbs. The war was originally fought between the Croatian Defence Council and Croatian volunteer troops on one side and the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH) on the other, but by 1994, the Croatian Army had an estimated 3,000 to 5,000 troops involved in the fighting. Under pressure from the United States, the belligerents agreed on a truce in late February, followed by a meeting of Croatian, Bosnian, and Bosnian Croat representatives with US Secretary of State Warren Christopher in Washington, D.C., on February 26, 1994. On March 4, Franjo Tuđman endorsed the agreement providing for the creation of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and an alliance between Bosnian and Croatian armies against the Serb forces. This led to the dismantling of Herzeg-Bosnia and reduced the number of warring factions in Bosnia and Herzegovina from three to two. In late 1994, the Croatian Army intervened in Bosnia from November 1–3, in Operation Cincar near Kupres, and from November 29 – December 24 in the Winter '94 operation near Dinara and Livno. These operations were undertaken to detract from the siege of the Bihać region and to approach the RSK capital of Knin from the north, isolating it on three sides. During this time, unsuccessful negotiations mediated by the UN were under way between the Croatian and RSK governments. The matters under discussion included opening the Serb-occupied part of the Zagreb–Slavonski Brod motorway near Okučani to transit traffic, as well as the putative status of Serbian-majority areas within Croatia. The motorway initially reopened at the end of 1994, but it was soon closed again due to security issues. Repeated failures to resolve the two disputes would serve as triggers for major Croatian offensives in 1995. At the same time, the Krajina army continued the Siege of Bihać, together with the Army of Republika Srpska from Bosnia. Michael Williams, an official of the UN peacekeeping force, said that when the village of Vedro Polje west of Bihać had fallen to a RSK unit in late November 1994, the siege entered the final stage. He added that heavy tank and artillery fire against the town of Velika Kladuša in the north of the Bihać enclave was coming from the RSK. Western military analysts said that among the array of Serbian surface-to-air missile systems that surrounded the Bihać pocket on Croatian territory, there was a modern SAM-2 system probably brought there from Belgrade. In response to the situation, the Security Council passed Resolution 958, which allowed NATO aircraft deployed as a part of the Operation Deny Flight to operate in Croatia. On November 21, NATO attacked the Udbina airfield controlled by the RSK, temporarily disabling runways. Following the Udbina strike, NATO continued to launch strikes in the area, and on November 23, after a NATO reconnaissance plane was illuminated by the radar of a surface-to-air missile (SAM) system, NATO planes attacked a SAM site near Dvor with AGM-88 HARM anti-radiation missiles. In later campaigns, the Croatian army would pursue a variant of blitzkrieg tactics, with the Guard brigades punching through the enemy lines while the other units simply held the lines at other points and completed an encirclement of the enemy units. In a further attempt to bolster its armed forces, Croatia hired Military Professional Resources Inc. (MPRI) in September 1994 to train some of its officers and NCOs. Begun in January 1995, MPRI's assignment involved fifteen advisors who taught basic officer leadership skills and training management. MPRI activities were reviewed in advance by the US State Department to ensure they did not involve tactical training or violate the UN arms embargo still in place. 1995: End of the war Tensions were renewed at the beginning of 1995 as Croatia sought to put increasing pressure on the RSK. In a five-page letter on 12 January Franjo Tuđman formally told the UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali that Croatia was ending the agreement permitting the stationing of UNPROFOR in Croatia, effective 31 March. The move was purportedly motivated by actions by Serbia and the Serb-dominated Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to provide assistance to the Serb occupation of Croatia and allegedly integrate the occupied areas into Yugoslav territory. The situation was noted and addressed by the UN General Assembly: International peacemaking efforts continued, and a new peace plan called the Z-4 plan was presented to Croatian and Krajina authorities. There was no initial Croatian response, and the Serbs flatly refused the proposal. As the deadline for UNPROFOR to pull out neared, a new UN peacekeeping mission was proposed with an increased mandate to patrol Croatia's internationally recognized borders. Initially the Serbs opposed the move, and tanks were moved from Serbia into eastern Croatia. A settlement was finally reached, and the new UN peacekeeping mission was approved by United Nations Security Council Resolution 981 on March 31. The name of the mission was the subject of a last-minute dispute, as Croatian Foreign Minister Mate Granić insisted that the word Croatia be added to the force's name. The name United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia (UNCRO) was approved. Violence erupted again in early May 1995. The RSK lost support from the Serbian government in Belgrade, partly as a result of international pressure. At the same time, the Croatian Operation Flash reclaimed all of the previously occupied territory in Western Slavonia. In retaliation, Serb forces attacked Zagreb with rockets, killing 7 and wounding over 200 civilians. The Yugoslav army responded to the offensive with a show of force, moving tanks towards the Croatian border, in an apparent effort to stave off a possible attack on the occupied area in Eastern Slavonia. During the following months, international efforts mainly concerned the largely unsuccessful United Nations Safe Areas set up in Bosnia and Herzegovina and trying to set up a more lasting ceasefire in Croatia. The two issues virtually merged by July 1995 when a number of the safe areas in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina were overrun and one in Bihać was threatened. In 1994, Croatia had already signaled that it would not allow Bihać to be captured, and a new confidence in the Croatian military's ability to recapture occupied areas brought about a demand from Croatian authorities that no further ceasefires were to be negotiated; the occupied territories would be re-integrated into Croatia. These developments and the Washington Agreement, a ceasefire signed in the Bosnian theater, led to another meeting of presidents of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina on 22 July, when the Split Agreement was adopted. In it, Bosnia and Herzegovina invited Croatia to provide military and other assistance, particularly in the Bihać area. Croatia accepted, committing itself to an armed intervention. From 25 to 30 July, the Croatian Army and Croatian Defence Council (HVO) troops attacked Serb-held territory north of Mount Dinara, capturing Bosansko Grahovo and Glamoč during Operation Summer '95. That offensive paved the way for the military recapture of occupied territory around Knin, as it severed the last efficient resupply route between Banja Luka and Knin. On 4 August, Croatia started Operation Storm, with the aim of recapturing almost all of the occupied territory in Croatia, except for a comparatively small strip of land, located along the Danube, at a considerable distance from the bulk of the contested land. The offensive, involving 100,000 Croatian soldiers, was the largest single land battle fought in Europe since World War II. Operation Storm achieved its goals and was declared completed on 8 August. The Croatian human rights organization Hrvatski helsinški odbor, counted 677 Serb civilians killed by Croatian forces after Operation Storm, mostly old people who remained, while other Serb civilians fled. An additional 837 Serb civilians are listed as missing following Operation Storm. Other sources indicate a 181 more victims were killed by Croatian forces and buried in a mass grave in Mrkonjić Grad, following a continuation of the Operation Storm offensive into Bosnia. Many of the civilian population of the occupied areas fled during the offensive or immediately after its completion, in what was later described in various terms ranging from expulsion to planned evacuation. Krajina Serb sources (Documents of HQ of Civilian Protection of RSK, Supreme Council of Defense published by Kovačević, Sekulić, and Vrcelj) say that the evacuation of Serbs was organized and planned beforehand. According to Amnesty International, "some 200,000 Croatian Serbs, including the entire Croatian Serb Army, fled to the neighbouring Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina under Bosnian Serb control. In the aftermath of the operations members of the Croatian Army and police murdered, tortured, and forcibly expelled Croatian Serb civilians who had remained in the area as well as members of the withdrawing Croatian Serb armed forces". The ICTY, on the other hand, concluded that only about 20,000 people were deported. The BBC noted 200,000 Serb refugees at one point. Croatian refugees exiled in 1991 were finally allowed to return to their homes. In 1996 alone, about 85,000 displaced Croats returned to the former Krajina and western Slavonia, according to the estimates of the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. In the months that followed, there were still some intermittent, mainly artillery, attacks from Serb-held areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina on the Dubrovnik area and elsewhere. The remaining Serb-held area in Croatia, in Eastern Slavonia, was faced with the possibility of military confrontation with Croatia. Such a possibility was repeatedly stated by Tuđman after Storm. The threat was underlined by the movement of troops to the region in mid-October, as well as a repeat of an earlier threat to intervene militarily—specifically saying that the Croatian Army could intervene if no peace agreement was reached by the end of the month. Reintegration of Eastern Slavonia Further combat was averted on 12 November when the Erdut Agreement was signed by the RSK acting defense minister Milan Milanović, on instructions received from Slobodan Milošević and Federal Republic of Yugoslavia officials. The agreement stated that the remaining occupied area was to be returned to Croatia, with a two-year transitional period. The new UN transitional administration was established as the United Nations Transitional Authority for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium (UNTAES) by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1037 of 15 January 1996. The agreement also guarantees the right of establishment of a Joint Council of Municipalities for the local Serbian community. The transitional period was subsequently extended by a year. On 15 January 1998, the UNTAES mandate ended and Croatia regained full control of the area. As the UNTAES replaced the UNCRO mission, the Prevlaka peninsula, previously under UNCRO control, was put under the control of United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP). The UNMOP was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1038 of 15 January 1996, and terminated on 15 December 2002. Notable defections On 25 October 1991, Yugoslav Air Force pilot Rudolf Perešin flew his MiG-21R to Austria and defected. He later fought on behalf of Croatian forces in the war, ultimately dying after being shot down in 1995. On 4 February 1992, air force pilot flew his MiG-21bis to Croatia and defected. He later fought on behalf of Croatian forces in the war. The MiG-21bis itself was later shot down on 24 June 1992, killing pilot . On 15 May 1992, air force pilots and flew their MiG-21bis to Croatia and defected. Both later fought on behalf of Croatian forces in the war and survived. Ivandić's MiG-21bis was shot down on 14 September 1993, killing pilot . Impact and aftermath Assessment of type and name of the war The standard term applied to the war as directly translated from Croatian is Homeland war (), while the term Croatian War of Independence is also used. Early English sources also called it the War in Croatia, the Serbo-Croatian War, and the Conflict in Yugoslavia. Different translations of the Croatian name for the war are also sometimes used, such as Patriotic War, although such use by native speakers of English is rare. The official term used in Croatian is the most widespread name used in Croatia but other terms are also used. Another is Greater-Serbian Aggression (). The term was widely used by the media during the war, and is still sometimes used by the Croatian media, politicians and others. Two views exist as to whether the war was a civil or an international war. The government of Serbia often states that it was entirely a "civil war". The prevailing view in Croatia and of most international law experts, including the ICTY, is that the war was an international conflict, between the rump Yugoslavia and Serbia against Croatia, supported by Serbs in Croatia. The Croatian international legal scholar and Yale University professor, Mirjan Damaška, said that the question of aggression was not one for the ICJ to decide as at the time of the verdict, the international crime of aggression had not yet been defined. Neither Croatia nor Yugoslavia ever formally declared war on each other. Unlike the Serbian position that the conflict need not be declared as it was a civil war, the Croatian motivation for not declaring war was that Tuđman believed that Croatia could not confront the JNA directly and did everything to avoid an all-out war. Casualties and refugees Most sources place the total number of deaths from the war at around 20,000. According to the head of the Croatian Commission for Missing Persons, Colonel Ivan Grujić, Croatia suffered 12,000 killed or missing, including 6,788 soldiers and 4,508 civilians. Another source gives a figure of 14,000 killed on the Croatian side, of whom 43.4% were civilians. Official figures from 1996 also list 35,000 wounded. Ivo Goldstein mentions 13,583 killed or missing, while Anglo-Croatian historian Marko Attila Hoare reports the number to be 15,970 (citing figures from January 2003 presented by scientific researcher Dražen Živić). Close to 2,400 persons were reported missing during the war. In 2018, the Croatian Memorial-Documentation Center of Homeland War published new figures, indicating 22,211 killed or missing in the war: 15,007 killed or missing on the Croatian side and 7,204 killed or missing on the Serb side. 1,077 of those killed on the territories of the Republic of Serbian Krajina were non-Serbs. However, on Croatian government-controlled territory, the Center did not break-out the ethnic structure of the total number of 5,657 civilians killed, due to missing data. As of 2016, the Croatian government listed 1,993 missing persons from the war, of whom 1093 were Croats (428 soldiers and 665 civilians), while the remaining 900 were Serbs (5 soldiers and 895 civilians). As of 2009, there were more than 52,000 persons in Croatia registered as disabled due to their participation in the war. This figure includes not only those disabled physically due to wounds or injuries sustained, but also persons whose health deteriorated due to their involvement in the war, including diagnoses of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, as well as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In 2010, the number of war-related PTSD-diagnosed persons was 32,000. In total, the war caused 500,000 refugees and displaced persons. Around 196,000 to 247,000 (in 1993) Croats and other non-Serbs were displaced during the war from or around the RSK. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) said that 221,000 were displaced in 2006, of which 218,000 had returned. Up to 300,000 Croats were displaced, according to other sources. The majority were displaced during the initial fighting and during the JNA offensives of 1991 and 1992. On 16 March 1994, Croatia registered 492,636 displaced or refugees on its territory (241,014 persons from Croatia itself and 251,622 from Bosnia and Herzegovina), an estimated 10% of the country's population. Some 150,000 Croats from Republika Srpska and Serbia have obtained Croatian citizenship since 1991, many due to incidents like the expulsions in Hrtkovci. The Belgrade-based non-government organization Veritas lists 7,134 killed and missing from the Republic of Serbian Krajina, including 4,484 combatants and 2,650 civilians, and 307 JNA members who were not born or lived in Croatia. Most of them were killed or went missing in 1991 (2,729) and 1995 (2,348). The most deaths occurred in Northern Dalmatia (1,605). The JNA has officially acknowledged 1,279 killed in action. The actual number was probably considerably greater, since casualties were consistently underreported. In one example, official reports spoke of two slightly wounded soldiers after an engagement, however, according to the unit's intelligence officer, the actual number was 50 killed and 150 wounded. According to Serbian sources, some 120,000 Serbs were displaced from 1991 to 1993, and 250,000 were displaced after Operation Storm. The number of displaced Serbs was 254,000 in 1993, dropping to 97,000 in the early 1995 and then increasing again to 200,000 by the end of the year. Most international sources place the total number of Serbs displaced at around 300,000. According to Amnesty International 300,000 were displaced from 1991 to 1995, of which 117,000 were officially registered as having returned as of 2005. According to the OSCE, 300,000 were displaced during the war, of which 120,000 were officially registered as having returned as of 2006. However, it is believed the number does not accurately reflect the number of returnees, because many returned to Serbia, Montenegro, or Bosnia and Herzegovina after officially registering in Croatia. According to the UNHCR in 2008, 125,000 were registered as having returned to Croatia, of whom 55,000 remained permanently. While the prewar 1991 Croatian census counted 581,663 Serbs, or 12.2% of the population in Croatia, the first postwar 2001 census showed only 201,631 Serbs remaining in Croatia, or just 4.5% of the population. The Croatian Association of Prisoners in Serbian Concentration Camps and Croatian Disabled Homeland War Veterans Association were founded to help victims of prison abuse. A 2013 report by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Croatia entitled 'Assessment of the Number of Sexual Violence Victims during the Homeland War on the Territory of the Republic of Croatia and Optimal Forms of Compensation and Support of Victims', determined the estimated victims (male and female) of rape and other forms of sexual assault on both sides to number between approximately 1,470 and 2,205 or 1,501 and 2,437 victims. Most victims were non-Serbs assaulted by Serbs. By region, the largest number of rapes and acts of sexual violence occurred in Eastern Slavonia, with an estimated 380-570 victims. According to the UNDP report, between 300 and 600 men (4.4%-6.6% of those imprisoned) and between 279 and 466 women (or 30%-50% of those imprisoned) suffered from various forms of sexual abuse while being held in Serbian detention camps and prisons (including those in Serbia proper). Between 412 and 611 Croat women were raped in the Serb-occupied territories, outside of detention camps, from 1991 to 1995. Croat forces were also known to have committed rapes and acts of sexual violence against Serb women during Operations Flash and Storm, with an estimated 94-140 victims. Sexual abuse of Serb prisoners also occurred in the Croat-run Lora and Kerestinec camps. On May 29, 2015, the Croatian parliament passed the first law in the country that recognises rape as a war crime – the Law on the Rights of Victims of Sexual Violence during the Military Aggression against the Republic of Croatia in the Homeland War. The legislation, which is overseen by the Croatian War Veterans’ Ministry, provides victims with medical and legal aid as well as financial compensation from the state – up to 20,000 euros. These benefits do not depend on a court verdict. As of May 2019, Željka Žokalj from the War Veterans’ Ministry, said that around 25 million kunas (3.37 million euros) have already been awarded to victims. Since 2015, 249 compensation requests have been filed and 156 of them approved. Wartime damage and minefields Official figures on wartime damage published in Croatia in 1996 specify 180,000 destroyed housing units, 25% of the Croatian economy destroyed, and US$27 billion of material damage. Europe Review 2003/04 estimated the war damage at US$37 billion in damaged infrastructure, lost economic output, and refugee-related costs, while GDP dropped 21% in the period. 15 percent of housing units and 2,423 cultural heritage structures, including 495 sacral structures, were destroyed or damaged. The war imposed an additional economic burden of very high military expenditures. By 1994, as Croatia rapidly developed into a de facto war economy, the military consumed as much as 60 percent of total government spending. Yugoslav and Serbian expenditures during the war were even more disproportionate. The federal budget proposal for 1992 earmarked 81 percent of funds to be diverted into the Serbian war effort. Since a substantial part of the federal budgets prior to 1992 was provided by Slovenia and Croatia, the most developed republics of Yugoslavia, a lack of federal income quickly led to desperate printing of money to finance government operations. That in turn produced the worst episode of hyperinflation in history: Between October 1993 and January 1995, Yugoslavia, which then consisted of Serbia and Montenegro, suffered through a hyperinflation of five quadrillion percent. Many Croatian cities were attacked by artillery, missiles, and aircraft bombs by RSK or JNA forces from RSK or Serb-controlled areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as Montenegro and Serbia. The most shelled cities were Vukovar, Slavonski Brod (from the mountain of Vučjak), and Županja (for more than 1,000 days), Vinkovci, Osijek, Nova Gradiška, Novska, Daruvar, Pakrac, Šibenik, Sisak, Dubrovnik, Zadar, Gospić, Karlovac, Biograd na moru, Slavonski Šamac, Ogulin, Duga Resa, Otočac, Ilok, Beli Manastir, Lučko, Zagreb, and others Slavonski Brod was never directly attacked by tanks or infantry, but the city and its surrounding villages were hit by more than 11,600 artillery shells and 130 aircraft bombs in 1991 and 1992. Approximately 2 million mines were laid in various areas of Croatia during the war. Most of the minefields were laid with no pattern or any type of record being made of the position of the mines. A decade after the war, in 2005, there were still about 250,000 mines buried along the former front lines, along some segments of the international borders, especially near Bihać, and around some former JNA facilities. As of 2007, the area still containing or suspected of containing mines encompassed approximately . More than 1,900 people were killed or injured by land mines in Croatia since the beginning of the war, including more than 500 killed or injured by mines after the end of the war. Between 1998 and 2005, Croatia spent €214 million on various mine action programs. As of 2009, all remaining minefields are clearly marked. During the 2015 European migrant crisis, there existed concerns over areas where mines could affect the flow of refugees coming from Serbia to Croatia. War crimes and the ICTY The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was established by UN Security Council Resolution 827, which was passed on 25 May 1993. The court has power to prosecute persons responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law, breaches of the Geneva Conventions, violating the laws or customs of war, committing genocide, and crimes against humanity committed in the territory of the former SFR Yugoslavia since 1 January 1991. The indictees by ICTY ranged from common soldiers to Prime Ministers and Presidents. Some high-level indictees included Slobodan Milošević (President of Serbia), Milan Babić (president of the RSK), and Ante Gotovina (general of the Croatian Army). Franjo Tuđman (President of Croatia) died in 1999 of cancer while the ICTY's prosecutors were still investigating him. According to Marko Attila Hoare, a former employee at the ICTY, an investigative team worked on indictments of senior members of the "joint criminal enterprise", including not only Milošević, but Veljko Kadijević, Blagoje Adžić, Borisav Jović, Branko Kostić, Momir Bulatović and others. These drafts were rejected, reportedly upon the intervention of Carla del Ponte and the indictment limited to Milošević. By the time of the last verdict delivered in 2023, the ICTY has convicted nine officials from the Serb/Montenegrin side and nobody from the Croatian side. Milan Martić received the largest sentence: 35 years in prison. Milan Babić received 13 years. He expressed remorse for his role in the war, asking his "Croat brothers to forgive him". In 2007, two former Yugoslav army officers were sentenced for the Vukovar massacre at the ICTY in The Hague. Veselin Šljivančanin was sentenced to 10 years and Mile Mrkšić to 20 years in prison. Prosecutors stated that following the capture of Vukovar, the JNA handed over several hundred Croats to Serbian forces. Of these, at least 264 (mostly injured soldiers, but also two women and a 16-year-old child) were murdered and buried in mass graves in the neighborhood of Ovčara, on the outskirts of Vukovar. The city's mayor, Slavko Dokmanović, was brought to trial at the ICTY, but committed suicide in 1998 in captivity before proceedings began. Generals Pavle Strugar and Miodrag Jokić were sentenced by the ICTY to eight and seven years, respectively, for shelling Dubrovnik. A third indictee, Vladimir Kovačević, was declared mentally unfit to stand trial. The Yugoslav Army's Chief of the General Staff, Momčilo Perišić, was charged with aiding and abetting war crimes but eventually acquitted on all charges. Ex-RSK President Goran Hadžić died during the trial. In 2018, Vojislav Šešelj was sentenced to 10 years for crimes against humanity perpetrated through persecution and deportation of Croats from Vojvodina in 1992, while he was also given an additional cumulative sentence of 4 years and 9 months for contempt of court. In a first-degree verdict, on 30 June 2021 the UN Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals (MICT) found Serbian State Security officers Jovica Stanišić and Franko Simatović guilty for crimes committed in Bosnia in Bosanski Šamac and sentenced them to 12 years in prison, but acquitted them of planning, ordering or aiding and abetting any crimes committed by Serb units in Croatia. They were tried as part of a joint criminal enterprise involving Milošević and other Serbian political, military and police officials. The court found that "from at least August 1991, a joint criminal enterprise existed" whose aim was to "forcibly and permanently remove.. Croats, Bosnian Muslim and Bosnian Croats, from large areas of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina." Those implicated in the enterprise included senior political, military, and police leadership in Serbia, the SAO Krajina, the SAO Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia, and Republika Srpska, though the court found that the prosecution failed to prove the participation of Stanišić and Simatović in the enterprise. In 2023, the follow-up International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals sentenced Serbian State Security officers Jovica Stanišić and Franko Simatović for aiding and abetting a murder in Daljska Planina in June 1992 through their control of Serb paramilitary, as well as other crimes in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia, included them in a joint criminal enterprise, and sentenced them each to 15 years in prison. The Tribunal concluded: A number of Croat civilians in hospitals and shelters marked with a red cross were targeted by Serb forces. There were numerous well-documented war crimes against civilians and prisoners of war perpetrated by Serb and Yugoslav forces in Croatia: the Dalj killings, the Lovas massacre, the Široka Kula massacre, the Baćin massacre, the Saborsko massacre, the Škabrnja massacre, the Voćin massacre, and the Zagreb rocket attacks. There were a number of prison camps where Croatian POWs and civilians were detained, including the Sremska Mitrovica camp, the Stajićevo camp, and the Begejci camp in Serbia, and the Morinj camp in Montenegro. The Croatian Association of Prisoners in Serbian Concentration Camps was later founded in order to help the victims of prison abuse. The Croatian Army established detention camps, like Lora prison camp in Split. Croatian war crimes included the Gospić massacre, the Sisak killings in 1991 and 1992, and others, which were likewise prosecuted by Croatian courts or the ICTY. Another infamous instance of war crimes, in what would later become known as the "Pakračka Poljana" case, committed by a reserve police unit commanded by Tomislav Merčep, involved the killing of prisoners, mostly ethnic Serbs, near Pakrac in late 1991 and early 1992. The events were initially investigated by the ICTY, but the case was eventually transferred to the Croatian judiciary. More than a decade later, five members of this unit, although not its commander, were indicted on criminal charges related to these events, and convicted. Merčep was arrested for crimes in Pakrac, as well as crimes in central Croatia and Zagreb in December 2010 and sentenced in 2016 to five and a half years. Merčep, who died in 2020, had also been implicated with his units in the kidnappings and executions of Serb civilians in Vukovar prior to the town's fall to the JNA in 1991 but never charged for those crimes. In 2009, Branimir Glavaš, a Croatian incumbent MP at the time, was convicted of war crimes committed in Osijek in 1991 and sentenced to jail by a Croatian court. The ICTY indicted Croatian officers Janko Bobetko, Rahim Ademi, and Mirko Norac, for crimes committed during Operation Medak Pocket, but that case was also transferred to Croatian courts. Norac was found guilty and jailed for 7 years; Ademi was acquitted. Bobetko was declared unfit to stand trial due to poor health. The ICTY's indictment against General Ante Gotovina cited at least 150 Serb civilians killed in the aftermath of Operation Storm. The Croatian Helsinki Committee registered 677 Serb civilians killed in the operation. Louise Arbour, a prosecutor of the ICTY, stated that the legality and legitimacy of the Operation itself was not the issue, but that the ICTY was required to investigate whether crimes were committed during the campaign. The Trial Chamber reiterated that the legality of Operation Storm is "irrelevant" for the case at hand, since the ICTY's remit is processing war crimes. In 2011, Gotovina was sentenced to 24 and Markač to 18 years in prison. In 2012, their convictions were overturned and both were immediately released. Čermak was acquitted of all charges. Recorded war crimes that were committed against ethnic Serbs, particularly the elderly, during or in the aftermath of Operation Storm include the Golubić killings, Grubori massacre, and Varivode massacre. In the first-degree verdict, the trial chamber found that "certain members of the Croatian political and military leadership shared the common objective of the permanent removal of the Serb civilian population from the Krajina by force or threat of force", implicating Franjo Tuđman, Gojko Šušak, who was the Minister of Defence and a close associate of Tuđman's, and Zvonimir Červenko, the Chief of the Croatian army Main Staff. Nevertheless, in the second-degree verdict, the appeals chamber dismissed the notion of such a joint criminal enterprise. The verdict meant the ICTY convicted no Croats for their role in the Croatian War of Independence. Serbia's role During the war While Serbia and Croatia never declared war on each other, Serbia was directly and indirectly involved in the war through a number of activities. Its foremost involvement entailed material support of the JNA. Following the independence of various republics from SFR Yugoslavia, Serbia provided the bulk of manpower and funding that was channeled to the war effort through Serbian control of the Yugoslav presidency and the federal defense ministry. Serbia actively supported various paramilitary volunteer units from Serbia that were fighting in Croatia. Even though no actual fighting occurred on Serbian or Montenegrin soil, involvement of the two was evident through the maintenance of prison camps in Serbia and Montenegro, which became places where a number of war crimes were committed. Milošević's trial at the ICTY revealed numerous declassified documents of Belgrade's involvement in the wars in Croatia and Bosnia. Evidence introduced at trial showed exactly how Serbia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia financed the war, that they provided weapons and material support to Bosnian and Croatian Serbs, and demonstrated the administrative and personnel structures set up to support the Bosnian Serb and Croatian Serb armies. It was established that Belgrade, through the federal government, financed more than 90 percent of the Krajina budget in 1993; that the Supreme Defense Council decided to hide aid to Republika Srpska and Krajina from the public; that the National Bank of Krajina operated as a branch office of the National Bank of Yugoslavia; and that by March 1994 FR Yugoslavia, Krajina, and Republika Srpska used a single currency. Numerous documents demonstrated that branches of the Krajina Public Accountancy Service were incorporated into Serbia's accountancy system in May 1991, and that the financing of Krajina and Republika Srpska caused hyperinflation in FR Yugoslavia. The trial revealed that the JNA, the Serbian Ministry of Interior, and other entities (including Serb civilian groups and police) armed Serb civilians and local territorial defense groups in the RSK before the conflict escalated. In 1993, the US State Department reported that right after the Maslenica and Medak pocket operations, authorities in Serbia dispatched substantial numbers of "volunteers" to Serb-held territories in Croatia to fight. A former secretary of the Serbian paramilitary leader Željko Ražnatović testified at the Hague, confirming that Ražnatović took his orders, and his money, directly from the secret police run by Milošević. This degree of control was reflected in negotiations held at various times between Croatian authorities and the RSK, as the Serbian leadership under Milošević was regularly consulted and frequently made decisions on behalf of the RSK. The Erdut Agreement that ended the war was signed by a RSK minister on instructions from Milošević. The degree of control Serbia held over SFR Yugoslavia and later the RSK was evidenced through testimonies during the Milošević trial at the ICTY. Serbia's state-run media were reportedly used to incite the conflict and further inflame the situation, and also to broadcast false information about the war and the state of the Serbian economy. Following the rise of nationalism and political tensions after Slobodan Milošević came to power, as well as the outbreaks of the Yugoslav Wars, numerous anti-war movements developed in Serbia. The anti-war protests in Belgrade were held mostly because of opposition to the Battle of Vukovar and Siege of Dubrovnik, while protesters demanded the referendum on a declaration of war and disruption of military conscription. It is estimated that between 50,000 and 200,000 people deserted from the Milošević-controlled Yugoslav People's Army during wars, while between 100,000 and 150,000 people emigrated from Serbia refusing to participate in the war. According to professor Renaud De la Brosse, senior lecturer at the University of Reims and a witness called by the ICTY, it is surprising how great the resistance to Milošević's propaganda was among Serbs, given that and the lack of access to alternative news. By late December 1991, just over a month after victory had been proclaimed in Vukovar, opinion polls found that 64% of Serbian people wanted to end the war immediately and only 27% were willing for it to continue. After the war After the successful implementation of the Erdut Agreement which ended armed conflict in 1995, the relations between Croatia and Serbia gradually improved and the two countries established diplomatic relations following an agreement in early August 1996. In a case before the International Court of Justice, Croatia filed a suit against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on 2 July 1999, citing Article IX of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. With the transformation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia into Serbia and Montenegro and the dissolution of that country in 2006, Serbia is considered its legal successor. The application was filed for Croatia by a U.S. lawyer, David B. Rivkin. Serbia reciprocated with the genocide lawsuit against the Republic of Croatia on 4 January 2010. The Serbian application covers missing people, killed people, refugees, expelled people, and all military actions and concentration camps with a historical account of genocide committed by the Independent State of Croatia during World War II. In 2003, Stjepan Mesić became the first Croatian head of state to visit Belgrade since 1991. Both Mesić and the President of Serbia and Montenegro, Svetozar Marović, issued mutual apologies to Croat and Serb victims of the war. By 2010, Croatia and Serbia further improved their relations through an agreement to resolve remaining refugee issues, and visits of Croatian President Ivo Josipović to Belgrade, and of the Serbian President Boris Tadić to Zagreb and Vukovar. During their meeting in Vukovar, President Tadić gave a statement expressing his "apology and regret", while President Josipović said "that no crimes committed at the time would go unpunished." The statements were made during a joint visit to the Ovčara memorial center, site of the Vukovar massacre. Role of the international community The war developed at a time when the attention of the United States and the world was on Iraq, and the Gulf War in 1991, along with a sharp rise in oil prices and a slowdown in the growth of the world economy. Between 19 and 23 December 1991, several other European countries, beginning with Germany and the Vatican City, followed by Sweden and Italy, announced their recognition of Croatia's (and Slovenia's) independence. The European Union as a whole recognized the independence of the two republics on 15 January 1992. Each of the major foreign governments acted somewhat differently: Germany – up until 1991, Germany supported a 'status quo'. According to diplomat Gerhard Almer, the Yugoslav disintegration was feared as "a bad example for the dissolution of the Soviet Union", sparking fears that violence could also be used against the nations that were about to declare independence from the Soviet Union. During the war, this policy changed, when Helmut Kohl announced that Germany recognized Slovenia and Croatia as independent countries. United Kingdom – John Major's government favored neutrality. United States – The United States, under George H. W. Bush, tended to favour non-intervention at first, just like the United Kingdom. In contrast, from 1993, the administration led by Bill Clinton tended to engage itself in order to end the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia. Cyrus Vance supported the 'integrity of Yugoslavia'. Russia – The Russian government under Boris Yeltsin tended to oppose recognition of Croatia although Russia recognized Croatia on 17 February 1992, while the United States did the same on 7 April 1992. Notable people Roza Miletić (born 1934), Croatian war veteran See also Croatian War of Independence in film Timeline of the Croatian War of Independence Virovitica–Karlovac–Karlobag line Annotations Notes References Books Other sources External links Sense Tribunal coverage of ICTY and ICJ proceedings War Photo Limited – Images of the war More images of the war Croatian Memorial-Documentation Center of the Homeland War 1990s conflicts 1990s in Croatia Croatia–Serbia relations Political history of Serbia Decommunization Separatism in Croatia Wars involving Croatia Wars involving Bosnia and Herzegovina Wars involving Serbia Wars involving the Balkans Wars of independence Wars involving NATO Yugoslav Wars

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20University%20of%20Iowa%20alumni

List of University of Iowa alumni

This list of University of Iowa alumni includes notable current and former students of the University of Iowa. Academia Michael J. Budds, Musicologist and professor at the University of Missouri School of Music, inducted into the Missouri Music Hall of Fame Edwin Adams Davis – M.A. from Iowa; historian of Louisiana; father of Louisiana state archives; Louisiana State University professor Shardé M. Davis – Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication at the University of Connecticut . James R. Dow – emeritus professor of German at Iowa State University R. William Field – Associate Professor, College of Public Health, University of Iowa Elnora M. Gilfoyle – occupational therapist; Dean of the College of Applied Human Sciences and Provost/Academic Vice President at Colorado State University Michael P. Johnson – emeritus professor of sociology, Pennsylvania State University James Kennedy – professor of the history of the Netherlands at the University of Amsterdam Otto Kraushaar – former president of Goucher College, long-time professor in philosophy at Smith College Minnette Gersh Lenier – teacher who used stage magic to improve students' learning skills Cindy Lovell – educator and writer; executive director of the Mark Twain Boyhood Home & Museum and Mark Twain House Robert Moyers – Founder of Center of Growth and Development at University of Michigan Tina Passman - classical scholar Jewel Prestage – Dean of the School of Public Policy and Urban Affairs at Southern University. First African-American woman to earn Ph.D. in Political Science W. Ann Reynolds – chancellor of the California State University and City University of New York Noliwe Rooks - associate director of the African-American program at Princeton University, W.E.B. Du Bois Professor of Literature at Cornell University, chair of and professor in the Africana Studies Department at Brown University, founding director of the Segrenomics Lab at Brown University Jim Rossi – law professor at Vanderbilt University Clifford V. Smith, Jr. – 4th chancellor of University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee William A. Staples – president of the University of Houston–Clear Lake John E. Visser – President of Emporia State University, 1967–1984 Pramod P. Wangikar – Chemical Engineer and professor at Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Business Helen Brockman – fashion designer John Bucksbaum – former chairman and chief executive officer of GGP Inc. Jim Foster – founder of the Arena Football League Paul P. Harris – lawyer and founder of the first Rotary Club Scott Heiferman – founder and CEO, Meetup.com; founder, Fotolog.com Howard R. Hughes, Sr. – father of aviation pioneer and film producer Howard Robard Hughes, Jr. and builder of his fortune that started his empire Kerry Killinger – chairman and CEO of Washington Mutual Bill Perkins – hedge fund manager, film producer Richard J. Schnieders — former chairman, president, and CEO of Sysco C. Maxwell Stanley – engineer, entrepreneur, philanthropist; founder of Stanley Consultants and The Stanley Foundation; co-founder of HON Industries Ted Waitt – co-founder of Gateway, Inc. Frank R. Wallace (pen name of Wallace Ward), 1957, entrepreneur, publisher, writer, and developer of the Neo-Tech philosophy Government and politics Cindy Axne, former United States Congresswoman Theodore J. Bauer – former head of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Fred H. Blume – Justice of the Wyoming Supreme Court for 42 years David E. Bonior – formerly represented Michigan in the United States House of Representatives; former member of President Barack Obama's Economic Advisory Board Terry E. Branstad – two-time Governor of Iowa, and longest-tenured Governor in the nation John Burke – tenth Governor of North Dakota James Cartwright – retired U.S. Marine Corps General and the 8th Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Norm Coleman – former Junior Republican U.S. Senator of Minnesota James Dooge – Irish senator and academic in the area of hydrology; served as the Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Irish Government, and instrumental in forming the framework of the modern European Union and beginning the debate on climate change Martha Angle Dorsett – first woman admitted to the Bar of Minnesota (in 1878) James B. French – member of the Wisconsin State Assembly Greg Ganske – politician from Iowa Paul C. Gartzke – Presiding Judge of the Wisconsin Court of Appeals Mads Gilbert – Norwegian doctor in Gaza providing humanitarian care at Al-Shifa Hospital during the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict Lea Giménez, Master's Degree in Economics, Minister of Finance (Paraguay) Silas B. Hays – Surgeon General of the United States Army Leo A. Hoegh – former Governor of Iowa and National Security Council member Brian Hook - former U.S. Special Representative for Iran and senior policy advisor to the Secretary of State from 2018 to 2020; former Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs David W. Hopkins – former member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Missouri Chuck Horner – United States Air Force general; commanded Coalition Air Forces during the Gulf War Edward F. Howrey, chair of the Federal Trade Commission Cheryl L. Johnson, lawyer and 36th Clerk of the United States House of Representatives Patty Judge, former Lieutenant Governor of Iowa and 2016 candidate for the US Senate George Koval – Soviet intelligence officer and Hero of the Russian Federation Alan Larson (born 1949) - diplomat and ambassador Robert L. Larson – former member of the Iowa Supreme Court Donald P. Lay – Judge of the Eighth Circuit Ronald H. Lingren – member of the Wisconsin State Assembly Marry Mascher – member of the Iowa House of Representatives Andy McKean – politician in the state of Iowa Mo Mowlam - member of Parliament (United Kingdom); member of Prime Minister Tony Blair's Cabinet from 1997-2001; Secretary of State for Northern Ireland from 1997-1999 John Walter Grant MacEwan – MS 1928; Western Canadian Lieutenant Governor of Alberta; Canadian legislator; Mayor of Calgary Jayaprakash Narayan – Indian freedom fighter, social reformer, politician Kay A. Orr – first woman Governor of Nebraska; Republican John E. Osborn – former Commissioner, U.S. Advisory Commission on Public Diplomacy; former executive vice president and general counsel, Cephalon, Inc. Gregory A. Peterson – Judge of the Wisconsin Court of Appeals John Pickler – member of the United States House of Representatives Coleen Rowley – shared 2002 Time "Person of the Year" award; the FBI whistleblower who helped bring in terrorist suspect Zacarias Moussaoui Lawrence F. Scalise – Attorney General of Iowa (1965–1966) Juanita Kidd Stout – first woman appointed as a federal judge; Pennsylvania Supreme Court Justice Jim Summerville – Tennessee Senator Wang Huning – member of the Politburo Standing Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, Chinese political theorist, former Dean of the School of Law and Chair of the Department of International Politics, Fudan University Perry Warjiyo, (Ph.D, 1991), Central Bank Governors, The Republic of Indonesia Hugh E. Wild – U.S. Air Force Brigadier General Ann Williams – member of Illinois House of Representatives Wu Jin – Minister of Education of Taiwan, 1996–1998 Art and architecture Mildred Beltre – multi-disciplinary artist; co-founder of Brooklyn Hi-Art! Machine Ryan Bliss – 3D artist; founder of Digital Blasphemy Shirley Briggs – artist and writer; studied under Grant Wood; provided artwork for a number of projects within the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and worked on a number of dioramas for the Smithsonian Institution's Museum of Natural History David Cantine – Canadian artist Elizabeth Catlett – painter; studied under Grant Wood; first African American woman to earn an MFA from the University of Iowa Robert D. Cocke – painter Eve Drewelowe – painter Mary Hecht – American-born Canadian sculptor Joey Kirkpatrick – (born 1952) glass artist, sculptor, wire artist, and educator. Baulu Kuan – artist and curator Barbara Lekberg – metal sculptor Evan Lindquist – Artist Laureate of the State of Arkansas Ana Mendieta - Cuban-American mixed-media artist Kenneth Roderick O'Neal (1908–1989), architect Charles Ray – contemporary artist Joe Sharpnack – editorial cartoonist Rudi Stern – multimedia artist Kirsten Ulve – graphic artist Literature and journalism Melissa Albert – author of young adult fiction Goodwin Tutum Anim – Ghanaian journalist Mildred Benson – writer under pen name Carolyn Keene of Nancy Drew books T.C. Boyle – PEN/Faulkner award-winning writer (World's End, Drop City) Tom Brokaw – broadcast journalist, former anchor (NBC Nightly News), author (The Greatest Generation); dropped out after 1 year Elizabeth C. Bunce – author (A Curse Dark as Gold, Premeditated Myrtle, Cold-Blooded Myrtle) Chelsea Cain – writer (Heartsick, Mockingbird) William R. Clabby – journalist and editor for The Wall Street Journal, winner of a Gerald Loeb Award, and an executive at various Dow Jones news subsidiaries. Sandra Cisneros – author (The House on Mango Street) Max Allan Collins – writer of comic strip Dick Tracy (Chester Gould was the creator and Collins took over in 1977 when Gould retired); also writes mystery novels Justin Cronin – author (The Passage, The Twelve) Rita Dove – 1993 Poet Laureate of the United States David Drake – science-fiction writer (Hammer's Slammers series) Andre Dubus – short story writer (Killings – adapted into 2001 film In the Bedroom) Jeannette Eyerly – writer of young adult fiction Joshua Ferris – novelist Charles Gaines – author (Pumping Iron) and inventor of paintball George Gallup – founder of the Gallup Poll Ezzat Goushegir – playwright Garth Greenwell – author (What Belongs to You) Oscar Hahn – author Joe Haldeman – science-fiction writer (The Forever War) Kathryn Harrison – author (Thicker than Water) A.M. Homes – author (The Safety of Objects) L. D. Hotchkiss – editor-in-chief, Los Angeles Times John Irving – writer (A Widow for One Year, The World According to Garp) Amy Jacobson – Chicago broadcast journalist Leslie Jamison – author (The Empathy Exams) Denis Johnson – author (Jesus' Son) W.P. Kinsella – author (Shoeless Joe, the book on which Field of Dreams was based) William Lashner – author of Past Due Robie Macauley – novelist and editor of Playboy Anthony Marra – author (A Constellation of Vital Phenomena) Bharati Mukherjee – Bengali-American writer Flannery O'Connor – novelist and author of numerous short stories Chris Offutt – short story writer and essayist Ann Patchett – author (Bel Canto, State of Wonder) Tappy Phillips – consumer affairs reporter for WABC-TV in New York City; correspondent for ABC News La Ferne Price – philosopher and author Jim Simmerman – poet; founded creative writing program at Northern Arizona University Stewart Stern – screenwriter (Rebel Without a Cause, Sybil) Douglas Unger – novelist and founder of UNLV's creative writing MFA program Bertha M. Wilson – dramatist, critic, actress Yu Guangzhong – Taiwanese poet and author Torrey Peters, author (Detransition, Baby ) Pulitzer Prize winners Stephen Berry – 1993 Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting for story he co-wrote for the Orlando Sentinel; associate professor in School of Journalism and Mass Communication Robert Olen Butler Jr. – won the 1993 Pulitzer Prize for fiction Marquis Childs – commentator; 1969 winner for distinguished commentary Paul Conrad – editorial cartoonist for the Los Angeles Times; won in 1964, 1971, and 1984 Michael Cunningham – writer/novelist (The Hours) Jorie Graham – poet (1996 winner for The Dream of the Unified Field: Selected Poems 1974–1994) and MacArthur Fellow on faculty of Iowa Writers' Workshop Paul Harding – author (Tinkers) Robert Hass – poet (2008 winner for Time and Materials: Poems 1997–2005) and former Poet Laureate of the United States Benny Johnson – columnist and host The Benny Report on NewsMax TV Josephine Johnson – novelist (1935 winner for her first novel, Now in November), writing instructor Donald Justice – poet (1980 winner for Selected Poems) Tracy Kidder – 1982 winner for The Soul of a New Machine James Alan McPherson – author (1978 winner for Elbow Room, becoming the first African-American to win the Pulitzer for fiction) and MacArthur Fellow on faculty of Iowa Writers' Workshop Marilynne Robinson – 2005 winning author for Gilead: A Novel; faculty in Iowa Writers' Workshop Jane Smiley – novelist; 1992 winner for A Thousand Acres William De Witt Snodgrass – confessional poet; 1960 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry Wallace Stegner – novelist; 1972 winner for Angle of Repose Mark Strand – poet; 1999 winner for A Blizzard of One Tennessee Williams – playwright; won for A Streetcar Named Desire in 1948 and Cat on a Hot Tin Roof in 1955 Performing arts Tom Arnold – actor (Roseanne, True Lies) and host of Fox Sports Net's talk show Best Damn Sports Show Period Lemuel Ayers, Tony Award winning designer and producer Scott Beck – filmmaker (A Quiet Place) Rita Bell – singer, entertainer Macdonald Carey – actor (Days of Our Lives) David Daniels – conductor and author Don DeFore – actor (The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet, Hazel) Ellen Dolan – soap opera actress (Guiding Light, As the World Turns) Duck's Breath Mystery Theater (Dan Coffey, Bill Allard, Merle Kessler, Leon Martrell, and Jim Turner) – touring comedy troupe featured on National Public Radio's All Things Considered David Eigenberg – actor (Steve Brady on Sex and the City) Simon Estes – bass baritone opera singer, formerly of the New York Metropolitan Opera Tanna Frederick – stage and independent film actress Bruce French – actor (Mr. Mom, Legal Eagles, Fletch) Robin Green – executive producer of the HBO series The Sopranos Don Hall – director of the Disney animated movie Big Hero 6 which won the Oscar for best animated feature in 2015 and Moana (2016 film) Jake Johnson – actor (New Girl, Paper Heart, Get Him to the Greek, Safety Not Guaranteed, 21 Jump Street, Drinking Buddies, Jurassic World and Tag). John Shifflett – jazz double bass player and teacher at San Jose State University Joy Harjo – poet, songwriter Candace Hilligoss – actress (1960 film Carnival of Souls) Mary Beth Hurt – actress (The World According to Garp, Interiors) Toby Huss – actor, creator of Artie, the Strongest Man in the World from The Adventures of Pete and Pete, which he created at No Shame Theatre at the university Barry Kemp – producer (Coach, Newhart) (Hayden Fox, the title character of Coach, was named after Iowa football coach Hayden Fry) Alex Ko – actor (Billy Elliot the Musical), author, film director Ashton Kutcher – actor (That '70s Show, Two and a Half Men), producer (created Punk'd), entrepreneur Adam LeFevre – film and television actor, playwright Nicholas Meyer – director (Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan) Greg Morris – actor (Barney Collier in original Mission: Impossible TV series) Terry O'Quinn – actor (Lost) Lara Parker – actress (Angelique in the serial Dark Shadows) James Romig – composer Eugene Rousseau – saxophonist Brandon Routh – actor (Superman Returns) Joe Russo – director-writer Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Captain America: Civil War, Avengers: Infinity War, Avengers: Endgame, and TV shows Arrested Development (TV series) and Community (TV Series) Paul Rust – actor (I Love You, Beth Cooper and Love) Jean Seberg – actress (Breathless, Paint Your Wagon, Airport) William Oscar Smith – jazz double bassist David Strackany – musician Susan Werner – singer-songwriter Brooks Wheelan – comedian (Saturday Night Live) Gene Wilder – actor (Silver Streak, Young Frankenstein, Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory) Chris Witaske – actor (Love, The Bear, Chicago Party Aunt) Bryan Woods – filmmaker (A Quiet Place) David Bryan Woodside – actor (Wayne Palmer on the TV series 24) Technoblade – YouTuber Academy Award winners Diablo Cody – screenwriter, winning an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay Charles Guggenheim – documentary filmmaker, winning four Academy Awards from twelve nominations Grammy Award winners Al Jarreau – seven-time Grammy Award-winning vocalist David Sanborn – six-time Grammy-winning saxophonist Science and technology Hind Al-Abadleh – chemist and environmental scientist Archie Alexander – first African-American graduate (in engineering); governor of the Virgin Islands M. M. Ayoub – a pioneer in the field of ergonomics Alfred Marshall Bailey – ornithologist and long-term director of the Denver Museum of Natural History Antoine Bechara - professor of psychology and neuroscience Sidney W. Bijou, (1908–2009) – developmental psychologist Mark Frederick Boyd - malariologist Lawrence Einhorn – pioneering oncologist whose research increased testicular cancer survival rates from 10% to 95% Mildred Adams Fenton – geologist, paleontologist, writer on paleontology Leon Festinger – social psychologist who was responsible for the theory of cognitive dissonance James E. Hansen – heads NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies; recognized in Times "100 Most Influential People of 2006" for his efforts to bring understanding and fighting the effects of global climate change Bruce C. Heezen – led a team from Columbia University that mapped the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Darrell Huff – writer known for best-selling book How to Lie with Statistics Marshall Kay – geologist and Penrose Medal winner Tom Krimigis – space scientist, physicist E.F. Lindquist – co-founder of the ACT examination Gregor Luthe – chemist, toxicologist, nanotechnologist, inventor and entrepreneur Charles F. Lynch – Epidemiologist Mark Mattson – neuroscientist at the National Institutes of Health and Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Deane Montgomery – mathematician Mary Lawson Neff – neurologist Kent Norman – cognitive psychologist and expert on computer rage Clair Cameron Patterson – geochemist who developed the uranium–lead dating method into lead–lead dating, worked on the Manhattan Project, and led early campaigns against lead poisoning James Van Allen – space scientist Oswald Veblen – mathematician Shirley Briggs – conducted work in pesticide and synthetic chemical research Wang Shizhen – Chinese academician, father of Chinese nuclear medicine George Ojemann – Neurosurgeon and cognitive neuroscientist Herbert Jasper – Pioneer of surgical epileptology at the Montreal Neurological Institute Mildred Mott Wedel – Social scientist, archaeologist, ethnohistorian Sports Baseball Tim Costo - MLB first baseman from 1992-1993 Jack Dittmer - MLB second baseman from 1952-1957 Cal Eldred – Major League Baseball pitcher who played for 14 years Milo Hamilton – sportscaster for the Iowa Hawkeyes and seven different Major League Baseball teams; recipient of the Ford C. Frick Award Chris Hatcher - MLB outfielder in 1998 Hal Manders – relief pitcher in Major League Baseball who played in 1941, 1942, and 1946 Wes Obermueller – Major League Baseball pitcher Jim Sundberg – catcher for the Texas Rangers and other teams Art Reinhart – Major League Baseball pitcher, 1919–1928 Basketball B. J. Armstrong – NBA point guard for the Chicago Bulls Jordan Bohannon – Hawkeyes men's player from 2016–2022; most career games played in NCAA Division I men's history "Downtown" Freddie Brown – guard for the Seattle SuperSonics where he was captain of the 1978–79 World Championship team Carl Cain - Olympic gold medalist in 1956 Caitlin Clark – Current Hawkeyes women's player Monika Czinano – Hawkeyes women's player from 2018–2023 Chuck Darling – member of the 1956 Summer Olympics gold medal basketball team Keno Davis – men's basketball coach at Providence College Ricky Davis – Los Angeles Clippers player Acie Earl – NBA basketball player Michelle Edwards - WNBA guard from 1997-2001 Luka Garza – National College Player of the Year 2020-2021; current Minnesota Timberwolves player Bob Hansen – player for the Utah Jazz and Chicago Bulls; basketball analyst for the Hawkeye Radio Network Pops Harrison - Iowa head coach from 1942-1950 John Johnson – player on 1978–79 Seattle SuperSonics championship team Noble Jorgensen – player for the Sheboygan Red Skins, Tri-Cities Blackhawks and Syracuse Nationals Dick Ives - played one season in the BAA Ronnie Lester - NBA point guard from 1980-1986 Bill Logan - NBA center in 1956 Brad Lohaus – NBA player Devyn Marble (born 1992) - player for Maccabi Haifa of the Israeli Basketball Premier League Keegan Murray – player for the Sacramento Kings Don Nelson – player for the Boston Celtics and coach for the Golden State Warriors Erv Prasse - NBL player from 1940-1946 Tangela Smith – center for the WNBA Phoenix Mercury Murray Wier - BAA guard from 1948-1951 Herb Wilkinson - drafted to the BAA Andre Woolridge (born 1973) – point guard Football Bret Bielema – NFL assistant coach, head coach of the University of Illinois football team Paul Burmeister – NFL quarterback, NFL Network anchor Jim Caldwell – offensive coordinator for the Baltimore Ravens Dallas Clark – tight end for the Colts, Buccaneers, and Ravens Sean Considine – Former NFL defensive safety and special teams, member of the Ravens' Super Bowl XLVII championship team Kerry Cooks – NFL defensive back Dick Crayne - NFL fullback from 1936-1937 John Derby – NFL linebacker Aubrey Devine - College Football Hall of Fame quarterback Jeff Drost – NFL defensive tackle Wayne Duke – Commissioner of the Big Ten Conference 1971–1989 Tim Dwight – NFL player Harold Ely – NFL player Dick Evans – NFL player Wesley Fry – general manager for the Oakland Raiders Robert Gallery – NFL offensive tackle, second overall pick in 2004 draft Willis Glassgow - NFL halfback from 1930-1931 Dennis Green – head coach with the Minnesota Vikings and Arizona Cardinals Merton Hanks – NFL defensive back (four-time Pro Bowl selection) Homer Harris – player in 1937; first African American captain of a Big Ten Conference team Jay Hilgenberg – center for Chicago Bears (seven-time Pro Bowl selection) Jerry Hilgenberg - Iowa assistant coach from 1956-1963 Wally Hilgenberg - NFL linebacker from 1964-1979 Walt Housman – football player Carlos James – Arena Football League player Cal Jones – one of two Iowa football players to have his jersey retired; won the Outland Trophy in 1955 Nate Kaeding – NFL placekicker Harry Kalas – voice of the Philadelphia Phillies (MLB), NFL on Westwood One and NFL Films Aaron Kampman – NFL defensive end Alex Karras – professional football player and actor George Kittle – 2x Pro Bowler and 2x All-Pro tight end for the San Francisco 49ers; part of the 49ers Super Bowl LIV team Nile Kinnick – Iowa's 1939 Heisman trophy winner with Iowa's Kinnick Stadium named for him in 1972 Dick Klein – professional football player Paul Krause - NFL safety from 1964-1979 Joe Laws – professional football player for the Green Bay Packers Gordon Locke - College football hall of fame fullback Chuck Long – closest-ever Heisman Trophy runner-up in 1985; later a college head coach; analyst for the Big Ten Network Jim Miller – NFL offensive guard Tom Moore – longtime NFL coach and offensive coordinator for the Indianapolis Colts Bruce Nelson – guard and center Ken Ploen - CFL hall of fame quarterback from 1957-1967 Ed Podolak – player with the Kansas City Chiefs; football analyst for Hawkeye Radio Network Fred Roberts – player for the Portsmouth Spartans Eddie Robinson – winningest coach in NCAA Division I football history at Grambling State University from 1942 until 1997 Reggie Roby – punter (three-time Pro Bowl Selection) for the Miami Dolphins Bob Sanders – free agent safety, member of the Indianapolis Colts' Super Bowl XLI championship team Tyler Sash – safety for the New York Giants' Super Bowl XLVI championship team Zud Schammel – NFL guard Duke Slater - NFL linebacker from 1922-1931 Scott Slutzker – NFL player Larry Station – two-time All-American player Bob Stoops – player and coach; former head coach at the University of Oklahoma Mark Stoops – player; head coach of the University of Kentucky Mike Stoops – player, coach; defensive coordinator at Oklahoma Sherwyn Thorson - CFL player from 1962-1968 Andre Tippett – Hall of Fame linebacker for the New England Patriots Emlen Tunnell – player; first African American to play for the New York Giants; later played for the Green Bay Packers Clyde Williams - Coach and athletic director at Iowa State from 1907-1919 Marshal Yanda – Pro Bowl offensive lineman for the Ravens; member of Super Bowl XLVII championship team Mixed martial arts Jordan Johnson (fighter) – professional Mixed Martial Artist, currently with the UFC Julie Kedzie – Two-time Hook n' Shoot Tournament Champion, National Karate Champion & fought in first women's MMA match on cable television Other Beth Beglin - Field hockey Olympic bronze medalist in 1984. Head coach at Iowa from 1988-1999 Paul Brechler - Athletic director at Iowa and commissioner of the Western Athletic Conference John Davey - Swam in 1988 and 1992 Olympics for Great Britain. Ten time Big Ten champion Kris Fillat - Field hockey player on US National Team Houry Gebeshian – Armenian Olympic gymnast at the 2016 Summer Olympics Lincoln Hurring - Swam in 1952 and 1956 Olympics for New Zealand Marcia Pankratz - Field hockey player on US national team 1985-1996. College field hockey coach. Wally Ris – 1948 Olympic swimmer, winner of two gold medals Bowen Stassforth – 1952 Olympic silver medalist swimmer 200 m breaststroke. Former world record holder in 200 and 100 breaststroke Rafał Szukała - 1992 Olympic silver medalist in 100 butterfly for Poland Artur Wojdat - 1988 Olympic bronze medalist in 400 free. Former world record holder in 400 freestyle Track and field Kineke Alexander - 400m runner competed in 2008, 2012, and 2016 Olympics George Baird - ran 4x400 at 1928 Olympics Charles Brookins - 400m hurdles at 1924 Olympics Chan Coulter - 400m hurdles at 1924 Olympics Francis X. Cretzmeyer – track and field coach, 1948–78; coached Ted Wheeler and Deacon Jones (1956 and 1960 Olympics) Frank Cuhel - 1928 Olympic silver medalist in 400 hurdles Nan Doak - marathoner Troy Doris - triple jumper in 2016 Olympics Rich Ferguson - ran 5000m at 1952 Olympics Ed Gordon - long jumped at the 1928 Olympics Deacon Jones – 1956 and 1960 Olympics, track and field Anthuan Maybank – 1996 Olympic Games gold medalist in the men's 4x400 meter relay for the US Ira Murchison - Former world record holder in 100 yard dash and Olympic gold medalist in 4x100 Diane Nukuri - Competed in 2000, 2012, 2016, and 2020 Olympics in various distance events Harold Phelps - ran 5000m at 1924 Olympics Mel Rosen – track coach George Saling – Olympic hurdler who won the 110-meter hurdles in the 1932 Summer Olympics Jenny Spangler - ran marathon in 1996 Olympics Laulauga Tausaga - thrower Ted Wheeler - 1500 meters at 1956 Olympics Eric Wilson - 400m runner at 1924 Olympics Bashir Yamini - long jumper and football player Wrestling Royce Alger – 2x NCAA Champion (87' & 88') and retired mixed martial artist Ed Banach – light heavyweight gold medalist at 1984 Olympic Games, Los Angeles Lou Banach – heavyweight gold medalist at 1984 Olympic Games, Los Angeles Stub Barron Paul Bradley – two-time NCAA All-American; professional mixed martial artist, formerly with the UFC and currently with Bellator Terry Brands – NCAA Champion in 1990 and 1992, 2000 Olympic bronze medalist, and two-time World freestyle Champion in 1993 & 1995 Tom Brands – Outstanding Wrestler Award at the 1992 NCAA Tournament; World Champion in 1993; Olympic Champion in 1996 Rico Chiapparelli – NCAA Champ in 1987; mixed martial arts trainer Barry Davis – bantamweight silver medalist 1984 Olympic Games, Los Angeles Ettore Ewen – professional wrestler for WWE under the name "Big E" Randall Lewis – featherweight gold medalist at 1984 Olympic Games Terrence McCann - Olympic gold medalist in 1960 freestyle bantamweight class Lincoln McIlravy - Olympic bronze medalist in 2000 freestyle welterweight class Brent Metcalf – 2008 and 2010 NCAA Champion; 2008 Dan Hodge Trophy winner Steve Mocco – 2003 NCAA Division I Champion at Heavyweight; 2008 Olympic team member; current professional MMA fighter Tony Ramos – 2014 NCAA Champion E. G. Schroeder - First wrestling and tennis coach at Iowa. Athletic director. Joe Williams – three-time NCAA Champion; 2001 and 2005 wrestling world bronze medalist Bill Zadick – 1996 NCAA Wrestling Champion, 2006 World Champion Mike Zadick – 2006 wrestling world silver medalist Jim Zalesky – three-time NCAA Champion; current coach for Oregon State University References External links Notable University of Iowa Alums

4022175

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CFB%20Moose%20Jaw

CFB Moose Jaw

Canadian Forces Base Moose Jaw , also known as 15 Wing Moose Jaw, is a Canadian Forces base located south of Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan. It is operated as an air force base by the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) and is home to RCAF Pilot training and 431 Squadron, the Snowbirds, which is the RCAF's air demonstration squadron. The base's airfield is named after Air Vice-Marshal Clifford McEwen and is one of only three military aerodromes in Canada to be named after an individual, Valcartier (W/C J.H.L. (Joe) Lecomte) Heliport and Cold Lake/Group Captain R.W. McNair Airport being the others. The airport is classified as an airport of entry by Nav Canada and is staffed by the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA). The customs service is restricted to 15 Wing – Moose Jaw aircraft only. History A civilian flying club aerodrome was established on the site south-southwest of Moose Jaw in 1928 by the Moose Jaw Flying Club. Its location surrounded by flat open prairie proved to be an ideal training site. RCAF Station Moose Jaw The declaration of World War II saw the Moose Jaw Flying Club initially contracted to provide pilot training for the Royal Canadian Air Force; however this was soon replaced by the far larger British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP) which saw the Government of Canada acquire the aerodrome and completely reconstruct it into RCAF Station Moose Jaw in 1940 with the new aerodrome opening in 1941. Initially the Royal Air Force trained exclusively at the base under the RAF's No. 32 Service Flying Training School (SFTS) (ca. 1942) using Harvards, and later, Oxfords. No. 32 SFTS eventually broadened its intake to train 1,200 pilots for the air forces of Canada, the United Kingdom, Norway, New Zealand, Poland, France, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, the United States, and the Netherlands. Aerodrome information In approximately 1942 the aerodrome was listed at with a variation of 18 degrees east and elevation of . Six runways were listed as follows: RCAF Station Moose Jaw had two relief landing fields. One was located at Buttress, Saskatchewan and one at Burdick (Moose Jaw Municipal Airport) . In 1946 RCAF Station Moose Jaw was decommissioned and the aerodrome was returned to civilian service. Because of rising Cold War tensions, the aerodrome was reactivated by the RCAF in 1953 as the site of military pilot training. RCAF Station Moose Jaw undertook additional construction to support its expanded personnel complement. The base was used by the RCAF and its NATO allies for pilot training, using both single-prop World War II-era Harvards and Canadair CT-133 Silver Star jet training aircraft. By the mid-1960s these were both replaced by the Canadian built CT-114 Tutor. The Institute for Stained Glass in Canada has documented the stained glass at RCAF Base Chapel. CFB Moose Jaw In 1968 the RCAF merged with the Canadian Army and the Royal Canadian Navy to form the unified Canadian Forces. The base's name was changed to Canadian Forces Base Moose Jaw, usually shortened to CFB Moose Jaw. From 1968 until the formation of Air Command in 1975, CFB Moose Jaw fell under the direction of Training Command and served to house the Tutor Jet Training Program. By the early 1990s, CFB Moose Jaw was operated by over 1,300 employees and made a significant economical impact on the region, but pending cutbacks in military spending spread rumours of possible closure of the base. In 1994, the Government of Canada awarded Bombardier with a 20-year contract to support the delivery of what is now the NATO Flying Training in Canada (NFTC) program. Many of the base's structures were renovated to accommodate new personnel and new training aircraft. Pilots from Denmark, Singapore, Great Britain, Italy, Hungary, Germany, Finland, and many other allied nations train at CFB Moose Jaw every year, ensuring the base's future with the Canadian Forces. In 2015, Bombardier sold its NFTC contract to CAE who are currently the prime contractor. From 1970 until its disbandment in 1993 Moose Jaw had a Base Rescue Flight flying three CH-118 Huey helicopters. During a reorganization at AIRCOM in the late 1990s, CFB Moose Jaw's various AIRCOM units were placed under a new primary lodger unit called "15 Wing"; consequently the base is now referred to as 15 Wing Moose Jaw. Current operations 15 Wing Moose Jaw is home to the following units: CFB Moose Jaw Integral Units 15 Wing/NFTC Headquarters 15 Wing Air Reserve Flight CFB Moose Jaw 15 Operations Support Squadron 15 Wing Air Traffic Control Flight Military Terminal Control Unit Military Aerodrome Control Unit 2 Canadian Forces Flying Training School (2 CFFTS) 431 Air Demonstration Squadron (also known as the "Snowbirds") Canadian Armed Forces Lodger Units 23 Canadian Forces Health Services Centre, Detachment Moose Jaw 1 Dental Unit, Detachment Moose Jaw Real Property Operations Unit - West, Detachment Moose Jaw Canadian Armed Forces Transition Centre, Detachment Moose Jaw 14 Military Police Flight, 1 Military Police Squadron, Air Force Military Police Group Other Lodger Units Defence Construction Canada, Moose Jaw Regional Office Canadian Forces Morale and Welfare Services Personnel Support Program, Moose Jaw Canadian Forces Exchange System (CANEX) Military Family Resource Centre NATO Flying Training in Canada (NFTC) CAE Inc - Prime Contractor Serco - Air Traffic Control, Air Information Services, and Ground Electronic Services ATCO Frontec - Facilities Management, Vehicle and Logistics Services, Fire/Crash Rescue Services, Airfield Infrastructure, Flight Training Facilities Southport Aerospace Centre Integral Units 3 Canadian Forces Flying Training School (3 CFFTS) - Southport, Manitoba Contracted Flying Training and Support (CFTS) KF Aerospace - Prime Contractor Canadian Base Operators - Air Traffic Control, Fire and Crash Support, Airfield Maintenance, Food Services, Administrative Support, IMIT, Housekeeping and Aeronatuical Information Services Bluedrop Training & Simulation - Coursewear development Canadian Helicopters - Helicopter maintenance and ground-based and simulation instructors. Future Aircrew Training Program (FAcT) The NATO Flying Training in Canada and Contracted Flying Training and Support contracts expire in 2027. Future Aircrew Training Program (FAcT) will replace these two contracts as well as create a new contracted system for Air Combat Systems Officers and Airborne Electronic Sensors Operators. After the REquest for proposals going out on 11 February 2022, the new contract is expected to be awarded in 2023. Prospective bidders SkyAlyne Canada Limited Partnership Primary Partners CAE Inc KF Aerospace Potential Sub-Contractors and Strategic Partners ATCO Frontec Bluedrop Training & Simulation Canadian Base Operators Canadian Helicopters Lockheed Martin PAL Aerospace Serco Babcock Leonardo Canadian Aircrew Training Primary Partners Babcock Canada Leonardo Canada Potential Sub-Contractors and Strategic Partners Top Aces Flight Safety International L3Harris Athabasca Catering The Loomex Group Executive Flight Centre Bird Construction Dexterra See also Moose Jaw (Dr. F. H. Wigmore Regional Hospital) Heliport List of airports in Saskatchewan References External links 15 Wing – Moose Jaw NATO Flying Training in Canada Canadian Air Force Snowbirds Demonstration Team Moose Jaw Flying Club Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan Canadian Forces bases in Saskatchewan Military history of Saskatchewan Royal Canadian Air Force stations Airports of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan Military airbases in Saskatchewan Buildings and structures in Moose Jaw Moose Jaw No. 161, Saskatchewan Transport in Moose Jaw

4022319

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schnitz%20un%20knepp

Schnitz un knepp

Schnitz un knepp, often spelled Schnitz un Gnepp or Schnitz und Knepp, is a popular main dish item in the cuisine of the Pennsylvania Dutch in the United States. It is basically a dish of ham or pork shoulder with dried apples and dumplings. Description Apple schnitz are dried slices of apples. Knepp, from the German "Knöpfe" for "buttons," are dumplings. Although the Amish arrived during the early eighteenth century, this food was not common until the early nineteenth century, when Johnny Appleseed planted many orchards on the frontier of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana. At the time, home canning was not yet practical, so the apple crop was preserved in liquid form (most commonly as hard cider) or sliced and dried, the finished slices being called snitz. Apples, other than named varieties grafted from a parent tree, were usually small, misshapen and rather tart. Drying the snitz concentrated the fruit sugars, making them a bright spot in an otherwise dreary diet. Today, commercial producers of apple snitz use named-variety apples that cannot be sold fresh due to blemishes. The apples are then peeled or cored and sliced to make snitz. The peels are then pressed for separate sales as cider. The dish uses dumplings made from flour, milk, baking powder, butter, salt, and eggs, and is flavored with ham, traditionally salt-cured "country ham," although honey ham, pork butt, or other pork may be used. Onions, potatoes, cloves, cinnamon and brown sugar are optional ingredients. An alternative knepp is a yeast dumpling made without sugar. This recipe calls for long cooking, and is thus a winter dish. The pronunciation is "snitz-en-nep". See also List of ham dishes References Cuisine of the Pennsylvania Dutch Apple dishes Ham dishes

4022356

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rack%20%28billiards%29

Rack (billiards)

A rack (sometimes called a triangle) is a piece of equipment that is used to place billiard balls in their starting positions at the beginning of a pocket billiards game. Rack may also be used as a verb to describe the act of setting billiard balls in their starting positions (e.g. "to rack the balls"), or as a noun to describe a set of balls that are in their starting positions (e.g. "a rack of balls", more often called a pack or a pyramid in British English). Traditional racks are in the form of triangular frames, usually made from wood, plastic or metal. A modern variation, called a template rack, is made from a thin material (usually 0.14 mm or less) that contains precision cut-outs to hold the balls in place. Purported benefits of template racks include a more consistent racking, and their popularity has warranted specific inclusion in profession rules. Unlike traditional racks, template racks are left on the table during the break shot and removed at the players' earliest convenience. For this reason, template racks are almost never used for games where it is common to slow-break (i.e. not create a large spread of balls) since it is significantly more likely that the rack will interfere with slow-rolling balls. The most common shape of a rack is that of an equilateral triangle. Triangular racks are used for eight-ball, straight pool, one-pocket, bank pool, snooker and many other games. Diamond-shaped frames are sometimes used for the game of nine-ball (although a triangular rack can also be used) and template racks come in a variety of shapes. Racking in specific billiards games Eight-ball In eight-ball, 15 object balls are used. Under the world standardized rules, it is prescribed that: The 8 ball must be in the center of the rack (the second ball in the three-balls-wide row). The first ball must be placed at the apex position (front of the rack and so the center of that ball is directly over the table's ). The two corner balls must be a stripe and a solid. All balls other than the 8 ball are placed at random, but in conformance with the preceding corner ball rule. The balls should be pressed tightly together without gaps, as this allows the best break possible. Nine-ball In nine-ball, the basic principles are the same as detailed in the eight-ball section above, but only balls 1 through 9 are used; the 1 ball is always placed at the rack's apex (because in nine-ball every legal shot, including the break, must strike the lowest numbered ball first) over the table's foot spot, and the 9 ball is placed in the center of the rack. Some players (most often amateurs) place the balls in numeric order but for the 9 ball; from the top of the triangle down and from left to right, i.e., the 1 on the foot spot, followed by the 2 then 3 in the second row, and so on. However, all balls other than the 1 and 9 may be randomly placed. In nine-ball games where a is given by one player being , some tournament venues enforce a rule that the spotted ball must be racked as one of the two balls in the row directly behind the 1 ball. Straight pool (14.1 continuous) In the initial rack in straight pool, fifteen balls are racked in a triangular rack, with the center of the apex ball placed over the foot spot. Traditionally, the 1 ball is placed on the rack’s right corner, and the 5 ball on the left corner from the racker's vantage point to maximize contrast between the corner balls and the background, as the 1 and 5 are the brightest colored balls, however, the world standardized rules do not require this. All other balls are placed at random. Straight pool is played to a specific number of points agreed on prior to the match's start, with each pocketed ball being worth one point to the shooter. Because the game is played to a number of points normally far in excess of the fifteen points total available in the initial rack (in tournament play, one-hundred fifty points), multiple intragame racks are necessary. Intragame racking employs a separate set of rules from those in place at the game's start. After the initial rack, the balls are played until only the cue ball and one object ball remain on the table's surface. At that time, the fourteen pocketed balls are racked with no apex ball, and the rack is so placed so that if the apex ball were in the rack, its center would rest directly over the table's foot spot. Play then continues with the cue ball shot from where it rested and the fifteenth ball from where it rested prior to racking. A number of rules have developed which detail what must be done when one or both of the cue ball and fifteenth object ball are either in the rack area at the time an intragame rack is necessary, or are in such close proximity to the intragame racking area, that the physical rack cannot be used without moving the one or the other. The rules also vary depending on whether the cue ball or fifteenth ball are resting on the table's head spot. Such rules are detailed on the following chart (note therein that the refers to the area behind the table's ). One-pocket and bank pool In both one-pocket and bank pool all fifteen object balls are racked entirely at random, with the center of the apex ball placed directly over the foot spot. Snooker Snooker is played on a large table (full, pro tournament size is 12 × 6 ft). It is played using a cue stick, one white ball (the cue ball), fifteen red balls and six colours: a yellow (worth two points), green (three points), brown (four points), blue (five points), pink (six points) and black ball (seven points). At one end of the table (the "baulk end" ) is the so-called , which is 29 inches from the baulk end cushion. A semicircle of radius 11.5 inches, called , is drawn behind this line, centred on the middle of the line. On the baulk line, looking up the table from the 'baulk end', the yellow ball is located where the "D" meets the line on the right, the green ball where the "D" meets the line on the left, and the brown ball in the middle of the line. An easy way to remember these positions is with the mnemonic, 'God Bless You', with the first letter of each word being the first letter of the three colours as they are racked from left to right on the baulk line. At the exact middle of the table sits the blue ball. Further up the table is the pink ball, which sits midway between the blue spot and the top cushion, followed by the red balls (one each), placed in a tightly-packed triangle behind the pink. The apex must be as close as possible to the pink ball without touching it. Finally, the black ball is placed on a spot 12.75 inches from the top cushion on a full-size table. Coloured ball racking positions must be remembered with care, as each time a coloured ball is potted, it is immediately replaced to its starting position, which occurs multiple times per frame, whereas reds are not returned to the table's surface after being potted. If the starting position spot for a coloured ball is covered by another ball, the ball is placed on the highest available spot. If there is no available spot, it is placed as close to its own spot as possible in a direct line between that spot and the top (black end) cushion, without touching another ball. If there is no room this side of the spot, it will be placed as close to the spot as possible in a straight line towards the bottom cushion, without touching another ball. References Rack

4022389

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal%C3%A1%20Fatra

Malá Fatra

Malá Fatra (; also Little Fatra or Lesser Fatra, , ) is a mountain range in the Western Carpathians in the north-west of Central Slovakia. In the geomorphological system, it is a part of the Fatra-Tatra Area. It is situated approximately halfway between the cities of Nitrianske Pravno, Strečno, Martin and Zázrivá. Turčianska kotlina (Turiec Basin) and the Oravská vrchovina mountains are situated to the west of the range, and Žilinská kotlina (Žilina Basin) and the Kysucká vrchovina mountains arw located to the east. Malá Fatra consists of two subdivisions separated by the Váh river near Strečno: Lúčanská Malá Fatra and Krivánska Malá Fatra. The highest peak is Veľký Kriváň at 1,709 m AMSL in Krivánska Malá Fatra. Malá Fatra is basically one large karst feature. It is made up of crystalline rocks and complexes of Mesozoic strongly folded rocks. The main peaks of Lúčanská Malá Fatra are Veľká Lúka (1,475 m), Kľak (1,351 m) and Minčol (1,364). The main peaks of the Krivánska Malá Fatra are Veľký Rozsutec (1,610 m), Malý Rozsutec (1,343 m), Veľký Kriváň (1,709 m) and Malý Kriváň (1,671 m). The 12 km long pass between Krivánska Malá Fatra and Lúčanská Malá Fatra separated by the Váh is called Strečnianska tiesňava (Strečno Pass), located below the ruins of Strečno Castle. The Dierový potok stream created a complex of canyons, waterfalls and cascades in that area. Šútovo Waterfall (Šútovský vodopád ) is the highest waterfall in Malá Fatra and has a vertical drop of 38 m. Popular centres for winter sports are Vrátna dolina and Štefanová. Other tourism centres are the villages of Terchová, where the Slovak national hero Juraj Jánošík was born and Zázrivá, where the traditional Slovak sheep cheese delicacy known as korbáčiky is made. One of the most popular ski areas in Slovakia outside the Tatras is the Martinské hole resort situated between the Veľká lúka Mountain and the town of Martin. Krivánska Malá Fatra is protected by the Malá Fatra National Park. In addition, Malá Fatra includes the following small-scale protection areas: national nature reserves: Chleb, Minčol, Krivé, Šútovská dolina, Sokolec, Suchý, Starý hrad, Prípor, Šíp, Šrámková, Rozsutec, Tiesňavy, Veľká Bránica, Kľačianska Magura nature reserves: Dubovské lúky, Goľove mláky, Hajasová, Hrabinka, Hrádok, Kraľoviansky meander, Močiar, Paráč, Pod Rígľom, Veľká Lučivná natural monuments: Bôrická mláka, Domašínsky meander, Krasniansky luh, Šútovská epigenéza protected site: Hate Gallery See also Mountain Rescue Service (Slovakia) References External links Malá Fatra at SpectacularSlovakia.sk Typical Flowers of Malá Fatra Hiking map of Krivánska Malá Fatra and Lúčanská Malá Fatra by Military Cartographic Institute (VKÚ Harmanec) Another hiking map with hike planner Mountain ranges of Slovakia Mountain ranges of the Western Carpathians

4022464

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Lord%20of%20the%20Rings%3A%20Tactics

The Lord of the Rings: Tactics

The Lord of the Rings: Tactics is a tactical role-playing game for the Sony PlayStation Portable. It features characters from The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien. However, it is a direct adaptation of Peter Jackson's film adaptations, and has characters that resemble the films' depictions of them. Tactics was published by Electronic Arts. The game was released for the PlayStation Store on September 30, 2009. Gameplay The gameplay takes place on a grid. The game's characters move at the same time, rather than manipulating each entity individually. Another feature of the game is called the Zone of Control. The Zone of Control means that if the player's character is next to his opponent's square on the grid, they must stop and fight. By using the Zone of Control, combined with simultaneous movement, the player can trap an enemy unit. The player eventually gets to control a handful of heroes who progressively get more powerful. These are combined with a number of warriors. The user may play as the Fellowship or the minions of Sauron. Reception The Lord of the Rings: Tactics has received scores of 6.5 from GameSpot and 7.7 from IGN. References External links The Lord of the Rings: Tactics official website Electronic Arts games PlayStation Portable games PlayStation Portable-only games 2005 video games Tactical role-playing video games Tactics Video games based on adaptations Video games developed in the United States Amaze Entertainment games Multiplayer and single-player video games

4022566

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20Tower%20Hamburgers

White Tower Hamburgers

White Tower Hamburgers was a fast food restaurant chain that was founded in 1926 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. With its similar white fortress-like buildings and menu it is considered to be an imitator of White Castle chain that was founded in 1921. The chain was successful and expanded to other cities, including Chicago, Indianapolis, Cleveland, Dayton, Detroit, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Baltimore, New York City, Albany, Boston, Richmond, Virginia, and as far south as Sarasota, Florida. During the Great Depression, White Tower sold hamburgers for five cents. The whiteness of the restaurant was meant among other things to evoke the notion of hygienic conditions, and the chain had staff dressed as nurses, dubbed the "Towerettes," to help make this argument. At its peak in the 1950s there were 230 White Tower locations. The chain began a slow decline. The last location, in Toledo, Ohio, closed its doors permanently in April 2022 due to a fire. History John E. Saxe and Thomas E. Saxe started White Tower Hamburgers after investigating various White Castle locations, observing operations and hiring a White Castle operator. The first location opened near Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. By the end of 1927, there were six locations in Milwaukee and Racine, Wisconsin. In 1929, White Tower put 30 locations in Detroit alone. Despite the Depression, White Tower expanded to 130 locations. White Tower placed many of its restaurants near train and trolley stops. Lawsuit In 1929, White Castle sued White Tower in Minnesota for unfair competition and White Tower counter-sued in Michigan as White Tower had arrived in Michigan first. The Minnesota case ended in 1930 in favor of White Castle, forcing White Tower to end its use of similar building designs, slogans and name along with a $82,000 judgment. The Michigan case dragged on until 1934, revealing the hiring away of a White Castle location operator and photographing of the latest White Castle to keep up on design. The United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit later affirmed the lower court's rulings that they had copied White Castle deliberately. White Castle refrained from forcing a name change for White Tower but did require new locations to pay a royalty fee, and to send photos of the locations. Having to change its look, White Tower first used an art deco, then modernistic designs. Territorially, White Tower and White Castle stayed away from each other from then on. Peak and decline In 1941, White Tower Management Corporation moved its headquarters to Six Suburban Ave., Stamford, Connecticut. At its peak in the mid-1950s, the chain had 230 stores in several states. It tested the "Tower-O-Matic" automated restaurant in the 1950s and 60s with little success. It also attempted a sit-down restaurant called Marbett's. Many later suburban White Tower restaurants featured curb service with car hops. Brock Saxe took over as president of White Tower Management Corporation in 1970 from his father, T. E. Saxe, when the latter retired. Brock changed the name of White Tower Corporation to Tombrock Corporation on the corporation's 50th anniversary as it also owns a chain of steakhouses called Brock's. With the migration of people to the suburbs and most of the White Tower locations in the city, by 1979 only 80 Tombrock Corporation-owned locations remained. Tombrock Corporation branched out into franchising Burger Kings and Golden Skillet Chicken. Today, Tombrock Corporation, having exited the restaurant business as an operator, is a real estate investment and management company based in New Canaan, Connecticut. The company's trademark expired in 2005. See also Fast food References Stamford, Ct-True facts-1977 Stamford External links Model of a White Tower restaurant White Tower and Marbetts Fast-food chains of the United States Restaurants established in 1926 Restaurants in Wisconsin Regional restaurant chains in the United States Defunct restaurant chains in the United States 1926 establishments in Wisconsin Defunct companies based in Milwaukee Hamburger restaurants in the United States

4022594

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme%20Allied%20Commander%20Atlantic

Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic

The Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT) was one of two supreme commanders of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), the other being the Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR). The SACLANT led Allied Command Atlantic was based at Norfolk, Virginia. The entire command was routinely referred to as 'SACLANT'. In 1981 SACLANT's wartime task was listed as being to provide for the security of the area by guarding sea lanes to deny their use to an enemy and to safeguard them for the reinforcement and resupply of NATO Europe with personnel and materiel. The command's area of responsibility extended from the North Pole to the Tropic of Cancer as well as extending from the east coast of North America to the west coast of Africa and Europe, including Portugal but not the English Channel, the British Isles, and the Canary Islands. History Soon after its formation, ACLANT together with Allied Command Europe carried out the large exercise Exercise Mainbrace. Throughout the Cold War years, SACLANT carried out many other exercises, such as Operation Mariner in 1953 and Operation Strikeback in 1957, as well as the Northern Wedding and Ocean Safari series of naval exercises during the 1970s and 1980s. The command also played a critical role in the annual Exercise REFORGER from the 1970s onwards. Following the end of the Cold War, the Command was reduced in status and size, with many of its subordinate headquarters spread across the Atlantic area losing their NATO status and funding. However, the basic structure remained in place until the Prague Summit in the Czech Republic in 2002. Carrier-based air strike operations in the Norwegian Sea pioneered by Operation Strikeback foreshadowed planning such as the NATO Concept of Maritime Operations of 1980 (CONMAROPS). The purpose of the Atlantic lifelines campaign was to protect the transportation of allied reinforcement and resupply across the Atlantic, practiced via Exercise Ocean Safari. The shallow-seas campaign was designed to prevent the exit of the Soviet Baltic Fleet into the North Sea and to protect allied convoys in the North Sea and the English Channel; it was exercised in Exercise Northern Wedding series. The Norwegian Sea campaign was meant to prevent the exit of the Soviet Northern Fleet into the Norwegian Sea and the Atlantic Ocean and to provide sea-based support to allied air and ground operations in Norway. Its associated series of exercises was Exercise Teamwork. The U.S. Maritime Strategy promulgated in the mid 1980s dovetailed with the CONMAROPS and went further in some cases, such as in the operation of Carrier Battle Groups far forward, in Norwegian coastal waters sheltered by the mountains surrounding the northern Norwegian fjords. In January 1968, the Standing Naval Force Atlantic (STANAVFORLANT) was established. This was a permanent peacetime multinational naval squadron composed of various NATO navies' destroyers, cruisers and frigates. Since 1967, STANAVFORLANT operated, trained, and exercised as a group. It also participated in NATO and national naval exercises designed to promote readiness and interoperability. The Maritime Strategy was published in 1984, championed by Secretary of the Navy John Lehman and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral James D. Watkins, USN, during the Reagan Administration, and practiced in NATO naval exercises such as Ocean Safari '85 and Northern Wedding '86. In a 2008 article, retired General Bernard E. Trainor, USMC, noted the success of this maritime strategy: The U.S. Navy's Forward Maritime Strategy provided the strategic rationale for the "600-ship Navy". Allied Command Atlantic was redesignated as Allied Command Transformation (ACT) on 19 June 2003. ACT was to be headed by the Supreme Allied Commander Transformation (SACT), up to 2009 an American four-star admiral or general who was dual-hatted as commander, United States Joint Forces Command (COMUSJFCOM). SACLANT's former military missions were folded into NATO's Allied Command Operations (ACO). Structure The high command of ACLANT comprised the following positions: Supreme Allied Commander (SACLANT) – SACLANT was responsible for all Alliance military missions within the ACLANT area of responsibility. SACLANT was a United States admiral who also serves as the Commander-in-Chief U.S. Atlantic Command, one of the Department of Defense unified combatant commands. After the end of the Cold War, Army generals began to be assigned to the position. Deputy Supreme Allied Commander (DSACLANT) – The principal deputy to SACLANT held by a British vice-admiral. DSACLANT was originally the commander of the Royal Navy's North America and West Indies Station. Chief of Staff (COFS) – Directs the SACLANT headquarters staff SACLANT headquarters was located in Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia, adjacent to the U.S. Atlantic Fleet headquarters. Eastern Atlantic Area (EASTLANT) Commander-in-Chief, Eastern Atlantic Area (CINCEASTLANT) was a British admiral based at the Northwood Headquarters in northwest London, who also served as Commander in Chief, Home Fleet (subsequently CINC Western Fleet, and later Commander-in-Chief Fleet). In 1953 his primary task was described as the 'integrated defence and the control and protection of sea and air lines of communications within' the Eastern Atlantic Area. On 12 December 1952, an EASTLANT integrated submarine headquarters was established. Rear Admiral G.W.G. Simpson, CB, CBE, RN, Flag Officer Submarines, was appointed Commander Submarine Force Eastern Atlantic (COMSUBEASTLANT) and assumed his command with its headquarters at Gosport, Hants, in the United Kingdom. On 2 February 1953, the planning staff of CINCEASTLANT, which had been temporarily established at Portsmouth, England, moved into interim facilities adjacent to the established Headquarters of CINCAIREASTLANT at Northwood, England. This, SACLANT wrote, would greatly facilitate the effective exercise of command in the Eastern Atlantic Area. In 1953, initial NATO documents instructing Admiral George Creasy wrote that the following Sub-Area commanders had been appointed within EASTLANT: Commander Bay of Biscay Sub-Area: Vice Admiral A. Robert, French Navy Commander North-East Atlantic Sub-Area: Vice Admiral Sir Maurice Mansergh, KCB, CBE, Royal Navy (UK national appointment of Commander-in-Chief, Plymouth) Air Commander North Sea: Air Vice Marshal Harold Lydford, CB, CBE, Royal Air Force (AOC No. 18 Group RAF) Air Commander North-East Atlantic Sub-Area : Air Vice Marshal Thomas Traill, CB, OBE, DFC, Royal Air Force (AOC No. 19 Group RAF) Commander Northern European Sub-Area : Rear Admiral J.H.F. Crombie, CB, DSO, Royal Navy (Flag Officer Scotland and Northern Ireland, Pitreavie Castle, Scotland) Circa 1962, Central Sub-Area was led by the Commander-in-Chief, Plymouth, and Northern Sub-Area by Flag Officer Scotland and Northern Ireland. After 1966, CINCEASTLANT was responsible for the administration and operation of the Standing Naval Force Atlantic, on behalf of SACLANT. In 1982, EASTLANT was organised as follows: Eastern Atlantic Area (EASTLANT) Northern Sub-Area (NORLANT) Central Sub-Area (CENTLANT) Submarine Force Eastern Atlantic (SUBEASTLANT) Maritime Air Eastern Atlantic (AIREASTLANT) Maritime Air Northern Sub-Area (AIRNORLANT) Maritime Air Central Sub-Area (AIRCENTLANT) Island Commander Iceland (ISCOMICE) Island Commander Faeroes (ISCOMFAROES) Western Atlantic Area Commander-in-Chief Western Atlantic (CINCWESTLANT) was an American Admiral based at Naval Station Norfolk, Norfolk, Virginia who also served as the Commander-in-Chief U.S. Atlantic Fleet. In 1953, sub-area commanders were listed as follows: Commander United States Atlantic Sub-Area, Vice Admiral Oscar Badger, U.S. Navy (seemingly Commander, Eastern Sea Frontier) Commander Canadian Atlantic Sub-Area, Rear Admiral R.E.S. Bidwell, CBS, CD, Royal Canadian Navy (Commander, Canadian Coastal Defence Atlantic) Air Commander Canadian Atlantic Sub-Area, Air Commodore A.D. Ross, GC, CBE, CD, Royal Canadian Air Force In 1981, the Western Atlantic Area included six subordinate headquarters: Submarine Force Western Atlantic Area Ocean Sub-Area Canadian Atlantic Sub-Area Island Commander Bermuda Island Commander Azores Lajes Field, in the Portuguese islands of the Azores, was an important transatlantic staging post. Island Commander Greenland In the last few years of the post, CINCWESTLANT was responsible for: The safe transit of critical reinforcement and re-supply from North America to Europe, in support of the full spectrum of NATO forces operating anywhere in or beyond NATO's area of responsibility The sponsorship of peacetime joint multinational exercises and Partnership for Peace (PfP) activities, as well as maintaining operational control and providing support for NATO forces assigned to the headquarters From 1994 through 2003, WESTLANT was organized as follows: SubWestLant Ocean Sub-Area Canadian Atlantic Sub-Area Greenland Island Commander Iberian Atlantic Area In 1950, the command structure and organization of Allied Command Atlantic (ACLANT) was approved except that the North Atlantic Ocean Regional Group was requested to reconsider the command arrangements for the Iberian Atlantic Area (IBERLANT). IBERLANT was an integral part of this ACLANT command structure. In MC 58(Revised) (Final), it was stated that the question of subdividing IBERLANT was still under study. However, because arrangement regarding the establishment of IBERLANT, could not be agreed, CINCEASTLANT and CINCAIREASTLANT were assigned, as an interim emergency measure, the temporary responsibility for the IBERLANT area. NATO exercises, however, demonstrated that these interim arrangements proved unsatisfactory. Commander Iberian Atlantic Area was eventually established in 1967 as a Principal Subordinate Commander (PSC), reporting to CINCWESTLANT. The commander was a U.S. Navy rear admiral who also served as chief of the Military Assistance and Advisory Group in Lisbon. In 1975 IBERLANT was described as 'probably of greater symbolic value to Portugal than of military value to NATO' in internal cables of the U.S. Department of State. In 1981 the command included the Island Command Madeira. In 1982 NATO agreed to the upgrading of IBERLANT into a Major Subordinate Command (MSC), becoming Commander-in-Chief Iberian Atlantic Area (CINCIBERLANT). A Portuguese Navy Vice Admiral, dual-hatted as the fleet commander, took over the position. It was planned that Commander, Portuguese Air (COMPOAIR), a sub-PSC, would eventually take responsibility for the air defence of Portugal, reporting through CINCIBERLANT to SACEUR. Thus the Portuguese mainland would be 'associated' with Allied Command Europe. In 1999 CINCIBERLANT became Commander-in-Chief Southern Atlantic (CINCSOUTHLANT). He was made responsible for military movements and maritime operations across the southeast boundary between Allied Command Europe and Allied Command Atlantic. The command became Allied Joint Force Command Lisbon before being deactivated in 2012. Striking Fleet Atlantic Commander Striking Fleet Atlantic (COMSTRIKFLTLANT) was SACLANT's major subordinate seagoing commander. The primary mission of Striking Fleet Atlantic was to deter aggression by maintaining maritime superiority in the Atlantic AOR and ensuring the integrity of NATO's sea lines of communications. The Striking Fleet's Commander was a U.S. Navy Vice Admiral based at Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia who also served as the Commander U.S. Second Fleet. In 1981 the American Forces Information Service listed its components as the Carrier Striking Force consisting of Carrier Striking Groups One and Two. The Carrier Striking Force appears to have been Task Force 401. The Carrier Striking Force appears to have had an American nucleus, built around Carrier Group Four, and Carrier Striking Group Two appears to have had a British nucleus, later, it seems, becoming Anti-Submarine Group Two. When HMS Ark Royal took part in Exercise Royal Knight circa 1972, she formed the centrepiece of Striking Group Two and led Task Group 401.2. When Vice Admiral Hank Mustin became COMSTRIKFLTLANT he reorganised the Fleet by adding amphibious and landing force (seemingly UK/NL Amphibious Force) components. In 1998, Commander Striking Fleet Atlantic directed three Principal Subordinate Commanders and three Sub-Principal Subordinate Commanders: Commander Carrier Striking Force (also U.S. Navy Commander Carrier Strike Group 4) Commander Anti-Submarine Warfare Striking Force (also Royal Navy Commander UK Task Group; previously held in the 1980s by Flag Officer, Third Flotilla) Commander Amphibious Striking Force (also U.S. Navy Commander Amphibious Group 2) The three Sub-PSCs were: Commander Marine Striking Force (also USMC Commanding General, II Marine Expeditionary Force) Commander UK/NL Amphibious Force (also Royal Navy Commodore, Amphibious Task Group) Commander UK/NL Landing Force (also Royal Marine Brigadier, Commander 3 Commando Brigade) STRIKFLTLANT was deactivated in a ceremony held on on June 24, 2005, being replaced by the Combined Joint Operations from the Sea Center of Excellence located at the Second Fleet headquarters. Submarine Allied Command Atlantic (SUBACLANT) The Commander Submarine Allied Command Atlantic (COMSUBACLANT) was the principal adviser to the SACLANT on submarine matters and undersea warfare. COMSUBACLANT was an American three-star admiral based in Norfolk, Virginia, who also served as the Commander Submarine Force Atlantic Fleet (COMSUBLANT). Under SUBACLANT were Commander, Submarines, Western Atlantic Area (COMSUBWESTLANT) and Commander, Submarines, Eastern Atlantic Area (COMSUBEASTLANT). COMSUBEASTLANT's national appointment was the Royal Navy post of Flag Officer Submarines. Flag Officer Submarines moved in 1978 from HMS Dolphin at Gosport to the Northwood Headquarters in northwest London. Structure in 1989 Allied Command Atlantic (ACLANT), led by Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT), in Norfolk, United States Commander-in-Chief, Eastern Atlantic Area (EASTLANT), in Northwood, United Kingdom Northern Sub-Area (NORLANT), in Rosyth, United Kingdom Central Sub-Area (CENTLANT), in Plymouth, United Kingdom Submarine Force Eastern Atlantic (SUBEASTLANT), in Northwood, United Kingdom Maritime Air Eastern Atlantic (MAIREASTLANT), in Northwood, United Kingdom Maritime Air Northern Sub-Area (MAIRNORLANT), Pitreavie Castle, United Kingdom Maritime Air Central Sub-Area (MAIRCENTLANT), in Plymouth, United Kingdom Island Command Iceland (ISCOMICELAND), in Keflavík, Iceland Island Command Faroes (ISCOMFAROES), in Tórshavn, Faroe Islands Commander-in-Chief, Western Atlantic Area (WESTLANT), in Norfolk, United States Ocean Sub-Area (OCEANLANT), in Norfolk, United States Canadian Atlantic Sub-Area (CANLANT), in Halifax, Canada Island Command Bermuda (ISCOMBERMUDA), in Hamilton, Bermuda Island Command Greenland (ISCOMGREENLAND), in Grønnedal, Greenland Submarine Force Western Atlantic (SUBWESTLANT), in Norfolk, United States Iberian Atlantic Area (IBERLANT), in Lisbon, Portugal Island Command Madeira (ISCOMADEIRA), in Funchal, Madeira Island Command Azores (ISCOMAZORES), in Ponta Delgada, Azores, transferred from WESTLANT to IBERLANT in 1989 Striking Fleet Atlantic (STRIKFLTLANT), afloat Carrier Striking Force (CARSTRIKFOR), afloat Carrier Striking Group (CARSTRIKGRU), afloat Amphibious Force (AMPHIBSTRIKFOR), afloat Anti-Submarine Warfare Group, afloat Submarines Allied Command Atlantic (SUBACLANT), in Norfolk, United States Standing Naval Force Atlantic (STANAVFORLANT), afloat The organisation of Striking Fleet Atlantic shifted over time. Initially Carrier Striking Groups One (US) and Two (RN) were subordinate to the Striking Fleet, as depicted in NATO Facts and Figures, 1989. When the last Royal Navy fixed-wing carriers were retired in the late 1970s Carrier Striking Group Two became the Anti-Submarine Warfare Striking Force. NATO Facts and Figures 1989 misses the removal of Carrier Striking Group Two which had occurred around ten years earlier. Commanders List of Supreme Allied Commanders Atlantic List of Deputy Supreme Allied Commanders Atlantic His Second-in-Command was the Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic: See also SACLANT ASW Research Centre Joint Force Command Norfolk References Further reading Maloney, Sean M. Securing Command of the Sea: NATO Naval Planning, 1948–1954. Naval Institute Press, 1995. 276 pp. Jane's NATO Handbook Edited by Bruce George, 1990, Jane's Information Group Jane's NATO Handbook Edited by Bruce George, 1991, Jane's Information Group External links NATO Handbook NATO military appointments

4022673

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20American%20University%2C%20San%20Salvador

Central American University, San Salvador

José Simeón Cañas Central American University (), also known as UCA El Salvador, is a private Catholic university with nonprofit purposes in San Salvador, El Salvador. It is operated by the Society of Jesus. UCA was founded on September 15, 1965, at the request of a group of Catholic families who appealed to the Salvadoran government and the Society of Jesus in order to create a university as an alternative to the University of El Salvador, becoming the first private institution of higher education in the country. The Jesuits also run Central American University in Nicaragua (UCA Managua), opened in 1960. History UCA has since evolved to be one of the best institutions of higher learning in Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama). This is the case, despite the university's focus on playing a decisive role in the transformation of the unjust Salvadoran society. Such a focus within the Salvadoran context has driven the university to give priority to undergraduate degrees, research within the social sciences, and popular presentation of research results ("social projectionl") in local peer-reviewed journals. In the 1970s and 1980s, during the Civil War in El Salvador, UCA was known as the home of several internationally recognized Jesuit scholars and intellectuals, including Jon Sobrino, Ignacio Ellacuría, Ignacio Martín-Baró, and Segundo Montes. They were outspoken against the abuses of the Salvadoran military and government, and carried out research to demonstrate the effects of the war and poverty in the country. The extreme social conditions in El Salvador provided a very rich empirical basis for innovative research within sociology, social anthropology, philosophy, social psychology, and theology. These scholars made important and lasting contributions within these fields. Ellacuría, Martín-Baró and Segundo Montes, along with three other Jesuit professors, their housekeeper, and her daughter, were murdered by the Salvadoran Armed forces on November 16, 1989, in one of the most notorious episodes from the Civil War (see Murder of UCA scholars). Campus The university is located at Antiguo Cuscatlán. The university campus has 38 acres (16 ha) with 33 buildings, a professional soccer field, basketball and volleyball courts, as well as three auditoriums and four cafeterias. The campus also includes a minimarket, a museum, three clinics, a book shop, a main library, several smaller thematic libraries, and a documentation center. Faculties Faculty of Economics and Business Sciences Faculty of Human and Social Sciences Faculty of Engineering and Architecture Academic departments Department of Mathematics Department of Business Administration Department of Judicial Sciences Department of Sociology and Political Science Department of Economics Department of Accounting and Finance Department of Psychology Department of Philosophy Department of Theology Department of Educational Sciences Department of Communications and Culture Department of Public Health Department of Operations and Systems Department of Electronics and Informatics Department of Energy and Fluid Sciences Department of Structural Mechanics Department of Spatial Organization Department of Engineering Process and Environmental Science Social projection UCA Audiovisuals YSUCA 91.7 FM Radio Monseñor Romero Center University's Public Opinion Institute - IUDOP University's Human Rights Institute - IDHUCA Academics Undergraduate programs Architecture Civil Engineering Electrical Engineering Mechanical Engineering Industrial Engineering Chemical Engineering Food Engineering Energetic Engineering Computing Engineering Technician in Marketing Technician in Accounting Licenciate in Philosophy Licenciate in Theology Licenciate in Psychology Licenciate in Economics Licenciate in Marketing Licenciate in Public Accounting Licenciate in Business Administration Licenciate in Agribusiness Administration Licenciate in Judicial Sciences Licenciate in Social Communications Professorate of Theology Professorate of Special Education Professorate of Preschool Education Professorate of Basic Education (1st & 2nd Cycles) Professorate of English Language (3rd Cycle Basic and Middle Education) Postgraduate programs Master in Iberoamerican Philosophy Master in Social Sciences Master in Political Sciences Master in Latin American Theology Master in Local Development Master in Criminal Constitutional Law Master in Applied Statistics to Investigation Master in Environmental Management Master in Industrial Maintenance Management Master in Public Health Master in Communitarian Psychology Master in Educational Evaluation and Politics Master in Communications Master in Finance Master in Financial Audit Master in Business Law Master in Business Administration Doctorate in Iberoamerican Philosophy Doctorate in Social Sciences See also Education in El Salvador List of Jesuit sites List of universities in El Salvador José Simeón Cañas References Official website Universities in El Salvador Jesuit universities and colleges Educational institutions established in 1965 San Salvador 1965 establishments in El Salvador

4022684

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20Act

First Act

First Act was a manufacturer of musical instruments and musical learning toys, that produced guitars, bass guitars, guitar and bass accessories, drum sets, percussion instruments, and amplifiers. Mark Izen founded the company in 1995; its online presence first appeared early in 2000. Despite being officially based in Boston, Massachusetts, at its peak First Act maintained offices in Bentonville, Hong Kong, and Shenzhen, and a "custom shop" luthiery in Somerville, Massachusetts. In 2016, First Act was acquired by toy manufacturer Jazwares. Founding management team First Act was largely an unrelated result of the successful sale of Duracraft to the Consumer Products division of Honeywell in 1996. Bernard Chiu, the founder of Duracraft, was offered a leadership role at First Act Inc. after selling his company, he accepted thus establishing the companies leadership hierarchy. As a significant portion of First Act Inc. leadership were previous Duracraft employees there were no dedicated musicians, instead they would rely on their experience with generic commodity-level small appliances. Bernard Chiu, chairman of the Board — previously co-founder (with Tim Chen and Ronald Izen) and CEO of Duracraft, as well as president and Chairman Ronald Izen, Vice Chairman of the Board — previously Executive Vice President of Sales for Duracraft, from its founding in 1989 through 1998 Mark Izen, President and CEO — Prior to starting First Act Inc. in 1995, Mark founded CMI Enterprises, Inc., a manufacturer's representative firm that sold, high-profile consumer products lines to national and regional retailers. Mary Hassan, Vice President, Human Resources — former Vice President of Human Resources for Duracraft and then Honeywell Consumer Products, and Director of Staffing and Employee Relations for Reebok International. Tony Natale, Vice President, Finance and Operations — eleven years at Duracraft then Honeywell in various financial and operational positions, including Director of Materials Management and Assistant Controller. Kelly Butler, Chief Luthier, Custom Shop Manager and Designer - seven years at Gibson Guitars Custom Shop as a custom builder and designer. Currently produces instruments under the K. Butler Guitars brand name. Product lines The company's products were divided into two lines, with very similar entries but sold toward different audiences. They were marketed through large retail chains, particularly Toys "R" Us and Target, as well as Amazon.com. First Act proper was shaped toward inexpensive "beginner" instruments intended for children and adults. The small range was primarily a basic three-piece drum kit, a soprano ukulele, three dynamic-type microphones, and five guitars, both full-size (acoustic and electric) and short-scale (marketed both as "sized for kids" and as a travel guitar). Paralleling this line was First Act Discovery (sometimes just Discovery), musical products for children ages 3 to 9. This line included acoustic guitars, ukuleles, drums, electronic percussion pads, tambourines, recorders, keyboards, and electronic button-controlled "guitars." There was also a series of plastic microphone-like products, largely with sounds and graphics licensed from Disney, including Nickelodeon, DreamWorks, and Marvel properties. More recently, to maximize the ukulele fad, a series of Disney-graphic instruments (albeit marketed as "mini guitars") was released, such as the AV285 Avengers uke. An ambitious series of projects and products was eliminated after First Act's 2012 peak. First Act Instruments — the original retail line of entry-level instruments for teens and adults, including guitars, drums, hand percussion, and accessories. Mark II — intended in First Act's early years to become the quality line. The name isn't mentioned after 2003. Concert Series — a range of inexpensive band instruments marketed to grade-school students. 222 — in 2008, First Act partnered with Adam Levine (lead vocalist and guitarist of Maroon 5) to produce 222 by First Act, a line of 22 music products, including an acoustic guitar and a "signature" model of electric guitar designed by Levine, branded "222" (his lucky number). The line was sold through Target stores. Fuel — successor to First Act Instruments, intended to distance this chain store presence (largely Walmart and Target) from the company's expanding quality lines. Studio For Artists (SFA) — designed and built custom guitars and violins for professional musicians. Each instrument was handcrafted, and finished in First Act's Boston studio. SFA Edition Guitars — standard First Act guitars with added custom appointments, such as premium pickups, upgraded machine heads, and unique pickguards. Limited Edition Guitars — three Limited Edition models were created in the SFA facility: the "Lola", "Sheena", and "Delia." Guitar Player magazine praised the instruments for their stylistic innovation, unique appearance and excellent workmanship. Related facilities First Act Guitar Studio was a real-world storefront at 745 Boylston Street, Boston, offering various First Act Custom, Limited Edition, SFA Edition, and First Act series electric and acoustic guitars, and accessories. Customers could play the guitars, watch a luthier crafting custom guitars, see a live show, or have their guitar serviced. Endorsers and users In 2011, the First Act website claimed endorsements from 136 guitar players, including Brad Whitford (Aerosmith), Rusty Anderson (Paul McCartney), Matt Pike (High on Fire), Lyn-Z (Mindless Self Indulgence), Brent Hinds and Bill Kelliher (Mastodon), Nick Zinner (Yeah Yeah Yeahs), Al Berry (Avril Lavigne), Nick McCarthy (Franz Ferdinand), Lee Malia (Bring Me the Horizon), Dave Knudson (Minus the Bear), Anders Björler (At The Gates), Adam Gardner (Guster), Tim McTague and James Smith (Underoath), and Serj Tankian (System of a Down). Most of them played variations on the three top-line First Act models, the "Lola", "Sheena", and "Delia." As well, there were the models designed in collaboration with Paul Westerberg and Adam Levine, respectively the PW580 and the 222. Partnerships and promotions First Act distributed branded calendars to Guitar Player subscribers in 2006 and 2007. The 2006 edition highlighted Studio for Artists guitars, including custom and limited-edition models. First Act collaborated with two Red Sox players as a charity fund-raiser. Guitars were designed for pitchers Curt Schilling and Jonathan Papelbon after the players sketched their rough ideas, and First Act's design and custom shop teams brought the guitars to life. The customized guitars were auctioned off at a "Hot Stove Cool Music" concert fund-raiser at Fenway Park. The two guitars raised a total of $12,000 for Theo Epstein's charity. In 2007, First Act introduced a Paul Westerberg signature guitar called the PW58, featuring a plaid pickguard and a custom body shape designed in the Studio for Artists facility. First Act partnered with automaker Volkswagen for a 2006 promotional campaign to distribute "GarageMaster" guitars with selected vehicle models through the end of the year. The campaign ran from October 3 through December 31. GarageMaster guitars were available in white, red, and blue to those who purchased a VW. The stereos in these Volkswagens could be used as an amplifier for the guitar. Accompanying advertisements featured guitarists Slash, John Mayer, and Nigel Tufnel of Spinal Tap playing First Act guitars through the sound systems of Volkswagens. The GarageMaster model featured a battery-powered on-board preamp, knobs decorated with the "VW" logo, pickguards matching the vehicle's color, a metal plate inscribed with the corresponding vehicle's VIN, and could be plugged directly into the vehicles' audio systems using a minijack cable. Consumer electronics In 2010, a video game division of First Act, Seven45 Studios, released Power Gig: Rise of the SixString. Peripherals included a functional electric guitar with controller buttons, a microphone, and a motion sensor system to simulate drums. Seven45 subsequently produced a number of music-based iOS apps. In 2011 First Act released an iOS app for iPad and iPhone for karaoke under the Disney license called "Disney Spotlight Karaoke." It includes sing-a-longs with songs from Disney Channel stars and the ability to record and upload a video. First Act also released a line of Disney-themed microphones designed to work with the app. In 2012 First Act released an iOS app for iPhone and iPad called "Notes to Grow On" which is a companion educational app for the Discovery line of instruments. In October 2012, First Act launched a line of consumer electronics including charging, music, and audio interfaces for iPods, iPads, and iPhones, under the name BlueFlame Technologies. Criticism The company received criticism from music educators who claimed that First Act band instruments, targeted at beginning students, were of low quality, often irreparable, and that replacement parts were difficult to acquire. In 2003, First Act sued the music retailer Brook Mays for false advertising after the retailer distributed marketing materials to school band directors that criticized First Act's products as "instrument-shaped objects", which induced returns of First Act products. First Act was awarded $16.7 million to compensate for lost profits, a judgment that effectively bankrupted Brook Mays. References External links Official website Guitar manufacturing companies of the United States Privately held companies based in Massachusetts Musical instrument manufacturing companies based in Boston

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20Weapons%20Complex

Air Weapons Complex

The Air Weapons Complex (AWC) is a scientific research and development detachment of the Pakistan Air Force that engages and leads projects in airborne applications of explosive engineering. Established in 1992 by the Pakistan Air Force, the AWC is dedicated towards developing and integrating the aerospace warfighting technologies and providing warfighting capabilities to the Pakistan Air Force. The AWC has designed and developed the air-launched cruise missile (ALCM) for the Air Force and participated in technical demonstrations in conjunction with nation's major defense contractors such as NESCOM, DESTO, and the Ministry of Defence (MoD). Products Airborne systems Airborne Video Tape Recorder (AVTR) system Airborne Digital Data Recorder system Infra-red search and track (IRST) system GPS navigation system Mechanical gyro and iFOG-based inertial navigation system (INS) MOHAFIZ counter-measures dispensing system Laser guidance system for Mk.80 series bombs (license-manufactured design from the US) Air-launched weaponry Practice bombs (6 kg, 11 kg) 250 kg Pre-fragmented bomb 250 kg Mk.82 general-purpose bomb 500 kg Mk.83 bomb 1000 kg Mk.84 bomb Mk.80 series general-purpose bomb tail units (low drag or high drag speed-retarding devices) HAFR-1, HAFR-2 and RPB-1 anti-runway weapons H-2 SOW H-4 SOW Ra'ad ALCM Ra'ad-II ALCM Electronics Air Defence Automation System (C4I system) - given to Bangladesh, installed by AWC engineers circa 2005. Electronic fuses for air-launched weapons (impact and proximity fuses) Real-time ACMI system Voice/Fax/Data encryption system Other Multi-Spectral Camouflage Net - camouflages against night-vision, infra-red, radar and millimeter wave sensors as well as visual detection. Stated to reduce an object's radar cross-section (RCS) by 86% on average and reduce average detection range by 43.8%. Technical Expertise Software Development for Mission Critical Systems Nondestructive Testing Software and Mechanical Support Electronic System Design and Production Prototyping and Production of Specialized Mechanical Assemblies Mechanical Components Precision Manufacturing TQM Practices Mil-Spec Qualifications CAD/CAM Support UAV project The Air Weapons Complex embarked on a project for the indigenous development of UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles) in mid-1998. The Sky Tracker and Sky Navigator software suites were developed for the ground-based tracking of UAVs. The software retrieves the GPS position data from the UAV via a radio data-link17 and uses it to show the position of the UAV as a 2D plot along with other essential data such as, speed, altitude, heading, etc. This plot can be overlaid onto area maps as well. This information is used by the pilot for flying the UAV from the ground-based command station. References A Pakistan federal departments and agencies Defence companies of Pakistan Weapon development Military research of Pakistan 1992 establishments in Pakistan Guided missile manufacturers

4022767

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativity%20priority%20dispute

Relativity priority dispute

Albert Einstein presented the theories of special relativity and general relativity in publications that either contained no formal references to previous literature, or referred only to a small number of his predecessors for fundamental results on which he based his theories, most notably to the work of Henri Poincaré and Hendrik Lorentz for special relativity, and to the work of David Hilbert, Carl F. Gauss, Bernhard Riemann, and Ernst Mach for general relativity. Subsequently, claims have been put forward about both theories, asserting that they were formulated, either wholly or in part, by others before Einstein. At issue is the extent to which Einstein and various other individuals should be credited for the formulation of these theories, based on priority considerations. Various scholars have questioned aspects of the work of Einstein, Henri Poincaré, and Lorentz leading up to the theories’ publication in 1905. Questions raised by these scholars include asking to what degree Einstein was familiar with Poincaré's work, whether Einstein was familiar with Lorentz's 1904 paper or a review of it, and how closely Einstein followed other physicists at the time. It is known that Einstein was familiar with Poincaré's 1902 paper [Poi02], but it is not known to what extent he was familiar with other work of Poincaré in 1905. However, it is known that he knew [Poi00] in 1906, because he quoted it in [Ein06]. Lorentz's 1904 paper [Lor04] contained the transformations bearing his name that appeared in the Annalen der Physik. Some authors claim that Einstein worked in relative isolation and with restricted access to the physics literature in 1905. Others, however, disagree; a personal friend of Einstein, Maurice Solovine, acknowledged that he and Einstein pored over Poincaré's 1902 book, keeping them "breathless for weeks on end" [Rot06]. The question of whether Einstein's wife Mileva Marić contributed to Einstein's work has also been raised, but most scholars on the topic say that there is no substantive evidence that she made significant contributions. Background In the history of special relativity, the most important names that are mentioned in discussions about the distribution of credit are Albert Einstein, Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré, and Hermann Minkowski. Consideration is also given to numerous other scientists for either anticipations of some aspects of the theory, or else for contributions to the development or elaboration of the theory. These include Woldemar Voigt, August Föppl, Joseph Larmor, Emil Cohn, Friedrich Hasenöhrl, Max Planck, Max von Laue, Gilbert Newton Lewis and Richard Chase Tolman, and others. In addition, polemics exist about alleged contributions of others such as Olinto De Pretto who according to some mathematical scholars did not create relativity but was the first to use the equation. Also Einstein's first wife Mileva Marić, although her contribution is not considered to have any foundation according to serious scholars. In his History of the theories of ether and electricity from 1953, E. T. Whittaker claimed that relativity is the creation of Poincaré and Lorentz and attributed to Einstein's papers only little importance. However, most historians of science, like Gerald Holton, Arthur I. Miller, Abraham Pais, John Stachel, or Olivier Darrigol have other points of view. They admit that Lorentz and Poincaré developed the mathematics of special relativity, and many scientists originally spoke about the "Lorentz–Einstein theory". But they argue that it was Einstein who eliminated the classical ether and demonstrated the relativity of space and time. They also argue that Poincaré demonstrated the relativity of space and time only in his philosophical writings, but in his physical papers he maintained the ether as a privileged frame of reference that is perfectly undetectable, and continued (like Lorentz) to distinguish between "real" lengths and times measured by observers at rest within the aether, and "apparent" lengths and times measured by observers in motion within the aether. Darrigol summarizes: Most of the components of Einstein's paper appeared in others' anterior works on the electrodynamics of moving bodies. Poincaré and Alfred Bucherer had the relativity principle. Lorentz and Larmor had most of the Lorentz transformations, Poincaré had them all. Cohn and Bucherer rejected the ether. Poincaré, Cohn, and Abraham had a physical interpretation of Lorentz's local time. Larmor and Cohn alluded to the dilation of time. Lorentz and Poincaré had the relativistic dynamics of the electron. None of these authors, however, dared to reform the concepts of space and time. None of them imagined a new kinematics based on two postulates. None of them derived the Lorentz transformations on this basis. None of them fully understood the physical implications of these transformations. It all was Einstein's unique feat. Undisputed facts The following facts are well established and referable: In 1889, ([Poi89]), Henri Poincaré argued that the ether might be unobservable, in which case the existence of the ether is a metaphysical question, and he suggested that some day the ether concept would be thrown aside as useless. However, in the same book (Ch. 10) he considered the ether a "convenient hypothesis" and continued to use the concept also in later books in 1908 ([Poi08], Book 3) and 1912 ([Poi13], Ch. 6). In 1895, Poincaré argued that results like those obtained by Michelson and Morley (Michelson–Morley experiment) show that it seems to be impossible to detect the absolute motion of matter or the relative motion of matter in relation to the ether. In 1900 [Poi00] he called this the Principle of Relative Motion, i.e., that the laws of movement should be the same in all inertial frames. Alternative terms used by Poincaré were "relativity of space" and "principle of relativity". In 1904 he expanded that principle by saying: "The principle of relativity, according to which the laws of physical phenomena must be the same for a stationary observer as for one carried along in a uniform motion of translation, so that we have no means, and can have none, of determining whether or not we are being carried along in such a motion." However, he also stated that we do not know if this principle will turn out to be true, but that it is interesting to determine what the principle implies. In 1900([Poi00]), Poincaré published a paper in which he said that radiation could be considered as a fictitious fluid with an equivalent mass of . He derived this interpretation from Lorentz's 'theory of electrons' which incorporated Maxwell's radiation pressure. Poincaré had described a synchronization procedure for clocks at rest relative to each other in [Poi00] and again in [Poi04]. So two events, which are simultaneous in one frame of reference, are not simultaneous in another frame. It is very similar to the one later proposed by Einstein. However, Poincaré distinguished between "local" or "apparent" time of moving clocks, and the "true" time of resting clocks in the ether. In [Poi02] he argued that "some day, no doubt, the ether will be thrown aside as useless". Lorentz' paper [Lor04] containing the transformations bearing his name appeared in 1904. Albert Einstein in [Ein05c] derived the Lorentz equations by using the principle of constancy of velocity of light and the relativity principle. He was the first to argue that those principles (along with certain other basic assumptions about the homogeneity and isotropy of space, usually taken for granted by theorists) are sufficient to derive the theory—see Postulates of special relativity. He said: "The introduction of a luminiferous ether will prove to be superfluous inasmuch as the view here to be developed will not require an absolutely stationary space provided with special properties, nor assign a velocity vector to a point of the empty space in which electromagnetic processes take place." * Einstein's Elektrodynamik paper [Ein05c] contains no formal references to other literature. It does mention, in §9, part II, that the results of the paper are in agreement with Lorentz's electrodynamics. Poincaré is not mentioned in this paper, although he is cited formally in a paper on special relativity written by Einstein the following year. In 1905 Einstein was the first to suggest that when a material body lost energy (either radiation or heat) of amount , its mass decreased by the amount . Hermann Minkowski showed in 1907 that the theory of special relativity could be elegantly described using a four-dimensional spacetime, which combines the dimension of time with the three dimensions of space. Einstein in 1920 returned to a concept of aether having no state of motion. Comments by Lorentz, Poincaré, and Einstein Lorentz In a paper that was written in 1914 and published in 1921, Lorentz expressed appreciation for Poincaré's Palermo paper (1906) on relativity. Lorentz stated: However, a 1916 reprint of his main work "The theory of electrons" contains notes (written in 1909 and 1915) in which Lorentz sketched the differences between his results and that of Einstein as follows: Regarding the fact, that in this book Lorentz only mentioned Einstein and not Poincaré in connection with a) the synchronisation by light signals, b) the reciprocity of the Lorentz transformation, and c) the relativistic transformation law for charge density, Janssen comments: And at a conference on the Michelson–Morley experiment in 1927 at which Lorentz and Michelson were present, Michelson suggested that Lorentz was the initiator of the theory of relativity. Lorentz then replied: Poincaré Poincaré attributed the development of the new mechanics almost entirely to Lorentz. He only mentioned Einstein in connection with the photoelectric effect, but not in connection with special relativity. For example, in 1912 Poincaré raises the question whether "the mechanics of Lorentz" will still exist after the development of the quantum theory. He wrote: Einstein It is now known that Einstein was well aware of the scientific research of his time. The well known historian of science, Jürgen Renn, Director of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, wrote on Einstein's contributions to the Annalen der Physik: Einstein wrote in 1907 that one needed only to realize that an auxiliary quantity that was introduced by Lorentz and that he called "local time" can simply be defined as "time". In 1909 and 1912 Einstein explained: But Einstein and his supporters took the position that this "light postulate" together with the principle of relativity renders the ether superfluous and leads directly to Einstein's version of relativity. It is also known that Einstein had been reading and studying Poincaré's 1902 book Science and hypothesis well before 1905, which included: detailed philosophical assessments on the relativity of space, time, and simultaneity discussion of the reliance on conventions regarding the use of light signals for the synchronization of clocks the definition of the principle of relativity and the conjecture that a violation of that principle can never be detected empirically the possible redundancy of the ether hypothesis detailed remarks on the physical status of non-Euclidean geometry. Einstein refers to Poincaré in connection with the inertia of energy in 1906 and the non-Euclidean geometry in 1921, but not in connection with the Lorentz transformation, the relativity principle or the synchronization procedure by light signals. However, in the last years before his death Einstein acknowledged some of Poincaré's contributions (according to Darrigol, maybe because his biographer Pais in 1950 sent Einstein a copy of Poincarè's Palermo paper, which he said that he had not read before). Einstein wrote in 1953: Timeline This section cites notable publications where people have expressed a view on the issues outlined above. Sir Edmund Whittaker (1954) In 1954, Sir Edmund Taylor Whittaker, an English mathematician and historian of science, credited Henri Poincaré with the equation , and he included a chapter entitled The Relativity Theory of Poincaré and Lorentz in his book A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. He credited Poincaré and Lorentz, and especially alluded to Lorentz's 1904 paper (dated by Whittaker as 1903), Poincaré's St. Louis speech (The Principles of Mathematical Physics) of September 1904, and Poincaré's June 1905 paper. Whittaker attributed to Einstein's relativity paper only little importance, i.e., the formulation of the Doppler and aberration formulas. Max Born spent three years trying to dissuade Whittaker, but Whittaker insisted that everything of importance had already been said by Poincaré, and that Lorentz quite plainly had the physical interpretation. Gerald Holton (1960) Whittaker's claims were criticized by Gerald Holton (1960, 1973). He argued that there are fundamental differences between the theories of Einstein on one hand, and Poincaré and Lorentz on the other hand. Einstein radically reformulated the concepts of space and time, and by that removed "absolute space" and thus the stationary luminiferous aether from physics. On the other hand, Holton argued that Poincaré and Lorentz still adhered to the stationary aether concept, and tried only to modify Newtonian dynamics, not to replace it. Holton argued, that "Poincaré's silence" (i.e., why Poincaré never mentioned Einstein's contributions to relativity) was due to their fundamentally different conceptual viewpoints. Einstein's views on space and time and the abandonment of the aether were, according to Holton, not acceptable to Poincaré, therefore the latter only referred to Lorentz as the creator of the "new mechanics". Holton also pointed out that although Poincaré's 1904 St. Louis speech was "acute and penetrating" and contained a "principle of relativity" that is confirmed by experience and needs new development, it did not "enunciate a new relativity principle". He also alluded to mistakes of Whittaker, like predating Lorentz's 1904 paper (published April 1904) to 1903. Views similar to Holton's were later (1967, 1970) expressed by his former student, Stanley Goldberg. G. H. Keswani (1965) In a 1965 series of articles tracing the history of relativity, Keswani claimed that Poincaré and Lorentz should have the main credit for special relativity – claiming that Poincaré pointedly credited Lorentz multiple times, while Lorentz credited Poincaré and Einstein, refusing to take credit for himself. He also downplayed the theory of general relativity, saying "Einstein's general theory of relativity is only a theory of gravitation and of modifications in the laws of physics in gravitational fields". This would leave the special theory of relativity as the unique theory of relativity. Keswani cited also Vladimir Fock for this same opinion. This series of articles prompted responses, among others from Herbert Dingle and Karl Popper. Dingle said, among other things, ".. the 'principle of relativity' had various meanings, and the theories associated with it were quite distinct; they were not different forms of the same theory. Each of the three protagonists.... was very well aware of the others .... but each preferred his own views" Karl Popper says "Though Einstein appears to have known Poincaré's Science and Hypothesis prior to 1905, there is no theory like Einstein's in this great book." Keswani did not accept the criticism, and replied in two letters also published in the same journal ( and – in his reply to Dingle, he argues that the three relativity theories were at heart the same: ".. they meant much that was common. And that much mattered the most." Dingle commented the year after on the history of crediting: "Until the first World War, Lorentz's and Einstein's theories were regarded as different forms of the same idea, but Lorentz, having priority and being a more established figure speaking a more familiar language, was credited with it." (Dingle 1967, Nature 216 p. 119–122). Arthur I. Miller (1973) Miller (1973, 1981) agreed with the analysis of Holton and Goldberg, and further argued that although the terminology (like the principle of relativity) used by Poincaré and Einstein were very similar, their content differs sharply. According to Miller, Poincaré used this principle to complete the aether based "electromagnetic world view" of Lorentz and Abraham. He also argued that Poincaré distinguished (in his July 1905 paper) between "ideal" and "real" systems and electrons. That is, Lorentz's and Poincaré's usage of reference frames lacks an unambiguous physical interpretation, because in many cases they are only mathematical tools, while in Einstein's theory the processes in inertial frames are not only mathematically, but also physically equivalent. Miller wrote in 1981: p. 172: "Although Poincaré's principle of relativity is stated in a manner similar to Einstein's, the difference in content is sharp. The critical difference is that Poincaré's principle admits the existence of the ether, and so considers the velocity of light to be exactly c only when it is measured in coordinate systems at rest in the ether. In inertial reference systems, the velocity of light is c and is independent of the emitter's motion as a result of certain compensatory effects such as the mathematical local time and the hypothesis of an unobservable contraction. Consequently, Poincaré's extension of the relativity principle of relative motion into the dynamics of the electron resided in electromagnetic theory, and not in mechanics...Poincaré came closest to rendering electrodynamics consistent, but not to a relativity theory." p. 217: "Poincaré related the imaginary system Σ' to the ether fixed system S'". Miller (1996) argues that Poincaré was guided by empiricism, and was willing to admit that experiments might prove relativity wrong, and so Einstein is more deserving of credit, even though he might have been substantially influenced by Poincaré's papers. Miller also argues that "Emphasis on conventionalism ... led Poincaré and Lorentz to continue to believe in the mathematical and observational equivalence of special relativity and Lorentz's electron theory. This is incorrect." [p. 96] Instead, Miller claims that the theories are mathematically equivalent but not physically equivalent. [p. 91–92] Abraham Pais (1982) In his 1982 Einstein biography Subtle is the Lord, Abraham Pais argued that Poincaré "comes near" to discovering special relativity (in his St. Louis lecture of September 1904, and the June 1905 paper), but eventually he failed, because in 1904 and also later in 1909, Poincaré treated length contraction as a third independent hypothesis besides the relativity principle and the constancy of the speed of light. According to Pais, Poincaré thus never understood (or at least he never accepted) special relativity, in which the whole theory including length contraction can simply be derived from two postulates. Consequently, he sharply criticized Whittaker's chapter on the "Relativity theory of Poincaré and Lorentz", saying "how well the author's lack of physical insight matches his ignorance of the literature", although Pais admitted that both he and his colleagues hold the original version of Whittaker's History as a masterpiece. Although he was apparently trying to make a point concerning Whittaker's treatment of the origin of special relativity, Pais' phrasing of that statement was rebuked by at least one notable reviewer of his 1982 book as being "scurrilous" and "lamentable". Also in contrast to Pais' overgeneralized claim, notable scientists such as Max Born refer to parts of Whittaker's second volume, especially the history of quantum mechanics, as "the most amazing feats of learning, insight, and discriminations" while Freeman Dyson says of the two volumes of Whittaker's second edition: "it is likely that this is the most scholarly and generally authoritative history of its period that we shall ever get." Pais goes on to argue that Lorentz never abandoned the stationary aether concept, either before or after 1905: p. 118: "Throughout the paper of 1895, the Fresnel aether is postulated explicitly"; p. 125: "Like Voigt before him, Lorentz regarded the transformation ... only as a convenient mathematical tool for proving a physical theorem ... he proposed to call t the general time and t' the local time. Although he didn't say it explicitly, it is evident that to him there was, so to speak, only one true time t."; p. 166: "8.3. Lorentz and the Aether... For example, Lorentz still opines that the contraction of the rods has a dynamic origin. There is no doubt that he had read and understood Einstein's papers by then. However, neither then nor later was he prepared to accept their conclusions as the definitive answer to the problems of the aether." Elie Zahar (1983) In several papers, Elie Zahar (1983, 2000) argued that both Einstein (in his June paper) and Poincaré (in his July paper) independently discovered special relativity. He said that "though Whittaker was unjust towards Einstein, his positive account of Poincaré's actual achievement contains much more than a simple grain of truth". According to him, it was Poincaré's unsystematic and sometimes erroneous statements regarding his philosophical papers (often connected with conventionalism), which hindered many to give him due credit. In his opinion, Poincaré was rather a "structural realist" and from that he concludes, that Poincaré actually adhered to the relativity of time and space, while his allusions to the aether are of secondary importance. He continues, that due to his treatment of gravitation and four-dimensional space, Poincaré's 1905/6 paper was superior to Einstein's 1905 paper. Yet Zahar gives also credit to Einstein, who introduced Mass–Energy equivalence, and also transcended special relativity by taking a path leading to the development of general relativity. John Stachel (1995) John Stachel (1995) argued that there is a debate over the respective contributions of Lorentz, Poincaré and Einstein to relativity. These questions depend on the definition of relativity, and Stachel argued that kinematics and the new view of space and time is the core of special relativity, and dynamical theories must be formulated in accordance with this scheme. Based on this definition, Einstein is the main originator of the modern understanding of special relativity. In his opinion, Lorentz interpreted the Lorentz transformation only as a mathematical device, while Poincaré's thinking was much nearer to the modern understanding of relativity. Yet Poincaré still believed in the dynamical effects of the aether and distinguished between observers being at rest or in motion with respect to it. Stachel wrote: "He never organized his many brilliant insights into a coherent theory that resolutely discarded the aether and the absolute time or transcended its electrodynamic origins to derive a new kinematics of space and time on a formulation of the relativity principle that makes no reference to the ether". Peter Galison (2002) In his book Einstein's clocks, Poincaré's maps (2002), Peter Galison compared the approaches of both Poincaré and Einstein to reformulate the concepts of space and time. He wrote: "Did Einstein really discover relativity? Did Poincaré already have it? These old questions have grown as tedious as they are fruitless." This is because it depends on the question, which parts of relativity one considers as essential: the rejection of the aether, the Lorentz transformation, the connection with the nature of space and time, predictions of experimental results, or other parts. For Galison, it is more important to acknowledge that both thinkers were concerned with clock synchronization problems, and thus both developed the new operational meaning of simultaneity. However, while Poincaré followed a constructive approach and still adhered to the concepts of Lorentz's stationary aether and the distinction between "apparent" and "true" times, Einstein abandoned the aether and therefore all times in different inertial frames are equally valid. Galison argued that this does not mean that Poincaré was conservative, since Poincaré often alluded to the revolutionary character of the "new mechanics" of Lorentz. Anatoly Alexeevich Logunov on special relativity (2004) In Anatoly Logunov's book about Poincaré's relativity theory, there is an English translation (on p. 113, using modern notations) of the part of Poincaré's 1900 article containing E=mc2. Logunov states that Poincaré's two 1905 papers are superior to Einstein's 1905 paper. According to Logunov, Poincaré was the first scientist to recognize the importance of invariance under the Poincaré group as a guideline for developing new theories in physics. In chapter 9 of this book, Logunov points out that Poincaré's second paper was the first one to formulate a complete theory of relativistic dynamics, containing the correct relativistic analogue of Newton's F=ma. On p. 142, Logunov points out that Einstein wrote reviews for the Beiblätter Annalen der Physik, writing 21 reviews in 1905. In his view, this contradicts the claims that Einstein worked in relative isolation and with limited access to the scientific literature. Among the papers reviewed in the Beiblätter in the fourth (of 24) issue of 1905, there is a review of Lorentz' 1904 paper by Richard Gans, which contains the Lorentz transformations. In Logunov's view, this supports the view that Einstein was familiar with the Lorentz' paper containing the correct relativistic transformation in early 1905, while his June 1905 paper does not mention Lorentz in connection with this result. Harvey R. Brown (2005) Harvey R. Brown (2005) (who favors a dynamical view of relativistic effects similar to Lorentz, but "without a hidden aether frame") wrote about the road to special relativity from Michelson to Einstein in section 4: p. 40: "The cradle of special theory of relativity was the combination of Maxwellian electromagnetism and the electron theory of Lorentz (and to a lesser extent of Larmor) based on Fresnel's notion of the stationary aether....It is well known that Einstein's special relativity was partially motivated by this failure [to find the aether wind], but in order to understand the originality of Einstein's 1905 work it is incumbent on us to review the work of the trailblazers, and in particular Michelson, FitzGerald, Lorentz, Larmor, and Poincaré. After all they were jointly responsible for the discovery of relativistic kinematics, in form if not in content, as well as a significant portion of relativistic dynamics as well." Regarding Lorentz's work before 1905, Brown wrote about the development of Lorentz's "theorem of corresponding states" and then continued: p. 54: "Lorentz's interpretation of these transformations is not the one Einstein would give them and which is standardly embraced today. Indeed, until Lorentz came to terms with Einstein's 1905 work, and somehow despite Poincaré's warning, he continued to believe that the true coordinate transformations were the Galilean ones, and that the 'Lorentz' transformations ... were merely a useful formal device..." p. 56. "Lorentz consistently failed to understand the operational significance of his notions of 'local' time...He did however have an intimation of time dilation in 1899, but inevitably there are caveats...The hypotheses of Lorentz's system were starting to pile up, and the spectre of ad hocness was increasingly hard to ignore." Then the contribution of Poincaré's to relativity: p. 62: "Indeed, the claim that this giant of pure and applied mathematics co-discovered special relativity is not uncommon, and it is not hard to see why. Poincaré was the first to extend the relativity principle to optics and electrodynamics exactly. Whereas Lorentz, in his theorem of corresponding states, had from 1899 effectively assumed this extension of the relativity principle up to second-order effects, Poincaré took it to hold for all orders. Poincaré was the first to show that Maxwell's equations with source terms are strictly Lorentz covariant. … Poincaré was the first to use the generalized relativity principle as a constraint on the form of the coordinate transformations. He recognized that the relativity principle implies that the transformations form a group, and in further appealing to spatial isotropy. … Poincaré was the first to see the connection between Lorentz's ‘local time’, and the issue of clock synchrony. … It is fair to say that Poincaré was the first to understand the relativity of simultaneity, and the conventionality of distant simultaneity. Poincaré anticipated Minkowski's interpretation of the Lorentz transformations as a passive, rigid rotation within a four-dimensional pseudo-Euclidean spacetime. He was also aware that the electromagnetic potentials transform in the manner of what is now called a Minkowski 4-vector. He anticipated the major results of relativistic dynamics (and in particular the relativistic relations between force, momentum and velocity), but not E=mc² in its full generality." However, Brown continued with the reasons which speak against Poincaré's co-discovery: p. 63–64: "What are the grounds for denying Poincaré the title of co-discoverer of special relativity? ... Although Poincaré understood independently of Einstein how the Lorentz transformations give rise to non-Galilean transformation rules for velocities (indeed Poincaré derived the correct relativistic rules), it is not clear that he had a full appreciation of the modern operational significance attached to coordinate transformations.... he did not seem to understand the role played by the second-order terms in the transformation. Compared with the cases of Lorentz and Larmor, it is even less clear that Poincaré understood either length contraction or time dilation to be a consequence of the coordinate transformation.... What Poincaré was holding out for was no less than a new theory of ether and matter – something far more ambitions than what appeared in Einstein's 1905 relativity paper...p. 65. Like Einstein half a decade later, Poincaré wanted new physics, not a reinterpretations or reorganization of existing notions." Brown denies the idea of other authors and historians, that the major difference between Einstein and his predecessors is Einstein's rejection of the aether, because, it is always possible to add for whatever reason the notion of a privileged frame to special relativity, as long as one accepts that it will remain unobservable, and also Poincaré argued that "some day, no doubt, the aether will thrown aside as useless". However, Brown gave some examples, what in his opinion were the new features in Einstein's work: p. 66: "The full meaning of relativistic kinematics was simply not properly understood before Einstein. Nor was the 'theory of relativity' as Einstein articulated it in 1905 anticipated even in its programmatic form." p. 69. "How did Albert Einstein...arrive at his special theory of relativity?...I want only to stress that it is impossible to understand Einstein's discovery (if that is the right word) of special relativity without taking on board the impacts of the quantum in physics." p. 81. "In this respect [Brown refers to the conventional nature of distant simultaneity] Einstein was doing little more than expanding on a theme that Poincaré had already introduced. Where Einstein goes well beyond the great mathematician is in his treatment of the coordinate transformations... In particular, the extraction of the phenomena of length contraction and time dilation directly from the Lorentz transformations in section 4 of the 1905 paper is completely original." After that, Brown develops his own dynamical interpretation of special relativity as opposed to the kinematical approach of Einstein's 1905 paper (although he says that this dynamical view is already contained in Einstein's 1905 paper, "masqueraded in the language of kinematics", p. 82), and the modern understanding of spacetime. Roger Cerf (2006) Roger Cerf (2006) gave priority to Einstein for developing special relativity, and criticized the assertions of Leveugle and others concerning the priority of Poincaré. While Cerf agreed that Poincaré made important contributions to relativity, he argued (following Pais) that Poincaré "stopped short before the crucial step" because he handled length contraction as a "third hypothesis", therefore Poincaré lacked a complete understanding of the basic principles of relativity. "Einstein's crucial step was that he abandoned the mechanistic ether in favor of a new kinematics." He also denies the idea, that Poincaré invented E=mc² in its modern relativistic sense, because he did not realize the implications of this relationship. Cerf considers Leveugle's Hilbert–Planck–Einstein connection an implausible conspiracy theory. Shaul Katzir (2005) Katzir (2005) argued that "Poincaré's work should not be seen as an attempt to formulate special relativity, but as an independent attempt to resolve questions in electrodynamics." Contrary to Miller and others, Katzir thinks that Poincaré's development of electrodynamics led him to the rejection of the pure electromagnetic world view (due to the non-electromagnetic Poincaré stresses introduced in 1905), and Poincaré's theory represents a "relativistic physics" which is guided by the relativity principle. In this physics, however, "Lorentz's theory and Newton's theory remained as the fundamental bases of electrodynamics and gravitation." Scott Walter (2005, 2007) Walter (2005) argues that both Poincaré and Einstein put forward the theory of relativity in 1905. And in 2007 he wrote, that although Poincaré formally introduced four-dimensional spacetime in 1905/6, he was still clinging to the idea of "Galilei spacetime". That is, Poincaré preferred Lorentz covariance over Galilei covariance when it is about phenomena accessible to experimental tests; yet in terms of space and time, Poincaré preferred Galilei spacetime over Minkowski spacetime, and length contraction and time dilation "are merely apparent phenomena due to motion with respect to the ether". This is the fundamental difference in the two principal approaches to relativity theory, namely that of "Lorentz and Poincaré" on one side, and "Einstein and Minkowski" on the other side. See also History of Lorentz transformations History of special relativity Criticism of relativity theory#Accusations of plagiarism and priority discussions List of scientific priority disputes General relativity priority dispute Multiple discovery Notes Citations References Works of physics (primary sources) [Ein05c] : Albert Einstein: Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper, Annalen der Physik 17(1905), 891–921. Received June 30, published September 26, 1905. Reprinted with comments in [Sta89], p. 276–306 English translation, with footnotes not present in the 1905 paper, available on the net [Ein05d] : Albert Einstein: Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energiegehalt abhängig?, Annalen der Physik 18(1905), 639–641, Reprinted with comments in [Sta89], Document 24 English translation available on the net [Ein06] : Albert Einstein: Das Prinzip von der Erhaltung der Schwerpunktsbewegung und die Trägheit der Energie Annalen der Physik 20(1906):627–633, Reprinted with comments in [Sta89], Document 35 [Ein15a]: Einstein, A. (1915) "Die Feldgleichungun der Gravitation". Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 844–847. [Ein15b]: Einstein, A. (1915) "Zur allgemeinen Relativatstheorie", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 778–786 [Ein15c]: Einstein, A. (1915) "Erklarung der Perihelbewegung des Merkur aus der allgemeinen Relatvitatstheorie", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 799–801 [Ein15d]: Einstein, A. (1915) "Zur allgemeinen Relativatstheorie", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 831–839 [Ein16]: Einstein, A. (1916) "Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie", Annalen der Physik, 49 [Hil24]: Hilbert, D., Die Grundlagen der Physik – Mathematische Annalen, 92, 1924 – "meiner theorie" quote on page 2 – online at Uni Göttingen – index of journal [Lan05]:Langevin, P. (1905) "Sur l'origine des radiations et l'inertie électromagnétique", Journal de Physique Théorique et Appliquée, 4, pp. 165–183. [Lan14]:Langevin, P. (1914) "Le Physicien" in Henri Poincaré Librairie (Felix Alcan 1914) pp. 115–202. [Lor99]:Lorentz, H. A. (1899) "Simplified Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Systems", Proc. Acad. Science Amsterdam, I, 427–43. [Lor04]: Lorentz, H. A. (1904) "Electromagnetic Phenomena in a System Moving with Any Velocity Less Than That of Light", Proc. Acad. Science Amsterdam, IV, 669–78. [Lor11]:Lorentz, H. A. (1911) Amsterdam Versl. XX, 87 [Lor14]:. [Pla07]:Planck, M. (1907) Berlin Sitz., 542 [Pla08]:Planck, M. (1908) Verh. d. Deutsch. Phys. Ges. X, p218, and Phys. ZS, IX, 828 [Poi89]:Poincaré, H. (1889) Théorie mathématique de la lumière, Carré & C. Naud, Paris. Partly reprinted in [Poi02], Ch. 12. [Poi97]:Poincaré, H. (1897) "The Relativity of Space", article in English translation [Poi00] : . See also the English translation [Poi02] : [Poi04] : English translation as The Principles of Mathematical Physics, in "The value of science" (1905a), Ch. 7–9. [Poi05] : [Poi06] : [Poi08] : [Poi13] : [Ein20]: Albert Einstein: "Ether and the Theory of Relativity", An Address delivered on May 5, 1920, in the University of Leyden. [Sta89] : John Stachel (Ed.), The collected papers of Albert Einstein, volume 2, Princeton University Press, 1989 Further reading Nándor Balázs (1972) "The acceptability of physical theories: Poincaré versus Einstein", pages 21–34 in General Relativity: Papers in Honour of J.L. Synge, L. O'Raifeartaigh editor, Clarendon Press. External links Discovery and invention controversies Albert Einstein Hendrik Lorentz Henri Poincaré Theory of relativity E. T. Whittaker

4022792

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USCGC%20Cowslip

USCGC Cowslip

USCGC Cowslip (WLB-277) is a sea going buoy tender (WLB). A Cactus-class vessel, she was built by Marine Ironworks and Shipbuilding Corporation in Duluth, Minnesota. Cowslips preliminary design was completed by the United States Lighthouse Service and the final design was produced by Marine Iron and Shipbuilding Corporation in Duluth. On 16 September 1941 the keel was laid. She was launched on 11 April 1942 and commissioned on 17 October 1942. The original cost for the hull and machinery was $918,873. Cowslip is one of 39 original seagoing buoy tenders built between 1942–1944. All but one of the original tenders, the , were built in Duluth. After commissioning, Cowslip was assigned to Boston, Massachusetts, where she served until 1944. From 1944 until 1973, it was assigned to Portland, Maine. Cowslip was decommissioned in 1973 and later sold to a civilian firm in 1977. After the loss of in 1980, the Coast Guard reacquired Cowslip and recommissioned her as a replacement. After recommissioning, Cowslip was assigned to Governor's Island, New York from 1981–1983. From 1983–1984, she was moved to the Coast Guard yard in Curtis Bay, Maryland to take part in the Coast Guard's Service Life Extension Program (SLEP) that eventually provided major upgrades for 14 of the 39 180-class ships. The work done to Cowslip, which cost $8.9 million, was completed in 1984 and required 16 months. The upgrades included new main engines, a Marine Sanitation Device system, upgraded electronics and navigation equipment, a propulsion control computer, and a central fluid power system. In addition, the ships's berthing spaces were renovated, the ship's office and radio room were expanded, additional storeroom space was added and the boom control booth was relocated. After renovation, Cowslip was assigned to Portsmouth, Virginia, where she stayed until 1995. In 1995 Cowslip moved to the west coast and called Astoria, Oregon home port until her retirement. One notable incident in Cowslip's career is a collision with the container ship Ever Grade that occurred in the Columbia River in 1997. Although sustaining significant damage, Cowslip was repaired and sent back into service. Cowslip was decommissioned for a second time in November 2002 and sold to the Nigerian Navy for use as a general purpose vessel. References External links Cactus-class seagoing buoy tenders Historic American Engineering Record in Oregon 1942 ships Ships built in Duluth, Minnesota Ships of the Nigerian Navy Ships transferred from the United States Coast Guard to the Nigerian Navy

4022877

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Engineering%20%26%20Scientific%20Commission

National Engineering & Scientific Commission

The National Engineering & Scientific Commission (NESCOM) () is a Pakistani multinational corporation and a defense contractor that develops, designs and sells defense hardware, including missile and weapon systems worldwide. The company was initially funded and formed by the Government of Pakistan to support its domestic production of weapon system through private partnership, initially having the Navy and Air Force as its baseline customers. In 2007, it was reported that NESCOM had exported military equipment worth approximately $40 million annually to various countries in the Middle East, South East Asia, and Africa. According to then-Chairman Samar Mubarakmand, NESCOM had developed various communication systems and electronic counter-measures systems for the Pakistan Air Force and Pakistan Navy. History National Engineering & Scientific Commission (NESCOM) was formed in 2000 by amalgamating the National Development Complex, Air Weapons Complex, Maritime Technologies Complex and the Project Management Organization. In the early 2000s, NESCOM rapidly achieved several firsts. Among them, was the development of the Shaheen family of missiles, the Babur ground-launched cruise missile and the Ra'ad air-launched cruise missile. Organization In 2004, it was revealed by then-Director Samar Mubarakmand that NESCOM was organized into divisions, with each division being headed by a top scientist of international repute having around 600-1000 engineers and technicians under his supervision. The following organizations are grouped together under NESCOM: National Development Complex - responsible for the development of Pakistan's ground-based, solid-fueled ballistic missiles and cruise missile systems PMO - responsible for the development of ground-launched cruise missiles and other surface-to-air and surface-to-surface ammunition Air Weapons Complex - responsible for the development of air-launched cruise missiles and other air-to-air and air-to-surface ammunition Maritime Technologies Complex - responsible for the development of maritime defense systems including ship design, radars, sonar equipment, weapon launch systems. Research Divisions Aerospace Missiles & Rockets Electronics & Electro-optics C4ISR & Navigation Ammunition Land systems Naval systems Materials & Chemical systems Cyber securities Notable Products & Projects Ballistic Missile Systems Nasr - solid-fueled hypersonic Tactical ballistic missile system with a range of 70-90 kilometres (km). Abdali - solid-fueled short-range ballistic missile (SRBM) system with a range of 200 km. Ghaznavi - short-range ballistic missile system with a range of 320 km. Shaheen-I - solid-fueled ballistic missile system with a reported range of 900 km. The Shaheen was Pakistan's first solid-fueled missile. The missile project began in 1995 and the development and design was carried out by NESCOM's predecessor, the National Development Complex (NDC). Shaheen-IA - an upgraded version of the Shaheen-I with a range of 1000 km. The upgrade was supposedly carried out by NESCOM in the early 2000s and supposedly included a terminal guidance system, improved radar-avoidance capability and stealth features. Ababeel - solid-fueled multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV)-capable ballistic missile system with a reported range of 2,200 km. Shaheen-II - solid-fueled medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM) system with a reported range of 2,500 km. Shaheen-III - solid-fueled ballistic missile system with a reported range of 2,750 km. Land-Based Guided Missile Systems Babur-I - ground-launched anti ship and land attack cruise missile with a reported range of 700 km to 900 km Babur-II - an upgraded ground-launched anti ship and land attack cruise missile of Babur-I with a reported range of 750 km Ship-Based Guided Missile Systems Harbah - ship-launched anti ship and land attack cruise missile derived from Babur-II with an estimated range of 750 km Submarine-Based Guided Missile Systems Babur-III - submarine-launched anti ship and land attack cruise missile derived from Babur-II with a reported range of 450 km Air-to-Surface Guided Missile Systems Barq - air-launched laser-guided missile carried on the Burraq UCAV, reported range of 8 to 12 km Ra'ad - air-launched cruise missile with an original range of 350 km Ra'ad-II - an upgraded air-launched cruise missile of Ra'ad reported range of 600 km Air-to-Air Missiles Air-to-air missile research – It was reported in November 2001 that the Aerospace Division of NDC was doing "preliminary studies" for developing a new medium range air-to-air missile. According to the report no full scale hardware had yet been built but investigations by NDC engineers into various design approaches were ongoing. The report stated that suggested that the missile may use active radar homing. Guided Bombs H-2 SOW – precision-guided munition H-4 SOW – precision-guided munition Unguided Bombs 250 kg – Pre-fragmented bomb 250 kg Mk.82 – General-purpose bomb 500 kg Mk.83 – General-purpose bomb 1000 kg Mk.84 – General-purpose bomb HAFR-1, HAFR-2 and RPB-1 – Anti-runway Bombs (possibly variants of the Matra Durandal) 6 kg, 11 kg Practice bombs Depleted Uranium Ammunition 105 mm anti-tank round – a DU APFSDS anti-tank round developed to be fired by Type 59 tanks (upgraded with 105 mm guns) in service with the Pakistan Army. Reported to have a muzzle velocity of 1,450 m/s and be capable of penetrating 450 mm of rolled homogeneous armour (RHA) at an unspecified range. Naiza (125 mm anti-tank round) – a DU APFSDS anti-tank round developed to be fired by T-80UD tanks in service with the Pakistan Army. A model of the round was put on display at the IDEX 2001 exhibition in the United Arab Emirates and it was stated to have a DU long rod penetrator, performance 25% greater than NDC's 105 mm DU round and a saddle-type sabot with re-arranged forward bore-rider for more accurate alignment with the T-80UD's autoloader. Displayed at IDEAS 2002 alongside DU rounds produced by other Pakistani organisations. Reportedly named "Naiza", made compatible with the T-80UD tank and stated to be capable of penetrating 550 mm of RHA. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Anka - unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) - (Jointly produce with Turkish aerospace company Turkish Aerospace Industries) Burraq - unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) Naval Systems Starfish Naval Mine – a naval mine that targets submarines and ships, details on the mine were first released in 2001. Can be deployed by aircraft, ships and submarines. Makes use of solid state electronics. The mine's attack modes are controlled by a microprocessor which uses magnetic, acoustic and pressure sensors to analyse a potential target's signature. Sensors are mounted flush to both ends of the mine's cylindrical (barrel) shape. It is unknown if the mine has a self-destruct mechanism. Weight: 767 kg, warhead: 500 kg HE (PBX charge), storage life: 20 years. MSL Advanced Towed Array Sonar (ATAS) – a towed array sonar developed by Maritime Systems Ltd. (MSL) and MTC to replace old systems in service with the Pakistan Navy and for export. Project started during the 1990s, Commodore Sarfraz appointed as program chief. System was designed to cope with Arabian Sea environment and is stated to be superior to foreign systems being offered for export. Expected to be installed on Agosta 70 and Agosta 90B class submarines currently in service with the Pakistan Navy, also being integrated with the Agosta 90B's SUBTICS combat management system, as well as future vessels to be acquired by the Pakistan Navy such as new submarines and corvettes. Naval Training Simulator – programmable training system. Simulates maritime sensors and weapon systems of aircraft, warships and submarines under any weather or sea conditions. Installed on the Jalalat II class fast attack craft of the Pakistan Navy. Shore-based/ship-based electronic warfare system Ship-borne display consoles References Military research of Pakistan Research institutes in Pakistan Pakistani engineering organisations Pakistan federal departments and agencies 2000 establishments in Pakistan Guided missile manufacturers Unmanned aerial vehicle manufacturers of Pakistan Defence companies of Pakistan

4022923

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corazones

Corazones

Corazones is the fourth studio album by the Chilean rock band Los Prisioneros, released in 1990. Produced by the Argentine Gustavo Santaolalla, in conjunction with Aníbal Kerpel on the EMI label, it was recorded, mixed and mastered in Los Angeles, California being the first album recorded outside of Chile. It was distributed overseas by the Capitol label. Background Before the production of the album, Corazones, between July and August 1989, the group Los Prisioneros recorded at the Konstantinopla Studios owned by Carlos Cabezas Rocuant, "Beaucheff 1435". Whose name is due to the musician's home address Jorge González, where the songs on the album were composed the vast majority. A part of these themes were known in 1996 with the album compilation Ni Por La Razon, Ni Por La Fuerza, and the other remain in public knowledge with Internet. Some of these songs mixed melancholic melodies, more intimate lyrics and a couple of dance songs, all led by synthesizers and programmed drums, highlighting pieces such as "En forma de pez", "Ella espera" and "Las sierras electricas". The sound of the album is a continuation of the sonic search for La cultura de la basura, but with elements of house. In addition, González's acute social vision finds its place in "Las sierras eléctricas", with the romantic counterpart of "En forma de pez": a 7-minute suite inspired by Martin Gore from Depeche Mode. González left for Los Angeles, California in October 1989 with only the company of the band's manager, Carlos Fonseca, since Tapia was unable to obtain a visa to enter the United States. Narea had distanced herself after seeing his role as guitarist and occasional songwriter increasingly diminished. The production of the album began without the collaboration of Claudio Narea, who left the group in the middle of the work process, in the midst of love problems that were finally reflected in the lyrics distributed on the album. Narea's departure was marked by the hidden relationship between his wife and Gonzalez, but he also had a musical artist: "He did not agree with the sound that the group's leader wanted to give the trio, influenced by synthesizers and electropop that unfolded in the '80." Finally "Corazones" was dominated under Argentine producer Gustavo Santaolalla, who had recognition with his band Arco Iris and collaborating on records for Wet Picnic and León Gieco. All of their previous albums had been produced by González, however Santaolalla brought an "astounding new level of polish" to the band, infusing jagged electronic melodies with "soaring pop" production and regional instruments like the charango to solidify a sonic identity that was "originally and unquestionably Latin American". Release Corazones was released on May 20, 1990 on EMI label. It was certified with four platinum records for selling 180,000 copies. His first single was "Tren al Sur" was released on May 7, 1990, prior to his official release. Reception In 1990, Jorge was chosen as the composer of the year by the Chilean Copyright Society. In 2006 was chosen as the by Al Borde, and in 2008 as the ninth by Rolling Stone. Artwork The album cover was photographed by Alejandro Barruel and designed by Vicente "Vicho" Vargas, The cover shows González wearing a white shirt with blood on the heart, however the bloodstain is on the opposite side of, this error was not corrected until the 1995 edition. The shirt used was purchased by manager Carlos Fonseca for the photo in a Paris store, located on Lyon venue. "We just knew that Claudio had left. It was very strange to take photos without him", recalled Fonseca. Legacy and influence Some of the album tracks were covered by some singers like: "Amiga mía", covered by Javiera Mena for the 2012 movie Joven y Alocada, Fakuta, covered the song "Cuentame una historia original". Produced by Vicente Sanfuentes and Lego Mustache, the song "Estrechez de corazón" was covered by Carlos Cabezas, Francisca Valenzuela, and the group Villa Cariño. Being recorded in Triana studios by the famous engineer Gonzalo González, with a music video directed by Felipe Foncea. In the tribute album to Jorge González, "Nada es para Siempre", the musicians Gepe and Javiera Mena, accompanied by Cecilia Aguayo, Uwe Schmidt, Felipe Carbone, and Gonzalo Yáñez performed a version of "Cuentame una historia original". In 2020 David Eidelstein, the bassist of Los Tetas known as "Rulo", covered the song "Estrechez de corazón". Track listing Side A Side B References 1990 albums Los Prisioneros albums Spanish-language albums

4022980

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore%20Stock%20Exchange

Bangalore Stock Exchange

Bangalore Stock Exchange (BgSE), was a public stock exchange based in Bangalore, India fully owned by Government of India. It was founded in 1963 and had 595 regional and non-regional companies listed. In September 2005, the BgSE announced plans to go public by divesting at least 51% of its ownership. The stock exchange was managed by a Council of Management, consisting of members appointed by the Securities and Exchange Board of India. It was the first stock exchange in South India to start electronic trading of securities in 1996. To keep pace with the fast changing technology and financial system, the Exchange went online in 1996. The Exchange had come a long way since the launch of BEST (Bangalore Electronic Securities Trading), its online trading system on 29 July 1996. The Exchange had 241 members serving the diverse needs of investors. The corporate members constitute more than 25% of the total membership of the Exchange. Members operate within the overall framework of policies and practices developed over a period of time by the Exchange. As on 7 Jan 2014, 330 companies were listed on the Exchange. In December 2008, SEBI had issued guidelines and laid down the framework for exit by stock exchanges. As per SEBI norms, a stock exchange, whose annual trading turnover on its platform was less than Rs 1,000 crore, can apply for voluntary surrender of recognition and exit, while a bourse which fails to achieve a turnover of Rs 1,000 crore, would be subject to compulsory exit process. The shareholders of BgSE in its annual general body meeting held on 21 September 2013 passed the resolution to apply to SEBI for exiting as a stock exchange through voluntary surrender of recognition. Following this, BgSE had made a request to SEBI for its exit as stock exchange on 8 October 2013. SEBI on 26 December 2014 permitted BgSE to exit from the bourse business. See also List of stock exchanges in the Commonwealth of Nations References External links Economy of Bangalore Former stock exchanges in India 1963 establishments in Mysore State Financial services companies established in 1963

4022987

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basics%20%28Star%20Trek%3A%20Voyager%29

Basics (Star Trek: Voyager)

"Basics" comprises the 42nd and 43rd episodes of the American science fiction television Star Trek: Voyager, the cliffhanger between the second season and the third season. In this episode, the Federation starship Voyager, alone in the Delta Quadrant, is lured into a trap which leads to the ship being commandeered by the hostile Kazon, who forcibly remove the ship's crew to an inhospitable planet. This was a two-part episode, but in two different seasons; Part I aired on May 20, 1996 as the finale of Season 2 and Part II aired on September 4, 1996 as the opener of Season 3. The show was originally broadcast on the UPN network. Parts I & II were written by Michael Piller and directed by Winrich Kolbe. These are the last two episodes of Star Trek written by Piller, who left the series after the second season as the day-to-day executive producer of the series. He would be credited as a Creative Consultant for the remainder of the series' run, though his last contribution to the franchise would be Star Trek: Insurrection two years later. The episodes were also later released on VHS, LaserDisc, and DVD. Plot Part I Ensign Lon Suder, having been confined to his quarters for life as punishment for his murder of Crewman Darwin, has attempted to make amends by making several agricultural advancements. His homicidal tendencies seem to be well under control through the use of Vulcan mental disciplines learned from Tuvok. Seska calls Voyager stating that Commander Chakotay must rescue her and her newborn baby, since Culluh saw that the child was not his. Captain Janeway and Chakotay argue on whether or not to save his son, whether it is a trap or a real plea for help. In the ready-room, everyone thinks up ideas to fight the Kazon in the event of a trap. An apparent defector of the Kazon is soon found on a stranded ship and taken on board to Sickbay, and explains his predicament, although Chakotay remains suspicious — especially when he mentions Seska's death. As Voyager travels further into Kazon space, facing heavier attacks that seem focused at the same general area of the ship, the man commits suicide in a violent explosion, which severely damages Suder's quarters and disables several of Voyager's systems. As Voyager is overwhelmed by the Kazon, Lt. Paris takes a shuttle to find a Talaxian colony for aid. Voyager is boarded and taken over by Kazon forces. Captain Janeway attempts to activate the ship's self-destruct sequence to prevent the Kazon from taking the ship, but the system that controls this ability was damaged in earlier Kazon skirmishes, revealing the true strategy of the Kazon. Part II The crew is marooned on a barren planet inhabited by primitive, hostile natives. Only two crew members are left on board Voyager, the Doctor and Suder, who was presumed dead in the explosion. It is revealed by the Doctor that Culluh, not Chakotay, is the father of Seska's baby. Suder hides in the vents and Jefferies tubes of the ship, having a crisis of conscience after he is forced to kill a Kazon soldier. Meanwhile, on the planet, crewman Hogan is devoured by a gigantic worm creature. The natives of the planet kidnap Kes and Neelix. Chakotay attempts to negotiate for their return, but this fails and he, Kes and Neelix are forced to hide in one of the caverns that the giant worm lives in. The natives attempt to smoke them out with a fire. Back at camp, Ensign Wildman's baby Naomi falls ill and Chakotay's team is still missing. Janeway gathers her own crew to search for Chakotay. Inside the caverns, a mis-step leads to a crew member being eaten by the worm. Janeway has Lt. Torres and two others distract the natives. The diversion works, allowing them to extinguish the fire and save the rest of the crew. The worm ends up buried under tons of rock dislodged by Tuvok and others as they escape. Suder, accompanied by the Doctor, risks his life to repel the Kazon. Suder, under orders from Paris, attacks the engineering section of Voyager. He succeeds in sabotaging the ship's phasers, but is shot in the back by a dying Kazon and dies moments later. The Kazon then attempt to destroy Paris' shuttle but the sabotaged phasers overload, killing most of the Kazon and forcing them to abandon Voyager. Seska herself is mortally wounded; she stumbles into Janeway's ready room and dies next to her child, who survived. Maje Culluh takes the baby and leaves. Volcanic eruptions on the planet have forced the Voyager crew and the natives to migrate together. Chakotay gains the respect of the natives when he rescues one of their children from a lava flow. The leader of the tribe gathers together plants that heal Naomi. The crew and the natives both watch in bewilderment as Voyager descends to the planet to pick them up. Tom Paris greets Janeway and the crew on the bridge and tells of Suder's bravery. In Sickbay, Tuvok wishes that Suder may find the peace he could not in life. The natives wave farewell as Voyager departs. Notes Martha Hackett, whose character Seska is killed off this episode, received two copies of the script; the first where Seska survived, but her baby died and the second as was aired. She was only told that Seska was to die less than a day before filming. She would return to play the character twice more in the series. The first part of this episode contains a muffed line from Mulgrew (Janeway) that seemingly went unnoticed during production. When the character was supposed to say "work with The Doctor on it, B'Elanna" during a staff meeting, she instead said "work on The Doctor with it, B'Elanna". Reception In 2017, ScreenRant rated "Basics" as the 6th most hopeful episode of Star Trek. They point out how the crew works together to survive despite the bleak situation they are placed in. This episode was noted for Captain Janeway wearing her hair in a pony-tail style. This marked the exit of Seska, a character that SyFy rated as among the top 21 most interesting supporting characters of Star Trek, and CBR ranked Seska the 18th best recurring character of Star Trek shows. CBR elaborate, "Martha Hackett was fantastic in the part, showcasing Seska’s transformation from supposedly loyal fighter to a scheming vixen." In 2020, Gizmodo listed "Basics" as one of the "must watch" episodes from the show. In 2021, The Digital Fix praised the episode overall but was critical of the elimination of Suder and Seska. For example, they were pleased with the on-stage dynamic between actors Robert Picardo (The Doctor) and Dourif (Suder), and Suder's "redemptive" character arc, but lamented the exit of Suder. Likewise, they were happy with Seska, who they called the "most interesting reoccurring" character on the show and said her death was unnecessary. Releases This episode was released on the United Kingdom on LaserDisc in April 1998. The 12 inch optical disc used both sides for 88 minutes of runtime in PAL format, and it retailed for £19.99. Both parts of Basics were released in the U.K. paired with "Future's End" as "feature length adventures" on VHS (VHR 5071). "Basics, Part I" was also released on VHS in the U.K. paired with "Resolutions". "Basics, Part II" was released with "Flashback" on VHS in the United Kingdom, on one cassette, Star Trek: Voyager 3.1 - Basics, Part II/Flashback. "Basics, Part II" was released on DVD on July 6, 2004 as part of Star Trek Voyager: Complete Third Season, with a Dolby 5.1 surround. In 2017, the complete Star Trek: Voyager television series was released in a DVD box set, this included "Basics, Part I" on Disc 7 with special features of that season at the end of season 2, and "Basics, Part II" as part of season 3. References External links Star Trek: Voyager (season 2) episodes Star Trek: Voyager (season 3) episodes 1996 American television episodes Star Trek: Voyager episodes in multiple parts

4023110

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kip%20Carpenter

Kip Carpenter

"Kip Carpenter" was also a nickname of Richard Carpenter (screenwriter) Kip Carpenter (born April 30, 1979) is an American speed skater who competed in the 2002 Winter Olympics, as well as the 2006 Winter Olympics, winning a bronze medal in the 500 meter race at the 2002 games, while also skating the fastest lap in Olympic history in the 500 meter race with a time of 24.87 for a 400 meter. He was a member of the USA National Sprint Team, as well as the DSB Corporate Sprint Team, being coached by Ryan Shimabukuro and Jeroen Otter. At the end of the 2007-2008 season Kip retired from professional speed skating to coach an elite speed skating team Swift Speedskating in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Currently, he is the assistant coach for the Dutch National Team. Background Kip was born in Kalamazoo, Michigan. He later moved to Brookfield, Wisconsin to train at the U.S Olympic Training Facility, the Pettit National Ice Center, in Milwaukee. A former short-track speed skater, Carpenter made the transition to long track in 1998. Three years later, he placed among the top dozen in the 500m at the 2001 World Single Distance Championships. He is best known for his flawless form on the turns from his years skating short track which gives him a distinct advantage over most skaters. Since Salt Lake Kip continues to be one of the best American sprinters, finishing second in the overall U.S. Sprint Championships standings in 2004. He's also been a force on the international scene, finishing in the top 10 in the 500m, 1000m and overall standings at both the 2003 and 2004 World Sprints Championships. Carpenter also tallied two top 10 finishes in the 500m (eight and seventh) at the 2003 and 2004 World Single Distance Championships, and was sixth in the 1000m in 2004. Carpenter finished eighth in the 500m at the 2005 World Single Distance Championships and ranked 11th in the 500m and 12th in the 1000m in the 2006/2007 World Cup standings, as well as finishing 15th in the 500m and 12th in the 1000m in the 2007/2008 World Cup standings. Started skating in 1983...father skated for fun and passed the sport on to Kip and his brother Cory...first ice rink was in his backyard and during the winter his father would line the backyard with plastic and flood it with a hose...Kip and Cory would push chairs around the ice to learn how to balance...considers his greatest accomplishment as being an Olympic bronze medalist from the Salt Lake Games because "it's something an athlete dreams and works towards for their entire career. It was a dream come true"...cites his strongest influences to be his mother's struggle through surviving breast cancer, and Coach Mike Crowe teaching him "incredible skating technique and the ability to think outside the box"...also cites a "fire inside that burns to represent my country well and do 'right' for America and American athletics"...owns an Italian greyhound named "Swift"...plans to get a degree in business...enjoys listening to techno, electronic, dance and industrial music...favorite foods are pizza and olives...favorite movies are "Fight Club", "Interview With The Vampire", Minority Report" and "The Matrix". References External links PB's Kip and a link to results International Championships Photos of Kip Carpenter Kip's U.S. Olympic Team bio 1979 births Living people American male speed skaters Speed skaters at the 2002 Winter Olympics Speed skaters at the 2006 Winter Olympics Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in speed skating People from Brookfield, Wisconsin Sportspeople from Waukesha County, Wisconsin Medalists at the 2002 Winter Olympics Sportspeople from Kalamazoo, Michigan Speed skating coaches

4023115

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FTPmail

FTPmail

FTPmail is the term used for the practice of using an FTPmail server to gain access to various files over the Internet. An FTPmail server is a proxy server which (asynchronously) connects to remote FTP servers in response to email requests, returning the downloaded files as an email attachment. This service might be useful to users who cannot themselves initiate an FTP session—for example, because they are constrained by restrictions on their Internet access. History During the early years of the Internet, Internet access was limited to a few locations. High speed links were not available for most users, and online connectivity was rare and expensive. Download of large files (then considered to be over a few megabytes) was nearly impossible due to bandwidth limitations, as well as frequent errors and lost connections. The original FTP specification did not allow for a session to be resumed, and the transmission had to restart from the beginning. FTPmail gateways allowed people to retrieve such files. The file was broken into smaller pieces and encoded using a popular format such as uuencode. The receiver of the email messages would later reassemble the original file and decode it. As the file was broken into smaller pieces, the chances of losing the transmission was much smaller. In case of loss of connectivity, the transmission could be restarted from that part. The process was slower but much more reliable. It also allowed people who accessed the Internet only through email using dial-up lines to download files that were located remotely. Unlike FTP, files could be transferred through FTPmail even if the user did not have an online Internet connection (for example, using BBSes or other specialized e-mail software). Servers located at universities, such as and , were popular. Some of these servers hosted software archives containing early versions of Linux and other GNU software. Access to these repositories via FTPmail was instrumental in allowing people from foreign countries to access these tools at a time where online connectivity was impossible from their location. FTPmail services were common in the early 1990s, but dwindled in importance as more users gained direct internet access through SLIP, PPP and other Dial-up access internet protocols. FTP also has lost popularity in favor of other methods for file transfer, notably HTTP which is available to virtually all Internet users. Procedure An email is sent to a FTPmail server with the command to be performed, inserted as the body of the message. The server then processes the request by logging on to the remote site, retrieving the file, encoding it, and returning the result via email. Basic commands used References See also File Transfer Protocol Servers (computing) File Transfer Protocol

4023171

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynan%20Robinson

Kynan Robinson

Kynan Robinson is an Australian trombonist and composer. He is most commonly associated with jazz but also performs and composes in many other styles. Career Robinson was born in Australia but spent his childhood in Bangladesh as a child of Christian missionary parents. They lived there for fifteen years and were the only white people in the village. He returned to Australia to complete high school. His career and accomplishments are remarkable in their own right but take on extra significance when one considers the breadth of fields he has excelled in. He is a composer and musician with a formidable record and reputation. His extensive, diverse and very well regarded and reviewed body of work, place him in a position of status and reputation with the Australian art scene. He received a bachelor's degree in music from the Victorian College of the Arts which he built on completing a master's degree in composition in 2010. Robinson formed a contemporary improvisation quintet named En Rusk performing his open original compositions. The band toured Australia a number of times. They recorded their debut self-titled CD in 2001 and in 2004 finished their second recording, 1000 Wide. In 2005 he formed The Escalators, which released an album entitled Wrapped in Plastic, compositions and concepts inspired by the films of David Lynch. He also established a reputation in electronic/techno/sample-based music. Continuing his recording and touring career mainly with the iconic and iconoclastic dance/performance act, Des Peres (originally known as Old Des Peres) and second with Hard Hat, a group that brings together electronic and acoustic musicians. Both acts toured Australia and internationally regularly performing at the largest summer festivals around Australia and internationally. Des Peres completed their debut album in 2004. The album was released through Flict/Shock. Their second album Ace Doubt was released in 2006 through Flit/MGM. Des Peres combines a theatrical stage approach with a sample-heavy sound. While playing with the band, Robinson adopts the name Old Des and works very with Luva DJ (Michelle Robinson) and Mr. Ection (visual artist and brother Kiron Robinson) as well as guitarist Tom Bass and Kelsey James. Their third album was entitled The Adventures of Cowboy and Miniman. His musical output and vast creativity is reflected in his ability to genre hop with seeming ease. In 2010 he formed co-led the groundbreaking Australian Jazz band Collider, a band he co-leads with Melbourne saxophonist Adam Simmons. Combining a traditional jazz ensemble with orchestral and improvising string players the uniqueness of the ensembles sound couple with their outstandingly high-performance ability created the space Robinson needed to write and perform his most courageous and what many in the Australian media consider his most personal works. "Solo in Red" was a large form composition composed by Robinson, performed by Collider and commissioned by the Melbourne Writers Festival. Its thematic material was drawn from the writings of American novelist Cormac McCarthy. In particular his epic novel Blood Meridian. Beyond music the completed work also involved a highly technical and moving video work, a lighting design and narration with excerpts from the book narrated on stage. Solo in Red was released as an Audi recording at the same time then and also rebased a second album titled Words. With the majority of the music inspired by authors Robinson and Simmons had personal affinity to it was appropriately titled "Words". Over a 30-year career Robinson has toured and recorded with many of Melbourne and Australia's leading, musical innovators including C.W. Stoneking, Brian Brown, and the Melbourne Ska Orchestra, The Adam Simmons Toy Band, BucketRider, and countless more. He has composed music for jazz ensembles, dance productions, musical theatre, contemporary classical ensembles, and electronic dance acts and has had his compositions performed in festivals around the world. In 2001 he was a collaborative composer for Double Venturi, a collaborative piece involving musicians and funded by Arts Victoria. In 2004 he received funding through the Australia Council to compose a concert-length work for prepared piano and small ensemble that was premiered at the Wangaratta Festival of Jazz. He also has scored the music to six short films and has collaborated in numerous cross arts projects with visual artists including Kiron Robinson, Narinda Reevers, and Dave Macleod. Robinson has won three ARIA awards, considered Australis's top musical prize. Contribution to the field of education Research – Complexity, Creativity, Identity Beyond music he is considered one of Australia's leading voices in the field of systemic educational change. His doctoral thesis, titled Enabling Collective Creativity in Schools using Minecraft: Serious Play framed learning and education within complexity thinking and is considered an important addition to contemporary Western Education. The unique approach Robinson took to every aspect of the research including the findings have been used as guideposts for how education might consider its move forward. Dr. Dennis Sumara a leading researcher and writer in the fields of complexity thinking and education wrote of Robinson's work "Kynan Robinson has written an exceptional dissertation, one that challenges not only genre and form of the dissertation but also the very methods used by educational researchers. By combining expository, narrative and explicitly fictional text Robinson as author performs the very theories he is exploring. In so doing, both the written forms and the theoretical positions both undermine and exceed one another. It is a wholly unique presentation of both the process and products...I consider this work by Robinson to be an important contribution to the field of education. The work is unique, creative and, in important ways disruptive." Situated in complexity theory the thesis covered the broad area of creativity re-conceptualise creativity within Australian mainstream education, as being something that continually emerges from collective process. In doing so, many of the key characteristics of the Australian education system, were analysed for the role they played in enabling or hindering creativity within a school. Minecraft was a key pedagogical tool used to filter this aspects through to reimagine them. The research was situated within a larger Australian Research Council funded linkage project, LP110200309, Serious play: Using digital games in school to promote literacy and learning in the twenty-first century. The data for Robinson's research were generated from the narratives of 136 students, five teachers and a primary school situated in the inner suburbs of Melbourne. Their story revolves around a 10-week unit of work which saw the 136 students experientially leave this earth and inhabit another planet, Aurora 56Z. Aurora 56Z was located within the game Minecraft. Creativity was central to the work. Robinson re-conceptualised creativity within Australian mainstream education, shifting its definition away from an individual-centred perspective to a complexity-framed definition; something that is socially constructed and evident as emergent phenomenon rising from adaptive complex systems. In doing so, many of the key characteristics of the Australian education system, such as its complexity, its hierarchical systemic structure and also the minutiae that make up a school environment including curriculum, architecture, reflection practice and tools, and teaching and pedagogy, were analysed for the role they played in enabling or hindering creativity within a school. Complexity theory was fundamental to all aspects of this research project. It framed and shaped the design of both the thesis and the 10 week unit of work being studied. It was the binding lens through which data was extracted and analysed. Non-conventional methods of data collection included the Minecraft server and the student-produced Wiki. Both of these digital platforms became data repositories, holding and mapping the majority of the learning and teaching that happened before, during and after the 10 weeks allocated to this unit of work. In Robinson's words – "I immersed myself in the world of the students, teachers and school as I wrote this thesis, leading to the development of my exploratory and practice led approach to the data analysis. In the process of analysing the server data I wrote a novel, set on Aurora 56Z, casting the young people as the characters and the 'ruins' of the server as the setting. This immersion in the world, and reinterpretation of the stagnant server into a lively text based upon what I found on the server and the students' Wiki pages, helped me to understand more deeply the creative learning process of the curriculum unit." While the type and scale were unique, this method of data generation and analysis does build upon the limited literature on post-qualitative method. In doing so, it offers a different way to think about methodology. The findings of this study included: 1. Situating pedagogies framed in complexity have limited scope in the current discourse around mainstream Australian education. 2. There is a role for pedagogies that arise out of new and conflicting discourses (e.g., complexity theory). Its place and role are one of continual 'deterritorialization and reterritorialization' (Deleuze & Guattari 1987; Roy 2003). Despite existing only on the edge of the discourse, their mere existence is evidence of the potential for change. 3. Digital games based on complexity, such as the MMO game Minecraft, have a place in education and are enablers of systemic creativity. 4. The students in the study were developing new and previously unnamed multithreaded identities through their complex game design and play. Robinson labelled this new form of identity Vellooming. The conclusions revealed throughout have enriched future theorisation about the use of new pedagogies framed in complexity, the 'how' and 'why' of education, and the use of Massively Multiplayer Online (MMO) games such as Minecraft. The research also added to the small but growing knowledge base of research methodologies framed in complexity, providing a viable and visible account of how to work with key concepts of postmodern emergence. A Velloming Identity "Robinson described a Vellooming Identity as one that that is in a state of constant shifting, never still, and constantly emerging. Vellooming is a fictional word used to describe the experience many children have when they join the online world. It is a form of transportation, movement, and exploration. It can be free of the bounds of time, space, and gravity, and instead is multidimensional. This research argues for a new form of identity made possible by the digital world. I have named it a Vellooming identity." "A rudimentary understanding and simplistic description of Vellooming would be to describe it as the ability to...or the act of...travelling across, to, and from multiple Structures—to change Looms." The frame to understand a Vellooming identity is poststructuralism. A vellooming identity might be seen as conceptually similar to Deleuze's ideas of identities of 'nomadic thought' and his use of the rhizome. There are also commonalities in Foucault's Theory of Discourse in that when describing a Vellooming identity Robinson rejects the idea of the self as an absolute, rather viewing it as a controlling agent of power created by Reductionism. Where Robinson's Vellooming Identity moves forward from Deleuze's and Foucault's positions is where he finds links to the connected web. A Vellooming identity is not linked to time but rather other, and in the idea of continually becoming other. His doctoral thesis and publications since have also demanded for a new understanding of what learning is and offered a redefining of creativity. Robinson redefines creativity as a continual, collective experience. In this he shifts significantly from the standard reductionist and modernist definitions. In their framing identity is intrinsically tied to the idea of the individual and it is measurable e.g. he or she is creative, he.. less so. In these framings it is also often presented as a trait that one might process. The reductionist definition embraces the identity of the creative genius as the measure of creativity. Comparatively, in Robinson's understanding phrases such as emergence and continual becoming as metaphors for this new definition. By doing so he links it to the Vellooming identity. The Vellooming Identity and Collective Creativity as emergence have strong parallels to similar emerging identities he speaks of often in his work, identities of Continually Becoming Other. His redefining of creativity linked to the naming of a new form of identity has opened up new possibilities in the space of learning, knowledge and formal education. Business In 2020 Robinson founded the Global Consultancy firm EnRusk. It was with this organisation that Robinson began to enact the theoretical ideas alongside the processes and tools he had developed over a lifetime of study and creation. The firm's focus was always complete, systemic, global educational reform. Robinson believed the change went beyond education to what he referred to as a global mindset. He is committed to help shift the global mindset away from the dominant reductionist mindset to a connected one nested in Complexity. Robinson company was formed to enact this change and in that the resultant ways of being and doing. Increased connectivity, collective learning and collective creativity are at the heart of both the theoretical frame and the work that results. At its heart his work rejects Reductionism and replaces it with a world view that embraces ambiguity continual change and continual creativity. Again, the idea of the self is non existent in this theoretical space replaced with an identity of continual becoming other. His achievements and creations across every field he works is be that music, education, commerce and technology have always displayed this mindset and have been tools of communication for Robinson. In 2010 he was recognised and awarded with the ICTEV Educational Leader of the Year Award. He is considered a leader in the field of Complexity Thinking as it relates to Education and the Arts. Discography As leader En Rusk (Newmarket Music) 2001 En Rusk – 1000 Wide (Newmarket Music) 2003 Old Des Peres – Preserved (Flict/Shock) 2004 Des Peres – Ace Doubt (Flict/MGM)2006 Des Peres – The Adventures of Cowboy and Miniman (House of Pow/Amphead)2008 The Escalators – Wrapped in Plastic (Jazz Head) Collider – Words (House of Pow) Collider – Solo in Red (House of Pow) As sideman Adam Simmons Toy Band – Happy Jacket Melbourne Acid Techno (Dark Matter Records) Sample Synthesis 4 and 5 (Clan Analogue Records) Paul Colman Trio – Turn (Control Records) Matt Fagan Malone – This is it (Cavalier Music) The Mavis's – Throwing Little Stones (FMR) City City City (Remote Control Records) Skazz of Melbourne 5+2 Ensemble – Invisible Cities and other Works (Rufus) C.W. Stoneking – Jungle Blues Melbourne Ska Orchestra Remixes Machine Translations (Spunk) Film scores The Only Person in the World – Ben Chessell 3 Weeks in Koh Samui – Alistair Reid From The Top – Alistair Reid Is God a DJ – Ben Chessell Installations Double Venturi – Collaborative composition with Garth Paine 2001 The Slow Burn – Collaborative composition with Erik Griswold 2004 Grants and awards Australia Council Promotion and Presentation (En Rusk Recording) 2004 Australia Council New Works 2005 Arts Victoria Music for the Future Recording (Des Peres) 2005 Arts Victoria Music for the Future Touring (Des Peres) 2005 D.C.I.T.A. Touring (Des Peres) 2005 References 7. O'Mara, J. and Robinson, K., 2017. Mining the Cli-Fi world: renegotiating the curriculum using Minecraft. Serious play: literacy, learning and digital games, pp. 114–131. 8. Robinson, K., 2014. Games, Problem Based Learning and Minecraft. The Journal of Digital Learning and Teaching Victoria, 1(1), pp. 32–45. Robinson, K., 2014. Games, Problem Based Learning and Minecraft. The Journal of Digital Learning and Teaching Victoria, 1(1), pp. 32–45. External links Official website Living people Australian jazz trombonists 21st-century trombonists Year of birth missing (living people)

4023246

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes%20Plendl

Johannes Plendl

Johannes "Hans" Plendl (6 December 1900 – 10 May 1991), German radar pioneer, was the scientist whose airplane navigation inventions made possible the early German bombing successes in World War II. Early life Plendl was born in 1900 in Munich, German Empire to parents from Northern Bavaria. His surname is most likely a truncated Bavarian dialect form of "Plendlein." Plendl served briefly in the Imperial German Navy during World War I. Shortly thereafter, Plendl began his career as a radio and beam engineer for Telefunken corporation. His early research into meter-wave propagation and radar beams necessitated additional names for newly discovered levels of the Earth's atmosphere, and Plendl is generally credited with coining the term ionosphere. In the early 1930s, he worked on developing the radio communications used in flights by civilian aircraft and the Hindenburg Zeppelin. His research and developments with the Lorenz beam landing system gave birth to what is now known as ILS, Instrument Landing System. X-System As Nazi Germany rearmed, Plendl and others saw the possibilities of using radio beams to guide bombers to their target, and they began to develop a system under the code name "X-System" (X-Verfahren). Using technology previously used for his Lorenz beam landing system, Plendl developed a system that would guide planes to their target, and which improved the accuracy of bombing at night or in poor weather conditions. This work was conducted for the German Airforce (Luftwaffe) at the Airforce Experimental Station (Erprobungstelle der Luftwaffe) at Rechlin, Germany, and also at Peenemünde. At the same time the system code named "Knickebein" was coined by the Telefunken electronics firm. Although it could use the Lorenz landing system for guidance, it was less accurate and more prone to jamming. Both systems employed transmitter towers on the English channel and the North Sea to transmit radar beams over targets in England. German bombers carried basic radar detectors and complex timing devices, also invented by Dr. Plendl, to lead them on the correct path and to guide the timing of the release of their bombs. When Germany invaded Poland, the X-System was used effectively against military targets, but on a limited basis, due to the few planes equipped with the X-Device (X-Gerät, the electronic component of the system carried in the plane.) and the short duration of the campaign. During the air war over the England and Scotland known as The Battle of Britain the Knickebein, X-System and Y-System were all used extensively, but their effectiveness was diminished by countermeasures developed by Reginald Victor Jones and other British scientists, who were able use electronic countermeasures to redirect or jam the radio signals of the navigation systems in what has become known as the Battle of the Beams. Dr. Plendl was given the title of state plenipotentiary and privy councillor (Staatsrat) by Hermann Göring for his work. He was named National Director of High Frequency Research (Bevollmächtigten der Hochfrequenzforschung). Plendl was dismissed by the German High Command after holding the post for about a year and was replaced by Abraham Esau in December 1943. Sources differ as to why he was dismissed, including that it was after a heavy raid upon Hamburg where the British used a special counterradar technique called Window or chaff, or was due to his saving several people from death in concentration camps, by claiming he needed their (non-existent) "expertise" to help his beam program. Plendl's own account was that it was after he had a heated argument with Generaloberst Weise, the Chief of Flak over areas of responsibility after Plendl developed a new type of Flak shell. Move to America At the end of the war, Plendl surrendered to the Americans. Like other German scientists, he was invited to come to the United States to aid in American weapons development, as part of "Operation Paperclip." U.S. government records noted that he had regularly voiced opposition to the Nazi regime. Particularly noteworthy was the fact that Plendl had saved a number of people, including many Jews, from the Dachau concentration camp, under the guise of needing them to work on his projects Many of these individuals had no scientific background. In this manner, Plendl differed from other German scientists, who voiced no opposition to the regime. The most notable figure who Plendl saved was Hans Mayer, the author of the Oslo Report. In sending this report to the British Government in November 1939 just after the beginning of the war, Mayer performed perhaps the most serious breach of German security in World War II, although this was not known to his colleagues (or the Gestapo) at that time. Mayer had been the Director of the Siemens Research Laboratory in Berlin, up to his arrest in 1943 for listening to the BBC and criticising the Nazi regime. Plendl appointed Mayer to head a radio laboratory even though Mayer's expertise was in telephony, and not in radio. Plendl finished his military career in the United States Air Force, at their Cambridge Research Laboratory. He specialized in the field of solid-state physics. Later life Plendl helped Karl-Otto Kiepenheuer establish a Europe-wide network of stations observing the solar activity in order to predict disturbances of the Ionosphere that interrupted the military radio connections. Plendl and Kiepenheuer may so be seen as the fathers of the science now called space weather, A considerable part of their network prevailed after the war in one or another organisation. In 1970, Plendl retired to Europe, taking residence in Italy. R.V. Jones, the British scientist who had worked on the other end of the channel to jam Plendl's beams, became a good friend, and the two corresponded regularly and collaborated on several books. Further reading Brown, Louis. A Radar History of World War II. Jones, R.V. Most Secret War. Niehaus, Werner. Die Radarschlacht. William Kimber and Co. Maier, Helmut Forschung als Waffe. Rüstungsforschung in der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft und das Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Metallforschung 1900–1945/48. Bd. 2. Wallstein-Verlag, 2007, p. 776 p. 1012. Price, Alfred. Instruments of Darkness. William Kimber and Co. Ray, John The Night Blitz. Seiler, Michael P. 2006; Kommandosache "Sonnengott". Geschichte der deutschen Sonnenforschung im Dritten Reich und unter alliierter Besatzung. Frankfurt: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Harri Deutsch Trenkle, Fritz. Zum 90. Geburtstag von Hans Plendl, Funkgeschichte, 78: 3–5, 1991. Wakefield, Ken. Pfadfinder: Luftwaffe Pathfinder Operations Over Britain, 1940–44. Notes 1900 births 1991 deaths German people of World War II Scientists from Munich People from the Kingdom of Bavaria Radio pioneers Operation Paperclip

4023295

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level%20sensor

Level sensor

Level sensors detect the level of liquids and other fluids and fluidized solids, including slurries, granular materials, and powders that exhibit an upper free surface. Substances that flow become essentially horizontal in their containers (or other physical boundaries) because of gravity whereas most bulk solids pile at an angle of repose to a peak. The substance to be measured can be inside a container or can be in its natural form (e.g., a river or a lake). The level measurement can be either continuous or point values. Continuous level sensors measure level within a specified range and determine the exact amount of substance in a certain place, while point-level sensors only indicate whether the substance is above or below the sensing point. Generally the latter detect levels that are excessively high or low. There are many physical and application variables that affect the selection of the optimal level monitoring method for industrial and commercial processes. The selection criteria include the physical: phase (liquid, solid or slurry), temperature, pressure or vacuum, chemistry, dielectric constant of medium, density (specific gravity) of medium, agitation (action), acoustical or electrical noise, vibration, mechanical shock, tank or bin size and shape. Also important are the application constraints: price, accuracy, appearance, response rate, ease of calibration or programming, physical size and mounting of the instrument, monitoring or control of continuous or discrete (point) levels. In short, level sensors are one of the very important sensors and play very important role in a variety of consumer/ industrial applications. As with other types of sensors, level sensors are available or can be designed using a variety of sensing principles. Selection of an appropriate type of sensor suiting to the application requirement is very important. Point and continuous level detection for solids A variety of sensors are available for point level detection of solids. These include vibrating, rotating paddle, mechanical (diaphragm), microwave (radar), capacitance, optical, pulsed-ultrasonic and ultrasonic level sensors. Vibrating point These detect levels of very fine powders (bulk density: ), fine powders (bulk density: ), and granular solids (bulk density: or greater). With proper selection of vibration frequency and suitable sensitivity adjustments, they can also sense the level of highly fluidized powders and electrostatic materials. Single-probe vibrating level sensors are ideal for bulk powder level. Since only one sensing element contacts the powder, bridging between two probe elements is eliminated and media build-up is minimized. The vibration of the probe tends to eliminate build-up of material on the probe element. Vibrating level sensors are not affected by dust, static charge build-up from dielectric powders, or changes in conductivity, temperature, pressure, humidity or moisture content. Tuning-fork style vibration sensors are another alternative. They tend to be less costly, but are prone to material buildup between the tines, Rotating paddle Rotating paddle level sensors are a very old and established technique for bulk solid point level indication. The technique uses a low-speed gear motor that rotates a paddle wheel. When the paddle is stalled by solid materials, the motor is rotated on its shaft by its own torque until a flange mounted on the motor contacts a mechanical switch. The paddle can be constructed from a variety of materials, but tacky material must not be allowed to build up on the paddle. Build-up may occur if the process material becomes tacky because of high moisture levels or high ambient humidity in the hopper. For materials with very low weight per unit volume such as Perlite, Bentonite or fly ash, special paddle designs and low-torque motors are used. Fine particles or dust must be prevented from penetrating the shaft bearings and motor by proper placement of the paddle in the hopper or bin and using appropriate seals. Admittance-type An RF admittance level sensor uses a rod probe and RF source to measure the change in admittance. The probe is driven through a shielded coaxial cable to eliminate the effects of changing cable capacitance to ground. When the level changes around the probe, a corresponding change in the dielectric is observed. This changes the admittance of this imperfect capacitor and this change is measured to detect change of level. Point level detection of liquids Typical systems for point level detection in liquids include magnetic and mechanical floats, pressure sensors, electroconductive sensing or electrostatic (capacitance or inductance) detectors—and by measurement of a signal's time-of-flight to the fluid surface, through electromagnetic (such as magnetostrictive), ultrasonic, radar or optical sensors. Magnetic and mechanical float The principle behind magnetic, mechanical, cable, and other float level sensors often involves the opening or closing of a mechanical switch, either through direct contact with the switch, or magnetic operation of a reed. In other instances, such as magnetostrictive sensors, continuous monitoring is possible using a float principle. With magnetically actuated float sensors, switching occurs when a permanent magnet sealed inside a float rises or falls to the actuation level. With a mechanically actuated float, switching occurs as a result of the movement of a float against a miniature (micro) switch. For both magnetic and mechanical float level sensors, chemical compatibility, temperature, specific gravity (density), buoyancy, and viscosity affect the selection of the stem and the float. For example, larger floats may be used with liquids with specific gravities as low as 0.5 while still maintaining buoyancy. The choice of float material is also influenced by temperature-induced changes in specific gravity and viscosity – changes that directly affect buoyancy. Float-type sensors can be designed so that a shield protects the float itself from turbulence and wave motion. Float sensors operate well in a wide variety of liquids, including corrosives. When used for organic solvents, however, one will need to verify that these liquids are chemically compatible with the materials used to construct the sensor. Float-style sensors should not be used with high viscosity (thick) liquids, sludge or liquids that adhere to the stem or floats, or materials that contain contaminants such as metal chips; other sensing technologies are better suited for these applications. A special application of float-type sensors is the determination of interface level in oil-water separation systems. Two floats can be used with each float sized to match the specific gravity of the oil on one hand, and the water on the other. Another special application of a stem type float switch is the installation of temperature or pressure sensors to create a multi-parameter sensor. Magnetic float switches are popular for simplicity, dependability and low cost. A variation of magnetic sensing is the "Hall effect" sensor which utilizes the magnetic sensing of a mechanical gauge's indications. In a typical application, a magnetism-sensitive "Hall effect sensor" is affixed to a mechanical tank gauge that has a magnetized indicator needle, so as to detect the indicating position of the gauge's needle. The magnetic sensor translates the indicator needle position into an electrical signal, allowing other (usually remote) indication or signalling. Pneumatic Pneumatic level sensors are used where hazardous conditions exist, where there is no electric power or its use is restricted, or in applications involving heavy sludge or slurry. As the compression of a column of air against a diaphragm is used to actuate a switch, no process liquid contacts the sensor's moving parts. These sensors are suitable for use with highly viscous liquids such as grease, as well as water-based and corrosive liquids. This has the additional benefit of being a relatively low cost technique for point level monitoring. A variation of this technique is the "bubbler", which compresses air into a tube to the bottom of the tank, until the pressure increase halts as the air pressure gets high enough to expel air bubbles from the bottom of the tube, overcoming the pressure there. The measurement of the stabilized air pressure indicates the pressure at the bottom of the tank, and, hence, the mass of fluid above. Conductive Conductive level sensors are ideal for the point level detection of a wide range of conductive liquids such as water, and is especially well suited for highly corrosive liquids such as caustic soda, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, ferric chloride, and similar liquids. For those conductive liquids that are corrosive, the sensor's electrodes need to be constructed from titanium, Hastelloy B or C, or 316 stainless steel and insulated with spacers, separators or holders of ceramic, polyethylene and Teflon-based materials. Depending on their design, multiple electrodes of differing lengths can be used with one holder. Since corrosive liquids become more aggressive as temperature and pressure increase, these extreme conditions need to be considered when specifying these sensors. Conductive level sensors use a low-voltage, current-limited power source applied across separate electrodes. The power supply is matched to the conductivity of the liquid, with higher voltage versions designed to operate in less conductive (higher resistance) mediums. The power source frequently incorporates some aspect of control, such as high-low or alternating pump control. A conductive liquid contacting both the longest probe (common) and a shorter probe (return) completes a conductive circuit. Conductive sensors are extremely safe because they use low voltages and currents. Since the current and voltage used is inherently small, for personal safety reasons, the technique is also capable of being made intrinsically safe to meet international standards for hazardous locations. Conductive probes have the additional benefit of being solid-state devices and are very simple to install and use. In some liquids and applications, maintenance can be an issue. The probe must continue to be conductive. If buildup insulates the probe from the medium, it will stop working properly. A simple inspection of the probe will require an ohmmeter connected across the suspect probe and the ground reference. Typically, in most water and wastewater wells, the well itself with its ladders, pumps and other metal installations, provides a ground return. However, in chemical tanks, and other non-grounded wells, the installer must supply a ground return, typically an earth rod. State dependent frequency monitor A microprocessor controlled frequency state change detection method uses a low amplitude signal generated on multiple sensor probes of differing lengths. Each probe has a frequency separate from all other probes in the array and independently changes state when touched by water. The state change of the frequency on each probe is monitored by a microprocessor which can perform multiple water level control functions. A strength of state dependent frequency monitoring is long term stability of the sensing probes. The signal strength is not sufficient to cause fouling, degradation, or deterioration of the sensors due to electrolysis in contaminated water. Sensor cleaning requirements are minimal or eliminated. Use of multiple sensing rods of different length allows the user to intuitively set up control switches at various water heights. The microprocessor in a state dependent frequency monitor can actuate valves and/or large pumps with very low power consumption. Multiple switch controls can be built in to small package while providing complex, application specific functionality using the microprocessor. Low power consumption of the controls is consistent across large and small field applications. This universal technology is used in applications with wide-ranging liquid quality. Sensors for both point level detection and continuous monitoring Ultrasonic Ultrasonic level sensors are used for non-contact level sensing of highly viscous liquids, as well as bulk solids. They are also widely used in water treatment applications for pump control and open channel flow measurement. The sensors emit high frequency (20 kHz to 200 kHz) acoustic waves that are reflected back to and detected by the emitting transducer. Ultrasonic level sensors are also affected by the changing speed of sound due to moisture, temperature, and pressures. Correction factors can be applied to the level measurement to improve the accuracy of measurement. Turbulence, foam, steam, chemical mists (vapors), and changes in the concentration of the process material also affect the ultrasonic sensor's response. Turbulence and foam prevent the sound wave from being properly reflected to the sensor; steam and chemical mists and vapors distort or absorb the sound wave; and variations in concentration cause changes in the amount of energy in the sound wave that is reflected back to the sensor. Stilling wells and waveguides are used to prevent errors caused by these factors. Proper mounting of the transducer is required to ensure the best response to reflected sound. In addition, the hopper, bin, or tank should be relatively free of obstacles such as weldments, brackets, or ladders to minimise false returns and the resulting erroneous response, although most modern systems have sufficiently "intelligent" echo processing to make engineering changes largely unnecessary except where an intrusion blocks the line of sight of the transducer to the target. Since the ultrasonic transducer is used both for transmitting and receiving the acoustic energy, it is subject to a period of mechanical vibration known as "ringing". This vibration must attenuate (stop) before the echoed signal can be processed. The net result is a distance from the face of the transducer that is blind and cannot detect an object. It is known as the "blanking zone", typically 150 mm to 1 m, depending on the range of the transducer. The requirement for electronic signal processing circuitry can be used to make the ultrasonic sensor an intelligent device. Ultrasonic sensors can be designed to provide point level control, continuous monitoring or both. Due to the presence of a microprocessor and relatively low power consumption, there is also the capability for serial communication from to other computing devices making this a good technique for adjusting calibration and filtering of the sensor signal, remote wireless monitoring or plant network communications. The ultrasonic sensor enjoys wide popularity due to the powerful mix of low price and high functionality. Capacitance Capacitance level sensors excel in sensing the presence of a wide variety of solids, aqueous and organic liquids, and slurries. The technique is frequently referred to as RF for the radio frequency signals applied to the capacitance circuit. The sensors can be designed to sense material with dielectric constants as low as 1.1 (coke and fly ash) and as high as 88 (water) or more. Sludges and slurries such as dehydrated cake and sewage slurry (dielectric constant approx. 50) and liquid chemicals such as quicklime (dielectric constant approx. 90) can also be sensed. Dual-probe capacitance level sensors can also be used to sense the interface between two immiscible liquids with substantially different dielectric constants, providing a solid state alternative to the aforementioned magnetic float switch for the "oil-water interface" application. Since capacitance level sensors are electronic devices, phase modulation and the use of higher frequencies makes the sensor suitable for applications in which dielectric constants are similar. The sensor contains no moving parts, is rugged, simple to use, and easy to clean, and can be designed for high temperature and pressure applications. A danger exists from build-up and discharge of a high-voltage static charge that results from the rubbing and movement of low dielectric materials, but this danger can be eliminated with proper design and grounding. Appropriate choice of probe materials reduces or eliminates problems caused by abrasion and corrosion. Point level sensing of adhesives and high-viscosity materials such as oil and grease can result in the build-up of material on the probe; however, this can be minimized by using a self-tuning sensor. For liquids prone to foaming and applications prone to splashing or turbulence, capacitance level sensors can be designed with splashguards or stilling wells, among other devices. A significant limitation for capacitance probes is in tall bins used for storing bulk solids. The requirement for a conductive probe that extends to the bottom of the measured range is problematic. Long conductive cable probes (20 to 50 meters long), suspended into the bin or silo, are subject to tremendous mechanical tension due to the weight of the bulk powder in the silo and the friction applied to the cable. Such installations will frequently result in a cable breakage. Optical interface Optical sensors are used for point level sensing of sediments, liquids with suspended solids, and liquid-liquid interfaces. These sensors sense the decrease or change in transmission of infrared light emitted from an infrared diode (LED). With the proper choice of construction materials and mounting location, these sensors can be used with aqueous, organic, and corrosive liquids. A common application of economical infrared-based optical interface point level sensors is detecting the sludge/water interface in settling ponds. By using pulse modulation techniques and a high power infrared diode, one can eliminate interference from ambient light, operate the LED at a higher gain, and lessen the effects of build-up on the probe. An alternate approach for continuous optical level sensing involves the use of a laser. Laser light is more concentrated and therefore is more capable of penetrating dusty or steamy environments. Laser light will reflect off most solid, liquid surfaces. The time of flight can be measured with precise timing circuitry, to determine the range or distance of the surface from the sensor. Lasers remain limited in use in industrial applications due to cost, and concern for maintenance. The optics must be frequently cleaned to maintain performance. Microwave Microwave sensors are ideal for use in moist, vaporous, and dusty environments as well as in applications in which temperatures and pressures vary. Microwaves (also frequently described as radar), will penetrate temperature and vapor layers that may cause problems for other techniques, such as ultrasonic. Microwaves are electromagnetic energy and therefore do not require air molecules to transmit the energy making them useful in vacuums. Microwaves, as electromagnetic energy, are reflected by objects with high conductive properties, like metal and conductive water. Alternately, they are absorbed in various degrees by 'low dielectric' or insulating mediums such as plastics, glass, paper, many powders and food stuffs and other solids. Microwave sensors are executed in a wide variety of techniques. Two basic signal processing techniques are applied, each offering its own advantages: pulsed or time-domain reflectometry (TDR) which is a measurement of time of flight divided by the speed of electromagnetic waves in the medium (speed of light divided by the square root of the dielectric constant of the medium ), similar to ultrasonic level sensors, and Doppler systems employing FMCW techniques. Just as with ultrasonic level sensors, microwave sensors are executed at various frequencies, from 1 GHz to 60 GHz. Generally, the higher the frequency, the more accurate, and the more costly. Microwave is executed non-contact technique or guided. The first is done by monitoring a microwave signal that is transmitted through free space (including vacuum) and reflected back, or can be executed as a "radar on a wire" technique, generally known as guided wave radar or guided microwave radar. In the latter technique, performance generally improves in powders and low dielectric media that are not good reflectors of electromagnetic energy transmitted through a void (as in non-contact microwave sensors). This technique can use application specific waveguides to get more accurate results or additional information required for sensor application (e.g. some sensors can use tank parts or other equipment as a waveguide or its part). It's common practice to use remote waveguides, when waveguide is distanced from electronic part (commonly for reservoirs with harsh conditions, radiation, or boiling under high pressure liquids/gases, etc.). But with the guided technique the same mechanical constraints exist that cause problems for the capacitance (RF) techniques mentioned previously by having a probe in the vessel. Non contact microwave-based radar sensors are able to see through low conductivity 'microwave-transparent' (non-conductive) glass/plastic windows or vessel walls through which the microwave beam can be passed and measure a 'microwave reflective' (conductive) liquid inside (in the same way as to use a plastic bowl in a microwave oven). They are also largely unaffected by high temperature, pressure, vacuum or vibration. As these sensors do not require physical contact with the process material, so the transmitter /receiver can be mounted a safe distance above/from the process, even with an antenna extension of several meters to reduce temperature, yet still respond to the changes in level or distance changes e.g. they are ideal for measurement of molten metal products at over 1200 °C. Microwave transmitters also offer the same key advantage of ultrasonics: the presence of a microprocessor to process the signal, provide numerous monitoring, controls, communications, setup and diagnostic capabilities and are independent of changing density, viscosity and electrical properties. Additionally, they solve some of the application limitations of ultrasonics: operation in high pressure and vacuum, high temperatures, dust, temperature and vapor layers. Guided wave radars can measure in narrow confined spaces very successfully, as the guide element ensures correct transmission to and from the measured liquid. Applications such as inside stilling tubes or external bridles or cages, offer an excellent alternative to float or displacement devices, as they remove any moving parts or linkages and are unaffected by density changes or build up. They are also excellent with very low microwave reflectivity products like liquid gasses (LNG, LPG, ammonia) which are stored at low temperatures/high pressures, although care needs to be taken on sealing arrangements and hazardous area approvals. On bulk solids and powders, GWR offers a great alternative to radar or ultrasonic sensors, but some care needs to be taken over cable wear and roof loading by the product movement. One perceived major disadvantage of microwave or radar techniques for level monitoring is the relatively high price of such sensors and complex set up. However, price has reduced significantly over the last few years, to match those of longer range ultrasonics, with simplified set up of both techniques also improving ease of use. Continuous level measurement of liquids Magnetostrictive Magnetostrictive level sensors are similar to float type sensors in that a permanent magnet sealed inside a float travels up and down a stem in which a magnetostrictive wire is sealed. Ideal for high-accuracy, continuous level measurement of a wide variety of liquids in storage and shipping containers, these sensors require the proper choice of float based on the specific gravity of the liquid. When choosing float and stem materials for magnetostrictive level sensors, the same guidelines described for magnetic and mechanical float level sensors apply. Magnetostrictive level and position devices charge the magnetostrictive wire with electric current, when the field intersects the floats' magnetic field a mechanical twist or pulse is generated, this travels back down the wire at the speed of sound, like ultrasound or radar the distance is measured by time of flight from pulse to return pulse registry. the time of flight corresponds to the distance from the sensor detecting the return pulse. Because of the accuracy possible with the magnetostrictive technique, it is popular for "custody-transfer" applications. It can be permitted by an agency of weights and measures for conducting commercial transactions. It is also frequently applied on magnetic sight gages. In this variation, the magnet is installed in a float that travels inside a gage glass or tube. The magnet operates on the sensor which is mounted externally on the gage. Boilers and other high temperature or pressure applications take advantage of this performance quality Resistive chain Resistive chain level sensors are similar to magnetic float level sensors in that a permanent magnet sealed inside a float moves up and down a stem in which closely spaced switches and resistors are sealed. When the switches are closed, the resistance is summed and converted to current or voltage signals that are proportional to the level of the liquid. The choice of float and stem materials depends on the liquid in terms of chemical compatibility as well as specific gravity and other factors that affect buoyancy. These sensors work well for liquid level measurements in marine, chemical processing, pharmaceuticals, food processing, waste treatment, and other applications. With the proper choice of two floats, resistive chain level sensors can also be used to monitor for the presence of an interface between two immiscible liquids whose specific gravities are more than 0.6, but differ by as little as 0.1 unit. Magnetoresistive Magnetoresistance float level sensors are similar to float level sensors however a permanent magnet pair is sealed inside the float arm pivot. As the float moves up the motion and location are transmitted as the angular position of the magnetic field. This detection system is highly accurate down to 0.02° of motion. The field compass location provides a physical location of the float position. The choice of float and stem materials depends on the liquid in terms of chemical compatibility as well as specific gravity and other factors that affect buoyancy of the float. The electronic monitoring system does not come in contact with the fluid and is considered intrinsically safe or explosion proof. These sensors work well for liquid level measurements in marine, vehicle, aviation, chemical processing, pharmaceuticals, food processing, waste treatment, and other applications. Due to the presence of a microprocessor and low power consumption, there is also capability for serial communication from to other computing devices making this a good technique for adjusting calibration and filtering of the sensor signal. Hydrostatic pressure Hydrostatic pressure level sensors are submersible or externally mounted pressure sensors suitable for measuring the level of corrosive liquids in deep tanks or water in reservoirs. Typically, fluid level is determined by the pressure at the bottom of the fluid containment (tank or reservoir); the pressure at the bottom, adjusted for the density / specific gravity of the fluid, indicates the depth of the fluid. For these sensors, using chemically compatible materials is important to assure proper performance. Sensors are commercially available from 10 mbar to 1000 bar. Since these sensors sense increasing pressure with depth and because the specific gravities of liquids are different, the sensor must be properly calibrated for each application. In addition, large variations in temperature cause changes in specific gravity that should be accounted for when the pressure is converted to level. These sensors can be designed to keep the diaphragm free of contamination or build-up, thus ensuring proper operation and accurate hydrostatic pressure level measurements. For use in open air applications, where the sensor cannot be mounted to the bottom of the tank or pipe thereof, a special version of the hydrostatic pressure level sensor, a level probe, can be suspended from a cable into the tank to the bottom point that is to be measured. The sensor must be specially designed to seal the electronics from the liquid environment. In tanks with a small head pressure (less than 100 INWC), it is very important to vent the back of the sensor gauge to atmospheric pressure. Otherwise, normal changes in barometric pressure will introduce large error in the sensor output signal. In addition, most sensors need to be compensated for temperature changes in the fluid. Operation Pressure level probes are submerged directly into the liquid and remain permanently floating above the tank bottom.  The measurement is carried out according to the hydrostatic principle. The gravity pressure of the liquid column causes an expansion of the pressure-sensitive sensor element, which converts the measured pressure into an electrical standard signal. The connecting cable of level probes has several tasks to fulfil. In addition to the power supply and signal forwarding, the level sensor is held in place by the cable. The cable also includes a thin air tube that directs the ambient air pressure to the level probe. Level probes are therefore usually designed as relative pressure sensors, which use the current ambient pressure as the zero point of their measuring range. Without this so-called relative pressure compensation, level probes would not only measure the hydrostatic pressure but also the air pressure on the liquid column. At sea level, this is about 1013 mbar - which would correspond to the pressure exerted by a water column ten meters high.  In addition, a variable air pressure would affect the measurement result. Typical air pressure fluctuations of about +/- 20 mbar, corresponding to +/- 20 cmWs (water column). For deep well designs, the Sealed Gauge measuring principle is also used. From a depth of approx. 20 m, the relative pressure can only be compensated to a limited extent by the thin hose. The level sensor is then designed as an absolute pressure transmitter whose zero point is adjusted to the desired mean air pressure depending on the location of use. This means that the level sensor no longer has any connection to the atmosphere. Possible fluctuations in air pressure may have an impact on the measurement result, but they play a rather minor role in deep well wells. Formulation Hydrostatic pressure, also gravity pressure or gravity pressure, occurs within a stationary fluid. It is caused by gravity and depends on the density and height of the liquid column. The mass of the fluid does not matter - see also hydrostatic paradox - i. e. not the total weight of the liquid in the container, but the filling level is decisive. where: = density [for water: ≈ 1.000 kg/m³] = gravitational constant [: ≈ 9,81 m/s²] = height of the liquid column = ambient air pressure = hydrostatic pressure The measuring minimum level starts from a complete covering of the measuring element near the head end of the level sensor. Filling levels below the level probe are not detected. Depending on the application and mounting height, it is therefore necessary to adjust the level in the evaluation unit to the respective mounting height with an offset setting. Design types Depending on the requirements of the site, level probes offer different features: Protective capSize and number of openings / holes Housing materialStainless steel, titanium, PTFE Cable materialPE, FEP, PURE EPR, PA Measuring principleRelative or sealed gauge Sensor technologyPiezoresistive silicon sensor, ceramic thick-film sensor, ceramic capacitive Air bubbler An air bubbler level sensor uses a tube with an opening below the surface of the liquid level. A fixed flow of air is passed through the tube. Pressure in the tube is proportional to the depth (and density) of the liquid over the outlet of the tube. Air bubbler systems contain no moving parts, making them suitable for measuring the level of sewage, drainage water, sewage sludge, night soil, or water with large quantities of suspended solids. The only part of the sensor that contacts the liquid is a bubble tube which is chemically compatible with the material whose level is to be measured. Since the point of measurement has no electrical components, the technique is a good choice for classified hazardous areas. The control portion of the system can be located safely away, with the pneumatic plumbing isolating the hazardous from the safe area. Air bubbler systems are a good choice for open tanks at atmospheric pressure and can be built so that high-pressure air is routed through a bypass valve to dislodge solids that may clog the bubble tube. The technique is inherently self-cleaning. It is highly recommended for liquid level measurement applications where ultrasonic, float or microwave techniques have proved undependable. The system will require constant supply of air during measurement. The end of the tube should be above certain height to avoid sludge from clogging the tube. Gamma ray A nuclear level gauge or gamma ray gauge measures level by the attenuation of gamma rays passing through a process vessel. The technique is used to regulate the level of molten steel in a continuous casting process of steelmaking. The water-cooled mold is arranged with a source of radiation, such as cobalt-60 or caesium-137, on one side and a sensitive detector such as a scintillation counter on the other. As the level of molten steel rises in the mold, less of the gamma radiation is detected by the sensor. The technique allows non-contact measurement where the heat of the molten metal makes contact techniques and even many non-contact techniques impractical. Nucleonic level sensors are often used in mineral crushing circuits, where an increase in gamma ray detection indicates a void, compared to being filled with ore. See also Fuel gauge Level (instrument) List of sensors Sight glass Tide gauge References Sensors

4023314

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Pedal%20Sport%20Association

National Pedal Sport Association

The National Pedal Sport Association (NPSA) was a South Eastern USA regional Bicycle Motocross (BMX) sanctioning body originally based in Palm Harbor, Florida. It then soon after moved to Dunedin, Florida, for most of its existence. Then in its last years Pinellas Park, Florida, was its headquarters. For the first six years of its existence it focused mostly on amateur racing since they were stressing the family experience nature of the sport and putting on the fairest and most inclusive races possible, fitting their motto "Ride For Fun". The NPSA ceased operations as an independent sanctioning body after it was bought by the American Bicycle Association (ABA) in 1988. The first joint NSPA-ABA sanctioned race was held on March 19, 1988, at the NSPA track in Ocoee, Florida. History The last president of NPSA was Gail Goudey. I served as president from 1985 until the sale of it to ABA in 1988.The last home base of NPSA was in West Palm Beach, FL.ˈˈ Vital statistics Proficiency and division class labels and advancement method Operations Like the National Bicycle League (NBL) it did not award a year end overall national #1 male or female amateur. Amateur national number ones were awarded within age divisions. The NPSA did have year end overall National No.1 Pro 20" and Cruiser classes. The NPSA did have features particular to it. The NPSA season was really divided up into three: District, State and the three-month-long National season. The District level racing focused the racers on racing on the local level for local laurels without having to travel within the state and between states. The State season was reserved for touring the various NPSA tracks within a state for the State Championship title. The national season was reserved for touring the circuit between the four states the NPSA had tracks in for the National number one titles culminating in a Grand National. This was not its only unique method of holding races. Another was the "scramble system". The NPSA like the NBL and the now defunct National Bicycle Association (NBA) they used the moto system a.k.a. the Olympic system to determine which riders graduate from the qualifying heats called Motos. In these motos points are awarded to the racers proportional to the position in which they finish. Each moto is run three times, that is the group of racers must race three times with the points awarded during each race to each individual racer being added. For instance say a 10 Expert racer had a class of 8 racers and he came in first in all three runs of his class. He would have a total of three points, 1+1+1 making him a certainty to qualify for the main (or if a large race the semi-finals) save for a disqualification for a rule infraction. on the other hand if a racer came in last three times in that class of eight racers then he would have a total of 24 points 8+8+8 making it almost impossible for him to make the main save for someone(s) else being disqualified. The racers with the four lowest points would qualify for the main. However, unlike the conventional Olympic system, in the NPSA added a unique "Scramble system" that would shuffle the racers randomly or scrambled. The racers after each moto, if there were more than eight racers in a class (eight being the maximum number of racers the starting gate can hold at any one time) would be split into two heats, say in a class of 11 15 novices the first group would be six racers the second group would be the remaining 5 racers. Again, nothing unusual. What was unique to the NPSA was after each round, instead of the racers racing the same people they raced against the first time around as was standard practice in BMX, they would very likely race some racers that were in their class but not in the original first moto but the second. The race would be run in the second go round the points added to the previous total as before. Then the riders would be scrambled again and the race would be run for the last qualifying heat. The NPSA's position was that this was fairer since all of the racers had a chance to compete against the eventual winner with the winner not racing either the same easy competition he can beat with little effort with the racers that he have trouble with in other motos. Conversely he also will not constantly going against people he finds hard to beat while others having easy opponents. Of course either scenario could happen with the luck of the draw. Another unique aspect to NPSA racing was that you moved down a proficiency class when one's birthday occurred. For instance say that on June 30 you were an 11 expert. You have a birthday on July 1, making you 12. Instead of going to the 12 expert class, you were demoted down in terms of skill class back to 12 junior and was required to make expert again. Until mid 1984, the NPSA had very strict, and to a few outside observers, too strict rules against contact between racers during races. The slightest bumping during a race could result in disqualification. You couldn't block pass, you had to stay in your lane at the beginning of the start (the International Bicycle Motocross Federation (IBMXF) had a similar rule). At one time the NPSA complained to the Orlando, Florida, Parks Department about the National Bicycle League (NBL) making the jumps, in its view, too large at a track they shared with the NBL. Some outsiders went as far as to call it "racing for wimps" in regards to the NPSA. However, these restrictions were greatly relaxed by the time of the July 1984 Supercross nationals. Ironically, this was also the time when Ronnie Anderson, a new top professional in the major sanctioning bodies of the NBL and American Bicycle Association (ABA) was just being noted for his rough, all or nothing desire to win, resulting in numerous wrecks, to the members of the pro class displeasure. While stressing family and amateur racing, the NPSA did have a pro class with events called "Supercross" held during the year to qualify the pros for the Grand National like the on held in 1982 at Daytona Beach, Florida. NPSA National number ones by year Note: Dates reflect the year the racers *won* their plates, not the year they actually *raced* their No.1 plates. In other words, Roy Reboucas won his No.1 plate in 1982 entitling him to race with #1 on his plate for the 1983 season. Roland Veicht then won the No.1 plate in 1983 and raced with #1 on his plate during the 1984 racing season. CDNE=Class Did Not Exist. See also American Bicycle Association National Bicycle Association National Bicycle League United Bicycle Racers Association United States Bicycle Motocross Association References External links The American Bicycle Association (ABA) Website. The National Bicycle League (NBL) Website. Cycle racing organizations

4023325

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RMITV

RMITV

RMITV is a not-for-profit, community access television production facility based at RMIT University City Campus in Melbourne, Australia. It is a full member of the Melbourne Community Television Consortium, a not-for-profit consortium that operates the community access channel C31 which broadcasts throughout Melbourne and Geelong. About RMITV is a student run media production house based within RMIT University, with the majority of its funding granted by RMIT University Student Union (RUSU). RMITV is dedicated to providing hands on television experience to students. RMITV also produces content to be broadcast, most commonly on C31 Melbourne and have helped many students find their way to careers in the television industry. Although based at RMIT University in Melbourne, they also work to provide opportunities to members of the local community wanting to get involved in television production. Logo Designed by RMITV member Nic Mason in the early 2000s, the "R" and "M" in RMITV's logo are based on the series of classification marks from the OFLC used to designate "Restricted" and "Mature" broadcast content and the "I" and "TV" are based on the 'General' (G) and 'Parental Guidance' (PG) classification marks but making use of different letters and antennas on the TV to signify television History RMITV is one of the oldest community television organisations in Australia, having been involved in lobbying the government for community access to the television spectrum. It transmitted its first test broadcast in 1987. Early on RMITV struggled with licences for television spectrum. After originally lobbying for a public licence, similar to those seen in the American public television sector, RMITV was knocked back as public licences are not available in Australia. They were then granted a licence to broadcast to private audiences in a 10 km radius of the RMIT City Campus. The license was granted on the 09/08/1987. A week after a Channel 10 news report by Mal Walden about RMITV's upcoming open day 1987 broadcast the licence was cancelled. The first licence was a General Licence Class D (Section 24). The Licence number was 211744/2. The callsign was VH3BVK. RMITV was also responsible for broadcasting ETV, a closed-circuit television system operated at the RMIT Campus in previous years. The government encouraged Melbourne's many aspirant community television broadcasters to form an umbrella organisation to apply for a broadcasting license, and so RMITV became a founding member of the Melbourne Community Television Consortium; the license holder for Melbourne's Channel 31. RMITV has a long history of successful producers and practitioners moving into professional employment within the Australian television industry. Most notable alumni include: Waleed Aly (The Project), Rove McManus (Roving Enterprises), Hamish and Andy (Fox FM), Shona Devlin (JTV – Triple J), Tommy Little (This Week Live), Dave Thornton (This Week Live), Peter Helliar and many more. RMITV has also had many crew members go on to work at the ABC, Network 10, Videoworks and Staging Connections. RMITV's Productions are not only limited to C31, many of RMITV's productions air on community stations all around Australia. For example, Live on Bowen (2012–2015) which were broadcast on C31, Face Television - Sky Channel 083 (New Zealand), WTV (Perth) and 31 Digital (South East Queensland), The Inquiry (2009-2010), In Pit Lane (1998–present) and 31 Questions (2012–2014). Throughout its time RMITV has produced some of the most well known programs on Australian community television, including: The Loft Live, Under Melbourne Tonight, Chartbusting 80's, Raucous, Dawns Crack, PLUCK, Studio A, The Leak and countless outside broadcasts. Mid-2015 spawned a webseries collaboration between RMITV and Catalyst, RMIT's Student Magazine, entitled "Politics at the Belleville". Based on the podcast "Politics on the Couch" the program was hosted by the same talent and was released every Friday afternoon. Internal structure RMITV is an RMIT Student Union department, with close ties to the not-for-profit incorporated organisation, Student Community Television Inc.. For most operational purposes, both RMITV and Student Community Television Inc. share a common Board of Directors, and management team. The group employs five part-time staff members to look after the organisation and membership- a General Manager, Marketing Manager, Content Manager, Technical Manager and Training Manager. A large number of others look after the management of the organisation in volunteer roles. Additionally, Student Community Television Inc. is a paid full member of the MCTC which provides them with free airtime on C31 Melbourne and representation on the MCTC assembly. See also Television broadcasting in Australia References External links RMIT University Organisations based in Melbourne Australian community television Student television stations in Australia Television stations in Melbourne Television channels and stations established in 1987

4023458

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tristan%20Gommendy

Tristan Gommendy

Tristan Gommendy (born 4 January 1979) is a French professional racing driver who currently competes in the European Le Mans Series with Duqueine Engineering. Racing career Early career Born in Le Chesnay, Yvelines, Gommendy began his professional career in French Formula Three in 2000. He won the prestigious Macau Grand Prix in 2002 and also won the French F3 Championship that year. In 2003 he drove in Eurocup Formula Renault V6 and finished third. He moved to its successor the World Series by Nissan in 2004 and finished 5th and another season in 2005 he finished fourth. GP2, Champ Car, and Superleague Formula In 2006 Gommendy drove in the first five rounds GP2 Series for the iSport International team and was on front row for his first race in front of Lewis Hamilton. He finished 20th in points, scoring a pair of fifth places at Circuit de Catalunya On 8 March 2007 it was announced that Gommendy had been signed to drive for PKV Racing in the 2007 Champ Car season as a teammate to Neel Jani. At Houston and Long Beach, he led several laps before breaking down with few laps to go. Later at Circuit Mont-Tremblant, Gommendy won the pole and track record. He participated in twelve of the first thirteen races and finished 12th in points with a best finish of fourth in his final start at TT Circuit Assen. With Champ Car merging with IndyCar the following year, resulting in fewer available race seats, Gommendy joined Superleague Formula driving for F.C. Porto, winning a race at ACI Vallelunga Circuit in 2008 and Donington Park in 2009. Gommendy continued in Superleague Formula with other teams and little success until the series shut down mid-way through the 2011 season. Sports cars Gommendy made his first 24 Hours of Le Mans start in 2003. His team finished the race for the first time in 2010, driving a Welter Racing LMP2 entry to 8th in class. He competed in the LMP2 class of the 2009 Le Mans Series with Welter Racing. In 2011 following the dissolution of Superleague Formula, Gommendy was largely out of racing until he appeared in the 2013 24 Hours of Le Mans for Signatech in their LMP2 Alpine A450. The team finished 14th overall and 8th in class. He raced at the LMP2 class 2014 European Le Mans Series for Thiriet by TDS Racing, winning at Silverstone. The Frenchman remained at the team for the 2015 European Le Mans Series, claiming a win at Imola and a second place at Red Bull Ring. For the 2016 European Le Mans Series, the driver switched to Eurasia Motorsport, finishing second at Red Bull Ring. Jackie Chan DC Racing hired Gommendy to compete at the 2017 FIA World Endurance Championship, again in the LMP2 class. He finished third overall at the 2017 24 Hours of Le Mans. Return to IndyCar On September 11, 2017, it was announced that Gommendy would return to American open-wheel racing, making his Indianapolis 500 debut at the 2018 Indianapolis 500, driving for Schmidt Peterson Motorsports in a partnership with former Larrousse F1 team boss Didier Calmels. However, that deal has since fallen through. Racing record Career summary † Ineligible for points. Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results Complete Formula Renault 3.5 Series results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) † Driver did not finish the race, but was classified as he completed more than 90% of the race distance. Complete GP2 Series results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) American Open-Wheel (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) Champ Car Superleague Formula 2008-2009 (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) 2009 Super Final Results Super Final results in 2009 did not count for points towards the main championship. 2010-2011 Complete European Le Mans Series results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) ‡ Half points awarded as less than 75% of race distance was completed. Complete FIA World Endurance Championship results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) References External links 1979 births Living people People from Le Chesnay French racing drivers GP2 Series drivers Formula Renault V6 Eurocup drivers Champ Car drivers French Formula Three Championship drivers British Formula Three Championship drivers Superleague Formula drivers 24 Hours of Le Mans drivers European Le Mans Series drivers World Series Formula V8 3.5 drivers FIA World Endurance Championship drivers Asian Le Mans Series drivers Sportspeople from Yvelines ART Grand Prix drivers Eurasia Motorsport drivers Graff Racing drivers TDS Racing drivers Pons Racing drivers KV Racing Technology drivers OAK Racing drivers Signature Team drivers ISport International drivers KTR drivers Alan Docking Racing drivers Jota Sport drivers Nürburgring 24 Hours drivers Saintéloc Racing drivers

4023692

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoindentation

Nanoindentation

Nanoindentation, also called instrumented indentation testing, is a variety of indentation hardness tests applied to small volumes. Indentation is perhaps the most commonly applied means of testing the mechanical properties of materials. The nanoindentation technique was developed in the mid-1970s to measure the hardness of small volumes of material. Background In a traditional indentation test (macro or micro indentation), a hard tip whose mechanical properties are known (frequently made of a very hard material like diamond) is pressed into a sample whose properties are unknown. The load placed on the indenter tip is increased as the tip penetrates further into the specimen and soon reaches a user-defined value. At this point, the load may be held constant for a period or removed. The area of the residual indentation in the sample is measured and the hardness, , is defined as the maximum load, , divided by the residual indentation area, : For most techniques, the projected area may be measured directly using light microscopy. As can be seen from this equation, a given load will make a smaller indent in a "hard" material than a "soft" one. This technique is limited due to large and varied tip shapes, with indenter rigs which do not have very good spatial resolution (the location of the area to be indented is very hard to specify accurately). Comparison across experiments, typically done in different laboratories, is difficult and often meaningless. Nanoindentation improves on these macro- and micro-indentation tests by indenting on the nanoscale with a very precise tip shape, high spatial resolutions to place the indents, and by providing real-time load-displacement (into the surface) data while the indentation is in progress. In nanoindentation small loads and tip sizes are used, so the indentation area may only be a few square micrometres or even nanometres. This presents problems in determining the hardness, as the contact area is not easily found. Atomic force microscopy or scanning electron microscopy techniques may be utilized to image the indentation, but can be quite cumbersome. Instead, an indenter with a geometry known to high precision (usually a Berkovich tip, which has a three-sided pyramid geometry) is employed. During the course of the instrumented indentation process, a record of the depth of penetration is made, and then the area of the indent is determined using the known geometry of the indentation tip. While indenting, various parameters such as load and depth of penetration can be measured. A record of these values can be plotted on a graph to create a load-displacement curve (such as the one shown in Figure 1). These curves can be used to extract mechanical properties of the material. Young's modulus The slope of the curve, , upon unloading is indicative of the stiffness of the contact. This value generally includes a contribution from both the material being tested and the response of the test device itself. The stiffness of the contact can be used to calculate the reduced Young's modulus : Where is the projected area of the indentation at the contact depth , and is a geometrical constant on the order of unity. is often approximated by a fitting polynomial as shown below for a Berkovich tip: Where for a Berkovich tip is 24.5 while for a cube corner (90°) tip is 2.598. The reduced modulus is related to Young's modulus of the test specimen through the following relationship from contact mechanics: Here, the subscript indicates a property of the indenter material and is Poisson's ratio. For a diamond indenter tip, is 1140 GPa and is 0.07. Poisson’s ratio of the specimen, , generally varies between 0 and 0.5 for most materials (though it can be negative) and is typically around 0.3. There are two different types of hardness that can be obtained from a nano indenter: one is as in traditional macroindentation tests where one attains a single hardness value per experiment; the other is based on the hardness as the material is being indented resulting in hardness as a function of depth. Hardness The hardness is given by the equation above, relating the maximum load to the indentation area. The area can be measured after the indentation by in-situ atomic force microscopy, or by 'after-the event' optical (or electron) microscopy. An example indentation image, from which the area may be determined, is shown at right. Some nanoindenters use an area function based on the geometry of the tip, compensating for elastic load during the test. Use of this area function provides a method of gaining real-time nanohardness values from a load-displacement graph. However, there is some controversy over the use of area functions to estimate the residual areas versus direct measurement. An area function typically describes the projected area of an indent as a 2nd-order polynomial function of the indenter depth . When too many coefficients are used, the function will begin to fit to the noise in the data, and inflection points will develop. If the curve can fit well with only two coefficients, this is the best. However, if many data points are used, sometimes all 6 coefficients will need to be used to get a good area function. Typically, 3 or 4 coefficients works well. Service Document Probe Calibration; CSV-T-003 v3.0; Exclusive application of an area function in the absence of adequate knowledge of material response can lead to misinterpretation of resulting data. Cross-checking of areas microscopically is to be encouraged. Strain-rate sensitivity The strain-rate sensitivity of the flow stress is defined as where is the flow stress and is the strain rate produced under the indenter. For nanoindentation experiments which include a holding period at constant load (i.e. the flat, top area of the load-displacement curve), can be determined from The subscripts indicate these values are to be determined from the plastic components only. Activation volume Interpreted loosely as the volume swept out by dislocations during thermal activation, the activation volume is where is the temperature and kB is Boltzmann's constant. From the definition of , it is easy to see that . Hardware Sensors The construction of a depth-sensing indentation system is made possible by the inclusion of very sensitive displacement and load sensing systems. Load transducers must be capable of measuring forces in the micronewton range and displacement sensors are very frequently capable of sub-nanometer resolution. Environmental isolation is crucial to the operation of the instrument. Vibrations transmitted to the device, fluctuations in atmospheric temperature and pressure, and thermal fluctuations of the components during the course of an experiment can cause significant errors. Continuous stiffness measurement (CSM) Dynamic nanoindentation or continuous stiffness measurement (CSM, also offered commercially as CMX, dynamics...), introduced in 1989, is a significant improvement over the quasi-static mode described above. It consists into overlapping a very small, fast (> 40 Hz) oscillation onto the main loading signal and evaluate the magnitude of the resulting partial unloadings by a lock-in amplifier, so as to quasi-continuously determine the contact stiffness. This allows for the continuous evaluation of the hardness and Young's modulus of the material over the depth of the indentation, which is of great advantage with coatings and graded materials. The CSM method is also pivotal for the experimental determination of the local creep and strain-rate dependent mechanical properties of materials, as well as the local damping of visco-elastic materials. The harmonic amplitude of the oscillations is usually chosen around 2 nm (RMS), which is a trade-off value avoiding an underestimation of the stiffness due to the "dynamic unloading error" or the "plasticity error" during measurements on materials with unusually high elastic-to-plastic ratio (E/H > 150), such as soft metals. Atomic Force Microscopy The ability to conduct nanoindentation studies with nanometer depth, and sub-nanonewton force resolution is also possible using a standard AFM setup. The AFM allows for nanomechanical studies to be conducted alongside topographic analyses, without the use of dedicated instruments. Load-displacement curves can be collected similarly for a variety of materials - provided that they are softer than the AFM tip - and mechanical properties can be directly calculated from these curves. Conversely, some commercial nanoindentation systems offer the possibility to use a piezo-driven stage to image the topography of residual indents with the nanoindenter tip. Optical Interferometry Utilizing optical fiber Fabry-Perôt interferometry, nanoindentation studies can be performed with unparalleled precision, achieving micro-mechanical characterization of soft biomaterials. Optical interferometry, allows for nanomechanical studies of biomaterials alongside topographic analyses without the need for dedicated instruments. This technology is particularly adept at micro-mechanical analysis of soft and living materials. Load-displacement curves can be gathered for a diverse range of materials, and their mechanical properties can be directly inferred from these curves. Additionally, some advanced systems offer the capability to integrate optical imaging with micro-mechanical characterization, enabling a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between structure and stiffness in biomaterials. Software Experimental software The indentation curves have often at least thousands of data points. The hardness and elastic modulus can quickly be calculated by using a programming language or a spreadsheet. Instrumented indentation testing machines come with the software specifically designed to analyze the indentation data from their own machine. The Indentation Grapher (Dureza) software is able to import text data from several commercial machines or custom made equipment. Spreadsheet programs such as MS-Excel or OpenOffice Calculate do not have the ability to fit to the non-linear power law equation from indentation data. A linear fit can be done by offset displacement so that the data passes through the origin. Then select the power law equation from the graphing options. The Martens hardness, , is a simple software for any programmer having minimal background to develop. The software starts by searching for the maximum displacement, , point and maximum load, . The displacement is used to calculate the contact surface area, , based on the indenter geometry. For a perfect Berkovich indenter the relationship is . The indentation hardness, is defined slightly different. Here, the hardness is related to the projected contact area . As the indent size decreases the error caused by tip rounding increases. The tip wear can be accounted for within the software by using a simple polynomial function. As the indenter tip wears the value will increase. The user enters the values for and based on direct measurements such as SEM or AFM images of the indenter tip or indirectly by using a material of known elastic modulus or an atomic force microscope (AFM) image of an indentation. Calculating the elastic modulus with software involves using software filtering techniques to separate the critical unloading data from the rest of the load-displacement data. The start and end points are usually found by using user defined percentages. This user input increases the variability because of possible human error. It would be best if the entire calculation process was automatically done for more consistent results. A good nanoindentation machine prints out the load unload curve data with labels to each of the segments such as loading, top hold, unload, bottom hold, and reloading. If multiple cycles are used then each one should be labeled. However mores nanoindenters only give the raw data for the load-unload curves. An automatic software technique finds the sharp change from the top hold time to the beginning of the unloading. This can be found by doing a linear fit to the top hold time data. The unload data starts when the load is 1.5 times standard deviation less than the hold time load. The minimum data point is the end of the unloading data. The computer calculates the elastic modulus with this data according to the Oliver—Pharr (nonlinear). The Doerner-Nix method is less complicated to program because it is a linear curve fit of the selected minimum to maximum data. However, it is limited because the calculated elastic modulus will decrease as more data points are used along the unloading curve. The Oliver-Pharr nonlinear curve fit method to the unloading curve data where is the depth variable, is the final depth and and are constants and coefficients. The software must use a nonlinear convergence method to solve for , and that best fits the unloading data. The slope is calculated by differentiating at the maximum displacement. An image of the indent can also be measured using software. The atomic force microscope (AFM) scans the indent. First the lowest point of the indentation is found. Make an array of lines around the using linear lines from indent center along the indent surface. Where the section line is more than several standard deviations (>3 ) from the surface noise the outline point is created. Then connect all of the outline points to build the entire indent outline. This outline will automatically include the pile-up contact area. For nanoindentation experiments performed with a conical indenter on a thin film deposited on a substrate or on a multilayer sample, the NIMS Matlab toolbox is useful for load-displacement curves analysis and calculations of Young's modulus and hardness of the coating. In the case of pop-in, the PopIn Matlab toolbox is a solution to analyze statistically pop-in distribution and to extract critical load or critical indentation depth, just before pop-in. Finally, for indentation maps obtained following the grid indentation technique, the TriDiMap Matlab toolbox offers the possibility to plot 2D or 3D maps and to analyze statistically mechanical properties distribution of each constituent, in case of a heterogeneous material by doing deconvolution of probability density function. Computational software Molecular dynamics (MD) has been a very powerful technique to investigate the nanoindentation at atomic scale. For instance, Alexey et al employed MD to simulate the nanoindentation process of a titanium crystal, dependence of deformation of the crystalline structure on the type of the indenter is observed, which is very hard to harvest in experiment. Tao et al performed MD simulations of nanoindentation on Cu/Ni nanotwinned multilayers films using a spherical indenter and investigated the effects of hetero-twin interface and twin thickness on hardness. Recently, a review paper by Carlos et al is published upon the atomistic studies of nanoindentation. This review covers different nanoindentation mechanisms and effects of surface orientation, crystallography (fcc, bcc, hcp, etc), surface and bulk damage on plasticity. All of the MD-obtained results are very difficult to be achieved in experiment due to the resolution limitation of structural characterization techniques. Among various MD simulation software, such as GROMACS, Xenoview, Amber, etc., LAMMPS (Large-scale Atomic/Molecular Massively Parallel Simulator), which is developed by Sandia National Laboratories, is the most widely used for simulation. An interaction potential and an input file including information of atom ID, coordinates, charges, ensemble, time step, etc are fed to the simulator, and then running could be executed. After specified running timesteps, information such as energy, atomic trajectories, and structural information (such as coordination number) could be output for further analysis, which makes it possible to investigate the nanoindentation mechanism at atomic-scale. Another interesting Matlab toolbox called STABiX has been developed to quantify slip transmission at grain boundaries by analyzing indentation experiments in bicrystal. Applications Nanoindentation is a robust technique for determination of mechanical properties. By combining the application of low loads, measuring the resulting displacement, and determining the contact area between the tip of the indenter and the sample a wide range of mechanical properties are able to be measured. The application that drove the innovation of the technique is testing thin film properties for which conventional testing are not feasible. Conventional mechanical testing such as tensile testing or dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) can only return the average property without any indication of variability across the sample. However, nanoindentation can be used for determination of local properties of homogeneous as well as heterogeneous materials. The reduction in sample size requirements has allowed the technique to become broadly applied to products where the manufactured state does not present enough material for microhardness testing. Applications in this area include medical implants, consumer goods, and packaging. Alternative uses of the technique are used to test MEMs devices by utilizing the low-loads and small scale displacements the nanoindenter is capable of. Limitations Conventional nanoindentation methods for calculation of Modulus of elasticity (based on the unloading curve) are limited to linear, isotropic materials. Pile up and sink in Problems associated with the "pile-up" or "sink-in" of the material on the edges of the indent during the indentation process remain a problem that is still under investigation. It is possible to measure the pile-up contact area using computerized image analysis of atomic force microscope (AFM) images of the indentations. This process also depends on the linear isotropic elastic recovery for the indent reconstruction. Nanoindentation on soft materials Nanoindentation of soft material has intrinsic challenges due to adhesion, surface detection and tip dependency of results. There is an ongoing research to overcome such problems. Two critical issues need to be considered when attempting nanoindentation measurements on soft materials: stiffness and viscoelasticity. The first is the requirement that in any force-displacement measurement platform the stiffness of the machine () must approximately match the stiffness of the sample (), at least in order of magnitude. If is too high, then the indenter probe will simply run through the sample without being able to measure the force. On the other hand, if is too low, then the probe simply will not indent into the sample, and no reading of the probe displacement can be made. For samples that are very soft, the first of these two possibilities is likely. The stiffness of a sample is given by ≈× where is the size of the contact region between the indenter and the sample, and is the sample’s elastic modulus. Typical atomic-force microscopy (AFM) cantilevers have in the range 0.05 to 50 N/m, and probe size in the range ~10 nm to 1 μm. Commercial nanoindenters are also similar. Therefore, if ≈, then a typical AFM cantilever-tip or a commercial nanoindenter can only measure in the ~kPa to GPa range. This range is wide enough to cover most synthetic materials including polymers, metals and ceramics, as well as a large variety of biological materials including tissues and adherent cells. However, there may be softer materials with moduli in the Pa range, such as floating cells, and these cannot be measured by an AFM or a commercial nanoindenter. To measure in the Pa range, “pico-indentation” using an optical tweezers system is suitable. Here, a laser beam is used to trap a translucent bead which is then brought into contact with the soft sample so as to indent it. The trap stiffness () depends on the laser power and bead material, and a typical value is ~50 pN/μm. The probe size can be a micron or so. Then the optical trap can measure (≈/)in the Pa range. The second issue concerning soft samples is their viscoelasticity. Methods to handle viscoelasticity include the following. In the classical treatment of viscoelasticity, the load-displacement (P-h) response measured from the sample is fitted to predictions from an assumed constitutive model (e.g. the Maxwell model) of the material comprising spring and dashpot elements. Such an approach can be very time consuming, and cannot in general prove the assumed constitutive law in an unambiguous manner. Dynamic indentation with an oscillatory load can be performed, and the viscoelastic behavior of the sample is presented in terms of the resultant storage and loss moduli, often as variations over the load frequency. However, the storage and loss moduli obtained this way are not intrinsic material constants, but depend on the oscillation frequency and the indenter probe geometry. A rate-jump method can be used to return an intrinsic elastic modulus of the sample that is independent of the test conditions. In this method, a constitutive law comprising any network of (in general) non-linear dashpots and linear elastic springs is assumed to hold within a very short time window about the time instant tc at which a sudden step change in the loading rate is applied on the sample. Since the dashpots are described by relations of the form ij=ij(kl) but stress kl is continuous across the step change ∆ij in the stress rate field kl at tc, there will not be any corresponding change in the strain rate field ij across the dashpots. However, because the linear elastic springs are described by relations of the form ij=Sikjlkl where Sikjl are elastic compliances, a step change ∆ij across the springs will result according to ∆ij=Sikjl∆kl The last equation indicates that the fields ∆kl and ∆ij can be solved as a linear elastic problem with the elastic spring elements in the original viscoelastic network model while the dashpot elements are ignored. The solution for a given test geometry is a linear relation between the step changes in the load and displacement rates at tc, and the linking proportionality constant is a lumped value of the elastic constants in the original viscoelastic model. Fitting such a relation to experimental results allows this lumped value to be measured as an intrinsic elastic modulus of the material. Specific equations from this rate-jump method have been developed for specific test platforms. For example, in depth-sensing nanoindentation, the elastic modulus and hardness are evaluated at the onset of an unloading stage following a load-hold stage. Such an onset point for unloading is a rate-jump point, and solving the equation ij=Sikjlkl across this leads to the Tang-Ngan method of viscoelastic correction ===- where S = dP/dh is the apparent tip-sample contact stiffness at the onset of unload, is the displacement rate just before the unload, is the unloading rate, and is the true (i.e. viscosity-corrected) tip-sample contact stiffness which is related to the reduced modulus and the tip-sample contact size by the Sneddon relation . The contact size a can be estimated from a pre-calibrated shape function = of the tip, where the contact depth is obtainable using the Oliver—Pharr relation with the apparent contact stiffness replaced by the true stiffness : = - = - where is a factor depending on the tip (say, 0.72 for Berkovich tip). Tip dependence While nanoindentation testing can be relatively simple, the interpretation of results is challenging. One of the main challenges is the use of proper tip depending on the application and proper interpretation of the results. For instance, it has been shown that the elastic modulus can be tip dependent. Scale effects Indent depths during nanoindentation can vary from a few nm up to around a micron. Over this range, there are strong “size effects” – ie inferred mechanical properties exhibit a dependence on depth. Several reviews cover these effects. They usually take the form of the material apparently becoming harder for shallower depths. For example, the hardness of pure gold has been found to vary from about 2 GPa for a depth of 5 nm to 0.5 GPa for a depth of 100 nm, while the “correct” value for large scale indentation of such gold is about 0.1 GPa. There have been many investigations of the causes of this effect. Postulated explanations include the need to create very high gradients of plastic strain with small indents, requiring “geometrically necessary dislocations”. Another suggestion is that there may be no dislocations in the region being deformed, with the need for their nucleation creating a requirement for higher stresses to allow plastic deformation to start (leading to a “pop-in” feature on a load-displacement plot). However, no systematic, universal correction can be made for such “size effects” and it’s not normally possible with nanoindenters to deform a volume that is large enough to be representative of the bulk material. For typical polycrystalline samples, such volumes must contain a relatively large number of grains, so as to capture the effects of grain size, texture, grain boundary structure etc. In practice, this usually requires the dimensions of the deformed region to be of the order of hundreds of microns. It may also be noted that the fine scale of nanoindentation can make the outcome sensitive to surface roughness and to the presence of oxide layers and other surface contamination. References Further reading Conte, Marcello; Tournier-Fillon, Aurélien; Frank, Evelin. (2021). "Instrumented Indentation. From theory to practical guidelines: indent the world". Austria: Anton Paar. ISBN 978-2-9701543-0-3 Hardness tests

4023879

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franck%20Perera

Franck Perera

Franck Perera (born 21 March 1984 in Montpellier, France) is a professional race car driver and a Lamborghini Squadra Corse factory driver. Career In 2006, Perera drove in the GP2 Series for the DAMS team, after four years of racing for the Prema team in junior championships. In 2007 he drove for Condor Motorsports in the Atlantic Championship, scoring three wins and finishing second in the championship behind Raphael Matos. On 6 February 2008 Perera announced that he had signed with Conquest Racing to compete in the Champ Car World Series in 2008 after a successful test with the team. However, shortly thereafter Champ Car and the Indy Racing League unified, canceling the Champ Car season. It was announced on 25 February that Perera had modified his deal in order to continue with the team in the IRL IndyCar Series. He lost the ride after three races due to funding issues stemming from the bankruptcy of his sponsor Opes Prime, causing the team to hire Brazilian driver Jaime Camara. In order to continue racing in the US, Perera signed to drive in Firestone Indy Lights with Guthrie Racing for the remainder of the 2008 season and made his debut in the seventh race of the season at the Iowa Speedway. He captured his first series victory from the pole at Infineon Raceway, his eighth start. He returned to the IndyCar Series for the points-scoring finale at Chicagoland Speedway, driving the #41 car of A. J. Foyt Enterprises. He was also signed to drive the car of A.S. Roma in the brand new Superleague Formula championship in 2008. Perera returned to the GP2 Series in 2009, replacing Giacomo Ricci at David Price Racing. Perera was not allowed to start the feature race of the Hungarian round, due to causing an avoidable accident in qualifying, with Romain Grosjean. As his lap time was outside 107% of Lucas di Grassi's pole time, the stewards refused to let him race due to the accident. Grosjean however, was allowed to start. Perera also failed to qualify for both races of the championship held at the Spa-Francorchamps circuit. He left the GP2 Series for the second time after the Spa round. Perera returned to A.S. Roma in the Superleague Formula in 2009 for the Estoril round taking over from Jonathan Kennard. He was replaced at the next round by Julien Jousse. In 2013, Perera returned full-time, driving a Porsche 911 in the Blancpain Endurance Series for Pro GT by Almeras in the Pro-Am class. Racing record Career summary † Guest driver, ineligible for points ‡ Team standings Complete Formula Renault 3.5 Series results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) Complete GP2 Series results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) American open–wheel racing results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) Atlantic Championship Indy Lights IndyCar Series 1 Run on same day. Superleague Formula (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) 2009 Super Final Results Super Final results in 2009 did not count for points towards the main championship. Complete GT World Challenge Europe results GT World Challenge Europe Endurance Cup * Season still in progress. Blancpain GT Series Sprint Cup results GT World Challenge Europe Sprint Cup * Season still in progress. 24 Hours of Daytona results Complete IMSA SportsCar Championship results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; results in italics indicate fastest lap) Complete Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) References External links 1984 births Living people Sportspeople from Montpellier French people of Spanish descent French racing drivers Italian Formula Renault 2.0 drivers German Formula Renault 2.0 drivers Dutch Formula Renault 2.0 drivers Formula Renault Eurocup drivers GP2 Series drivers Formula 3 Euro Series drivers Atlantic Championship drivers Indy Lights drivers IndyCar Series drivers Superleague Formula drivers World Series Formula V8 3.5 drivers Blancpain Endurance Series drivers International GT Open drivers European Le Mans Series drivers 24 Hours of Spa drivers 24 Hours of Daytona drivers WeatherTech SportsCar Championship drivers 24H Series drivers British GT Championship drivers Prema Powerteam drivers DAMS drivers Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters drivers ADAC GT Masters drivers Conquest Racing drivers TDS Racing drivers ISR Racing drivers Emil Frey Racing drivers A. J. Foyt Enterprises drivers Karting World Championship drivers Mercedes-AMG Motorsport drivers Alan Docking Racing drivers Target Racing drivers David Price Racing drivers Scuderia Coloni drivers Nürburgring 24 Hours drivers Lamborghini Squadra Corse drivers Iron Lynx drivers Euronova Racing drivers

4023886

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas%20L.%20Bissell%20Jr.

Nicholas L. Bissell Jr.

Nicholas Louis "Nick" Bissell Jr. (January 14, 1947 – November 27, 1996) was the county prosecutor of Somerset County, New Jersey. After being charged with embezzlement, tax fraud and abuse of power, he fled to Laughlin, Nevada, and killed himself after a standoff with US Marshals. Biography Born in 1947 to Nicholas L. Bissell Sr. (1919–2002) and his wife, Louise, Nick Bissell grew up in Woodbridge Township, New Jersey, and later moved to Somerville, New Jersey. He entered private practice, then worked as a part-time judge. He then became an assistant prosecutor in Somerset County, and was appointed county prosecutor in 1982 by Governor Tom Kean. He held that position for 13 years. His specialty was civil forfeiture. At one point, the value of the assets he seized were the highest in the state, even though Somerset County is the eighth-smallest county in New Jersey. One of his best-known cases that didn't involve a forfeiture was the prosecution of Matthew Heikkila, a 21-year-old from affluent Basking Ridge, who, on January 29, 1991, murdered his adoptive parents. Although Bissell pressed for the death penalty, the jury sentenced Heikkila to two consecutive life sentences. In 1990, a forfeiture case proved to be Bissell's downfall. On May 10, 1990, James Giuffre was arrested on charges of selling $700 worth of cocaine. Bissell said he would drop the charges if Giuffre forfeited two plots of land to the prosecutor's office, valued at $174,000. They were sold at auction below their appraised value to a friend of Bissell's chief of detectives. Giuffre filed a civil suit against Bissell (which the Somerset County Freeholders later settled for $435,000) and also then contacted the Internal Revenue Service and the FBI. Forensic accountants with the IRS discovered that Bissell skimmed cash from a gas station of which he was part owner. The FBI discovered that Bissell had destroyed a suspect's written request for a lawyer and threatened to frame his gasoline wholesaler for cocaine possession. In September 1995, Bissell was indicted on 30 federal charges of mail fraud, tax evasion and abuse of power, and was promptly fired by Governor and Somerset County resident Christine Todd Whitman. In May 1996, he was convicted on all charges and faced a minimum sentence of six to eight years in federal prison and a maximum of ten years. He was released under the condition that he wear an electronic bracelet until he was sentenced. He abruptly cut it off on November 18, 1996 and fled to Nevada, leaving a note in which he stated that he intended to commit suicide. He was tracked by his cell phone. He fatally shot himself after a 10-minute standoff in his hotel room, while members of the United States Marshals Service tried to lure him out of his room. References External links Profile (November 21, 1995), philly.com; accessed October 13, 2016. Profile (October 8, 1995), philly.com; accessed October 13, 2016. at Crime Library 1947 births 1996 suicides 1996 deaths District attorneys in New Jersey Suicides by firearm in Nevada Politicians from Somerville, New Jersey People from Woodbridge Township, New Jersey 20th-century American politicians Place of birth missing

4024051

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beltel

Beltel

Beltel was the name and trademark used by the South African Department of Posts and Telecommunications (later Telkom) for its Videotex system between the mid eighties and 1999. The system used telephone lines and modems connected to personal computers or to dumb terminals which had built in modems. The system incorporated a billing system which enabled information providers and service providers to receive payment for information and services provided to users. The billing system was capable of handling very small transactions, and referred to as Micro-billing. Today all of the functionality of the Beltel system, and more, is delivered by handheld mobile phones or cellphones and PDAs which utilize mobile payment. Booklets/Magazines: What is BELTEL? BELTEL user manual. (Setting up, Facilities, Passwords, Logging off, Mail, Commands) Videotex SA Beltel. (Various business services for its 14,000 users) (In 1990) BELTEL as a business tool The BELTEL post box. Telematics: (News, views, reviews and adverts) (Seasonal) Beltel provided many online services such as: Debates, competitions, prizes. Banking: Allied Bank, First National Bank, Nedbank, Standard Bank, Trust bank, United Bank, Volkskas Bank Credit Checking: National Credit Bureau Message Handling: Beltel e-Mail, Interlink, Telkom 400 Agriculture Agritel Fresh Produce, Agritel Meat Service, Boere-Data, Mielieraad Directories: INNOBEL, Electronic Yellow Pages Entertainment: Bel-Base, Elmdene SA, Playworld, Times Media Chatlines: FROGG, Intercom News/Weather: Agritel, Bel-Base, Elmdene SA, Times Media Classifieds: Bel-Base, CDS Classifieds, Junk Mail References Telecommunications equipment Videotex

4024055

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry%20of%20the%20Interior%20%28Greece%29

Ministry of the Interior (Greece)

The Ministry of the Interior () is a government department of Greece. On 15 September 1995, it was merged with the Ministry of the Prime Minister's Office () to form the Ministry of the Interior, Public Administration and Decentralization (). On 19 September 2007, it was merged with the Ministry of Public Order and reverted to its original name. The merger was reversed on 7 October 2009, when the Ministry of the Interior, Decentralization and Electronic Governance () was formed. On 27 June 2011, a separate Ministry of Administrative Reform and Electronic Governance was created, and the Ministry of the Interior again reverted to its original name. On 27 January 2015, the two were merged with the Ministry of Public Order and Citizen Protection to form the Ministry of the Interior and Administrative Reorganization (). A separate Ministry of Administrative Reorganization was created on 5 November 2016, and the Ministry of the Interior reverted to its original name for the third time in a decade. A separate Ministry of Citizen Protection was also re-established on 29 August 2018. The Ministry of Administrative Reorganization was reabsorbed by the Ministry of the Interior on 9 July 2019. List of ministers Interior (1974–1995) On 15 September 1995, the Ministry of the Prime Minister's Office and the Ministry of the Interior were merged to become the Ministry of the Interior, Public Administration and Decentralization. Interior, public administration and decentralization (1995–2007) On 19 September 2007, the Ministry of the Interior, Public Administration and Decentralization was merged with the Ministry of Public Order to form the Ministry of the Interior. Interior (2007–2009) Interior, decentralization and electronic governance (2009–2011) Interior (2011–2015) Interior and administrative reorganization (2015–2016) Interior (since 2016) See also Decentralization External links Official website Government ministries of Greece Lists of government ministers of Greece Law enforcement in Greece Greece

4024071

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Green%20%28disambiguation%29

Tom Green (disambiguation)

Tom Green (born 1971) is a Canadian actor, comedian, talk show host and media personality. Tom Green or Tommy Green may also refer to: Sports Association football (soccer) Tommy Green (footballer, born 1863) (1863–1923), English footballer for Aston Villa Tommy Green (footballer, born 1873) (1873–1921), English footballer for West Bromwich Albion Tommy Green (footballer, born 1876) (1876–1958), English footballer for New Brighton Tower, Liverpool, Middlesbrough and Stockport County Tommy Green (footballer, born 1893) (1893–1975), English footballer for West Ham United, Accrington Stanley, Stockport County and Clapton Orient Tommy Green (footballer, born 1913) (1913–1997), English footballer for West Bromwich Albion Other sports Tommy Green (athlete) (1894–1975), British race walker Tom Green (basketball) (born 1949), American college basketball coach Tom Green (footballer, born 1909) (1909–1979), Australian rules footballer for Hawthorn Tom Green (footballer, born 2001), Australian rules footballer for Greater Western Sydney Tom Green (golfer) (1900–1974), Welsh golfer Tom Green (runner) (born 1950/1), American marathon runner Others Tom Green (artist) (1913–1980), Australian artist Tom Green (attorney) (born 1941/2), American defense lawyer Tom Green (designer) (fl. 1964), designer and driver of the land speed record holder Wingfoot Express Tom Green (polygamist) (1948–2021), American Mormon fundamentalist in Utah who practiced plural marriage Tom Patrick Green (1942–2012), American painter and art professor Other uses Tom Green County, Texas, American geographic designation See also Thom Green (born 1991), Australian dancer and actor Thom Sonny Green, English drummer and electronic music producer Thomas Green (disambiguation) Thomas Greene (disambiguation) Tommie Green (1956–2015), American basketball player Green, Tom

4024093

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal%20efficiency

Thermal efficiency

In thermodynamics, the thermal efficiency () is a dimensionless performance measure of a device that uses thermal energy, such as an internal combustion engine, steam turbine, steam engine, boiler, furnace, refrigerator, ACs etc. For a heat engine, thermal efficiency is the ratio of the net work output to the heat input; in the case of a heat pump, thermal efficiency (known as the coefficient of performance) is the ratio of net heat output (for heating), or the net heat removed (for cooling) to the energy input (external work). The efficiency of a heat engine is fractional as the output is always less than the input while the COP of a heat pump is more than 1. These values are further restricted by the Carnot theorem. Overview In general, energy conversion efficiency is the ratio between the useful output of a device and the input, in energy terms. For thermal efficiency, the input, , to the device is heat, or the heat-content of a fuel that is consumed. The desired output is mechanical work, , or heat, , or possibly both. Because the input heat normally has a real financial cost, a memorable, generic definition of thermal efficiency is From the first law of thermodynamics, the energy output cannot exceed the input, and by the second law of thermodynamics it cannot be equal in a non-ideal process, so When expressed as a percentage, the thermal efficiency must be between 0% and 100%. Efficiency must be less than 100% because there are inefficiencies such as friction and heat loss that convert the energy into alternative forms. For example, a typical gasoline automobile engine operates at around 25% efficiency, and a large coal-fuelled electrical generating plant peaks at about 46%. However, advances in Formula 1 motorsport regulations have pushed teams to develop highly efficient power units which peak around 45–50% thermal efficiency. The largest diesel engine in the world peaks at 51.7%. In a combined cycle plant, thermal efficiencies approach 60%. Such a real-world value may be used as a figure of merit for the device. For engines where a fuel is burned, there are two types of thermal efficiency: indicated thermal efficiency and brake thermal efficiency. This form of efficiency is only appropriate when comparing similar types or similar devices. For other systems, the specifics of the calculations of efficiency vary, but the non-dimensional input is still the same: Efficiency = Output energy / input energy. Heat engines Heat engines transform thermal energy, or heat, Qin into mechanical energy, or work, Wout. They cannot do this task perfectly, so some of the input heat energy is not converted into work, but is dissipated as waste heat Qout < 0 into the surroundings: The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is the percentage of heat energy that is transformed into work. Thermal efficiency is defined as The efficiency of even the best heat engines is low; usually below 50% and often far below. So the energy lost to the environment by heat engines is a major waste of energy resources. Since a large fraction of the fuels produced worldwide go to powering heat engines, perhaps up to half of the useful energy produced worldwide is wasted in engine inefficiency, although modern cogeneration, combined cycle and energy recycling schemes are beginning to use this heat for other purposes. This inefficiency can be attributed to three causes. There is an overall theoretical limit to the efficiency of any heat engine due to temperature, called the Carnot efficiency. Second, specific types of engines have lower limits on their efficiency due to the inherent irreversibility of the engine cycle they use. Thirdly, the nonideal behavior of real engines, such as mechanical friction and losses in the combustion process causes further efficiency losses. Carnot efficiency The second law of thermodynamics puts a fundamental limit on the thermal efficiency of all heat engines. Even an ideal, frictionless engine can't convert anywhere near 100% of its input heat into work. The limiting factors are the temperature at which the heat enters the engine, , and the temperature of the environment into which the engine exhausts its waste heat, , measured in an absolute scale, such as the Kelvin or Rankine scale. From Carnot's theorem, for any engine working between these two temperatures: This limiting value is called the Carnot cycle efficiency because it is the efficiency of an unattainable, ideal, reversible engine cycle called the Carnot cycle. No device converting heat into mechanical energy, regardless of its construction, can exceed this efficiency. Examples of are the temperature of hot steam entering the turbine of a steam power plant, or the temperature at which the fuel burns in an internal combustion engine. is usually the ambient temperature where the engine is located, or the temperature of a lake or river into which the waste heat is discharged. For example, if an automobile engine burns gasoline at a temperature of and the ambient temperature is , then its maximum possible efficiency is: It can be seen that since is fixed by the environment, the only way for a designer to increase the Carnot efficiency of an engine is to increase , the temperature at which the heat is added to the engine. The efficiency of ordinary heat engines also generally increases with operating temperature, and advanced structural materials that allow engines to operate at higher temperatures is an active area of research. Due to the other causes detailed below, practical engines have efficiencies far below the Carnot limit. For example, the average automobile engine is less than 35% efficient. Carnot's theorem applies to thermodynamic cycles, where thermal energy is converted to mechanical work. Devices that convert a fuel's chemical energy directly into electrical work, such as fuel cells, can exceed the Carnot efficiency. Engine cycle efficiency The Carnot cycle is reversible and thus represents the upper limit on efficiency of an engine cycle. Practical engine cycles are irreversible and thus have inherently lower efficiency than the Carnot efficiency when operated between the same temperatures and . One of the factors determining efficiency is how heat is added to the working fluid in the cycle, and how it is removed. The Carnot cycle achieves maximum efficiency because all the heat is added to the working fluid at the maximum temperature , and removed at the minimum temperature . In contrast, in an internal combustion engine, the temperature of the fuel-air mixture in the cylinder is nowhere near its peak temperature as the fuel starts to burn, and only reaches the peak temperature as all the fuel is consumed, so the average temperature at which heat is added is lower, reducing efficiency. An important parameter in the efficiency of combustion engines is the specific heat ratio of the air-fuel mixture, γ. This varies somewhat with the fuel, but is generally close to the air value of 1.4. This standard value is usually used in the engine cycle equations below, and when this approximation is made the cycle is called an air-standard cycle. Otto cycle: automobiles The Otto cycle is the name for the cycle used in spark-ignition internal combustion engines such as gasoline and hydrogen fuelled automobile engines. Its theoretical efficiency depends on the compression ratio r of the engine and the specific heat ratio γ of the gas in the combustion chamber. Thus, the efficiency increases with the compression ratio. However the compression ratio of Otto cycle engines is limited by the need to prevent the uncontrolled combustion known as knocking. Modern engines have compression ratios in the range 8 to 11, resulting in ideal cycle efficiencies of 56% to 61%. Diesel cycle: trucks and trains In the Diesel cycle used in diesel truck and train engines, the fuel is ignited by compression in the cylinder. The efficiency of the Diesel cycle is dependent on r and γ like the Otto cycle, and also by the cutoff ratio, rc, which is the ratio of the cylinder volume at the beginning and end of the combustion process: The Diesel cycle is less efficient than the Otto cycle when using the same compression ratio. However, practical Diesel engines are 30% - 35% more efficient than gasoline engines. This is because, since the fuel is not introduced to the combustion chamber until it is required for ignition, the compression ratio is not limited by the need to avoid knocking, so higher ratios are used than in spark ignition engines. Rankine cycle: steam power plants The Rankine cycle is the cycle used in steam turbine power plants. The overwhelming majority of the world's electric power is produced with this cycle. Since the cycle's working fluid, water, changes from liquid to vapor and back during the cycle, their efficiencies depend on the thermodynamic properties of water. The thermal efficiency of modern steam turbine plants with reheat cycles can reach 47%, and in combined cycle plants, in which a steam turbine is powered by exhaust heat from a gas turbine, it can approach 60%. Brayton cycle: gas turbines and jet engines The Brayton cycle is the cycle used in gas turbines and jet engines. It consists of a compressor that increases pressure of the incoming air, then fuel is continuously added to the flow and burned, and the hot exhaust gasses are expanded in a turbine. The efficiency depends largely on the ratio of the pressure inside the combustion chamber p2 to the pressure outside p1 Other inefficiencies One should not confuse thermal efficiency with other efficiencies that are used when discussing engines. The above efficiency formulas are based on simple idealized mathematical models of engines, with no friction and working fluids that obey simple thermodynamic rules called the ideal gas law. Real engines have many departures from ideal behavior that waste energy, reducing actual efficiencies below the theoretical values given above. Examples are: friction of moving parts inefficient combustion heat loss from the combustion chamber departure of the working fluid from the thermodynamic properties of an ideal gas aerodynamic drag of air moving through the engine energy used by auxiliary equipment like oil and water pumps. inefficient compressors and turbines imperfect valve timing These factors may be accounted when analyzing thermodynamic cycles, however discussion of how to do so is outside the scope of this article. Energy conversion For a device that converts energy from another form into thermal energy (such as an electric heater, boiler, or furnace), the thermal efficiency is where the quantities are heat-equivalent values. So, for a boiler that produces 210 kW (or 700,000 BTU/h) output for each 300 kW (or 1,000,000 BTU/h) heat-equivalent input, its thermal efficiency is 210/300 = 0.70, or 70%. This means that 30% of the energy is lost to the environment. An electric resistance heater has a thermal efficiency close to 100%. When comparing heating units, such as a highly efficient electric resistance heater to an 80% efficient natural gas-fuelled furnace, an economic analysis is needed to determine the most cost-effective choice. Effects of fuel heating value The heating value of a fuel is the amount of heat released during an exothermic reaction (e.g., combustion) and is a characteristic of each substance. It is measured in units of energy per unit of the substance, usually mass, such as: kJ/kg, J/mol. The heating value for fuels is expressed as the HHV, LHV, or GHV to distinguish treatment of the heat of phase changes: Higher heating value (HHV) is determined by bringing all the products of combustion back to the original pre-combustion temperature, and in particular condensing any vapor produced. This is the same as the thermodynamic heat of combustion. Lower heating value (LHV) (or net calorific value) is determined by subtracting the heat of vaporization of the water vapor from the higher heating value. The energy required to vaporize the water therefore is not realized as heat. Gross heating value accounts for water in the exhaust leaving as vapor, and includes liquid water in the fuel prior to combustion. This value is important for fuels like wood or coal, which will usually contain some amount of water prior to burning. Which definition of heating value is being used significantly affects any quoted efficiency. Not stating whether an efficiency is HHV or LHV renders such numbers very misleading. Heat pumps and refrigerators Heat pumps, refrigerators and air conditioners use work to move heat from a colder to a warmer place, so their function is the opposite of a heat engine. The work energy (Win) that is applied to them is converted into heat, and the sum of this energy and the heat energy that is taken up from the cold reservoir (QC) is equal to the magnitude of the total heat energy given off to the hot reservoir (|QH|) Their efficiency is measured by a coefficient of performance (COP). Heat pumps are measured by the efficiency with which they give off heat to the hot reservoir, COPheating; refrigerators and air conditioners by the efficiency with which they take up heat from the cold space, COPcooling: The reason the term "coefficient of performance" is used instead of "efficiency" is that, since these devices are moving heat, not creating it, the amount of heat they move can be greater than the input work, so the COP can be greater than 1 (100%). Therefore, heat pumps can be a more efficient way of heating than simply converting the input work into heat, as in an electric heater or furnace. Since they are heat engines, these devices are also limited by Carnot's theorem. The limiting value of the Carnot 'efficiency' for these processes, with the equality theoretically achievable only with an ideal 'reversible' cycle, is: The same device used between the same temperatures is more efficient when considered as a heat pump than when considered as a refrigerator since This is because when heating, the work used to run the device is converted to heat and adds to the desired effect, whereas if the desired effect is cooling the heat resulting from the input work is just an unwanted by-product. Sometimes, the term efficiency is used for the ratio of the achieved COP to the Carnot COP, which can not exceed 100%. Energy efficiency The 'thermal efficiency' is sometimes called the energy efficiency. In the United States, in everyday usage the SEER is the more common measure of energy efficiency for cooling devices, as well as for heat pumps when in their heating mode. For energy-conversion heating devices their peak steady-state thermal efficiency is often stated, e.g., 'this furnace is 90% efficient', but a more detailed measure of seasonal energy effectiveness is the annual fuel use efficiency (AFUE). Heat exchangers A counter flow heat exchanger is the most efficient type of heat exchanger in transferring heat energy from one circuit to the other. However, for a more complete picture of heat exchanger efficiency, exergetic considerations must be taken into account. Thermal efficiencies of an internal combustion engine are typically higher than that of external combustion engines. See also Kalina cycle Electrical efficiency Mechanical efficiency Heat engine Federal roofing tax credit for energy efficiency (US) Lower heating value Cost of electricity by source Higher heating value Energy conversion efficiency References Thermodynamic properties Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning Energy conversion Engineering thermodynamics

4024141

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KBOO

KBOO

KBOO is a non-profit organization, listener-funded FM Community radio station broadcasting from Portland, Oregon. The station's mission is to serve groups in its listening area who are underrepresented on other local radio stations and to provide access to the airwaves for people who have unconventional or controversial tastes and points of view. It broadcasts 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and has been on the air since 1968. KBOO is supported financially by donations from members and a small endowment. As of February 2022, the station had about 9,200 members. The station runs pledge drives twice each year. The annual KBOO budget in 2022 was about $900,000. The station is run by eleven paid staff members and several hundred volunteers. Its offices and broadcast studios are in a converted warehouse in inner Southeast Portland, purchased in 1982. Its main transmitter power output is 10,000 watts (approximately 26,500 watts after antenna gain) in Portland; KBOO also has two repeater stations – in Philomath, Oregon (at 104.3 FM) and the Columbia River Gorge (at 91.9 FM)—which extend its broadcast area to include the Columbia River Gorge and most of the Willamette Valley. History Early Days (1964–1971) A group of Portlanders organized themselves as Portland Listener Supported Radio in 1964. They approached Lorenzo Milam, a former volunteer at Pacifica Radio's KPFA, who helped start KRAB, a now-defunct community station in Seattle. Milam agreed to help them organize a station, and after a series of meetings, Portland Listener Supported Radio applied for a license for a Portland radio station. In time, Milam helped several other communities start their own stations, including KCHU, WAIF, WORT, KDNA, KTAO, and KUSP. Milam asked KRAB volunteer David Calhoun if he'd be willing to help organize the new station in Portland. Calhoun, an ex-monk and third-year medical student, packed his VW with a transmitter from Seattle, and moved south. Sleeping on couches and bumming meals, Calhoun and other volunteers including Gray Haertig (who continues to volunteer to this day) put together what was needed for a community radio station. A basement room was donated on Third and Salmon Streets, in downtown Portland. The space was barely big enough for two tape recorders, one turntable, and Calhoun. A diverse mix of about thirty volunteers came together to help out, including society women, movement radicals, professional broadcast engineers, and musicians. Selecting call letters referencing a strain of marijuana called "Berkeley Boo", KBOO Community Radio was on the air in June 1968, at a cost of less than $4,000. The total monthly station budget was about $50. The total output was only ten watts - not quite that of a light bulb. A new and important force on Portland's airwaves was born. Initially, KBOO was on the air whenever there was a volunteer to flip a switch and activate the repeater signal from KRAB. But almost immediately, the station began to grow. KBOO volunteers lugged big Ampex tape recorders to concerts, political events, and neighborhood meetings; nationally recognised artists and activists were brought into the KBOO studio. Local poets also discovered they had an electronic outlet. By the summer of 1970, a used 1,000-watt transmitter was installed, enabling KBOO's audience and subscriptions to grow. KBOO could be heard in much of Northwest Oregon. After three years, KBOO outgrew its studio, and moved to a storefront on SE Belmont Street near 31st Avenue. Walls of the makeshift studios were lined with egg cartons for sound insulation. Two desks were shared by everyone. Incorporation and stability (1972–1982) By 1972, the non-profit KBOO Foundation was born, with an interim five-member Board of Directors. The umbilical cord to KRAB was being cut. By 1973, the staff had grown to five, with about 50 active volunteers. About 600 subscribers donated an average of $20 a year. Station Manager John Ross got an $80,000 federal grant to help purchase equipment. In 1975, the 800-strong KBOO Foundation elected its first board of Directors. The KBOO Foundation and its officers got the license and ownership of the station. KBOO became fully independent of KRAB and its parent, the Jack Straw Memorial Foundation. After 10 years, KBOO had come of age. The station moved again, in 1977, to SW Yamhill Street, and soon expanded broadcasting to 24 hours a day on a regularly scheduled basis. KBOO was broadcasting at 12,500 watts. Rapid growth came to KBOO in its new downtown location. Subscribers soared from 1,200 in early 1978 to well above 2,000 by 1980. About 300 volunteers gave KBOO one of the strongest volunteer programs in the nation. In 1981, urban renewal in downtown Portland forced a search for a new home. KBOO found its present location at 20 SE 8th Avenue (the little robin's egg blue building half a block south of East Burnside Street behind the Jupiter Hotel and Doug Fir Lounge). Through a massive volunteer effort, a new station was built in 1982 in an empty warehouse. For the first time, KBOO would own its own home. Expansion (1982–present) In the early '80s, KBOO broadened its commitment to multicultural programming. New Spanish and Asian-language programs were added. A strip of African-American musical programming was added in 1981. A Hispanic strip followed in 1984. News and Public Affairs Director Ross Reynolds and volunteers teamed up to organise a nightly newscast, supplemented by a new wire service and national newscast from Pacifica Radio, which proudly continues to air to this day. A new station, KMUN, was launched in Astoria through KBOO's help, much as KRAB had nurtured KBOO. Funds were raised to purchase the new building and KBOO was in the black for the first time in memory. In 1986, the building was purchased. Power was boosted to 23 kW, and KBOO began broadcasting in stereo for the first time. A major federal grant in 1987 allowed purchase of new studio equipment. A satellite dish was added on the roof, and the station bought a remote transmitter, allowing live remote broadcasts of community events. In the early 1990s, KBOO set up translators in Corvallis (broadcasting at 100.7 FM) and in White Salmon, Washington (broadcasting at 91.9 FM), allowing KBOO's signal to be received from the very northern tip of Eugene to The Dalles, on a good day. In 2013, the Corvallis translator moved slightly, to Philomath, where it still reaches Corvallis and now parts of Eugene, at 104.3 FM. In the summer of 1991, KBOO moved its transmitter to a new location on the KGON tower (also known as Stonehenge) on Portland's West Hills. This increase of gave KBOO much greater range. KBOO's effective radiated power was boosted to 26.5 kW. Reports from jubilant listeners came in from the coast and outskirts of Eugene, saying they were hearing KBOO clearly for the first time. Programming KBOO offers a wide spectrum of programming on a regular basis, as well as annual and one-time special event programming. Regular programs are either music/culture or public affairs. KBOO's public affairs programming offers morning talk shows, daytime cultural programs, as well as educational, informative and controversial productions. The main focus is broadcasting independent content, and voices/perspectives that are not typically heard on mainstream media. Public affairs programs include: Old Mole Variety Hour, Voices For The Animals, Prison Pipeline, Art Focus, Film at 11, Locus Focus, The Dirtbag, The Bike Show and Rose City Native Radio. Also included are limited series such as Roe On The Rocks, tackling current gender and political issues of national relevance, and Let’s Talk About Race, addressing racial and social issues of importance. Distinctive programming, such as specialized starseed, public affairs content is also offered, namely Squirrels Know. KBOO delivers a daily volunteer-produced evening newscast, and dedicated election coverages. It has hosted the Walt Curtis poetry show Talking Earth since 1971. KBOO also broadcasts syndicated programs, such as Democracy Now!, For The Wild, Ecojustice Radio and First Voices Radio. Music programs, which cover a vast array of genres from hip-hop, rock, electronica, experimental, chill-out, folk, jazz, latin music and world, can be heard from noon to 4pm each weekday, as well as most evenings, late nights and weekends. Music shows include: Roots of Rock and Roll, Jazz in the Afternoon, Rise When The Rooster Crows, Dr. Zomb’s Stereo Obscura, Spark Plug, Parsing Sound and Boogie Pachangero. In addition, KBOO also offers radio theater programs, including The Ubu Hour, Sudden Radio Project and Gremlin Time, with each program alternating from week-to-week, producing one episode per month. Special programming events have included live remote broadcasts of music festivals such as PDX Pop Now!, Pickathon, and the annual Waterfront Blues Festival. According to the KBOO Programming Charter, KBOO shall fill the needs that other media outlets do not, "providing programming to diverse communities and unserved or underserved groups" and "shall provide access and training to those communities." KBOO hosted the Grassroots Radio Coalition's 13th annual Grassroots Radio Conference. The conference was held July 24–27, 2008, at Portland State University's Native American Student and Community Center. It was co-sponsored by KBOO, KPSU, and KPCN-LP. "Stairway to Heaven" As a listener-funded station, KBOO runs a variety of fundraising offers. They once promised that, for a donation of $10,000, the station would never play Led Zeppelin's "Stairway To Heaven" again. After his last set at a concert at the Aladdin Theater, Robert Plant was driving his rental car to the Oregon Coast and station-surfing, looking for non-mainstream music. That is, of course, a KBOO specialty, and the offer was repeated while Plant was lingering on the station. He liked the idea and decided to accept. He pulled over to use a pay-phone to call and make a $10,000 pledge, which he says he did using the credit card of Atco Records president Herb Abramson. During an interview in which Plant confirmed the story, he also said that he liked the song well enough, and of course it has been very good to him... "…but don’t you know, I’ve heard it." See also List of community radio stations in the United States References External links Community radio stations in the United States BOO Radio stations established in 1968 1968 establishments in Oregon

4024177

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matsyafed

Matsyafed

Matsyafed, the Kerala State Co-operative Federation for Fisheries Development Ltd., is the Apex Federation of 654 Primary Fisherman Co-operative Societies spread over 10 districts of Kerala, South India. There are 332 co-operative societies in the Marine sector, 183 in the Inland sector and 131 women co-operatives. The federation came into existence in 1984. The federation has a district office in each of the maritime districts and one in the Inland district, each headed by a district manager. The district manager has a team of supporting staff co-ordinate and supervise all the activities in the district. The administration and management of Matsyafed is vested with a board of directors having 19 members, of who one are elected from the primary co-operatives, 5 official members and 3 non-officials members nominated by the government. The chief executive is the managing director. Activities Matsyafed is engaged in the implementation of multifaceted activities for the welfare development of the fisherman community as detailed below: Production oriented activities Welfare activities Employment generation activities Commercial activities Women oriented activities Extension activities Aquaculture activities Housing and basic sanitation. Production oriented activities: Through the integrated fisheries development project Matsyafed has been involved in the process of supplying quality fishing inputs to the traditional fishermen of marine and inland sectors at subsidized rates. To avoid exploitation of fishermen and to ensure better price to the fish landed, beach level auctions of the fish are conducted by the primary co-operatives societies of Matsyafed. Welfare activities: Eight Vanitha () Buses are operated for transporting fisherman vendors to various routes. The fishermen are covered under the personal accident Insurance scheme for a nominal premium wherein the dependents of those who die in accidents are paid Rs. 1,50 lakhs and for partial disablement Rs. 0.50 lakhs is paid. Community peeling centres are being run in spite of loss to the Federation as an employment opportunity unit for fishermen. Matsyafed has set up 200 small-scale production units of ornamental fishery benefiting 600 fishermen. Employment generation: Matsyafed has been implementing schemes with the assistance of the National Backward classes finance and Development Corporation since 1995-96 and National Minorities development and Finance Corporation since 1997-98 to provide alternate and diversified employment avenues for the unemployed youth. Commercial activities: Matsyafed is spearheading many activities by operating nylon net factories, ice and freezing plant, Diesel bunks, Fish Manure plants, Chitosan Plant, Vyasa stores, OBM service centres etc. To ensure timely service to the fishermen at moderate cost, the OBM workshops are set up. The Net Factory ensures the supply of quality fishing nets at moderate cost; timely supply of fishing inputs and accessories are ensured by the Vyasa Stores. Women-oriented activities: To take up any employment generating activity, fishermen are given loans at very low interest rate. Extension activities: Since it is felt that the backwardness of the fishing folk is mainly due to the lack of general programmes, health awareness camps, medical camps, etc. are being organized in the coastal area. Aquaculture activities: To augment the development of fishery, Matsyafed has been managing 3 farms and 4 hatcheries. Fish farm and aqua tourism centre, Vypin are the two of such farms located in Vypin. To check fishery resource depletion in the marine as well as inland waters, fishery conservation measurements have been taken up. Housing and basic sanitation: Government has entrusted implementation of Housing and sanitation schemes to local bodies from 1997 onwards and hence the residue works are only being carried out. Matsyafed has already completed construction of 33400 houses. In order to give relief to the poor fishermen, Matsyafed had come up with a debt relief scheme amounting to Rs. 9 crores and the government has sanctioned the required amount for this scheme. Based on this, Matsyafed had constructed Adalaths for the Debt relief scheme for fisherman in all the 14 districts and the maximum relief was passed on to the eligible fishermen during this period. Citation: from Kerala Government Information site See also Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies Fish farm and aqua tourism centre, Vypin External links Department of Fisheries, Kerala Cooperatives in Kerala Fishing trade associations Fishing in India 1984 establishments in Kerala Indian companies established in 1984

4024199

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin%20telluride

Tin telluride

Tin telluride is a compound of tin and tellurium (SnTe); is a IV-VI narrow band gap semiconductor and has direct band gap of 0.18 eV. It is often alloyed with lead to make lead tin telluride, which is used as an infrared detector material. Tin telluride normally forms p-type semiconductor (Extrinsic semiconductor) due to tin vacancies and is a low temperature superconductor. SnTe exists in three crystal phases. At Low temperatures, where the concentration of hole carriers is less than 1.5x1020 cm−3 , Tin Telluride exists in rhombohedral phase also known as α-SnTe. At room temperature and atmospheric pressure, Tin Telluride exists in NaCl-like cubic crystal phase, known as β-SnTe. While at 18 kbar pressure, β-SnTe transforms to γ-SnTe, orthorhombic phase, space group Pnma. This phase change is characterized by 11 percent increase in density and 360 percent increase in resistance for γ-SnTe. Tin telluride is a thermoelectric material. Theoretical studies imply that the n-type performance may be particularly good. Thermal properties Standard enthalpy of formation: - 14.6 ± 0.3 kcal/mole at 298 K Standard Enthalpy of sublimation: 52.1 ± 1.4 kcal/mole at 298 K Heat capacity: 12.1 + 2.1 x 10−3 T cal/deg Bond-dissociation energy for the reaction SnTe(g)-> Sn(g)+ Te(g) : 80.6 ± 1.5 kcal/mole at 298 K Entropy: 24.2±0.1 cal/mole.deg Enthalpy of Dimerization for the reaction Sn2Te2->2SnTe(g) :46.9 ± 6.0 kcal/mole Applications Generally Pb is alloyed with SnTe in order to access interesting optical and electronic properties, In addition, as a result of Quantum confinement, the band gap of the SnTe increases beyond the bulk band gap, covering the mid-IR wavelength range. The alloyed material has been used in mid- IR photodetectors and thermoelectric generator. References External links Berlin thermophysical properties database Webelements page Landolt-Börnstein Substance/SnTe index Reflectivity of Tin Telluride in the Infrared Tellurides Tin(II) compounds IV-VI semiconductors Rock salt crystal structure

4024338

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korg%20Poly-61

Korg Poly-61

The KORG Poly-61 (PS-61) is an analogue programmable polyphonic synthesizer released by Korg in 1982, as a successor to the Polysix. It was notable for being Korg's first largely "knobless" synthesizer - featuring a push-button interface for programming, dispensing with the Polysix's knobs and switches. The Poly-61 also uses digitally-controlled analog oscillators or DCOs (Roland's Juno-6 had made the same leap the previous year), in place of the Polysix's VCOs. The Poly-61 also boasted double the patch memory (64 memory positions versus the Polysix's 32), but did not feature its predecessor's onboard effects. In 1984, a MIDI version, the Poly-61M, was released featuring basic MIDI implementation, however, prior to that, one could order a Poly-61 with MIDI In and MIDI Out jacks factory-installed, simply called Poly-61 with Factory Installed MIDI. The MIDI implementation was basic with only note-on and note-off information, partly as the synthesiser was not touch sensitive. Audio path Oscillators The Poly-61 offers two DCOs per voice. DCO1, a more traditional design, provides sawtooth, pulse, and PWM waveforms. DCO2, based on low-resolution counter ICs, has only sawtooth and square, and is not available on its own. Filter The filter has the typical controls for cutoff, resonance, keyboard tracking and envelope amount. Some of these are rather limited by the parameter resolution. Keyboard tracking is simply "on" or "off" for example, and resonance and envelope level (here labelled "EG Intensity") have only 8 values. However, when manipulated by internal LFOs, the resolution is considerably better without notable stepping. Output The final component in the audio path is a VCA. It can be driven by the envelope generator or a CV/Gate pulse. Embedded processors NEC D8049C - 8 bits, 11 MHz (max.), 40 pins (DIP), Supply Voltage = 5V There are 2 of them on the CPU board (KLM-509), one is a Programmer and the other is an Assigner. The 8049 has 2 kB of masked ROM as well as 128 bytes of RAM and 27 I/O ports. The µC's oscillator block divides the incoming clock into 15 internal phases, thus with its 11 MHz max. crystal, one gets 0.73 MIPS (of one-clock instructions). Some 70% of instructions are single byte/cycle, but 30% need two cycles and/or two bytes, so raw performance is closer to 0.5 MIPS. The minimum instruction length is 8 bits and the maximum instruction length is 16 bits. Modulation Envelope generator The envelope is an ADSR type. All parameters can only be set to one of 16 values. There are 6 SSM-2056 analog envelope generator chips used in the Poly 61, each being controlled by discrete 4-bit D/A converters. This means there are only 16 possible settings for each of the ADSR parameters. LFO The LFO (known as a 'modulation generator' on the Poly-61) is a simple triangle wave that can be routed to the DCOs or VCF. It has a variable delay before it is triggered. Joystick The joystick controls a second LFO, adjustable by a knob with rate indicator LED, and entirely independent of the main LFO, although the effect can be cumulative. The joystick can be used to route this to DCO pitch (vibrato) or VCF. As control of this LFO is entirely manual, it does not feature in the programmable patch structure of the synth. Although originally introduced on the Korg Trident, the 4-way joystick became something of a Korg trademark, appearing on nearly all of its synthesizers and keyboard instruments from that point onward with only a few exceptions - in contrast to the two way joystick preferred by Roland, and the modulation wheels used by almost every other manufacturer. Performance features Joystick Unlike the separate pitch and modulation wheels of the Polysix, the Poly 61 features a full joystick, with variable pitchbend (+/- about 7 semitones), and an independent LFO (see above). Chord memory As well as standard 6-voice polyphony, a chord memory can be engaged, memorising any chord voicing held down while pressing the Chord Memory button. This chord is then replicated, its lowest note matching any note played on the keyboard. A hold function works in either Poly or Chord mode, with a dedicated input jack for a release foot pedal. Arpeggiator There is a simple arpeggiator with dedicated control buttons and tempo knob, which can work in conjunction with the chord memory for moderately sophisticated sequences. Reception and Impact The Poly-61 was not as well received as its predecessor, in particular the push button programming interface being criticised for its lack of resolution compared to the knob-controlled analog synths of the period; this would foreshadow general criticisms of the menu diving required to edit patches 'on the fly' whilst playing that would be directed at the digital and sample-based synths that were to follow. The Poly-61 also lacked the on-board effects capability of the Polysix. Crucially, the Poly-61 was released just before the introduction of MIDI, and still used old style analog voltage trigger outputs to interface it with sequencers and drum machines (although this was addressed by the later addition of MIDI in the Poly-61M). However, it would be the release of the all-digital Yamaha DX7 just a few months after the Poly-61 that would quickly erode its market appeal. The Poly-61 was replaced in 1985 by the DW-8000 which still used a partially analog architecture. It was not until the revolutionary Korg M1 six years later, that Korg returned to the top of the class with the first sample-based digital workstation synth. Notable users Com Truise Cardiacs FM Static Homeshake Jesse Saunders Kanjo Ray Parker Jr. "Ghostbusters" The Faint Twenty Four Hours Tuxedomoon J McCarthy Brian Auger Kebu Jerry Calliste Jr. References P Analog synthesizers Polyphonic synthesizers

4024423

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status%20of%20Jerusalem

Status of Jerusalem

The dispute between Israelis and Palestinians, who both claim Jerusalem as their capital city, has been described as "one of the most intractable issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict", with conflicting claims to sovereignty over the city or parts of it, and access to its holy sites. The main dispute revolves around the legal status of East Jerusalem and especially the Old City of Jerusalem, while broader agreement exists regarding future Israeli presence in West Jerusalem in accordance with Israel's internationally recognised borders. Most countries support that Jerusalem should be the future capital of both Israel and Palestine; this position has been endorsed by the United Nations, the European Union, and individual countries such as France. Russia, among other countries, already recognizes East Jerusalem as the capital of Palestine, and West Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. The majority of United Nations (UN) member states hold the view that the final status of Jerusalem should be resolved through negotiation, and have therefore favored locating their embassies to Israel in Tel Aviv, prior to a final status agreement. Only four countries have embassies to Israel in Jerusalem: the US, Guatemala, Honduras and the partially recognized Kosovo. Background From 1517 until the First World War, Jerusalem was part of the Ottoman Empire. It was part of the Damascus eyalet (province) until, as a result of widespread administrative reform in the mid 1800s, it became an independent sanjak (district) in 1872. From the 1860s, the Jewish community became the largest religious minority grouping in the city and from 1887, with the beginning of expansion outside the old city walls, became a majority. Throughout the 19th century, European powers were competing for influence in the city, usually on the basis (or pretext) of extending protection over Christian churches and holy places. Much of the property that is now owned by the churches was bought during this time. A number of these countries, most notably France, entered into capitulation agreements with the Ottoman Empire and also established consulates in Jerusalem. In 1847, with Ottoman approval, the first Latin patriarch of Jerusalem since the Crusades was established. After capturing Jerusalem in 1917, the United Kingdom was in control of Jerusalem; initially under a wartime administration, then as part of the Mandate of Palestine assigned to Britain in 1920. The principal Allied Powers recognized the unique spiritual and religious interests in Jerusalem among the world's Abrahamic religions as "a sacred trust of civilization", and stipulated that the existing rights and claims connected with it be safeguarded in perpetuity, under international guarantee. However, the Arab and Jewish communities in Palestine were in mortal dispute and Britain sought United Nations assistance in resolving the dispute. During the negotiations of proposals for a resolution that culminated in the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine (also known as Resolution 181) in November 1947, the historic claims of the Vatican, Italy and France were revived. The Vatican's historic claims and interests, as well as those of Italy and France were based on the former Protectorate of the Holy See and the French Protectorate of Jerusalem. From their point of view this proposal was essentially to safeguard Christian holy sites and was expressed as a call for the special international regime for the city of Jerusalem. This status was also confirmed in UN General Assembly Resolution 194 in 1948, which maintained the position that Jerusalem be made an international city. The United Nations Partition Plan called for the partition of Palestine into separate Arab and Jewish states, with Jerusalem (with borders expanded to include Bethlehem, see UN map of Jerusalem) being established as a corpus separatum, or a "separated body", with a special legal and political status, administered by the United Nations. The Free City of Danzig was a historical precedent for this solution; Trieste was a contemporaneous city ruled by the UN. Jewish representatives accepted the partition plan, while representatives of the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab states rejected it, declaring it illegal. On 14 May 1948, the Jewish community in Palestine issued the declaration of the establishment of the State of Israel within territory set aside for the Jewish state in the Partition Plan. Israel became a member of the United Nations the following year and has since been recognised by most countries. The countries recognizing Israel did not necessarily recognize its sovereignty over Jerusalem generally, citing the UN resolutions which called for an international status for the city. The United States, Guatemala, Honduras and Kosovo have embassies in Jerusalem. With the declaration of the establishment of the State of Israel and the subsequent invasion by surrounding Arab states, the UN proposal for Jerusalem never materialised. The 1949 Armistice Agreements left Jordan in control of the eastern parts of Jerusalem, while the western sector (with the exception of the Mount Scopus exclave in the east) was held by Israel. Each side recognised the other's de facto control of their respective sectors. The Armistice Agreement, however, was considered internationally as having no legal effect on the continued validity of the provisions of the partition resolution for the internationalisation of Jerusalem. In 1950, Jordan annexed East Jerusalem as part of its larger annexation of the West Bank. Though the United Kingdom and Iraq recognized Jordanian rule over East Jerusalem, no other country recognized either Jordanian or Israeli rule over the respective areas of the city under their control. Pakistan is sometimes falsely claimed to have recognized the annexation as well. Following the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel declared that Israeli law would be applied to East Jerusalem and enlarged its eastern boundaries, approximately doubling its size. The action was deemed unlawful by other states who did not recognize it. It was condemned by the UN Security Council and General Assembly which described it as an annexation and a violation of the rights of the Palestinian population. In 1980, Israel passed the Jerusalem Law, which declared that "Jerusalem, complete and united, is the capital of Israel". The Security Council declared the law null and void in Resolution 478, which also called upon member states to withdraw their diplomatic missions from the city. The UN General Assembly has also passed numerous resolutions to the same effect. Prelude: UN resolution from 1947 On 29 November 1947 the UN General Assembly passed a resolution which, as part of its Partition Plan for Palestine, included the establishment of Jerusalem as a separate international entity under the auspices of the United Nations, a so-called corpus separatum. Israel 1948 war and 1949 diplomatic steps During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Israel took control of West Jerusalem while Jordan took control of East Jerusalem (including the walled Old City in which most holy places are located). Although accepting partition before the war, Israel rejected the UN's corpus separatum decision at the Lausanne Conference of 1949, and instead indicated a preference for division of Jerusalem into Jewish and Arab zones, and international control and protection only for holy places and sites. Also in 1949, as the UN General Assembly began debating the implementation of its corpus separatum decision, Israel declared Jerusalem as Israel's "eternal capital". Aftermath of 1967 Six-Day War After Israel conquered East Jerusalem from Jordan in 1967 during the Six-Day War, Israel argued that it had the stronger right to the city. Very soon after its conquest of East Jerusalem in 1967, Israel merged East Jerusalem with West Jerusalem by administratively extending the municipal boundary of the city. 1980 Jerusalem Law In July 1980, the Knesset passed the Jerusalem Law as part of the country's Basic Law, which declared Jerusalem the unified capital of Israel. Legal positions since Oslo Accords On the corpus separatum issue According to a 1999 statement by the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, "There is no basis in international law for the position supporting a status of 'corpus separatum' (separate entity) for the city of Jerusalem." In the view of the ministry, the concept of corpus separatum became irrelevant after the Arab states rejected the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and invaded the newly created State of Israel in 1948. Accordingly, the ministry states, "There has never been any agreement, treaty, or international understanding which applies the 'Corpus Separatum' concept to Jerusalem." On sovereignty In 2003 Israel argued that Jordan had no rights to any land west of the Jordan River, that it had taken the West Bank and East Jerusalem by an act of aggression, and therefore never acquired sovereignty. Government positions since Oslo Accords Positions on the final status of Jerusalem have varied with different Israeli governments. Yitzhak Rabin (Prime Minister, 1992–95) The Oslo Accords declared that the final status of Jerusalem would be negotiated, but Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin declared that he would never divide the city. In 1995, he allegedly told a group of school children that "if they told us peace is the price of giving up a united Jerusalem under Israeli sovereignty, my reply would be 'let's do without peace'". Benjamin Netanyahu (Prime Minister, 1996–99) This position was upheld by his successor, Benjamin Netanyahu, who stated there would be "...No withdrawal or even discussion of the case of Jerusalem...". Ehud Barak (Prime Minister, 1999–2001) Netanyahu's successor, Ehud Barak, during negotiations, became the first Israeli Prime Minister to allow for a possible division of Jerusalem, despite his campaign promises. Ariel Sharon (Prime Minister, 2001–06) Prime minister during the second intifada, Ariel Sharon was unequivocal in his support for an undivided Jerusalem. In an interview done one week before a stroke incapacitated him he stated: "Our position is that Jerusalem is not negotiable. We are not going to negotiate on Jerusalem. Jerusalem will be forever a united and undivided capital of Israel." Ehud Olmert (Prime Minister, 2006–09) Prime Minister (and former Jerusalem mayor) Ehud Olmert vowed to keep Jerusalem the "undivided, eternal capital of the Jewish people", but later supported the detachment of several Arab neighborhoods from Israeli sovereignty and the introduction of an international trust to run the Temple Mount. Benjamin Netanyahu (Prime Minister, 2009–2021) When Netanyahu succeeded Olmert, he declared that "all of Jerusalem would always remain under Israeli sovereignty" and that only Israel would "ensure the freedom of religion and freedom of access for the three religions to the holy places". These statements seem to closely reflect Israeli public opinion. According to a 2012 poll by the right-wing Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, 78% of Jewish voters who responded said that they would reconsider voting for any politician that wants to relinquish Israel's control over the Old City and East Jerusalem. On 17 May 2015, Prime Minister Netanyahu reiterated, regarding Jerusalem serving as the capital of both Israel and a future Palestinian state, "Jerusalem has forever been the capital of only the Jewish people and no other nation." On 2 January 2018 Israel passed into law new legislation that requires the two-thirds majority support of the Knesset for any section of Jerusalem to be transferred to a foreign government. On 25 January 2018, Netanyahu repeated the previous government position, saying: "Under any peace agreement, the capital of Israel will continue to be Jerusalem, and the seat of our government will continue to be in Jerusalem." Palestine During the British Mandate, the main representation of the Palestinian Arabs was the Arab Higher Committee, formed in the beginning of the Great Arab revolt in 1936; it was outlawed in 1937 and its leaders deported. Reconstituted in 1945 and dominated by Palestinian Arabs, it continued in various iterations until 1948, when, viewed as a threat to Jordan, its army was forced to disband. There was unequivocal support for an Arab controlled Jerusalem (at that time the status quo). Until the establishment of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1964, there was little in terms of an internationally recognised representation of the Palestinian Arabs. The Arab League usually took over the job, with the short-lived Egyptian-controlled All-Palestine Government based in Gaza having little sway, and Jordan taking control of the West Bank with East Jerusalem. Until the Oslo Accords in 1993, and the Letters of Mutual Recognition, the Palestinians, represented since 1964 by the PLO, had at all times rejected any partition of any part of the former British Mandate territory. However, while they had previously rejected the UN's internationalisation plan, most of the Arab delegations at the Lausanne Conference of 1949 accepted a permanent international regime (called corpus separatum) under United Nations supervision as proposed in Resolutions 181 and 194. The Arabs vociferously objected to Israel moving to (West) Jerusalem its national institutions, namely the Knesset, the presidential, legislative, judicial and administrative offices. The Palestinian leadership now claims the "1967 borders" (in effect the 1949 armistice lines) as the borders of the Palestinian territories, and includes East Jerusalem as part of these territories. Despite recognition of Israel (only from Fatah, not Hamas), and its support in 1949 of corpus separatum, it had never conceded sovereignty of Jerusalem. In 1988, Jordan conceded all claims to the West Bank, including Jerusalem, other than the Muslim holy places on the Temple Mount, and recognized the PLO as the legal representatives of the Palestinian people. The Palestinian National Authority views East Jerusalem as occupied Palestinian territory, in line with UNSC Resolution 242. The PNA claims all of East Jerusalem, including the Temple Mount, as the capital of the State of Palestine, and claims that West Jerusalem is also subject to final status negotiations, but is willing to consider alternative solutions, such as making Jerusalem an open city. In the Palestine Liberation Organization's Palestinian Declaration of Independence of 1988, Jerusalem is called the capital of the State of Palestine. In 2000 the Palestinian Authority passed a law designating the city as such, and in 2002 this law was ratified by Chairman Yasser Arafat. The official position of the PNA is that Jerusalem should be an open city, with no physical partition and that Palestine would guarantee freedom of worship, access and the protection of sites of religious significance. The status quo on the Temple Mount now is that tourists are allowed to visit, but not pray, on the Temple Mount, although this seems to be slowly changing. ICJ case — Palestine v. United States of America In September 2018, the State of Palestine initiated an action in the International Court of Justice, in the case Palestine v. United States of America (officially titled Relocation of the United States Embassy to Jerusalem), in which Palestine charges the US with violating the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations by moving its embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, arguing the Convention requires that "the diplomatic mission of a sending State must be established on the territory of the receiving State." The Palestinian application argues that in international law Jerusalem cannot be considered to be the territory of the State of Israel because under General Assembly Resolution 181 of 1947 (the Partition Plan) Jerusalem was to have been placed under international governance, and thus precludes considering Jerusalem to be under the sovereignty of any State. United Nations The United Nations considers East Jerusalem to be part of Israeli-occupied territories or occupied Palestinian territory. It envisions Jerusalem eventually becoming the capital of two states, Israel and Palestine. This is at odds with other General Assembly Resolutions, which promote an internationally administered Jerusalem. 1947 UN Partition Plan (Resolution 181(II)) provided for the full territorial internationalisation of Jerusalem: "The City of Jerusalem shall be established as a corpus separatum under a special international regime and shall be administered by the United Nations." The resolution was accepted by the Jewish leadership in Palestine, but rejected by the Arabs. This position was restated after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War in Resolution 194 of 1948 and in Resolution 303(IV) of 1949. According to a 1979 report prepared for and under the guidance of the Committee on the Exercise of the Inalienable Rights of the Palestinian People, it would appear that the United Nations has maintained the principle that the legal status of Jerusalem is that of a corpus separatum. The United Nations General Assembly does not recognize Israel's proclamation of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel, which is, for example, reflected in the wording of General Assembly Resolution 63/30 of 2009 which states that "any actions taken by Israel, the occupying Power, to impose its laws, jurisdiction and administration on the Holy City of Jerusalem are illegal and therefore null and void and have no validity whatsoever, and calls upon Israel to cease all such illegal and unilateral measures." Although the General Assembly cannot pass legally binding resolutions over international issues, the United Nations Security Council, which has the authority to do so, has passed a total of six Security Council resolutions on Israel on the matter, including UNSC resolution 478 which affirmed that the enactment of the 1980 Basic Jerusalem Law declaring unified Jerusalem as Israel's "eternal and indivisible" capital, was a violation of international law. The resolution advised member states to withdraw their diplomatic representation from the city. The Security Council, as well as the UN in general, has consistently affirmed the position that East Jerusalem (but not west Jerusalem) is occupied Palestinian territory subject to the provisions of the Fourth Geneva Convention. The International Court of Justice in its 2004 Advisory opinion on the "Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory" described East Jerusalem as "occupied Palestinian territory". Many UN member states formally follow the UN position that Jerusalem should have an international status. The European Union has also followed the UN's lead in this regard, declaring Jerusalem's status to be that of a corpus separatum, or an international city to be administered by the UN. Nevertheless, and inconsistent with the status of corpus separatum, the UN has designated East Jerusalem occupied Palestinian territory. China recognizes East Jerusalem as the capital of Palestine, and the United States has recognised at least West Jerusalem as Israel's capital. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said on 28 October 2009 that Jerusalem must be the capital of both Israel and Palestine. The UN has never revoked resolutions 181 and 194, and maintains the official position that Jerusalem should be placed under a special international regime. European Union The European Union currently views the status of Jerusalem as that of a corpus separatum including both East and West Jerusalem as outlined in United Nations Resolution 181. In the interest of achieving a peaceful solution to the Arab–Israeli conflict, it believes a fair solution should be found regarding the issue of Jerusalem in the context of the two-state solution set out in the Road Map. Taking into account the political and religious concerns of all parties involved, it envisions the city serving as the shared capital of Israel and Palestine. The EU opposes measures which would prejudge the outcome of permanent status negotiations on Jerusalem, basing its policy on the principles set out in UN Security Council Resolution 242, notably the impossibility of acquisition of territory by force. It will not recognise any changes to pre-1967 borders with regard to Jerusalem, unless agreed between the parties. It has also called for the reopening of Palestinian institutions in East Jerusalem, in accordance with the Road Map, in particular Orient House and the Chamber of Commerce, and has called on the Israeli government to "cease all discriminatory treatment of Palestinians in East Jerusalem, especially concerning work permits, access to education and health services, building permits, house demolitions, taxation and expenditure." Organisation of Islamic Cooperation On 13 December 2017, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of 57 primarily Muslim countries, declared East Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine and invited "all countries to recognise the State of Palestine and East Jerusalem as its occupied capital." The declaration makes no mention of Jerusalem as corpus separatum, nor makes any reference to West Jerusalem. Location of foreign embassies After Israel passed the Jerusalem Law in 1980, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 478, which called upon UN member states to withdraw their diplomatic missions from the city. Thirteen countries—Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, the Netherlands, Panama, Uruguay and Venezuela—moved their embassies from Jerusalem primarily to Tel Aviv. Costa Rica and El Salvador moved theirs back to Jerusalem in 1984. Costa Rica moved its embassy back to Tel Aviv in 2006 followed by El Salvador a few weeks later. No international embassy was located in Jerusalem again until 2018, although Bolivia had its embassy in Mevasseret Zion, a suburb west of the city, until relations were severed in 2009. Various countries recognized Israel as a state in the 1940s and 1950s, without recognizing Israeli sovereignty over West Jerusalem. There is an international sui generis consular corps in Jerusalem. It is commonly referred to as the "Consular Corps of the Corpus Separatum". The states that have maintained consulates in Jerusalem say that it was part of Mandate Palestine, and in a de jure sense has not since become part of any other sovereignty. The Netherlands maintains an office in Jerusalem serving mainly Israeli citizens. Other foreign governments base consulate general offices in Jerusalem, including Greece, Spain, and the United Kingdom. The United States had a consulate general in Jerusalem, which was reclassified as its embassy in 2018. Since the President of Israel resides in Jerusalem and confirms the foreign diplomats, ambassadors need to travel to Jerusalem to submit letters of credentials upon being appointed. The United States relocated its embassy to Israel to Jerusalem in 2018, as did Guatemala. Honduras followed in 2021. A number of countries have indicated that they could relocate their embassies to Jerusalem in the future, including Australia, Brazil, the Czech Republic, the Dominican Republic and Serbia. In December 2020, the Czech Republic indicated that in 2021 it will open a Jerusalem branch office of the Czech Embassy in Tel Aviv. Hungary had previously opened an official diplomatic mission in Jerusalem. Kosovo committed to opening its embassy in Jerusalem when Israel and Kosovo established diplomatic relations in February 2021. By late 2022, only Guatemala, Honduras and the partially-recognized state of Kosovo maintain embassies in Jerusalem – Paraguay reversed the 2018 relocation of its embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem within months and the Honduran foreign ministry have stated that they are also considering relocating theirs back to Tel Aviv. Fiji and Papua New Guinea have announced their intentions to open embassies in Jerusalem by the end of 2023, while Paraguay also announced its plans to reopen its embassy in Jerusalem in November 2023. Palestinian officials have consistently condemned each such relocation and diplomatic offices in Jerusalem, saying that they constitute "a flagrant violation of international law and goes against the unified EU position on the legal status of Jerusalem." China China recognizes East Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine. In a 2016 speech to the Arab League, Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping said that "China firmly supports the Middle East peace process and supports the establishment of a State of Palestine enjoying full sovereignty on the basis of the 1967 borders and with East Jerusalem as its capital." China announced that this position remains unchanged in the aftermath of the US recognizing Jerusalem as Israel's capital. France The French Government notes that "It is up to the parties to come to a final and overall agreement with regard to the final status, which would put an end to the conflict. France believes that Jerusalem must become the capital of the two States." France does not recognize Israel's sovereignty over East Jerusalem, which France considers an "occupied territory under the Fourth Geneva Convention". Russia On 6 April 2017 the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement saying, "We reaffirm our commitment to the UN-approved principles for a Palestinian-Israeli settlement, which include the status of East Jerusalem as the capital of the future Palestinian state. At the same time, we must state that in this context we view West Jerusalem as the capital of Israel." Some commentators interpreted this as a Russian recognition of Israel's claim to West Jerusalem, while others understood the statement as a Russian intention to recognize West Jerusalem as Israel's in the context of a peace deal with the Palestinians. On 14 June 2018, Russia held, for the first time, its annual Russia Day reception in Jerusalem. Until then, the annual reception has been held in the Tel Aviv area. Although Russia has publicly recognised West Jerusalem as the capital of Israel, it continues to locate its embassy in Tel Aviv. Prior to these events, in 2011 the Russian President Dmitry Medvedev stated that Russia had recognized the State of Palestine with East Jerusalem as its capital already in 1988, and that it had not changed its view. In January 2011, reaffirming Russia's recognition of the State of Palestine, President Dmitry Medvedev said Russia "supported and will support the inalienable right of the Palestinian people to an independent state with its capital in East Jerusalem." United Kingdom The United Kingdom position on Jerusalem states that "Jerusalem was supposed to be a ‘corpus separatum’, or international city administered by the UN. But this was never set up: immediately after the UNGA resolution partitioning Palestine, Israel occupied West Jerusalem and Jordan occupied East Jerusalem (including the Old City). We recognised the de facto control of Israel and Jordan, but not sovereignty. In 1967, Israel occupied E Jerusalem, which we continue to consider is under illegal military occupation by Israel. Our Embassy to Israel is in Tel Aviv, not Jerusalem. In E Jerusalem we have a Consulate-General, with a Consul-General who is not accredited to any state: this is an expression of our view that no state has sovereignty over Jerusalem." The UK believes that the city's status has yet to be determined, and maintains that it should be settled in an overall agreement between the parties concerned, but considers that the city should not again be divided. The Declaration of Principles and the Interim Agreement, signed by Israel and the PLO on 13 September 1993 and 28 September 1995 respectively, left the issue of the status of Jerusalem to be decided in the "permanent status" negotiations between the two parties. United States When Israel was founded, the position of the United States was that its recognition of Israel did not imply a particular view on the status of Jerusalem. The US voted for the UN Partition Plan in November 1947, which provided for the establishment of an international regime for the city, and Resolution 194 in 1948, following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. But the US voted against Resolution 303 in 1949 which reaffirmed that Jerusalem be established a corpus separatum under a special international regime to be administered by the UN, because the US regarded the plan as no longer feasible after both Israel and Jordan had established a political presence in the city. The US position continues to be that final status of Jerusalem is to be resolved through negotiations. On 8 December 2017, Secretary of State Rex Tillerson clarified that the President's statement "did not indicate any final status for Jerusalem" and "was very clear that the final status, including the borders, would be left to the two parties to negotiate and decide." On 6 December 2017, then-U.S. President Donald Trump announced that the U.S. would recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. On 14 May 2018 the U.S. embassy was transferred from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem. The U.S. reclassified as its embassy its Jerusalem Consulate, which had been a lot in the neighborhood of Talpiot leased in 1989 for 99 years by the Israeli government and relocated there in 2002. From 28 October 2020, for the first time, U.S. citizens born in Jerusalem will be allowed to list "Israel" as their place of birth on their U.S. passport, while retaining the option to list simply "Jerusalem" instead. Yet, the United States continues to refer to Israeli residents of East Jerusalem as "settlers". When US President Joe Biden visited Israel and Palestine in 2022, his delegation removed the Israeli flags from his vehicle upon entering East Jerusalem, in a move widely interpreted as signaling non recognition of Israeli sovereignty over East Jerusalem. Other G20 countries : On 15 December 2018 Prime Minister Scott Morrison announced that Australia recognised West Jerusalem as the capital of Israel, while East Jerusalem should be the capital of the State of Palestine. However, Morrison also announced that Australia would not relocate its embassy to West Jerusalem until after the final status of Jerusalem was resolved. On 17 October 2022, Australia's foreign minister confirmed its reversal of the previous governments recognition of West Jerusalem as Israel's capital. The decision was harshly criticised by Opposition Leader Peter Dutton. However, Australia still maintains close relations with Israel and currently has no formal relations with Palestine. : Brazil recognizes East Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine, with which it maintains full diplomatic relations, whereas the Brazilian embassy to Israel is based in Tel Aviv. : According to Global Affairs Canada, "Canada considers the status of Jerusalem can be resolved only as part of a general settlement of the Palestinian–Israeli dispute. Canada does not recognize Israel's unilateral annexation of East Jerusalem." In the fact sheet on Israel displayed on the Canadian Foreign Affairs Department's website, the "Capital" field states that "While Israel designates Jerusalem as its capital, Canada believes that the final status of the city needs to be negotiated between the Israelis and Palestinians. At present, Canada maintains its Embassy in Tel Aviv." : According to Germany's Foreign Minister Sigmar Gabriel, Germany is committed to a two-state solution and believes that the final status of Jerusalem must be resolved through negotiations between the Israelis and Palestinians. : "Endorsing the stance of the European Union in this regard, Italy does not recognise the legitimacy of any border changes that are not agreed between the parties. The question of Jerusalem is extremely sensitive, being the home to the Holy Places belonging to the three great monotheistic religions. To resolve this issue it will be necessary for the parties to reach a difficult, but possible, agreement to safeguard the special character of the city and meet the expectations of both peoples." : In a 1980 statement to the United Nations, Japan criticized Israel's proclamation of Jerusalem as its united capital: "Japan cannot recognize such a unilateral change to the legal status of an occupied territory, which is in total violation of the relevant United Nations resolutions". Japan later reiterated its position in a 2001 UN report: "Japan believes that issues relating to Jerusalem should be resolved through the permanent status negotiations between the parties concerned, and until such a solution is achieved both parties should refrain from taking any unilateral action relating to the situation in Jerusalem." : Saudi Arabia recognizes the State of Palestine, with East Jerusalem as its capital. Saudi Arabia does not formally recognize the State of Israel. The Saudi monarchy has not taken an official position on the fate of West Jerusalem's status. Saudi Arabia expressed disappointment in the United States's recognition of Jerusalem as Israel's capital. : South Korean Ministry of Foreign Affairs introduces Israel's capital as Jerusalem, but mentions that there is controversy over its status. However, the South Korean Embassy in Israel is in Herzliya. : On 17 December 2017, Turkey's President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan said "the day is close when officially" his nation will open an embassy to the State of Palestine in East Jerusalem. This statement came several days after Erdoğan had called for worldwide recognition of East Jerusalem as the occupied capital of a Palestinian state at a summit of Muslim countries convened in response to the US recognition of Jerusalem as Israel's capital. Other countries : The Chilean government considers Jerusalem to be a city with special status, whose final sovereignty must be decided by both Israel and Palestine. It also considers Israel's occupation and control over East Jerusalem illegal. Chile maintains its embassy to Israel in Tel Aviv, while its representative office to the State of Palestine is located in Ramallah. : According to a 7 December 2017 announcement by Taiwan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), Taiwan considers Jerusalem to be the capital of Israel, but has no plans of moving its representative office to the city in the wake of Donald Trump's formal recognition of it as Israel's capital. Although Jerusalem is listed as the capital of Israel on MOFA's website, the ministry notes that its status as such "has not been widely recognized by the international community" and remains highly controversial. : In May 2017, the Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Parliament rejected a UNESCO resolution that criticized Israel for its excavations in East Jerusalem. The Chamber declared that the Czech government "should advocate a position respecting Jerusalem as the Israeli capital city" and called on the government to withhold its annual funding of UNESCO. On 6 December 2017, following the recognition statement by the United States, the Czech Foreign Ministry acknowledged that Jerusalem is "in practice the capital of Israel in the borders of the demarcation line from 1967", but said the Czech government, in line the positions of other EU member states, considers the city to be the future capital of both Israel and Palestine. The Ministry also said it would consider moving the Czech embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem "only based on results of negotiations with key partners in the region and in the world." In May 2018, Czech Republic reopened its honorary consulate in Jerusalem. On 11 March 2021, the Czech Republic opened a branch of its embassy in Jerusalem. : "Israel has declared Jerusalem to be its capital. Due to the conflict and unclear situation concerning the city's status, foreign embassies are in Tel Aviv." : In December 2022, following negotiations between three political parties (the People's Alliance, the National Federation Party and SODELPA) seeking to form a coalition government following the 2022 election, it was agreed upon that Fiji would open an embassy in Jerusalem, which was a condition for SODELPA joining the coalition. : The Finnish embassy to Israel is in Tel Aviv; Finland refers to East Jerusalem as part of the "occupied Palestinian territory", and it understands that East Jerusalem "will be the capital" of the Palestinian state. : On 16 May 2018, Guatemala reopened its embassy in Jerusalem, the second country to do so. : On 24 June 2021, Honduras opened its embassy in Jerusalem, the third country to do so. : On 27 December 2017, the Iranian parliament voted in favor of a bill recognizing Jerusalem as the capital of Palestine in response to the United States decision to recognize the city as Israel's capital. : In December 2018, following his state visit to Israel, Moldovan President Igor Dodon said that he and his administration are considering the possibility of moving the Moldovan embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, probably in the hope to win support from the US for his embattled government. In June 2019, Prime Minister Pavel Filip announced that the decision to move of the Moldovan embassy to Jerusalem has now been taken by his government-one that has been described as "lame-duck" due to a constitutional crisis, with a second, counter-government in place that is opposed to the move, and which is recognised by Russia, the US and the EU. For this reason, the announcement was flatly ignored by the Israeli government. The Filip government has also adopted the decision to sell to the US the plot of land needed for the construction of the new American embassy in Jerusalem. : On 29 August 2019, Nauru officially recognized all of Jerusalem as the state capital of Israel. The island nation does not maintain an embassy in Israel, although it does have an honorary consulate in Rosh HaAyin. : In 2010, the Norwegian Foreign Ministry stated "Norway considers the Israeli presence in East Jerusalem to be in violation of international law, as does the entire international community." : Oman does not recognize the State of Israel, and has stated that it will refuse to normalize relations with Israel until a sovereign and independent Palestinian state is established. As such, the country claims united Jerusalem as the capital of Palestine and does not have an embassy in Israel. : Pakistan has refused to recognize Israel until an "adequate and fair" independent sovereign state for the Palestinians is established, specifically the State of Palestine with its pre-1967 borders and united Jerusalem as its capital. : In 2023, Papua New Guinea announced its intention to open an embassy in Jerusalem by the end of 2023. : Paraguay moved its embassy to Jerusalem in May 2018, but following a change in government, on 6 September 2018, Paraguay announced that its embassy would be relocated to Tel Aviv. This move was due to President Mario Abdo Benítez's disagreement over the embassy relocation. According to President Santiago Peña on September 2023, Paraguay currently plans to relocate its embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem for a second time on November of that year. : On 6 December 2017, following the recognition statement by the United States, President Rodrigo Duterte expressed interest in relocating the embassy of the Philippines from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem and reportedly contacted the Foreign Ministry of Israel to discuss the plans. However, the Philippines' Department of Foreign Affairs later mentioned that it does not support Trump's statement to recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital and expressed its support for a two-state solution. : In April 2018, Prime Minister Viorica Dăncilă announced that the Government has adopted a memorandum regarding the initiation of procedures to relocate the Romanian embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem. President Klaus Iohannis, who had not been informed about this decision, accused the Premier of violating the Constitution, while emphasizing "the need for a just and lasting settlement of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict by implementing the two-state solution." : "St Vincent and the Grenadines strongly urges the United States of America to acknowledge that any unilateral declaration on its part regarding the status of Jerusalem will not in any way advance the cause of a just, peaceful and lasting solution to the dispute between the peoples of Israel and Palestine". : On 4 September 2020, following a breakthrough U.S.-led agreement with Kosovo (and Israel), Serbia agreed to recognize united Jerusalem as the capital of Israel and relocate its embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem by June 2021. On 9 September 2020, The Jerusalem Post quoted an unnamed source from the Serbian President's office who stated that Serbia would not move its embassy to Jerusalem as it pledged to do by signing the White House Agreement if Israel recognizes Kosovo as an independent state. : In a 7 December 2017 statement, Singapore's Ministry of Foreign Affairs reaffirmed the country's support for a two-state solution where the final status of Jerusalem would be "decided through direct negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians." : "Slovakia is on its way to relocating its embassy to Jerusalem," the head of the Slovak National Council Andrej Danko said on 4 July 2018 in a meeting with the President of Israel. A date for the relocation has not been provided, but Slovakia will first open an honorary consulate in the city. : Surinamese Foreign Minister Albert Ramdin announced in 2022 that Suriname intends to open an embassy in Jerusalem. The status of this decision was shortly after contradicted in parliament by vice president Brunswijk. : "Sweden, like other states, does not recognise Jerusalem as Israel's capital, which is why the embassy is in Tel Aviv." : The Republic of Vanuatu recognized Jerusalem as the capital of Israel in June 2017. Vanuatu President Baldwin Lonsdale issued the recognition in response to a controversial UNESCO resolution passed in October 2016 that, according to the Israeli government, downplays Jewish connection to the Temple Mount. : In 2018, the Venezuelan government affirmed the support for Palestinian cause by declaring its stance to recognize Jerusalem as the eternal capital of Palestine after the US embassy move to Jerusalem, which it called as an "extremist decision" that lacks legal validity and violates international law. Islamic holy sites The status of Islamic holy sites in Jerusalem, including Haram Al-Sharif/Temple Mount, is also unresolved. In 1924, the Supreme Muslim Council, the highest Muslim body in charge of Muslim community affairs in Mandatory Palestine, accepted Hussein bin Ali (Sharif of Mecca) as custodian of Al-Aqsa. In the 1994 peace treaty with Jordan, Israel committed to "respect the present special role of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in Muslim Holy shrines in Jerusalem." Israel also pledged that when negotiations on the permanent status will take place, it will give high priority to the Jordanian historical role in these shrines. The Wakf Department that oversees Muslim sites in Jerusalem is controlled by the Jordanian government, which insists on its exclusive custodianship of the holy site. In 2013, the Palestinian Authority also recognized Jordan's role through an agreement signed between PA President Mahmoud Abbas and King Abdullah II. Position of the Vatican The Vatican has had a long-held position on Jerusalem and its concern for the protection of the Christian holy places in the Holy Land which predates the Palestinian Mandate. The Vatican's historic claims and interests, as well as those of Italy and France were based on the former Protectorate of the Holy See and the French Protectorate of Jerusalem, which were incorporated in article 95 of the Treaty of Sèvres (1920), which besides incorporating the Balfour Declaration also provided: "it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine". The Balfour Declaration and the proviso were also incorporated in the Palestinian Mandate (1923), but which also provided in articles 13 and 14 for an international commission to resolve competing claims on the holy places. These claimants had officially lost all capitulation rights by article 28 of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). However, Britain never gave any effect to Mandate provisions arts 13 & 14. During the negotiations of proposals that culminated in the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine (also known as Resolution 181) in 1947, the historic claims of the Vatican, Italy and France were revived, and expressed as the call for the special international regime for the city of Jerusalem. This was also confirmed in UN General Assembly Resolution 194 in 1948, which maintained the position that Jerusalem be made an international city, under United Nations supervision. The Vatican's official position on the status of Jerusalem was in favour of an internationalization of Jerusalem, in order to keep the holy place away from either Israeli or Arab sovereignty. Pope Pius XII supported this idea in the 1949 encyclical Redemptoris nostri cruciatus. It was proposed again during the papacies of John XXIII, Paul VI, John Paul II and Benedict XVI. The Vatican reiterated this position in 2012, recognizing Jerusalem's "identity and sacred character" and calling for freedom of access to the city's holy places to be protected by "an internationally guaranteed special statute". After the US recognized Jerusalem as Israel's capital in December 2017, Pope Francis repeated the Vatican's position: "I wish to make a heartfelt appeal to ensure that everyone is committed to respecting the status quo of the city, in accordance with the relevant resolutions of the United Nations." French claims in Jerusalem There are four sites in Jerusalem claimed by France as "Domaine national français", which are based on claimed French acquisitions predating the formation of the State of Israel, and based on the former French Protectorate of Jerusalem (also known as capitulations), which was abolished in 1923. These sites are: Church of the Pater Noster, also known as the Sanctuary of the Eleona Benedictine monastery in Abu Ghosh Tombs of the Kings Church of Saint Anne. French presidents have claimed that the Church of Saint Anne in Jerusalem, for example, comes under French protection, is owned by its government, and is French territory. The Israeli government has not made any public statement relating to the French claims. See also Foreign relations of Israel Green Line (Israel) International recognition of the State of Palestine Status of territories occupied by Israel in 1967 References International relations Israeli–Palestinian conflict in Jerusalem Palestinian nationalism Zionism

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodansha%20Kanji%20Learner%27s%20Dictionary

Kodansha Kanji Learner's Dictionary

The Kodansha Kanji Learner's Dictionary is a kanji dictionary based on the New Japanese-English Character Dictionary by Jack Halpern at the CJK Dictionary Institute and published by Kenkyūsha. Originally published in 1999 (with a minor update in 2001), a Revised and Updated Edition was issued on 2013, reflecting the new changes in the jōyō kanji mandated in 2010. This Revised and Expanded Edition increases the number of kanji entries from 2,230 to 3,002, as well as changing all pronunciations from romaji to kana. There also exist electronic forms of this dictionary for both iOS and Android. A more extensive version of this dictionary by the CJK Dictionary Institute is also published by Kodansha called the Kodansha Kanji Dictionary. The dictionary arranges entries according to an original system called SKIP (System of Kanji Indexing by Patterns). The dictionary also has indexing by radical and character readings. SKIP The SKIP method used by the Kodansha Learner's Dictionary is an original system for indexing kanji, meant to be accessible to those who have no prior knowledge of them. Instead of organizing kanji based on radicals, they are organized based on pattern. Based on how a kanji can be divided into sections, they are grouped into four main categories: Left-Right (1), Up-Down (2), Enclosure (3), and Solid (4). Users then count the number of strokes in each segment, and use them to determine the kanji's SKIP number. Since December 12, 2014, the SKIP coding system and all established SKIP codes have been released for public use under a Creative Commons licence. Determining SKIP numbers 1) Left-Right Left-Right kanji are those which can be broken down into sections segmented vertically such as (bright), which can be broken down into the left segment (sun) and the right segment (moon). Thus, would be in the first main category (Left-Right), would have four strokes in its left segment and four in its right, giving it a SKIP number 1-4-4. In the above example, the kanji can be broken down into two segments, both of which are actual radicals, but such does not need to be the case. The kanji (measure) can be broken down into three segments (water), (shell money), and (knife). In such cases, the leftmost discrete element is treated as the left segment, and the rest of the kanji as the right segment. Therefore, is split into the left segment of and the right segment of (rule), and the resulting SKIP number is 1-3-9. 2) Up-Down Up-Down kanji are kanji that can be broken down into sections segmented horizontally such as (male), which can be broken down into the up segment (rice field) and the down segment (power). Thus, would be in the second main category (Up-Down), would have five strokes in its up section and two strokes in its down section, giving it a SKIP number of 2-5-2. Again, the up and down sections do not necessarily need to be radicals, and can consist of more than two segments. The kanji (medicine) can be split into three segments. In such cases, the topmost discrete element is the up segment, while the remainder of the kanji () is the down segment. Thus, has a SKIP number of 2-3-13. 3) Enclosure Enclosure kanji are those where one element borders or surrounds other elements of the kanji. Such elements can border other elements on two sides ( and ), three sides ( and ), or completely surround the other elements (). In SKIP numbers for enclosure kanji, the bordering element's stroke count comes first, followed by the stroke count of the elements inside the enclosure. Thus, the SKIP number of (wind) is 3-2-7. 4) Solid Solid kanji are kanji that cannot be easily broken down into elements based on the patterns of the other categories. Often these kanji are formed from a single radical. Solid kanji are broken down into four sub-patterns: Top line – Kanji which have a prominent horizontal stroke at the top, e.g. (ear) and (child). Bottom line – Kanji which have a prominent horizontal stroke at the bottom, e.g. (up) and (hill). Through line – Kanji which have a prominent vertical stroke through the middle, e.g. (book) and (middle). Others – Kanji which cannot be placed in the preceding sub-patterns, e.g. (woman) and (circle). SKIP numbers for Solid kanji follow the following pattern: Main category (in this case, 4 for whole kanji) Stroke count for whole kanji Subpattern Thus, the SKIP number of 子 is 4-3-1 and the SKIP number for 本 is 4-5-3. The Solid SKIP codes put the stroke count second, and the subpattern third, in order to aid in linear searching (such as in the paper dictionary). Since it is straightforward to count the entire kanji's strokes, while classifying its subpattern can be subjective, this ordering makes it more likely a Solid kanji will be found, even if the reader misclassifies its subpattern. Aids in searching In its index for kanji, pages where a user might erroneously expect a kanji to be located (either because of incorrect classification or incorrect stroke count) are cross-referenced with their correct SKIP number. For example, is correctly a 1 (Left-Right) kanji split into two 4-stroke parts, making it 1-4-4. But it is also cross-referenced at 3-8-0 as an incorrect classification of an Enclosure (corresponding to radical 169, ), with eight containing strokes and zero contained strokes. Since many kanji sharing this radical (such as , 3-8-4, or , 3-8-3) follow this 3-8-… pattern, itself is also cross-referenced there. See also Four corner method, a structural encoding for Chinese characters References External links CJKI home page Kanji Dictionary Publishing Society home page Database companies Japanese dictionaries Kanji books Lexicography

4024508

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/92nd%20Air%20Refueling%20Wing

92nd Air Refueling Wing

The 92d Air Refueling Wing is a United States Air Force unit assigned to the Air Mobility Command Eighteenth Air Force. It is stationed at Fairchild Air Force Base, Washington. The wing is also the host unit at Fairchild. The wing carries out air refueling, passenger and cargo airlift, and aero-medical evacuation missions. Its 92d Operations Group is a successor organization to the World War II 92d Bombardment Group. It was the first VIII Bomber Command Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bombardment group to bomb strategic targets in Occupied Europe and Nazi Germany from RAF Bovingdon, England in September 1942. From 1948 to 1992, the 92d Bombardment Wing was a part of Strategic Air Command's nuclear deterrent force during the Cold War. The 92d Air Refueling Wing is commanded by Colonel Chesley L. Dycus, its Vice Commander is Colonel Garret J. Bilbo and Command Chief Master Sergeant is Chief Master Sergeant William J. Arcuri. History The wing's origins lie with the 92d Bombardment Group, first established during World War II. On 17 November 1947, the 92d Bombardment Wing, Very Heavy was organized at Spokane Army Air Field, Washington as part of the United States Air Force's wing base reorganization, in which combat groups and all supporting units on a base were assigned to a single wing. The 92d Bombardment Group, flying Boeing B-29 Superfortresses became its operational component. It served as a double-sized B-29 wing until April 1950, and again from May 1950 to April 1951, although one bomb group was generally deployed overseas for training or combat in Korea. It also supervised the 454th Bombardment Group, a Reserve corollary bomb group from June 1949 until February 1951, when the 454th was called to active duty for the Korean War. Upon return to the United States, the wing reequipped with the Convair B-36 Peacemaker. In August and September 1953, the wing completed the first mass flight of B-36s to the Far East in Operation Big Stick. The 92d visited bases in Japan, Okinawa and Guam. Big Stick followed close on the heels of the end of hostilities in Korea and was intended to show American determination to keep the peace in the Far East. On 15 and 16 October 1954 the wing deployed to Andersen Air Force Base, Guam for 90 days. This was the first deployment of an entire wing of Peacemakers to an overseas base. The wing deployed to Andersen again from 26 April until 6 July 1956. The wing added air refueling operations to bombardment mission in September 1957. From March to June 1959, the wing participated in Operation Head Start III, a precursor to Operation Chrome Dome. The 92d kept five of its Stratofortresses airborne at all times, with crews flying 24 hour missions with the support of ten KC-135 tankers. In January 1961, SAC disclosed it was maintaining an airborne force for "airborne alert training." From July 1961 to August 1965, controlled an SM-65E Atlas missile squadron. Supported SAC activities in Southeast Asia from early 1965 to December 1975 through deployment of bomber and tanker aircraft and crews and Air Weather 9thWS Det3. In 1969, supplied aircraft for Operation Giant Lance over Alaska, a secret mission designed to intimidate the Soviet Union into backing away from supporting the North Vietnamese. From March–September 1968, March–September 1969, and June 1972-October 1973, all wing Boeing B-52 Stratofortresses and many Boeing KC-135 Stratotankers, plus aircrews and support personnel, were involved in Southeast Asia operations. After 1975, performed joint USAF/US Navy sea reconnaissance and surveillance missions. In 1983, the Wing's B-52Gs were modified to carry AGM-86B Air-Launched Cruise Missiles (ALCM). In 1985, upgraded to B-52H with improved strategic weapons carriage and offensive electronics capabilities. Earned the Fairchild Trophy in 1953, 1986, and again in 1992 when it won SAC's last competition and retired the trophy. Also won the Saunders Trophy for best air refueling unit in SAC for 1992. Provided KC-135 aircraft to tanker task forces in the US, Europe, and the Pacific through 1992. Post Cold War era Ended B-52 alert duties in September 1992, and ended bombardment mission in 1994, with transfer from Air Combat Command to Air Mobility Command upon departure of last B-52H. On 24 June 1994, a B-52H practicing for an airshow crashed on the airfield while making an unauthorized, low altitude, steep turn. The aircraft exceeded 90 degrees of bank, entered a stall and impacted the ground killing all on board, including the squadron commander and chief of standardization-evaluation. The pilot, Lt Col Arthur "Bud" Holland, maneuvered the bomber beyond its operational limits and lost control. The aircraft stalled, fell to the ground and exploded, killing Holland and the other three USAF officers aboard. The crash was captured on video and was shown repeatedly on news broadcasts throughout the world. As a purely air refueling unit, the group's squadrons routinely augmented AMC's overseas tanker task forces in Panama, Europe, Turkey, and Southwest Asia, providing aerial refueling to attack and transport aircraft. The wing deployed personnel and aircraft to expeditionary bases in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and Spain as part of the Kosovo War (NATO "Operation Allied Force") in 1999. That year, the Wing became the 92d Air Expeditionary Wing at Morón Air Base in Spain, tasked with providing fuel to NATO aircraft involved in the war. In addition to serving as the HQ 92 AEW (serving units in France, Crete, Sicily and Spain), Morón hosted 37 tankers (KC-135 and KC-10) and 800 personnel. The 92 AEW became the largest tanker wing since the Vietnam War and held the distinction of being the largest tanker base during the Kosovo War. In the mid-2010s, wing staff officially stated that the wing 'operate[d] 34 KC-135 R/T Stratotanker refueling aircraft valued at $1.6 billion and 58 aircrews to support worldwide military missions. Serving as Fairchild Air Force Base host unit, the wing control[led] and 1,248 buildings. The wing employ[ed] over 2,200 active-duty military, as well as over 700 civilian employees.' Structure in the early 2020s The 92d Air Refueling Wing is structured under four groups: Operations, maintenance, mission support and medical, as well as 12 staff agencies organized under the Director of Staff. 92d Operations Group Primarily responsible for the wing's four flying squadrons - the 92d, 93d, 97th and 384th Air Refueling Squadrons, which fly the KC-135R Stratotanker. The 92d Operations Support Squadron manages functions such as intelligence, weather, tactics, aircrew training, life support supervision, airfield management, air traffic control, combat crew communications and current operations. The 92d OSS is also responsible for managing the airfield, weather station, control tower and flight simulators for the wing. 92d Air Refueling Squadron 93d Air Refueling Squadron 97th Air Refueling Squadron 384th Air Refueling Squadron 92d Operations Support Squadron 92d Maintenance Group Provides field-level maintenance support for 34 KC-135 R/T aircraft and 240 pieces of aerospace ground equipment supporting peace and wartime worldwide aerial refueling and airlift operations. The group also provides services for transient contract and military aircraft. Furthermore, the 92d Maintenance Group maintains a high state of combat readiness for over 650 personnel and equipment supporting worldwide contingency and nuclear deterrence operations, while also maintaining base munitions. 92d Mission Support Group Provides professional civil engineer, communications, contracting, logistics, mission support, security forces, and combat, community, and family support services. Additionally, through the wing's Air Expeditionary Force Cell, the 92d MSG integrates all wing readiness functions to train, deploy and reintegrate up to 1,300 personnel annually who deploy worldwide. 92d Medical Group Serves more than 12,640 military beneficiaries, with a staff of 308 and an annual budget of $12.3 million. The medical clinic receives over 53,688 outpatient visits and 12,975 dental visits annually. The group currently manages the 92d Aeromedical Dental Squadron, 92d Medical Operations Squadron and the 92d Medical Support Squadron. Wing staff agencies consist of a variety of functions. These functions include legal, plans and programs, safety, command and control, chapel, public affairs, military equal opportunity, sexual assault prevention program, protocol, history and the inspector general. Lineage Designated as the 92d Bombardment Wing, Very Heavy and organized on 17 November 1947 Discontinued on 12 July 1948 Redesignated 92d Bombardment Wing, Medium and activated on 12 July 1948 Redesignated 92d Bombardment Wing, Heavy on 16 June 1951 Redesignated 92d Strategic Aerospace Wing on 15 February 1962 Redesignated 92d Bombardment Wing, Heavy on 31 March 1972 Redesignated 92d Wing on 1 September 1991 Redesignated 92d Bomb Wing on 1 June 1992 Redesignated 92d Air Refueling Wing on 1 July 1994 Assignments Fifteenth Air Force, 17 November 1947 57th Air Division, 16 April 1951 (attached to 3rd Air Division, 16 October 1954 – 12 January 1955 and 26 April-6 July 1956) Fifteenth Air Force, 4 September 1956 18th Air (later, 18th Strategic Aerospace) Division, 1 July 1959 (attached to 14th Strategic Aerospace Division after 15 June 1968) 14th Strategic Aerospace Division, 2 July 1968 4th Strategic Aerospace Division, 31 March 1970 47th Air Division, 30 June 1971 57th Air Division, 23 January 1987 Fifteenth Air Force, 15 June 1988 Twelfth Air Force, 1 June 1992 Fifteenth Air Force, 1 July 1994 Eighteenth Air Force, 1 October 2003 – present Components Wings 90th Bombardment Wing: attached 2 January 1951 – 31 January 1951 98th Bombardment Wing: attached 17 November 1947 - 15 April 1950 and 16 May 1950 - 31 March 1951 Groups 92d Bombardment Group (later 92d Operations Group): 17 November 1947 – 16 June 1952 (detached 7 February-19 May 1949 and 9 July-30 October 1950); 1 September 1991–present 98th Bombardment Group: attached 17 November 1947 – 21 August 1948, 10 December 1948 – 16 May 1949 and 18 August 1949 – 15 April 1950; rear echelon (no aircraft or crews) attached 2 August 1950 – 16 April 1951 454th Bombardment Group: attached 27 June 1949 – 16 June 1951 Squadrons 22d Air Refueling Squadron: 15 June 1960 – 1 July 1962 43d Air Refueling Squadron: 2 April 1966 – 1 September 1991 (detached c. 22 March-8 July 1968 and 9 June-14 September 1969) 92d Air Refueling Squadron: 1 July 1957 – 1 September 1991 (detached until 13 September 1957) 325th Bombardment Squadron: attached 16 February 1951 – 15 June 1952, assigned 16 June 1952 – 1 September 1991 326th Bombardment Squadron: attached 16 February 1951 – 15 June 1952, assigned 16 June 1952 – 1 April 1961 (detached after 1 March 1961) 327th Bombardment Squadron: attached 16 February 1951 – 15 June 1952, assigned 16 June 1952 – 1 June 1960 567th Strategic Missile Squadron: 1 April 1960 – 25 June 1965 Stations Spokane Army Air Field (later Spokane Air Force Base, Fairchild Air Force Base), Washington, 17 November 1947 – present Aircraft and missiles Boeing B-29 Superfortress, 1947–1950, 1950–1952 Boeing KB-29 Superfortress, 1948–1950, 1950–1952 Convair B-36 Peacemaker, 1951–1957 Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, 1957–1968, 1968–1969, 1969–1972, 1973–1994 Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker, 1958–present SM-65E Atlas, 1961–1965 Cessna T-37 Tweet, 1991–1994 Bell UH-1 Huey, 1993–present See also List of B-52 Units of the United States Air Force References Notes Citations Bibliography External links Fact Sheets at Fairchild Air Force Base web site 0092 Military units and formations in Washington (state) Military units and formations established in 1994

4024529

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korg%20Polysix

Korg Polysix

The Korg Polysix (PS-6) is a six-voice programmable polyphonic analog synthesizer released by Korg in 1981. Features The synthesizer's main features are six-voice polyphony (with unison and chord memory voice assignment modes), 32 memory slots for patches and cassette port for backing up patches, and an arpeggiator. At the time of its release, the Polysix, along with the contemporary Roland Juno-6, was one of the first affordably priced polyphonic analog synthesizers. It cost about twice as much as the competing Juno-6 but had more features. It also had on-board patch storage and backup which the cheaper Juno lacked until the upgraded Juno-60 model. Korg developed the Polysix with an eye on the Sequential Circuits Prophet 5, trying to provide some of the features found on the more expensive synth in a compact, reliable and much cheaper design. While not as powerful, it used SSM2044 4-pole voltage-controlled filters, giving the Polysix a warm, rounded, and organic sound. Although the Polysix only had one oscillator per voice, it also featured built in chorus, phaser, and 'ensemble' effects (using a 'bucket brigade' analog delay line design), to provide a fuller sound. Oscillators A typical concern for synthesizers equipped with voltage controlled oscillators (VCO), rather than digitally controlled oscillators, is with tuning, as the analog VCO circuits are temperature sensitive and will drift in pitch as the instrument warms up. Almost all VCO based synthesizers of this era provided an automatic or manually activated auto-tuning function, to start an alignment routine and keep all oscillators in tune with each other. To achieve this, the pitch control circuitry for each voice would be adjusted by the auto-tune routine individually. The Polysix however does not include an auto-tune feature. Instead, Korg used an alternative method: a single control circuit is demuxed to control all six voices which have been calibrated manually to track in tune together. This allowed them to avoid a complex tuning function that would increase the cost of parts and programming. Audio path The Polysix had a straightforward synthesis architecture. Each voice had one oscillator with sawtooth wave, variable pulse wave, or PWM outputs. The PWM section had its own LFO. In addition, there is a sub-oscillator that allows the addition of a square wave either one or two octaves below the main VCO pitch. The filter has controls for cutoff frequency, resonance, envelope amount and keyboard tracking. The envelope control has a center zero, letting the user select either a normal or an inverted envelope. The envelope is an ADSR type. The VCA can be operated from either the envelope or a gate signal. The mixed sound of all the voices can be sent to an effects section, which offers three modulated delay-based effects (Chorus, Phase or Ensemble setting). This acts to fatten the sound considerably, and was a key feature at the time of release. Modulation The LFO (known here as a 'modulation generator') is a simple triangle wave that can be routed to the VCO, VCF or VCA. It has a variable delay before it is triggered. Reliability Although built into a substantial (and heavy) chipboard case, the Polysix has some reliability problems. Like other programmable synthesizers of the era, it had a rechargeable nickel-cadmium battery that powered the memory when the unit was switched off. The original batteries are now well past their designed lifespan and thus prone to failure, leaving the instrument unable to recall user designed patches from its memory. More seriously, if the battery is not replaced, it can leak and corrode the circuits. Unfortunately for the Polysix, this battery is mounted on the main processor board and corrosion here can be fatally damaging to the circuitry of the instrument. Some instruments of its era had begun the move towards digital technology by using DCOs or microprocessor-generated envelopes. The Polysix, however, used a separate analog VCO, VCF and envelope generator for each voice. Whilst this might have benefits for the richness of the sound, the extra complexity also brings greater tuning problems and more possibilities for failure. The Polysix keyboard used a light plastic keyboard with conductive rubber contacts. These contacts are often the source of 'dead' keys on the keyboard. This is probably the most common problem on old Polysix units, and one shared with some other Korg instruments that used the same keyboard, such as the Poly-61 and Mono/Poly. The patch recall buttons also have a tendency to fail. Software There is a software emulator of the Polysix included in the Korg Legacy Collection called Polysix Legacy Edition. This software is a full digital replica (emulation) of the hardware Polysix. And was also part of the LAC-1 expansion for the Korg OASYS and is one of the Korg Kronos sound engines. More recently, KORG introduced a mobile iOS application for the iPad ( iPolysix ), which faithfully reproduces the dynamics of the original. In July 2013, KORG introduced a PolySix instrument for Propellerhead Reason 7. Notable users 14 Bis Alphaville Astral Projection Blancmange China Crisis Chvrches Clarence Jey Clio ("Faces", "Eyes") Damon Albarn (Blur / Gorillaz) Eat Static EOTO Europe Eric Prydz Geoff Downes Jean-Michel Jarre Jens Johansson Jimi Tenor Keith Emerson Kerri Chandler (used in "Bar A Thym" with the Brave Arp preset) Kitaro P-Model Uchoten Polysics (also named after the instrument) Robert Rich Roger Powell Ruja Tears for Fears The Kinks The Sound Zoot Woman (two Polysixes can be seen in the "Living in a Magazine" video) Margita Stefanović (Ekatarina Velika) References Vintage Synth Explorer Synth Museum External links Polysix mailing list digest page Analog.no: original factory patches Polysix owner's manual in PDF New patches from AnalogAudio1 P Analog synthesizers Polyphonic synthesizers Musical instruments invented in the 1980s

4024573

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandra%20Chambers

Sandra Chambers

Sandra Chambers (born 11 April 1967), also known as Sandy Chambers or simply Sandy, is a British dance music vocalist based in Italy. Career Chambers moved to Italy in 1992 and her voice has been used in many Italian Electronic dance music productions, mainly Eurodance. In the 2000s Chambers has been frequently used by Italian producers Alle and Benny Benassi who she first met when she did the vocals for a track by the Italian dance act J.K., that the Benassis produced. She also toured with Italian singer Giorgia. As a songwriter, Chambers contributed to the Corona project. Though never officially confirmed nor denied by the production team, rumours circulated that she also gave her vocals to the project's two first albums and it has later been confirmed that she at least sang "Baby Baby". It was already suspected that Giovanna Bersola, who was known for lending her voice to lip-syncing models, sang Corona's debut single, "The Rhythm of the Night", and the seemingly different voice featured on the other tracks on Corona's debut album was assumed to belong to Chambers, who also had released a single on the same record label (DWA). In 2007, Chambers was credited as “original Corona vocalist Sandy Chambers” on the single "Baby Baby" by Sunblock, a cover version on which she appeared as a featured singer. When Bobby Farrell was allowed to use the name Boney M. he released a Boney M. remix album with Sandy doing the female vocals under Bobby Farrell & Sandy Chambers. Discography 1990s - "Dreamin' Stop" 1992 - "Send Me An Angel" 1993 - "Breakdown" 1994 - "I'm Feeling" with Charles Shaw 1994 - "Everybody's Dancing" 1995 - "Bad Boy" 1995 - "Dancing with an Angel" 1995 - "Wanna Be With You" 1995 - "You Know What I Want" 1996 - "My Radio" 1998 - "Don't tell me Lies" 1999 - "Sing A Song Now Now" 2000 - "Lovin' it" 2002 - "I Miss You" 2003 - "Get Better" 2003 - "Illusion" 2004 - Pumphonia "Get Better" "I Feel So Fine" "Illusion" "Turn Me Up" 2005 - ...Phobia "Castaway" "Light" "Movin' Up" 2005 - "Give It Time" 2007 - "Play My Music" 2007 - "Get Hot" 2008 - "Foundation" 2008 - "Make the World Go Round" 2008 - "Break the Wall" 2009 - "get out of my mind" 2009 - "this is me" 2009 - "brighter" References and notes 21st-century Black British women singers Living people 1967 births British emigrants to Italy 20th-century Black British women singers

4024620

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Jefferies

Peter Jefferies

Peter Jefferies is a musician from New Zealand. He is known for his involvement with Nocturnal Projections and This Kind of Punishment as well as his extensive solo and collaborative work. History In 1981 Peter and his brother Graeme Jefferies formed the post-punk band Nocturnal Projections. The band released a few records, and performed around their hometown of New Plymouth, as well as Auckland. After Nocturnal Projections disbanded in 1983, the brothers formed This Kind of Punishment, and released three full-length albums and an EP. In 1985 Jefferies released the Randolph's Going Home 7" and the "fish out of water" 12" with Shayne Carter. This was followed in 1986 with the At Swim 2 Birds LP, recorded with Jono Lonie, on the Flying Nun label. This was reissued on Xpressway and later on Drunken Fish. The Catapult 7", a collaboration with Robbie Muir, was released on Xpressway in 1989, reissued by the Chicago-based Ajax label in 1991. Further recordings by Jefferies and Muir were released by Ajax in 1992 as the double 7" Swerve. The Last Great Challenge in a Dull World album was released on cassette by the Xpressway label in 1990. Another collaboration with Shayne Carter, the Knocked Out or Thereabout 7", was released on Flying Nun in 1992. The Electricity LP was released on Ajax in 1994, followed by Elevator Madness on Emperor Jones in 1996, then Substatic on Trance Syndicate in 1998, and Closed Circuit in 2001 (also on Trance Syndicate). Jefferies formed 2 Foot Flame with Jean Smith of Mecca Normal. The band released two LPs on Matador Records, 1995's self titled LP, and 1997's Ultra Drowning. The Last Great Challenge in a Dull World was re-issued in 2013 on vinyl by de Stijl records. At Swim 2 Birds was reissued by Flying Nun Records in 2017. Jefferies lives in New Plymouth, New Zealand and is employed three days per week at Spotswood College. He is a key member of the Music Department overseeing drum tuition, songwriting, mentoring students and he manages the recording studio every Friday with students enrolled in the school's Gateway Programme. He also runs a weekly session of music at the school's Special Needs Unit. In addition, Jefferies is employed by two other high schools in Taranaki where he teaches drums and songwriting and records students' compositions: Stratford High School and Coastal Taranaki School. Jefferies is a part of the New Zealand Music Commission's "Music Mentoring in Schools Program", going into schools and fostering the development of songwriting and composition skills in primary, intermediate and secondary school students. Musician Amanda Palmer described Jeffries as her "teenage idol". In 2012, Palmer said she had toured New Zealand for the past five years and always hoped to find a link that would lead her to Jefferies. The pair performed solo songs at Vinyl Countdown store in New Plymouth to a crowd of 40, before combining on a number of covers including Oasis's Wonderwall and Wild Thing. Discography Solo albums: At Swim 2 Birds (1987) The Last Great Challenge in a Dull World (1990) Electricity (1994) Elevator Madness (1996) Substatic (1998) Closed Circuit (2001) Compilation albums: Chorus of Interludes (1996) With Nocturnal Projections: Nerve Ends in Power Lines (1995) With This Kind of Punishment: This Kind of Punishment (1983) A Beard of Bees (1984) In the Same Room (1987) With Cyclops: Goat Volume (1994) With 2 Foot Flame: 2 Foot Flame (1995) Ultra Drowning (1997) References External links AudioCulture profile New Zealand Music Commission Year of birth missing (living people) Living people Jefferies, Peter People from New Plymouth

4024765

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilling-Stevens

Tilling-Stevens

Tilling-Stevens was a British manufacturer of buses and other commercial vehicles, based in Maidstone, Kent. Originally established in 1897, it became a specialist in petrol-electric vehicles. It continued as an independent manufacturer until 1950, when it was acquired by the Rootes Group. W A Stevens of Maidstone W.A. Stevens was established in Maidstone in 1897 by William Arthur Stevens and had by 1906 built its first petrol-electric vehicle using designs patented by Percival (Percy) Frost-Smith. A petrol engine was connected to an electrical generator and the current produced passed to a traction motor which drove the rear wheels. W.A. Stevens also patented a system for converting conventional petrol buses for either battery-electric or petrol-electric propulsion, patent GB190820210. Percy Frost-Smith Percival Harry Frost-Smith was Managing Director of Tilling-Stevens Ltd in 1915/1916 and he obtained several patents for improvements to motor vehicles between 1908 and 1918. These included: With William Arthur Stevens, Worm drive for vehicles With Francis Edwin Brown, Improvements in and relating to Worm Drive for Mechanically Propelled Vehicles With Victor Snow Robinson, Improvements in and connected with the Electric Lighting of Vehicles With Tilling-Stevens Ltd, Improved Means of Control for Petrol Electric Vehicles Francis Edwin Brown was a son of David Brown, of David Brown Ltd. Buses Hallford-Stevens and Dennis-Stevens The petrol-electric transmission was fitted to chassis built by J & E Hall, of Dartford who used the trade name "Hallford" so these were known as "Hallford-Stevens". Transmissions were also supplied to Dennis Bros, of Guildford these vehicles were named "Dennis-Stevens". Tilling-Stevens An arrangement was agreed with a large bus operator, Thomas Tilling, who wanted to produce their own vehicles named Tilling-Stevens. The ease of driving and soundness of construction of these vehicles soon led to the company supplying chassis to many bus operators in the UK, and several abroad as well. According to the website of the Transport Museum Wythall the simpler to operate petrol-electric transmission was popular among bus drivers rather than the conventional crash gearbox (in the days before synchromesh) as few bus staff had previously driven motor vehicles. Tilling-Stevens Motors Ltd was obliged to consolidate its position with bus operators during World War I because the Army considered their petrol-electric chassis were not suitable for use in France. The low-mounted electrical items were considered vulnerable. Many men were trained to drive during the War on vehicles with conventional gearboxes and developments in gearbox design made their vehicles quieter, more reliable and lighter, resulting in better economy. All this combined to lead to a decline in popularity of the Tilling-Stevens' and other Petrol Electric systems. By the 1930s, TS chassis were being produced with conventional petrol/diesel engines, gearboxes and transmission. Tilling-Stevens split from Thomas Tilling in 1930 and renamed itself T S Motors Ltd (TSM) in 1932, but were again renamed Tilling-Stevens in 1937, before World War II had broken out. Tilling-Stevens was still manufacturing buses after World War II, with a large order built in 1947/1948 for export to Hong Kong (China Motor Bus (108) & Kowloon Motor Bus (50)). TS was eventually purchased by Rootes Group in 1950 and a long-under-development three-cylinder two-stroke engine was extensively used in Rootes' Group's Commer lorries.(See below) Trolleybuses Tilling-Stevens also produced trolleybuses. An existing customer in respect of petrol-electric buses, Wolverhampton Corporation, decided to replace trams with trolleybuses on one route of their Corporation Tramway and asked Tilling to supply them. The result was an adapted version of the hybrid TS6 model with electrical components by BTH of Bath, Somerset, and body by Christopher Dodson. The first six entered service in 1923. Further orders followed from Halifax Corporation and in 1924 the general manager of the Teesside Railless Traction Board designed a trolleybus chassis which was built by Tilling-Stevens. This chassis (designated PERC1) could use a petrol engine to drive the dynamo and power the traction motor as well as being able to take overhead power. The company subsequently purchased the rights to the Teesside design after receiving enquiries from abroad but domestic production ceased after 1927. Following the initial split from Thomas Tilling, the company produced one further new chassis which was exhibited at the 1930 Scottish Motor Show. Only one sale was made, to Turin, Italy. Goods vehicles Tilling-Stevens also produced goods chassis available with either petrol-electric or conventional gearbox transmissions and built many trucks during World War I. Their cast aluminium radiators were distinctive, with "Tilling-Stevens" cast into the top and either "Petrol-Electric" or "Maidstone" into the bottom tanks. After the war, they failed to invest in updating their products and ended up building mainly buses. Tilling-Stevens therefore acquired Vulcan Trucks of Southport, Lancashire in 1938 to extend their range (and use Vulcan petrol engines). Production stayed at Maidstone, and Vulcan's production was also relocated there. The unusual electric transmission became less of an advantage as other makers developed their simpler mechanical transmissions to be reliable and easier to drive. Tilling-Stevens specialised in some unusual markets where the transmission could offer a particular advantage, by also using it as a generator. Some early turntable ladder fire engines were produced where arc lamps for lighting and the electric motors to raise the ladder could be powered by it. In the 1930s the lorries also lost the large cast radiators in favour of first a thinner cast aluminium shell and then a cheaper steel pressed bonnet and a small diamond-shaped "TSM" badge. Leading up to World War II they specialised in the searchlight trucks for which they are probably still best known today. Rootes Group In 1950, the company was sold to Rootes Group. Complete vehicle production ceased in 1953, as Rootes' own truck brands had developed heavier trucks themselves. The plant continued to produce light commercial engines (particularly the iconic Commer TS3 two-stroke diesel, which had been intended for introduction by Tilling-Stevens in 1954) and vehicle bodies, before finally closing in the 1970s, some years after the group had been acquired by Chrysler. Factory Tilling-Stevens factory was situated in St Peter's St, Maidstone. The factory buildings, built in the 1920s in the Daylight style, survive as of 2012. They were Listed as Grade II in July 2011. It is described as "one few buildings of this style not to have undergone significant alteration from the original". Petrol Electric engines and their Legacy The Tilling-Stevens petrol-electric bus is interesting as an early example of a petrol engined road vehicle using electric rather than mechanical transmission. It is distinct from a hybrid vehicle, as it has no direct engine propulsion or battery storage; the electric dynamo and motor operate only as a replacement for the gearbox in a conventional internal combustion engine driven vehicle. As the petrol engine ran continuously and its chassis weight with a large, heavy motor/dynamo pair was much higher than a mechanical gearbox, it was less fuel efficient than a competing mechanical transmission chassis type. Once mechanical gearbox transmissions were developed enough to become reliable, quiet and easy enough to use, this inefficiency contributed to its demise. Another reason was the simple and fairly inefficient electrical control system, the best that could be achieved in the absence of "modern" electronics. However hybrid petrol-electric cars, such as the Toyota Prius, are now seen as being a partial solution towards cutting carbon dioxide emissions and reducing the risks of damaging global warming. Many Tilling Stevens Petrol Electric vehicles ended their days as mobile caravans or lorries with travelling fairs and showground people, where the electrical generation could be useful for other things than merely to move the vehicle. Some chassis survived beyond being direct road transport to become generator trailers for these fairs. This helped maintain a stock of dynamo and motor units and even chassis, making restorations possible. Driving a Petrol-Electric With the electrical generator (a large dynamo) for the motor permanently connected to the petrol engine, the early petrol electric controls available were a sprung return throttle pedal (with a hand-operated variable latching throttle to set and adjust the idle speed), a brake pedal, a means of steering (wheel, etc.) and two usually column mounted levers. One centre off lever operated a three position changeover switch to permit running in either direction, and the other lever operated a wiper across a bank of large high current wire wound resistances which affected the motor and dynamo fields, to give the electrical effect of gearing. It was very important to set the minimum possible idle speed, or when engaging the direction switch excess load on the system and possible unwanted movement will occur. The resistance "gear" lever is then set to max torque, and then the direction lever set to (say) forward. On releasing the handbrake and pressing the throttle pedal a little the vehicle will glide away smoothly. Giving more throttle and gradually altering the resistance lever will then produce higher speed, with none of the jerking and pauses in acceleration of a gearbox. To stop, the throttle pedal is released, the resistance lever is brought back to "slow speed", the brake applied and as rest is achieved the forward/reverse lever moved to neutral and handbrake applied. There is however NO engine braking available as from a mechanical drive changed into a lower gear, so the system relies totally on the mechanical wheel brakes, which on early chassis applied to the rear axle only. Apart from the Throttle, engine management controls were usually only a Choke lever and Ignition Advance/Retard for starting the hand cranked engine. On magneto ignition models there would be a simple switch to short the magneto and so stop the engine running. See also Leyland L60 References Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of England Defunct bus manufacturers of the United Kingdom Defunct truck manufacturers of the United Kingdom Rootes Group Defunct companies based in Kent British companies established in 1897 Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1897 Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1950 1897 establishments in England 1950 disestablishments in England British companies disestablished in 1950

4024773

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aubrey%20Meyer

Aubrey Meyer

Aubrey Meyer (born 1947) is an author, violinist, composer and climate campaigner. A former member of the UK Green Party, he co-founded the Global Commons Institute in 1990. Life Aubrey Meyer was born in Yorkshire in 1947. He was raised in Cape Town, South Africa from 1952. In 1968 he gained a Bachelor of Music from the Music College, Cape Town University. He won Southern African Music Rights Organisation (SAMRO) scholarship for two years study abroad. From 1969 to 1971 he studied at the Royal College of Music in London. There he studied composition with Phillip Cannon and viola with the late Cecil Aronowitz. He won the International Music Company Prize and the Stanton Jeffries Music Prize. After the Royal College, he earned his living playing viola in orchestras: - principal viola in Scottish Theatre Ballet (1971), Ulster (1972), Gulbenkian Orchestra, CAPAB Orchestra and as a rank-and-file player in the Sadler's Wells Royal Ballet and finally in the London Philharmonic Orchestra. He has lived in London since 1980. During this period he continued composing. His one-act ballet 'Exequy' led to the award of a Master of Music degree in composition from the University of Cape Town. In 1980, Meyer returned to London, combining composition with playing and his ballet score Choros for the Sadlers Wells Royal Ballet for the ballet by David Bintley, won an Evening Standard Award (1984); reviews for Exequy & Choros. In 1988, while looking for a theme for a new composition, he heard about the environmentalist Chico Mendez who had been assassinated for his work in trying to prevent the destruction of the Brazilian rainforest, and he abandoned music for the UK Green Party of England and Wales. He co-founded the Global Commons Institute (GCI) in 1990 to start a programme to counter the threat of climate change based on the founding premise of 'Equity and Survival'. At the request of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1992, Meyer conceived and presented his analysis of 'The Unequal Use of the Global Commons' to Working Group Three of the IPCC Second Assessment Report. This was dubbed 'Expansion and Divergence' and, led to an international rejection, at the UN climate negotiations in 1995, of the global cost benefit analysis of climate change by some economists from the US and UK. Contraction and Convergence This led to the development of GCI's framework of Contraction & Convergence (C&C). Introduced at the UNFCCC in 1996, C&C's approach to stabilizing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 'safe' level (by shrinking and sharing the limited and finite weight of such gases that future human activity can release into the atmosphere on an equal per capita basis) raises a key issue in the climate change debate. As a musician and string player, Meyer says the world must collaborate with musical discipline to avert runaway climate change: i.e. play C&C's 'carbon reduction score' in time, in tune and together. C&C was introduced to the UNFCCC at COP-2 Geneva: C&C became this iconic image in the months that followed. C&C was on the agenda at COP-3 Kyoto. C&C was on the agenda at COP-4 Buenos Aires when host Government published this in their conference newspaper. C&C was on the Agenda at COP-6 The Hague with Chairman Jan Pronk advocating it. C&C was on the agenda for COP-15 at Copenhagen, but was not agreed. C&C now considered by some as "the most preferable equity framework". C&C considered by others as "the best possible solution to the twin problems of climate change and inequity". Meyer has now enclosed C&C in the 'Carbon Budget Accounting Tool' (CBAT online) (CBAT notes) (CBAT appreciation) Comments by third parties "Some proposals compensate the potential burden on developing nations with generous emissions allocation, whether as a simple strategy to obtain developing countries support for the regime or in a realisation of the global equity principle borrowed from social justice. A famous such proposal is 'Contraction and Convergence' developed by Aubrey Meyer." Act Locally Trade Globally; Emissions Trading for Climate Policy Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development IEA "I think Aubrey is a good gentleman. He has really been on this issue for years, for donkey’s years and he’s not giving up and he has the stamina. I think if we were all of us like Aubrey we would have achieved very high levels. Unfortunately not many of us have been that strong". Joshua Wairoto, Deputy Director Kenya Met Office speaking at the UN Climate Negotiations in 2007. "I think that Aubrey Meyer has done an amazing job and has shown extraordinary persistence and ingenuity in working out a scheme of this kind and I very much admire him for it. Above all he has laid out a kind of intellectual and legal framework which is what we need if we are going to set global arrangements in place and these global arrangements should I believe be fully reflected in the Bill that is now before the UK Parliament to regulate climate change. This is not the time for half-measures or quarter measures or fiddling with the problem. It is important to lay out the principles and then see how they should best be interpreted to give effect to a common human problem". Sir Crispin Tickell, former British Ambassador, Director of the Policy Foresight Programme James Martin 21st Century School Oxford University. "It seems to me that Contraction and Convergence is the basic principle that should guide climate policy, and that this policy is really unchallenged in principle by any of the climate models under discussion. Granted that it is good to have accurate models of how the world works, and to work out the numerical balances of C&C. Nevertheless, I wonder at what point complex and uncertain empirical models become a distraction from simple first principles? C&C is a necessary condition for a just and sustainable world. With best wishes & admiration for your important work on C&C." Herman Daly, Emeritus Professor, University of Maryland On 4 February 2009, Lord Adair Turner (chair, UK Climate Change Committee) confirmed to the House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee that, "it’s very difficult to imagine a long-term path for the world that is not somewhat related to a contract and converge type approach....we have made a very clear statement that we cannot imagine a global deal that is both do-able and fair, which doesn’t end up by mid century with roughly equal rights per capita to emit, and that is clearly said in the report". On 24 June 2009, Rajendra Pachauri, (Chairman of the IPCC) said the following “ When one looks at the kinds of reductions that would be required globally, the only means for doing so is to ensure that there’s contraction and convergence, and I think there’s growing acceptance of this reality. I don’t see how else we might be able to fit within the overall budget for emissions for the world as a whole by 2050. We need to start putting this principle into practice as early as possible, so that by the time we reach 2050, we’re not caught by surprise, we’re well on a track for every country in the world that would get us there... On the matter of 'historic responsibility', there is no doubt that accelerating the rate of convergence relative to the rate of contraction is a way of answering that we really need to get agreement from Developed and Developing Countries to subscribe to this principle". C&C is the most widely cited and arguably the most widely supported proposal for UNFCCC-compliance in play and many people believe C&C will yet prove to be the overarching principle that is adopted and that allows all nations to find common ground on how to achieve 'climate truth and reconciliation' and avert climate chaos. Awards Meyer's environmental efforts have led to many awards. He is the recipient of the Andrew Lees Memorial Prize, 1998; Schumacher Award, 2000; Findhorn Fellowship, 2004; Eurosolar Award 2006; City of London, Life-time's Achievement Award, 2005; Honorary Fellow of Royal Institute of British Architects, 2007; UNEP FI Global Roundtable Financial Leadership Award, 2007. and in 2008 a cross party group of British MPs nominated Meyer for the 2008 Nobel Peace Prize. He was nominated with wide support, for the Zayed Prize in 2010. He was nominated for the Blue Planet Prize, again with wide support, in 2014. See also Global Commons Institute Contraction and Convergence Bibliography GLOBE briefing on Contraction and Convergence Contraction & Convergence: The Global Solution to Climate Change' The Kyoto Protocol & the emergence of C&C as a framework for an international political solution to GHG emissions abatement. Reinforcing Asia-Europe Co-operation on Climate Change The GCI Archive 1989-2004 Towards a Sustainable EU Policy on Climate Change - GCI Evidence to the House of Lords Surviving Climate Change - The Case for Contraction and Convergence. The Economics of Climate Change Chevening Fellows Programme Cambridge Contraction and Convergence and International Conceptual Framework for Preventing Dangerous Climate Change Carbon Countdown - the Campaign for Contraction and Convergence. References External links Global Commons Institute 1947 births Living people British emigrants to South Africa South African writers

4024803

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue%20Among%20Civilizations

Dialogue Among Civilizations

Former Iranian president Mohammad Khatami introduced the idea of Dialogue Among Civilizations as a response to Samuel P. Huntington's theory of a Clash of Civilizations. The term was initially used by Austrian philosopher Hans Köchler who in 1972, in a letter to UNESCO, had suggested the idea of an international conference on the "dialogue between different civilizations" (dialogue entre les différentes civilisations) and had organized, in 1974, a first international conference on the role of intercultural dialogue ("The Cultural Self-comprehension of Nations") with the support and under the auspices of Senegalese President Léopold Sédar Senghor. History One of the first places where Dialogue Among Civilizations took place was in Isfahan, Iran at the Safa Khaneh Community that was established in 1902. Safa Khaneh was a place that Haj Aqa Nourollah and his older brother made. It was a place where Muslims and Christians talked about their religions with each other. It was one of the first interfaith centres in the world. Later a magazine was published based on the dialogues between Muslims and Christians in the Safa Khaneh and it was released in Iran, India and England. The founder of Safa Khaneh, Haj Aqa Nouroollah was one of the leaders of the Constitution Era in Iran. His house has become a museum named Constitution house of Isfahan. Introduction The page dedicated to the United Nations Year of Dialog Among Civilizations introduces the idea as follows: The Vision Here are some excerpts from the vision of the Foundation for Dialogue among Civilizations: The Mission Here are some excerpts from the mission of the Foundation for Dialogue among Civilizations: Contrasting view: The Clash of Civilizations In 1993, Huntington provoked great debate among international relations theorists with the interrogatively-titled "The Clash of Civilizations?", a controversial, oft-cited article published in Foreign Affairs magazine. Its description of post–Cold War geopolitics contrasted with the controversial End of History thesis advocated by Francis Fukuyama. Huntington expanded "The Clash of Civilizations?" to book length and published it as The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order in 1996. The article and the book posit that post–Cold War conflict would most frequently and violently occur because of cultural rather than ideological differences. That, whilst in the Cold War, conflict likely occurred between the Capitalist West and the Communist Bloc East, it now was most likely to occur between the world's major civilizations — identifying seven, and a possible eighth: (i) Western, (ii) Latin American, (iii) Islamic, (iv) Sinic (Chinese), (v) Hindu, (vi) Orthodox, (vii) Japanese, and (viii) the African. This cultural organization contrasts the contemporary world with the classical notion of sovereign states. To understand current and future conflict, cultural rifts must be understood, and culture — rather than the State — mern(?) nations will lose predominance if they fail to recognize the irreconcilable nature of cultural tensions. Critics (for example, in Le Monde Diplomatique) called The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order the theoretical legitimization of American-led Western aggression against China and the world's Islamic cultures. Nevertheless, this post–Cold War shift in geopolitical organization and structure requires that the West internally strengthens itself culturally, by abandoning the imposition of its ideal of democratic universalism and its incessant military interventionism. Other critics argued that Huntington's taxonomy is simplistic and arbitrary, and does not take account of the internal dynamics and partisan tensions within civilizations. Huntington's influence upon U.S. policy has been likened to that of British historian A.J. Toynbee's controversial religious theories about Asian leaders in the early twentieth century. Personal Representative of the Secretary-General for the UN Year of Dialogue Among Civilizations has said: Former UN Assistant Secretary-General Giandomenico Picco was appointed the Personal Representative to the Secretary-General for the United Nations Year of Dialogue Among Civilizations in 1999 in order to facilitate discussions on diversity, through organizing conferences, seminars and disseminating information and scholarly materials. Having served the United Nations for two decades, Mr. Picco is most recognized for participating in UN efforts to negotiate the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan and in bringing an end to the Iran-Iraq war. He believes that people should take responsibility for who they are, what they do, what they value, and what they believe in. Related comments "A basic change in political ethics is required for the realization of the proposal, The dialog among civilizations." (UNESCO 1999) "In order to understand the meaning of the phrase dialogue among civilizations as defined here, one has no choice but to closely pay attention to a number of points one of which is the relationship between a politician and an artist, and the other is the relationship between ethics and politics." (Khatami, UNESCO 1999) The Daniel Pearl Dialogue for Muslim-Jewish Understanding is a series of personal yet public conversations between Daniel Pearl's father, Professor Judea Pearl, President of the Daniel Pearl Foundation, and Dr. Akbar Ahmed, Chair of Islamic Studies at American University. The program grew out of Professors Ahmed and Pearl's shared concern about the deterioration of relationships between Muslim and Jewish communities around the world, and their strong belief that reconciliation between these two Abrahamic faiths can be achieved through frank and respectful dialogue. The discussions range from theological issues, historical perceptions to current events. In 2006 Professors Ahmed and Pearl were awarded the first annual Purpose Prize "in recognition of [their] simple, yet innovative approach to solving one of society's most pressing problems." Professor Judea Pearl is a well-known computer scientist, and the President of the Daniel Pearl Foundation. "Dear President Khatami...I welcome your call for a dialogue between Islamic and Judeo-Christian civilizations because I believe that tensions between these two great world civilizations represent the most significant foreign policy challenge for the world community as we enter the twenty-first century." Excerpt from "An American Citizen Replies" (letter by Anthony J. Dennis to Iranian President Khatami dated August 18, 2000) published in the book Letters to Khatami: A Reply To The Iranian President's Call For A Dialogue Among Civilizations. To date, this book, published and released on July 1, 2001, is the only published reply the now-former Iranian President Khatami has ever received from the West in response to Khatami's call for such a dialogue in an exclusive, hour-long interview on CNN with CNN Foreign Correspondent Christiane Amanpour broadcast in North America on January 7, 1998. See also Alliance of Civilizations Centre for Dialogue Dialogue of Civilizations Fethullah Gülen Institute for Interreligious Dialogue Interfaith dialogue KAICIID Dialogue Centre Parliament of the World's Religions World Against Violence and Extremism Notes References Hans Köchler, Philosophical Foundations of Civilizational Dialogue. International Seminar on Civilizational Dialogue (3rd: 15–17 September 1997: Kuala Lumpur), BP171.5 ISCD. Kertas kerja persidangan / conference papers. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Library, 1997. Hans Köchler, Unity in Diversity: The Integrative Approach to Intercultural Relations. UN Chronicle, Vol. XLIX, No. 3, September 2012. External links Foundation for Dialogue among Civilizations in Geneva, the official website which includes various news and speeches United Nations: Background of Dialogue Among Civilizations UNESCO's contribution to Dialogue Among Civilizations United Nations Year of Dialogue Among Civilizations UNESCO's actions for the Dialogue among Civilizations UN Chronicle 2006, Interview with Khatami, five years after the UN 2001 Year of Dialogue Among Civilizations International Progress Organization Daniel Pearl Foundation An Overview of Sino-Tibetan Dialogue World Public Forum "Dialogue of Civilizations" International relations theory Mohammad Khatami Interfaith dialogue Civilizations Interculturalism Political neologisms Foreign policy strategies in the Islamic Republic of Iran

4024849

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20noise%20machine

White noise machine

A white noise machine is a device that produces a noise that calms the listener, which in many cases sounds like a rushing waterfall or wind blowing through trees, and other serene or nature-like sounds. Often such devices do not produce actual white noise, which has a harsh sound, but pink noise, whose power rolls off at higher frequencies, or other colors of noise. Use White noise devices are available from numerous manufacturers in many forms, for a variety of different uses, including audio testing, sound masking, sleep-aid, and power-napping. Sleep-aid and nap machine products may also produce other soothing sounds, such as music, rain, wind, highway traffic and ocean waves mixed with—or modulated by—white noise. Electric fans are a common alternative, although some Asian communities historically avoided using fans due to the superstition that a fan could suffocate them while sleeping. White noise generators are often used by people with tinnitus to mask their symptoms. The sounds generated by digital machines are not always truly random. Rather, they are short prerecorded audio-tracks which continuously repeat at the end of the track. Manufacturers of sound-masking devices recommend that the volume of white noise machines be initially set at a comfortable level, even if it does not provide the desired level of privacy. As the ear becomes accustomed to the new sound and learns to tune it out, the volume can be gradually increased to increase privacy. Manufacturers of sleeping aids and power-napping devices recommend that the volume level be set slightly louder than normal music listening level, but always in a comfortable listening range. Sound and noise have their own measurement and color coding techniques, which allows specialized users to identify noise and sound according to their respective needs and utilization. These specialized needs are dependent on certain professions and needs, e.g. a psychiatrist who needs certain sounds for therapies and treatments on a mental level, and patients who have conditions such as insomnia, anxiety, and, tinnitus (these conditions are managed with special devices which are designed to create certain sounds that treat such conditions at a mental level). A white noise machine has “white” as the color code given to that noise having a particular frequency spectrum. Audio jammers White noise machines are used to diminish the potential for recording or overhearing conversations. Republican Glen Casada had a white noise machine installed in his office to prevent against eavesdropping. Smart speaker blockers have been developed. For example, Bracelet of Silence is a bracelet that outputs white noise to protect privacy against digital recording from smart speakers. Bracelet of Silence is portable and not attached to smart speakers, thus it is possible that this device can be used to prevent eavesdropping of other devices as well, for example smartphones and laptops. There is not a lot of research on the impact of loud sounds at inaudible frequencies (and their respective audible artifacts and harmonics). Design Most modern white noise generators are electronic, usually generating the sound in real-time with audio test equipment, or via electronic playback of a digital audio recording. Simple mechanical machines consist of a very basic setup, involving an enclosed fan and, optionally, a speed switch. This fan drives air through small slots in the machine's casing, producing the desired sound. The first fan-based white noise machine was the Marpac Dohm, which was invented in 1962 and is frequently credited as the original domestic use white noise machine. Risk One paper found that of the 14 white noise machines tested at maximum volume, all exceeded maximum safe sound levels for infants (50 dB). Three exceeded safe levels for adults (85 dB). See also Pink noise White noise Colors of noise Sound masking Tinnitus masker Sound Princess References Noise (electronics) Privacy Sleep Hardware device blockers

4024901

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Reeve

Chris Reeve

Christopher Stanley Reeve (born December 4, 1953) is a South African-American knife maker, recognized as one of the most influential people in knife making history. Reeve founded Chris Reeve Knives (CRK) in 1984. In 2014, Reeve retired and was inducted into the Blade Magazine Hall of Fame in 2015. Background Christopher Stanley Reeve was born on December 4, 1953, in Durban, South Africa. His original vocation was that of tool and die making. Reeve trained at the Pineware Manufacturing Company, serving a four-year tool- and die-making apprenticeship that finished in 1978. Reeve credits his experience in tool and die for developing his grinding skills and giving him the manufacturing and materials knowledge he needed to jumpstart him in professional knife making. As a young man, Reeve’s spare time was largely spent engaged in motorcycle racing. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, he was a regular competitor in South Africa’s Grand Prix motorcycle racing circuit. Unlike many of his competitors, Reeve did not have corporate funding. As a result, Reeve used the highly competitive race setting to hone his problem-solving skills, custom tuning his motorcycle with components often designed and fabricated in his own shop. In 1987, Chris married Anne Cameron in Johannesburg, South Africa. In order to pursue improved business opportunities, Chris and Anne moved to the United States in 1989, and settled in Boise, Idaho. In 2003, Chris and Anne were granted US citizenship. Early knifemaking Reeve began his knife-making career by chance. Before being called up for a 3-month compulsory military service period in 1975 on the Mozambique / South African border, he noted that the standard army kit did not include a good all-purpose knife. As a result, Reeve decided to design and make one. A subsequent three-month military service period in 1978 was spent on the Angola/ Namibia border. Reeve had previously designed and made for himself a hidden tang knife with a wooden handle, inlaid with silver wire. The climate in Durban where the knife was made is hot and humid, while the Angola/ Namibia area is semi-desert. After a few days in the dry air, the wooden handle had dried and large cracks appeared. This set Reeve thinking about a knife that could be used across all climates without such damage. The idea of an all-steel knife, with both handle and blade made from a single solid bar, started to germinate. Reeve’s resulting one piece knife concept was first produced as a custom knife in 1982. The one piece concept hit production as the 7 inch bladed MK IV, with 40 pieces becoming available for sale early in 1983. Chris stopped tool making and became a full-time knifemaker in January 1984. Custom knifemaking Early in Reeve’s career, he engaged in making custom knives. Today, Reeve still makes custom knives as time allows. These custom pieces are of his own design, although sometimes there is a cultural influence – often European or Japanese. Reeve’s custom knives include folding knives with uncommon locking mechanisms, daggers and other fixed blade knives of unique styling, and table cutlery. Reeve uses exotic materials, frequently inlaying gold, pearl or unusual types of wood into titanium or wooden handles to create an interesting contrast of color and texture. He learned much of his knowledge of wood from his father who, as a young man, collected stumps and root sections. Significant inventions/developments One Piece concept – The concept of a fixed blade, hollow handled knife, with both the handle and blade milled from a single billet of steel. Lock 45 – A folding knife lock, formed by a lock bar with recesses containing 45 degree angles mating with the rear of the blade. The lock bar / blade interface serves as both the blade stop and the lock mechanism. Helix Lock – A modification of the Opinel folding knife ferrel lock, which enables one-handed opening and closing. Integral Lock – A folding knife lock, introduced with and popularized by the Sebenza folding knife, where one of the handle slabs is slotted to form a lock bar, which falls into place behind the blade to stop the blade from closing. CPM S35VN – A stainless steel using the powder metallurgy process. Reeve worked with the Crucible Steel Company to develop this steel specifically for the cutlery industry. Kubuli serrations – Serrations placed in a knife blade, alternating from both left and right sides of the blade, forming two rows of serrations that are not collinear. As a result, Kubuli serrations move the material to be cut from side to side as the cut is being made. Perforated thrust washers – Initially brought to market by the Umnumzaan folding knife in 2008, Reeve's design of perforated washers reduce pivot friction, and serve to retain lubricant. After their successful employment in the Umnumzaan, perforated thrust washers were incorporated into the design of the Sebenza. Ceramic ball integrated into integral lock bar – Also introduced as a feature in the Umnumzaan, the ceramic ball embedded into the end of the lock bar, creating the interface between the blade locking surface and the integral locking arm surface. The ball doubles to drop into a mating detent on the blade to ensure that the blade does not open accidentally. Awards South African National Knife Collectors Association: Best Fixed Blade Collection - 1983 South African National Knife Collectors Association: Best Collection Displayed - 1984 Durban Easter Custom Cutlery Exhibition: Best Fixed Blade - April 1987 Knifemakers Guild of Southern Africa: Best Folding Knife - November 1987 Shotgun News Gun and Knife Show, Reno, NV: Best Combat Knife - July 1988 Arizona Knife Collectors Association: Best Custom Folder - December 1989 Beretta Award for Outstanding Achievement in Handcrafted Cutlery: October 1990 Knife-Aholics Unanimous Award: Knife Maker Extraordinaire - July 1992 Knifemakers Guild: "Most Innovative Folder at the Show"—July 1993 Blade magazine Cutlery Hall of Fame at the 2015 Blade Show in Atlanta, Georgia. References People from Durban People from Boise, Idaho 1953 births Weapon designers Knife makers American businesspeople American inventors Living people

4024903

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartmut%20Esslinger

Hartmut Esslinger

Hartmut Esslinger (born 5 June 1944) is a German-American industrial designer and inventor. He is best known for founding the design consultancy frog, and his work for Apple Computers in the early 1980s. Life and career Esslinger was born in Beuren (Simmersfeld), in Germany's Black Forest. At age 25, Esslinger finished his studies at the Hochschule für Gestaltung Schwäbisch Gmünd in Schwäbisch Gmünd. After facing vicious criticism of a radio clock he designed while in school and the disapproval of his mother (who burned his sketchbooks), he started his own design agency in 1969, Esslinger Design, later renamed Frogdesign. For his first client, German avant-garde consumer electronics company Wega, he created the first "full plastics" color TV and HiFi series "Wega system 3000". His work for Wega won him instant international fame. In 1974, Esslinger was hired by Sony – Sony also acquired Wega shortly after – and he was instrumental in creating a global design image for Sony, especially with the Sony Trinitron and personal music products. The Sony-Wega Music System Concept 51K was acquired by the Museum of Modern Art, New York. In 1976, Esslinger also worked for Louis Vuitton. In 1982 he entered into an exclusive $2,000,000 per year contract with Apple Computer to create a design strategy which transformed Apple from a "Silicon Valley Start-Up" into a global brand. Setting up shop in California for the first time, Esslinger and Frogdesign created the "Snow White design language" which was applied to all Apple product lines from 1984 to 1990, commencing with the Apple IIc and including the Macintosh computer. The original Apple IIc was acquired by the Whitney Museum of Art in New York and Time voted it Design of the Year. Soon after Steve Jobs' departure, Esslinger broke his own contract with Apple and followed Jobs to NeXT. Other major client engagements include Lufthansa's global design and brand strategy, SAP's corporate identity and software user interface, Microsoft Windows branding and user interface design, Siemens, NEC, Olympus, HP, Motorola and General Electric. In December 1990 Esslinger was featured on the cover of BusinessWeek, the only living designer thus honored since Raymond Loewy in 1934. The cover included the headline "Rebel with a cause," referencing his controversial personality and desire to be seen as a "non-conformist" within the field of design, as well as the movie Rebel Without a Cause, which Esslinger has described as his first American movie and a cultural inspiration. Esslinger is a founding Professor of the Karlsruhe University of Arts and Design, Germany, and since 2006 he is a Professor for convergent industrial design at the University of Applied Arts in Vienna, Austria. In 1996, Esslinger was awarded an honorary doctorate of Fine Arts by the Parsons School of Design, New York City. Since 2012 Esslinger has served as a DeTao Master of Industrial Design with The Beijing DeTao Masters Academy (DTMA) in Shanghai, China. In 2009 Esslinger published A Fine Line in which he explores business solutions that are environmentally sustainable and contribute to an enduring global economy. Notable awards and accomplishments 1969 Bundespreis Gute Form (Federal Design Award) – German Design Council 1991 Lucky Strike Design Award – Raymond Loewy Foundation 1993 Design Team of the Year – Red Dot Design Awards 1996 Honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts – Parsons School of Design 2013 Honorary Royal Designer for Industry – Royal Society of Arts 2017 Lifetime Achievement Award – Cooper Hewitt National Design Awards 2017 World Design Medal – World Design Organization Further reading Hartmut Esslinger und frogdesign. von Hartmut Esslinger und Uta Brandes, 1992 Steidl Verlag, Göttingen, Frog: Form Follows Emotion (Cutting Edge S.) von Fay Sweet, 1999 Thames and Hudson Ltd., Frogdesign von Hartmut Esslinger und Volker Fischer, 2000 Edition Axel Menges, A Fine Line: How Design Strategies Are Shaping the Future of Business von Hartmut Esslinger, 2009 Jossey-Bass, Nye, Sean. "Hartmut Esslinger." In Immigrant Entrepreneurship: German-American Business Biographies, 1720 to the Present, vol. 5, edited by R. Daniel Wadhwani. German Historical Institute. Last modified April 29, 2015. http://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/entry.php?rec=236 Keep It Simple: The Early Design Years of Apple. by: Hartmut Esslinger, January 2014, Arnoldsche Verlagsanstalt References 1. http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/access/text/2011/10/102743122-05-01-acc.pdf External links Apple IIc image A Fine Line: How Design Strategies Are Shaping the Future of Business by Hartmut Esslinger Hartmut Esslinger's Amazing Apple Mac Prototypes via Fast Company Presenter at Cusp Conference 2009 1944 births German industrial designers Living people People from Calw (district) Apple Inc. employees Design schools in Germany Academic staff of the University of Applied Arts Vienna Lucky Strike Designer Award recipients

4025000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matachines

Matachines

Matachines (Spanish singular matachín; sword dancers dressed in ritual attire called bouffon) are a carnivalesque dance troupe that emerged in Spain in the early 17th century inspired by similar European traditions such as the moresca. The term danza de matachines is also used to refer to their characteristic dance and music. The dance was documented in the 1642 treatise Discursos sobre el arte del dançado by Juan de Esquivel Navarro. The tradition was imported into Latin American countries such as Mexico and Peru. In America Currently, the matachines are societies of North and South American Native dancers who perform ritual dances. They are found from Peru up to northern New Mexico where the Spanish first influenced the New World and introduced Christianity. In Bernalillo, New Mexico, the Matachines de San Lorenzo have been performing for more than 300 years. The Danza de Matachines is explained by oral tradition among most Indian Tribes as the Dance of the Moors and Christians and is the first masked dance introduced by the Spaniards, though its practice outside of the Iberian peninsula changed its cultural and spiritual significance. The dance was adopted by the people, and today many forms of this dance still exist — though the dance steps vary among peoples, the dance formations are all similar. Masks continue to be used, but the style changes from village to village, or people to people. Its meaning is as a celebration of native peoples in the Americas and Philippines, and their salvation through the unity of their faith and culture. The Matachines dance for a deeper religious purpose, since most of them join to venerate either Mother Mary (Our Lady of Guadalupe, Our Lady of Lourdes, Immaculate conception, etc.), a saint (the group usually chooses the saint that pertains to the church they belong to), or simply to worship Christ or God the Holy Trinity, demonstrated by the three forked item symbolized as a "Sword of the Holy Trinity". Dressed in traditional ceremonial dress and clothing, the chief characters are El Monarca (typically Moctezuma or other tribal leader), the captains (usually consist of 2-4 and are Moctezuma's main generals), La Malinche or Malintzín, the Native or Mestizo woman; and El Toro, the malevolent comic man of the play (also symbolizes Satan, or the Devil, according to Roman Catholic religious interpretations), dressed with the skins of the buffalo and wearing the horns of this sacred ancestor; Abuelo, the grandfather, and Abuela, grandmother. With the help of a chorus of dancers they portray the desertion of his people by Moctezuma, the luring of him back by the wiles and smiles of La Malinche, the final reunion of king and people and the killing of El Toro, who is supposed to have made all the mischief. Much symbolism is seen in these groups. The basic symbolism of the dance is good vs. evil, with good prevailing. All of the cultural artifacts associated with the dance are blessed by a priest. Hampton Court, 1604 A sword dance was performed at Hampton Court on 6 January 1604 by Scottish courtiers for Anne of Denmark in her presence chamber, before James VI and I, and the French ambassador, the Comte de Beaumont. Dudley Carleton wrote that the Scottish masquerade resembled a matachin and was "cleanly" performed. See also Moresca References External links Los Matachines Video of New Mexico Matachines Dancing Video of Yaqui Matachines Dancing Spanish dances Dance in Mexico Dance in Peru

4025194

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20State%20Route%2012

New York State Route 12

New York State Route 12 (NY 12) is a state highway extending for through central and northern New York in the United States. The southern terminus of the route is at U.S. Route 11 (US 11) in the town of Chenango (just north of Binghamton) in the Southern Tier. The northern terminus is at NY 37 near the village of Morristown in the North Country. In between, the route serves three cities of varying size: Norwich, Utica, and Watertown. NY 12 intersects several primary routes, including US 20 in Sangerfield, New York State Thruway via Interstate 790 (I-790) in Utica, overlaps NY 28 from Barneveld to the town of Remsen, NY 3 in Watertown, and I-81 in Pamelia and Orleans. It is a two lane, undivided, full access roadway for the majority of its length, except between the village of New Hartford and Alder Creek, where it is a four-lane highway. Within that span, it is a limited access highway in the city of Utica, referred locally as The Arterial and the North–South Arterial. The distance between Utica and Binghamton is a major trucking route, and features many gas stations, truck stops, and fast food restaurants. Between Boonville and Lowville, it follows the Black River Valley. Then further north, between Watertown and Morristown, it follows the St. Lawrence River valley. NY 12, as originally assigned in 1924, extended from Chenango in the south to Clayton in the north. It was extended east over the former routing of NY 3 to Alexandria Bay in 1930, then along a new roadway to Morristown in the 1960s. Parts of NY 12 have been rerouted onto new roadways in areas, primarily in Oneida County. Route description Broome and Chenango counties NY 12 begins at US 11, which connects it to I-81, north of Binghamton in the Broome County town of Chenango. The route heads north through the Chenango River valley, connecting to I-88 (via NY 12A), and passing west of Chenango Valley State Park before traversing the Tioughnioga River near the community of Chenango Forks. On the northern bank of the river, NY 12 intersects and briefly overlaps NY 79 before continuing northward through the valley and into Chenango County. Within Chenango County, NY 12 acts as the primary connector between the numerous communities located along the Chenango. In Greene, NY 12 intersects NY 206 and overlaps NY 41 for six blocks through the village before continuing northeast for to Oxford, where it intersects the eastern terminus of NY 220. After another , NY 12 enters the city of Norwich, becomes South Broad Street, and then intersects the western terminus of NY 990L (East Main Street). The South Broad moniker remains with the route northward through the city until the downtown district, where NY 12 turns into North Broad Street at a junction with NY 23. NY 12 loses the street name soon afterward as it leaves the city and intersects the western terminus of NY 320 north of Norwich and south of Norwich Lt. Warren Eaton Airport. The route and the Chenango River remain in close proximity to one another up through the village of Sherburne, where NY 12 intersects NY 80. North of the village center, the river breaks to the west, following NY 12B to the northwest while NY 12 continues northward into rural Madison County. Madison and Oneida counties Across the county line, NY 12 joins the Sangerfield River as it heads north through the narrow southeastern portion of the county. Near the northern border of Madison County, the route shifts slightly east to bypass a marshy area around the Sangerfield River known as the Ninemile Swamp. The conditions persist into Oneida County to just south of the Sangerfield hamlet of the same name, where the swamp ends as the river curves away from NY 12. At the actual community, NY 12 intersects US 20. The route continues north for an additional to the village of Waterville, home to an intersection between NY 12 and NY 315. Outside of Waterville, NY 12 heads north once more through hilly, sparsely populated areas of New York toward Utica. In the Utica suburb of New Hartford, the route intersects Genesee Street (unsigned NY 921E), then NY 5 a short distance east of where NY 12B terminates at NY 5. NY 12 turns east, joining NY 5 northeast on a limited-access highway known locally as the North–South Arterial. Upon crossing into the Utica city limits, the Arterial intersects NY 8 and NY 840 by way of a cloverleaf interchange. NY 8 joins the freeway here, following NY 5 and NY 12 through southern Utica as the arterial meets French Road (unsigned NY 921W) and then Burrstone Road (unsigned NY 921B) by way of a pair of interchanges. After the Burrstone Road interchange, the arterial becomes a divided highway through downtown before becoming limited-access once more just past Noyes Street. After a short distance the highway intersects Court Street via a single point urban interchange then Oriskany Street (NY 5A and NY 5S). Between Oriskany Street and the New York State Thruway (I-90), NY 5, 8, and 12 is part of the Interstate Highway System as I-790 overlaps all three routes northward over the Mohawk River and the Erie Canal before leaving the arterial at a large interchange on the north bank of the canal. NY 5 turns off as well, following I-790 eastward. Meanwhile, NY 8 and NY 12 interchange with NY 49 (the Utica–Rome Expressway), partially via the I-790 exit ramps, and passes over the Thruway before continuing northward out of the city limits. NY 8 and NY 12 remain limited-access as they proceed through the northern suburbs of Utica, connecting to Mulaney Road and Trenton Road via interchanges in Deerfield. Farther north in the town, NY 8 leaves the freeway by way of a trumpet interchange. Although the amount of development around NY 12 declines as it heads northward, it continues as an expressway to a point north of the Putnam Road interchange in Trenton, where the road reverts to a limited-access four-lane highway. This configuration remains through the villages of Barneveld, where NY 28 joins NY 12 south of the village, then intersects Mappa Avenue (unsigned NY 921D) in the village. From here NY 12 and NY 28 continues northward for a short distance and then connects to NY 365 via an interchange. From NY 365, it continues northward and intersects Steuben Street (unsigned NY 920V), the former NY 28B, east of the village of Remsen. From here NY 12 and NY 28 continue northward to the vicinity of Alder Creek in the town of Boonville, where NY 28 leaves NY 12 via a partial trumpet interchange and the road narrows to two lanes shortly afterward. From Alder Creek to Boonville, NY 12 loosely follows the path of the Black River as it heads northwest. Inside Boonville, NY 12D departs NY 12 and begins to follow a northward routing parallel to that of its parent. Together with NY 12D and the Black River, NY 12 passes into the region of New York known as the North Country. North Country The path of NY 12 through New York's North Country consists of three primary subregions: rural Lewis County, urban Watertown, and the numerous communities that line the southern bank of the St. Lawrence River, here the geographical divide between the United States and Canada. Lewis County NY 12, NY 12D, and the Black River continue to follow parallel routings north through the village of Port Leyden to Lyons Falls, where NY 12D returns to NY 12 just west of the village. Heading north NY 12 passes under NY 12D. Whereas NY 12D heads northeast from NY 12 on Cherry Street to access Lyons Falls before heading west over NY 12 and out of the village. NY 12 continues north along the vicinity of the Black River to Lowville, where NY 12 briefly overlaps NY 26 and meets NY 812 before leaving both the village and the river to the west. Roughly outside Lowville, at West Lowville, NY 12 leaves its due west alignment and curves to the northwest, with the westerly alignment continuing onward as NY 177. From here to the area surrounding Copenhagen, NY 12 passes through largely undeveloped terrain, save for a pair of isolated roadside communities. This trend ceases, albeit temporary, in the village of Copenhagen, located on the banks of the Deer River at the crossroads of NY 12 and the former NY 194 (now County Route 194 or CR 194). Outside the limits, the route resumes its trek through the rural North Country. Watertown area NY 12 enters Jefferson County on its way to Watertown just north of Copenhagen. NY 12 is known as Van Allen Road, crossing with Jefferson county roads in Rutland. At the intersection with CR 67, NY 12 turns to the north and enters Watertown as Gifford Street. NY 12 intersects with NY 126 just northeast of Thompson Park and Watertown Golf Club and turns to the northwest. As NY 12 continues through southern parts of Watertown, NY 3 intersects and becomes concurrent. NY 3 and NY 12 enter Watertown Public Square and split into divided highways. Here, NY 283 starts to the northeast. The eastern terminus of NY 12F is accessed via NY 12 southbound. NY 3 and NY 12 split, just northwest of the Public Square. NY 3 splits to the west, NY 12 heads to the northwest, and quickly becomes concurrent with US 11. The two roads cross a river and split in different directions. NY 12 heads to the northeast, intersecting with a suffixed route, NY 12E, and passes North Watertown Cemetery before connecting to I-81 at exit 47. NY 12 leaves Watertown afterwards and heads northeast through rural northwestern Jefferson County, along the way intersecting the western terminus of NY 342. North of Perch Lake in the southeastern corner of the town of Clayton, NY 12 intersects NY 180. From here, NY 12 continues approximately north and reaches the village of Clayton on the St. Lawrence River. On the south side of the village NY 12 intersects NY 12E and James Street (unsigned NY 970L), a loop through the village of Clayton. From here NY 12 turns east, intersects Webb Street (other end of unsigned 970L), then continues following State Street out of Clayton. St. Lawrence River NY 12 continues northeast along the south bank of the St. Lawrence, intersecting Mason Point Road (a local road leading to a Thousand Islands-bound ferry) and NY 180, and passing south of Grass Point State Park prior to encountering I-81, at exit 50, southwest of the village of Alexandria Bay. Farther northeast, NY 12 passes by Keewaydin State Park before intersecting the northern terminus of NY 26 and Church Street (unsigned NY 971K) in the southwestern portion of the village. The latter was a former northern extension of NY 26. Outside of Alexandria Bay, NY 12 temporarily turns east and leaves the riverbank to avoid Goose Bay, a small body of water partially separated from the St. Lawrence by two protruding points of land. The route then curves back toward the water and follows the eastern length of the bay, serving the seaside hamlet of Goose Bay near the bay's midpoint. North of Goose Bay, NY 12 intersects Kring Point Road, an access road leading to Kring Point State Park, and crosses into St. Lawrence County. NY 12 continues along the southern bank of the St. Lawrence River as it proceeds through the rural western portion of the county. In the town of Hammond, past the county line, NY 12 intersects CR 6, a roadway leading east to the village of Hammond and Black Lake. Farther north in Morristown, NY 12 travels through Jacques Cartier State Park before terminating at an interchange with NY 37 just south of the Morristown village limits. History Origins A section of the highway north of Utica was created as the Utica Turnpike. The company that built the turnpike was chartered in 1805 to build a road from the town of Deerfield to the town of Steuben. The road was opened in part in 1811, and was fully open in 1815. The road was sold off in 1848. Designation In 1908, the New York State Legislature created Route 8, an unsigned legislative route extending from Binghamton to Kirkland (west of Utica) via Greene, Norwich, Sherburne, Bouckville, and Oriskany Falls. Also assigned at this time was Route 25, which passed through Barneveld, Remsen and Forestport on its way from Whitesboro to Albany, and Route 27, which began at Route 25 in Forestport and went northwest to Alexandria Bay by way of Boonville, Potters Corners, Lowville, Carthage, Watertown, and Clayton. Route 25 originally went directly from Barneveld to Remsen; however, it was realigned by 1920 to serve the village of Prospect to the east. When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924, NY 12 was assigned to an alignment extending from Binghamton to Clayton via Norwich, Utica, and Watertown. It utilized legislative Route 8 from Binghamton to just south of Clinton, where it veered northeast to serve the city of Utica instead of continuing north on Route 6 (modern NY 233) to Kirkland. In the vicinity of Utica, NY 12 initially followed Clinton Road, Genesee Street, and Trenton Road through the city. Past Utica, it continued north on Trenton Road to a point south of Trenton (now Barneveld), where it briefly followed its current routing. NY 12 turned off again in Trenton to follow legislative Route 25's original alignment on Mappa Avenue in Trenton and Main Street in Remsen. NY 12 continued north from Remsen on legislative Route 25. At Forestport, NY 12 left Route 25 to follow legislative Route 27 to Lowville. In Lowville, NY 12 split from Route 27 and proceeded northwest to Watertown via Copenhagen, bypassing the slightly more circuitous route that Route 27 took via Carthage on modern NY 26, NY 126, and NY 3. NY 12 rejoined legislative Route 27 in Watertown and followed it to Clayton, where NY 12 ended at NY 3, which was also assigned in 1924. At the time, the segment of legislative Route 27 between Clayton and Alexandria Bay was designated as part of NY 3. Realignments and terminus changes In the late 1920s, NY 12 was realigned between Sherburne and Utica to follow a more direct alignment between the two locations via Sangerfield. Its former routing to the west became NY 12A (now NY 12B). As a result, NY 12 now entered Utica on Paris Road. In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, NY 3 was rerouted onto its current alignment east of Watertown while the former routing of NY 3 from Clayton to Alexandria Bay became an extension of NY 12. Also created as part of the renumbering was NY 12D, an alternate route of NY 12 between Potters Corners and Lowville via Lyons Falls. By the following year, NY 12D was rerouted south of Lyons Falls to follow a routing similar to modern NY 12 to Boonville. The alignments of NY 12 and NY 12D between the two villages were swapped , placing NY 12D on the direct highway between the two and NY 12 on the slightly more circuitous route via Lyons Falls. NY 12 originally extended southward into downtown Binghamton by way of an overlap with US 11. The overlap was eliminated at some point between 1947 and 1970. On its north end, NY 12 was extended northeast over a new roadway along the St. Lawrence River to NY 37 in Morristown in the mid-1960s. In April 2014, work began on a $68.3 million project to replace the viaduct over Columbia Street, Lafayette Streets, and Oriskany Boulevard (NY 5A and NY 5S) in Utica. The nearly one mile stretch had signalized at-grade intersections that were causing safety concerns and some fatalities. In addition to the replacement of the viaduct, the alignment of the arterial was straightened, a new single point urban interchange was built at Court Street, and a pedestrian bridge was built across the roadway. The pedestrian bridge was opened by December 2014, and the remainder of the project was completed by October 2017. Bypasses NY 12 has been realigned onto divided highways and limited-access highways over the years, particularly in Oneida County, to bypass communities along its routing. The first bypass that was constructed in Oneida County was around Remsen in the early 1950s. NY 12 was realigned onto the bypass, which passed to the west of the village, by 1954. Construction began by 1956 on a southward extension of the bypass that would take NY 12 around the eastern edge of Barneveld. It opened to traffic by 1958. Farther south, in Utica, a new limited-access highway was built through the downtown portion of the city in the early 1960s. At the time, it began at French Road and ended at Trenton Road. It became a realignment of NY 12 by 1964. An extension of the road southwest to Genesee Street in New Hartford was completed by 1968, at which time NY 12 was realigned to follow New Paris Road into the city. A limited-access highway bypassing Trenton Road and linking the Utica expressway and the Barneveld–Remsen bypass was completed by 1973, resulting in the rerouting of NY 12 onto the roadway. The former routing of NY 12 along Trenton Road from the Utica city line to Powell Road is now CR 91. The route has also been realigned in areas to bypass smaller communities along the highway. One such location is in the vicinity of the village of Greene, where NY 12 initially followed Chenango Street through the village. The current bypass around the western edge of the village was built in the late 1970s and completed by 1981. Major intersections Suffixed routes NY 12 has had seven suffixed routes bearing six different designations. Two have since been removed and at least partially renumbered. All of the routes were assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York unless otherwise noted. The NY 12A designation has been used for two distinct highways: The first NY 12A was an alternate route of NY 12 between Sherburne and Utica. It was assigned in 1928 and renumbered to NY 12B in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. The current NY 12A () is an east–west spur connecting NY 12 to I-88 and NY 7 on the banks of the Chenango River in Chenango Bridge, Broome County. The entire route is known as Chenango Bridge Road and is one of only six signed New York state highways less than a mile in length. The route was assigned in 1930. NY 12B () is an alternate route of NY 12 between Sherburne and Utica. NY 12C is a former alternate route of NY 12 between Utica and Barneveld. The route was eliminated in 1970, at which time the lone portion of NY 12C that did not overlap another state route was redesignated as NY 291. NY 12D () is an alternate route of NY 12 between Boonville and Lyons Falls. NY 12E () is an alternate route of NY 12 between Watertown and Clayton. While NY 12 follows a direct path between the two locations, NY 12E veers to the west to serve communities along Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River. NY 12F () is a spur connecting NY 12 in downtown Watertown to NY 180 near the Watertown International Airport in Dexter. See also List of county routes in Oneida County, New York References External links 012 Transportation in Broome County, New York Transportation in Chenango County, New York Transportation in Madison County, New York Transportation in Oneida County, New York Transportation in Lewis County, New York Transportation in Jefferson County, New York Transportation in St. Lawrence County, New York

4025259

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrari%20288%20GTO

Ferrari 288 GTO

The Ferrari GTO (often referred to as Ferrari 288 GTO) (Type F114) is an exotic homologation of the Ferrari 308 GTB produced from 1984 until 1987 in Ferrari's Maranello factory, designated GT for Gran Turismo and O for Omologata (homologated in Italian). Background Contrary to what is reported historically in the press, the Ferrari GTO was not immediately born to compete in the new 1982 Group B Circuit Race series; Enzo Ferrari did not have overall control of the Road Car division, which was at the time managed by the General Director Eugenio Alzati and the FIAT MD (CEO) Vittorio Ghidella. In 1983 Mr Ferrari noted from discussions with close friends and clients that the road car sales were falling due to stronger competition from rival car makers and what he described as the "excessive gentrification" of the Ferrari model lineup. Turbocharging: from F1 to road cars The success of turbocharging in Formula 1 and the introduction of some new tax laws (above the 1999cc displacement threshold) had prompted Ferrari to first build the 208 Turbo and then discuss turbocharging also in 3 litre form for a road car which could produce 330 bhp. The first 208 turbo did not feature an intercooler so the performance and reliability was somewhat delicate due to high combustion temperatures. Ferrari approached the head of powertrain for the Gestione Sportiva (Racing Division), Nicola Materazzi, to give an opinion on the proposed specification for the new 3L turbo engine. Materazzi had joined from Osella in 1979 (before then at Lancia Reparto Corse) due to his experience with forced induction and had been involved in the 126 F1 car experimentation between Comprex and turbo. When Materazzi showed confidence that 400 bhp could be reliably extracted from 3000cc (133 bhp/litre), Ferrari placed his trust in him on condition that it would deliver as promised. Ferrari also jokingly suggested that Materazzi work on the 268 engine destined for the Lancia LC2 Group C racing car, due to similarities in displacement and mechanical parts. Development The Ferrari F114B road-car engine and the Lancia 2.6L V8 race engine developments progressed closely, with some draughtsmen employed from Abarth to complete detail design on components for manufacture at times when the Ferrari draughtsmen were at full capacity. In order to improve overall performance, several key aspects of the original 308 vehicle layout were altered: the engine did not grow in displacement but was turbocharged, it remained mid-mounted but now longitudinally instead of transversely, the wheelbase was elongated by 200 mm, the outer bodywork required modifications to maintain pleasing proportions. The car used water-cooled IHI turbochargers from Japan compared to the KKK turbochargers used in Formula 1 due to the better materials and aerodynamic internal designs which allowed faster transient response. IHI had bought patents from Swiss manufacturer Brown Boveri (Baden) that had supplied Ferrari with the Comprex systems. Some of the GTO's styling features were first displayed on a 308 GTB design exercise by Pininfarina shown at the 1977 Geneva Auto Salon. The 288 GTO had started out as a modified version of the 308/328 to hold down costs and to build the car quickly, but little of the 308/328 was left when the 288 GTO was finished. Fortunately Ferrari could count on customers who were loyal when it came to spending more if they could access performance and style that was unmatched, so the unplanned deviation from the original cost targets did not necessarily prove an issue. Easily noticeable differences were the GTOs bulging fender flares, larger front/rear spoilers, large "flag-style" outside mirrors and four driving lights at the far sides of the grille. Retained from the original 250 GTO were slanted air vents, put in the GTO's rear fenders to cool the brakes, as well as the rear wing's design, borrowed from the 250 GTO's original wing. The GTO also had wider body panels than the 308's because they had to cover much larger Goodyear tires mounted on racing wheels. The suspension's height could be set higher for road use and lower for racing on tracks. Bodywork material was new and lighter for better acceleration and handling. The GTO's weight was , compared to for the 308/328. Steel was used just for the doors because major body panels were made from molded fiberglass. Kevlar was used for the hood, and the roof was made from Kevlar and carbon fiber. Materazzi felt that with the latest road speed limits and stricter fines, it was increasingly harder for clients to really prove the potential of cars with high performance. Ferrari asked what was his proposal, to which he suggested returning to racing in the GT class, something which had been interrupted after the 512 BB LM. The overall permission to modify the GTO road car into the Evoluzione for a racing programme however had to be ratified by Eugenio Alzati. He permitted it on conditions that the engineers interested in the project work outside of the Monday to Friday timetable (which was dedicated for development of 328 and other models). The lessons learnt during the development of the engine for the Lancia LC2 could be applied to the racing version of the GTO, such as the carefully engineered conicity of the intake plenums to ensure accurately balanced air flow and pressure to each cylinder and the setup of the turbochargers to produce in excess of 650 bhp. The GTO Evoluzione included all the necessary modifications (bodywork, chassis, safety systems) to comply with the FIA regulations which permitted 20 cars per year to be specifically built for rally or track racing. Due to multiple deaths and the inherent danger involved with group B rally racing, the Group B Circuit series was suspended at the end of 1986. As a result, the GTO Evo never raced. All GTO road cars came in a stock red color, except one which was black. All GTO Evo cars came in red colour. Like any Ferrari car, the low production numbers for the GTO were intended to give an exclusive product for the enthusiast buyer. The number of GTO's produced did indeed fit in the minimum requirement of 200 required by the FIA and in fact the factory produced 70 more plus a couple extra to please the Agnelli family, an F1 driver or anybody else who the Commendatore predicted might insist on a last minute purchase option. Although the production car test team, headed by Dario Benuzzi, did not include any of the Formula 1 drivers, Michele Alboreto occasionally had involvement in giving feedback on cars such as the 288 GTO, and later the 328 Turbo and F40. In particular he agreed with Enzo Ferrari's return to a breed of cars which were much more fiery, describing the GTO as "cattiva" (angry) and praising its low engine centre of gravity compared to the Testarossa. Engine The GTO was based on the rear mid-engine, rear wheel drive 308 GTB, which has a V8. The "288" refers to the GTO's 2.8 litre DOHC 4 valves per cylinder V8 engine as it used a de-bored by with IHI twin-turbochargers, Behr air-to-air intercoolers, Weber-Marelli fuel injection and a compression ratio of 7.6:1. The 2.85 litre engine capacity was dictated by the FIA's requirement for a turbocharged engine's capacity to be multiplied by 1.4. This gave the GTO an equivalent engine capacity of , just under the Group B limit of 4.0 litres. Unlike the 308's engine, the GTO's V8 was mounted longitudinally, using the 308's rear trunk space. This was necessary to make room for the twin turbochargers and intercoolers. The racing transmission was mounted to the rear of the longitudinal engine, moving the rear differential and wheels aft. The arrangement also let the GTO use a more conventional race-car engine/transmission layout for such things as quick gear-ratio changes for various tracks. As a result, the wheelbase was longer at . The track was also widened to accommodate wider wheels and tires (Goodyear NCT 225/55 VR16 tires mounted on 8 x 16 inch Speedline wheels at the front and 255/50 VR16 (265/50 VR16 for U.S. models) mounted on 10 x 16 inch wheels at the rear) to provide increased cornering and braking performance and the ability to apply at 7,000 rpm and of torque at 3,800 rpm. The GTO could accelerate from 0- in around 5 seconds and Ferrari claimed 0- in 15 seconds flat and a top speed of , making it one of the fastest street-legal production cars of its time. 288 GTO in North America Ferrari did not "federalize" the 288 GTO for sale in America. Americans wanted the car anyway, and obtained it as a grey import vehicle. Performance Test results by Road & Track: 0–: 2.3 s 0–: 4.1 s 0–: 5.0 s 0–: 6.2 s 0–: 7.7 s 0–: 11.0 s 0–: 16.0 s Standing : 14.1 s at Top Speed: Evoluzione Ferrari built six (five production models and one prototype) 288 GTO Evoluzione models with more aggressive and aerodynamic body styling and increased power. The Evoluzione, introduced in 1986, was built to race in Group B but when that series was cancelled the project was also shelved as it was not fit for any other racing series. Ferrari had planned a production run of 20 cars to comply with Group B homologation requirements for Evolution models. The 288 GTO Evoluzione is powered by an upgraded version of the 2.9 L V8 used in the normal 288 GTO that has twin-turbochargers and produces at 7,800 rpm. It has a weight of around and can reach a top speed of . It features a unique front end designed for aerodynamics with front canards, channels and vents as well as a large carbon fibre rear spoiler and numerous large NACA ducts. Many styling and mechanical elements from the Evoluzione influenced the soon to follow F40. All six are thought to still be in existence with one owned by the Factory on display in the engine manufacturing facility in Maranello and another suspected to have been used as a prototype during the development of the F40. Formula 1 GTO owners Several Formula 1 drivers were offered GTOs by Enzo Ferrari. These include Michele Alboreto (56195), Keke Rosberg (56653) and Niki Lauda (58329), who was gifted the last of the 272 units built, by Enzo Ferrari himself. Michael Schumacher bought 54233 in April 1996 and drove it with number plate S GT 288. Awards In 2004, Sports Car International named this car number two on the list of Top Sports Cars of the 1980s, behind its German rival the Porsche 959. References Bibliography Ferrari 288 GTO at the Group B Rally Cars 288 Gto Rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive vehicles Group B cars Cars introduced in 1984 Sports cars Cars discontinued in 1987

4025452

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night%20After%20Night%20%28U.K.%20album%29

Night After Night (U.K. album)

Night After Night is a live album recorded by the British band U.K. It features the trio lineup of Eddie Jobson, John Wetton, and Terry Bozzio. Recorded in late May and early June 1979 at Nakano Sun Plaza Hall and Nippon Seinenkan, Tokyo, Japan, it is UK's third album and their first live recording, released in September 1979 in support of the band's US tour supporting Jethro Tull (which Eddie Jobson joined after UK's split) and later headlining European tour. The album was remastered in 2016 and included as part of the box-set Ultimate Collector's Edition, along with an extended version containing nine songs not included in the original album and in actual concert order . Background According to Eddie Jobson, the album was recorded at the request of Polydor in Tokyo, originally intended for a Japan-only release, but Polydor in the US were also interested in releasing it. John Wetton explained, "The Japanese record companies, they said that live albums are so popular in Japan right now, that any act coming in, it's almost compulsory to do a live album in Japan, just for release in Japan." The title track and "As Long As You Want Me Here" do not appear on any studio release by the band. Track listing All songs written by Eddie Jobson and John Wetton except where indicated. Original album CD Extended version Personnel U.K. Eddie Jobson – keyboards, electric violin, electronics, backing vocals John Wetton – bass, lead vocals Terry Bozzio – drums, backing vocals Singles "Night After Night" / "When Will You Realize" (released in UK/Europe) The A-side is an edited version of the album track, while the B-side is a non-album studio recording that didn't appear on any CD until the 2016 Ultimate Collector's Edition box-set (although it was re-recorded with different lyrics on John Wetton's solo album Caught in the Crossfire in 1980). References U.K. (band) albums 1979 live albums E.G. Records live albums Albums recorded at Nakano Sun Plaza

4025645

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emission%20test%20cycle

Emission test cycle

An emission test cycle is a protocol contained in an emission standard to allow repeatable and comparable measurement of exhaust emissions for different engines or vehicles. Test cycles specify the conditions under which the engine or vehicle is operated during the emission test. There are many different test cycles issued by various national and international governments and working groups. Specified parameters in a test cycle include a range of operating temperature, speed, and load. Ideally these should reproduce something representative of normal usage. But because there is such a wide variety of usage patterns and because it is impractical to test an engine or vehicle under every possible combination of speed, load, and temperature, this may not actually be the case. The engine management settings that give the lowest emissions, or low enough emissions to pass the test, are usually different to those that give the best fuel economy or performance. Since the latter characteristics are those that attract buyers, a potential problem with cycles that are a simplified version of real-world usage is that vehicle and engine manufacturers may exploit the limited number of test conditions in the cycle by programming their engine management systems to control emissions to regulated levels at the specific test points contained in the cycle, but at all other times to give the best economy or performance. This undermines the main aim of the tests, namely improved air quality and public health. Application Emission test cycles are typical tests for research and development activities on engines at automobile OEMs. The commonly used hardware platforms therefore are: engine test stand - for just a single engine vehicle test stand (also "chassis dynamometer" or "chassis dyno" or "emission dyno") - for the complete car with engine ASM Test - Accelerated Simulation Mode: (California inspections) Vehicles tested at 15 MPH & 25 MPH where vehicle undergoes a load. References See also Emission standards Engine test stand Vehicle inspection Automotive technologies Pollution control technologies

4025703

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How%20to%20Draw%20Manga

How to Draw Manga

How to Draw Manga () is a series of instructional books on drawing manga published by Graphic-sha, by a variety of authors. Originally in Japanese for the Japanese market, many volumes have been translated into English and published in the United States. The English-language volumes in the series were co-produced by Graphic-sha and two other Japanese companies, Japanime Co. Ltd. and Japan Publications Trading Co. List of books in the series This is a list of books in the main HTDM set and other sets that relate to the main series. How to Draw Manga Originally there were no volume numbers on the English versions, because the original Japanese version did not have them. Only volumes 1 - 8 were given numbers. With continued reprints and more books being released, all volumes gained a number. The dates given are the first printing. How to Draw Manga Vol. 1: Compiling Characters (October 1999) How to Draw Manga Vol. 2: Compiling Techniques (July 2000) How to Draw Manga Vol. 3: Compiling Application and Practice (August 2000) How to Draw Manga Vol. 4: Dressing Your Characters in Casual Wear (May 2001) How to Draw Manga Vol. 5: Developing Shoujo Manga Techniques (July 2002) How to Draw Manga Vol. 6: Martial Arts & Combat Sports (June 2002) How to Draw Manga Vol. 7: Amazing Effects (June 2003) How to Draw Manga Vol. 8: Super Basics (June 2003) How to Draw Manga Vol. 9: Special: Colored Original Drawing (May 2001) How to Draw Manga Vol. 10: Getting Started (October 2000) How to Draw Manga Vol. 11: Maids & Miko (November 2002) How to Draw Manga Vol. 12: Giant Robots (February 2002) How to Draw Manga Vol. 13: Super Tone Techniques (August 2002) How to Draw Manga Vol. 14: Colorful Costumes (January 2003) How to Draw Manga Vol. 15: Girls' Life Illustration File (May 2003) How to Draw Manga Vol. 16: Guns & Military Vol. 1 (September 2003) How to Draw Manga Vol. 17: Guns & Military Vol. 2 (October 2004) How to Draw Manga Vol. 18: Super-Deformed Characters Vol. 1 Humans (August 2004) How to Draw Manga Vol. 19: Super-Deformed Characters Vol. 2 Animals (June 2005) How to Draw Manga Vol. 20: Female Characters (December 1999) How to Draw Manga Vol. 21: Bishoujo Pretty Gals (November 2000) How to Draw Manga Vol. 22: Bishoujo Around the World (March 2001) How to Draw Manga Vol. 23: Illustrating Battles (October 2000) How to Draw Manga Vol. 24: Occult & Horror (June 2003) How to Draw Manga Vol. 25: Bodies & Anatomy (December 2001) How to Draw Manga Vol. 26: Making Anime (January 2003) How to Draw Manga Vol. 27: Male Characters (July 2002) How to Draw Manga Vol. 28: Couples (January 2003) How to Draw Manga Vol. 29: Putting Things in Perspective (October 2002) How to Draw Manga Vol. 30: Pen & Tone Techniques (April 2003) How to Draw Manga Vol. 31: More about Pretty Gals (August 2003) How to Draw Manga Vol. 32: Mech. Drawing (December 2003) How to Draw Manga Vol. 33: Costume Encyclopedia Vol. 1 Everyday Fashion (December 2003) How to Draw Manga Vol. 34: Costume Encyclopedia Vol. 2 Intimate Apparel (January 2005) How to Draw Manga Vol. 35: Costume Encyclopedia Vol. 3: Sexy Sports Wear (May 2005) How to Draw Manga Vol. 36: Animals (February 2005) How to Draw Manga Vol. 37: Macromedia Flash Techniques (February 2004) How to Draw Manga Vol. 38: Ninja & Samurai Portrayal (September 2005) How to Draw Manga Vol. 39: Creating Manga: Stories (April 2007) How to Draw Manga Vol. 40: Dressing Your Characters In Suits & Sailor Suits (August 2006) How to Draw Manga Vol. 41: Costume Encyclopedia Vol. 4 Kimono & Gowns (April 2007) How to Draw Manga Vol. 42: Drawing Yaoi (June 2007) Note: this is a bishōnen how-to guide, not yaoi How to Draw Manga Vol. 43: Drawing Bishōnen (December 2008) How to Draw Manga: Ultimate Manga Lessons This set was printed in a smaller format of 15 cm x 21 cm. How to Draw Manga: Ultimate Manga Lessons Vol. 1: Drawing Made Easy (April 2005) How to Draw Manga: Ultimate Manga Lessons Vol. 2: The Basics of Characters and Materials (August 2005) How to Draw Manga: Ultimate Manga Lessons Vol. 3: Drawing Sensational Characters (November 2005) How to Draw Manga: Ultimate Manga Lessons Vol. 4: Making the Characters Come Alive (March 2006) How to Draw Manga: Ultimate Manga Lessons Vol. 5: A Touch of Dynamism (2006) How to Draw Manga: Ultimate Manga Lessons Vol. 6: Striking the Right Note (2006) How to Draw Manga: Computones Each volume in this set includes a CD-ROM for use with Windows only. How to Draw Manga: Computones Vol. 1: Basic Tone Techniques (May 2005) How to Draw Manga: Computones Vol. 2: Depicting Characters (September 2005) How to Draw Manga: Computones Vol. 3: Mecha (October 2005) How to Draw Manga: Computones Vol. 4: Portraying Couples (June 2006) How to Draw Manga: Computones Vol. 5: Aiming For Action (June 2006) How to Draw Manga: Sketching Manga-Style How to Draw Manga: Sketching Manga-Style Vol. 1: Sketching to Plan (February 2007) How to Draw Manga: Sketching Manga-Style Vol. 2: Logical Proportions (April 2007) How to Draw Manga: Sketching Manga-Style Vol. 3: Unforgettable Characters (October 2007) How to Draw Manga: Sketching Manga-Style Vol. 4: All About Perspective (Nov 12, 2008) How to Draw Manga: Sketching Manga-Style Vol. 5: Sketching Props (August 11, 2009) These books are no longer in print and the series has been canceled. Manga Pose Resource Book This set was printed in an over-sized format of 21 cm x 29.6 cm. Manga Pose Resource Book Vol. 1: Basic Poses (2002) Manga Pose Resource Book Vol. 2: Animals (2002) Manga Pose Resource Book Vol. 3: Actions Scenes (2002) How to Draw Anime and Game Characters This set is another Graphic-Sha publication that is shown alongside the main HTDM series on the dustjacks and in ads. How to Draw Anime and Game Characters Vol. 1: Basics for Beginners and Beyond (August 2000) How to Draw Anime and Game Characters Vol. 2: Expressing Emotions (March 2001) How to Draw Anime and Game Characters Vol. 3: Bringing Daily Actions to Life (August 2001) How to Draw Anime and Game Characters Vol. 4: Mastering Battle and Action Moves (April 2002) How to Draw Anime and Game Characters Vol. 5: Bishoujo Game Characters (September 2003) More How to Draw Manga Another set of manga-know-how with only four volumes, based in character creation. More How to Draw Manga Vol. 1: The Basics of Character Drawing (March 2004) More How to Draw Manga Vol. 2: Penning Characters (March 2004) More How to Draw Manga Vol. 3: Enhancing a Character's Sense of Presence (August 2004) More How to Draw Manga Vol. 4: Mastering Bishoujo Characters (September 2004) Cancelled/status unknown volumes These are volumes that were going to be released in English and even advertised for ordering, but they have been cancelled. How to Draw Manga: Digital Comic Guide Vol. 1 Cross-promotions A special edition of the series titled How to Draw Manga Special: Colored Original Drawing was produced detailing how to use Copic markers. It explains how to avoid blotches, use colorless blenders, select paper, refill markers, changing nibs and the airbrush system. It is Volume 9 in the English language series. Reception The series has been credited with "the standardization of manga style", popularizing most common tropes such as "the large eyes of shōjo characters, the feminine features of bishōnen". The series has been successful in multiple markets as it has been translated into numerous other languages, and it shows the global success of manga - that not only the product itself is successful, but even works about the process of making the product. References External links Manga related books on Graphic-sha website How to Draw Manga Books about the visual arts Books about manga Handbooks and manuals Book series introduced in 1999 Japanese book series

4025717

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cercan%C3%ADas%20Madrid

Cercanías Madrid

Cercanías Madrid is the commuter rail service that serves Madrid, the capital of Spain, and its metropolitan area. It is operated by Cercanías Renfe, the commuter rail division of Renfe, the former monopoly of rail services in Spain. Its total length is 370 km. History Until 1989 The first railroad line departing from Madrid (the second in Spain and the third in the Iberian Peninsula) was built in 1851 between Madrid and Aranjuez. Soon the growing Spanish railway system was dominated by two large companies: the Compañía del Norte (Northern Company), who operated the lines between Madrid and the Atlantic North of Spain from the Estación del Norte (now Príncipe Pío), the Madrid-Zaragoza-Alicante (MZA) who operated the lines between the capital and the Mediterranean and Andalusian cities from the Atocha station. Another station, Delicias, served the line to Lisbon. Other smaller companies operated from Madrid, mostly in narrow gauge. After the Civil War, in 1941, the ailing railway companies were nationalised and joined in the new RENFE, and the narrow gauge lines were progressively closed, the last one in 1970. Almost at the same time, the new Chamartín station was built and all services were transferred to the main stations: Chamartín for the north and east-bound and the international services and Atocha for the south and west-bound trains. Both stations were linked by a tunnel, the Connection Railway Line (Línea de Enlaces Ferroviarios, a line to link the MZA lines with the Norte lines; the building started during the Second Republic and was only finished in 1967. The delays gave the tunnel the nickname of Túnel de la risa ("Tunnel of Laughter" (es)), after a fairground attraction very popular in the 1930s. The introduction of the RENFE 440 series trains in Madrid on two commuter lines in 1975 is considered to be the beginning of the modern Cercanías Madrid network. The development of the towns around Madrid as bedroom communities only started in the late 1960s, in two different parts of the metropolitan area: The Henares Corridor The main Madrid-Zaragoza-Barcelona line followed the valley of the Henares river, going through the important town of Alcalá de Henares to Guadalajara and Zaragoza. The towns around the line (Coslada, San Fernando de Henares, Torrejón de Ardoz, Alcalá itself) and some suburbs within the city of Madrid (Vallecas Villa, Vicálvaro) started to grow large bedroom communities, which relied heavily in the railway for commuting to Madrid. The South-Southwestern Area At the same time, the former rural towns of Alcorcón, Móstoles, Leganés, Fuenlabrada and Getafe (and some others) started to grow as bedroom communities. These bedroom communities were less rail-oriented and relied more in bus services and private transportation, but soon the rail services were enlarged: in the Madrid-Toledo line for the towns of Getafe and Parla, in the Madrid-Talavera de la Reina line for Leganés and Fuenlabrada, and in 1976 a wide Iberian gauge line between Madrid and Móstoles was built, substituting the narrow gauge line closed in 1970. At this time, the services were full part of the normal RENFE services, and the cars and stations had the standard livery of the rest of the company. In the 1980s, services started to operate between Madrid-Chamartín and the new town of Tres Cantos, serving also the Autonomous University of Madrid campus, in Cantoblanco. From 1989 to 2008 In 1989, RENFE divided its services in business areas (áreas de negocio), each one with its own symbols and livery. The gold and blue colors were substituted by the red, white and gray colors of the new Cercanías brand and new network maps were made, where the lines were numbered: clockwise from the north, from Madrid to: (later extended to Colmenar Viejo) Guadalajara Aranjuez Parla Fuenlabrada Móstoles Las Rozas (then returning to Madrid) El Escorial/Cercedilla In 1991, the tunnel passing through Madrid linking the C-5 and the C-6 was finished, disbanding the C-6 into a new suburb-to-suburb C-5. At the same time, a shift was appreciated in the Metropolitan Madrid area growth; the new housing initiatives moved from the northeast and southwest part of the region to the northwest. RENFE then started an ambitious plan of growth of the Cercanías network: upgrading the from the decaying Norte station, now renamed Príncipe Pío, to the Atocha station, through the former industrial districts just south the Madrid downtown, burying it underground from Príncipe Pío to Delicias. This project, called the Pasillo Verde (Green Corridor), also created new streets (namely the and the Imperial Boulevard) and housing projects. In 1996, the Pasillo Verde was finished. A new line, the C-10, was started linking Collado Villalba to Atocha Station through the Green Corridor. In 2000, the line C-1 was extended to the towns of Alcobendas and San Sebastián de los Reyes, relieving the heavy road traffic between these towns and Madrid. In 2003, the C-7 line was extended to Colmenar Viejo, and in 2004, the C-5 to Humanes. Both extensions were ardently sought, because both cities were already linked by railroad to Madrid, so a Cercanías service was considered logical. The company also developed the so-called CIVIS services, linking important stations non-stop with downtown Madrid (see below at CIVIS). The 11 March 2004 attacks The 11 March 2004 attacks occurred in four trains circulating by the Madrid-Alcalá-Guadalajara-Zaragoza line. One of the trains was a double-decker 450 series which served the C-2 line coming from Guadalajara to Chamartín; the other three were 446 series who departed from Alcalá de Henares: two serving the C-1 line to Alcobendas and one serving the C-7 line, finishing in Príncipe Pío. After the attacks, services were reintroduced the following day, with RENFE private security reinforced. Security measures and design of the rolling stock have been accredited to having notably reduced the number of casualties in the attacks. From 2008 on In 2008, the opening of the second north-south rail tunnel through Madrid allowed the C-3, from Aranjuez, and the C-4, from Parla, which used to finish at Atocha, to continue their route further to the north, the C-3 to El Escorial, and the C-4 to Alcobendas-San Sebastián de los Reyes or Colmenar Viejo alternatingly, passing through Madrid. The next year, the rail station of Puerta del Sol in downtown Madrid, part of this second tunnel, was inaugurated. The old C-1 line was absorbed into the C-4 and until 2011 there was no C-1 line, when it was revived as the railway to the Madrid-Barajas Airport was inaugurated. Since 2011 no new lines have been enacted, and the link to the Parque Warner Madrid theme park was closed because of lack of use. The improvements have consisted of insertion of new stations in the existing lines and further connections to the Madrid Metro, such as the access from the Sol rail station to the Gran Vía Street, opened in 2021. Lines Nine lines serve the Cercanías network. There are three kinds of lines: suburb-to-Madrid lines these lines make a direct link between the suburbs with downtown Madrid: lines C-2, C-7, and C-10. suburb-to-suburb lines, passing through Madrid these lines link two suburbs, but most passengers only go from one of the suburbs to Madrid or vice versa; indeed, some of these lines have special services suburb-to-Madrid only, specially in rush hours, early in the morning or late at night. Suburb-to-suburb lines are the C-3, C-4, C-5 and C-8. intra-city line C-1, only runs through the city of Madrid from Príncipe Pío to the Madrid Airport. tourist line C-9, from the village of Cercedilla (terminus of C-8) to the ski resorts of Navacerrada Pass and Cotos. Only runs from December to March. It can be argued that lines C-2 and C-8 are the same line, as usually the trains who finish C-8 line in Atocha will follow line C-2 to Guadalajara and vice versa; indeed, a C-2 train will be signed El Escorial or Cercedilla rather than Chamartín, and a C-8 train will rather be signed Guadalajara than Atocha. There is no line C-6 because it was combined with line C-5. In 2004 construction was begun on a second central line to link Atocha and Chamartín, to relieve the heavy traffic in the old tunnel (built during the 1930s and 1940s, when materials were scarce and poor). Opening on July 9, 2008, it included a new station at Sol of the Metro where trains stop instead of at Recoletos on the old line. The tunnel is now in use by the C-3 and C-4. Stations Operation Operating times Rather strangely for such a night-living city as Madrid, trains do not operate late at night, mostly for union and safety reasons. The first train to operate on weekdays is the 5:07 C-5 train from Móstoles/El Soto; the rest of the lines (except C-9) start to operate around 5:30 am. Line C-9, being a branch line located far away from central Madrid in the Sierra de Guadarrama, operates from 9:30 am to 10:30 pm. The frequency of the trains depends on the size of the towns served and the traffic on the line. The central section of the network, from Atocha to Chamartín, through Recoletos and Nuevos Ministerios, has trains every 3–4 minutes (of various lines) on weekday peak hours; the farther branches of the C-8 line have trains every two hours on weekends. All lines (except C-9) finish their operations around midnight. Rolling stock There are basically three series of trains operating in the Madrid Cercanías network: 446 series built from 1989 on, these are the most usual cars in the network, together with 447 series. They are used for almost all lines. Their maximum speed is 100 km/h and can carry 704 passengers (204 seated) in each three cars. They use an AdTranz Propulsion & Control System, with CAF bogies and carbody. 447 series built from 1993 on. Their maximum speed is 120 km/h and can carry 704 passengers (204 seated) in each three cars. They use a Siemens Propulsion & Control System, with CAF bogies and carbody. 450 series the double-decker 450 series were built from 1990 on. Apart from the double deck, they are different from the other series in their almost all-seat configuration. They are mostly used on the C-2/C-8 and the C-1 line. Their maximum speed is 140 km/h and they can carry 1840 passengers (1008 seated). They are also new modular and moderns trains, called Civia (462, 463, 464 or 465 series). They share the same design, the series number depending on the number of coaches, with a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 5 coaches. They have been designed as a replacement for the old 440/440R series in the CIVIS services. In Madrid there are only 465 series. The 446 and 447 series trains can serve in two composition: a single composition of three cars (called tren corto or short train) and a double composition of six cars (called tren largo or long train) As the double composition is the most usual, when a service is operated by a single composition it is announced previously. Tickets Cercanias is part of the Madrid Regional Transport Consortium (Consorcio Regional de Transportes de Madrid) and follows its zoning system, based in concentric zones around Madrid. The price of the trips inside the network depends on the number of zones crossed. Prices of one single trip ticket, in euro as of April 2015: There is also the bonotren, that allows ten trips (prices range from € 5.65 to 26.20) and the abono mensual that allows two trips a day during a natural month (prices range from € 20.00 to 70.00) The abono mensual should not be confused with the Abono Transportes, which allows the use of the entire transport network – not just trains. CIVIS CIVIS is a special service which operates on some lines: first on C-10 and C-3, and later on C-2. The CIVIS services uses the direct railway line between Chamartín and San Fernando without stopping and thus provides faster through service to San Fernando and stations beyond. Development plans As Renfe is (at the moment) a constituent of the Spanish Ministry of Infrastructure, and national infrastructure development projects during the last ten years have focused on the development of the Spanish high speed network, funding for new lines has been scarce and growth has been slow (in comparison with the rocket-paced growth of the Madrid Metro). As the Cercanías network is the only public transportation system in Madrid which is owned by the Spanish central state (in comparison with the Metro and bus services, owned regionally, municipally and privately) this difference has been exploited politically. A harsh debate between the Madrid regional government (which operates the Metro) and the central government (which operates the Cercanías) about who is responsible for building the line to the new terminal of the Barajas Airport delayed the construction of any rail link. The Madrid Metro Line 8 extension to Terminal 4 opened in May 2007, while the Cercanías link did not open until 2011. See also Madrid Metro Renfe Commuter rail Elektrichka S-Bahn Réseau Express Régional Transportation in Spain References External links Cercanías Rail transport in Madrid Rail transport in the Community of Madrid

4025839

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babette%20Deutsch

Babette Deutsch

Babette Deutsch (September 22, 1895 – November 13, 1982) was an American poet, critic, translator, and novelist. Background Babette Deutsch was born on September 22, 1895, in New York City. Her parents were of Michael Deutsch and Melanie Fisher Deutsch. She matriculated from the Ethical Culture School and Barnard College, graduating in 1917 with a B.A. She published poems in magazines such as the North American Review and the New Republic while she was still a student at Barnard. Career During the 1940s, 1950s and into the 1960s, Deutsch was teaching at Columbia University, where her students included poet/publisher Lawrence Ferlinghetti. In 1946, she received an honorary D. Litt. from Columbia University. Deutsch translated Pushkin's Eugene Onegin into English and also made some of the best English versions of Boris Pasternak's poems. Deutsch's own poems displayed what poet Marianne Moore called "her commanding stature as a poet." Personal life and death On April 29, 1921, Deutsch married Avrahm Yarmolinsky, chief of the Slavonic Division of The New York Public Library (1918–1955), also a writer and translator. They had two sons, Adam and Michael. Babette Deutsch died age 87 on November 13, 1982. Works Poetic collections Banners (1919, George H. Doran) Honey Out of the Rock (1925, B. Appleton) Fire for the Night (1930, Jonathan Cape & Harrison Smith) Epistle to Prometheus (1931, Jonathan Cape & Harrison Smith) One Part Love (1939, Oxford University Press) Take Them, Stranger (1944, Henry Holt) Animal, Vegetable, Mineral (1954, E.P. Dutton) Coming of Age: New & selected poems (1959, Indiana University Press) Collected Poems, 1919–1962 (1963, Indiana University Press) The Collected Poems of Babette Deutsch (1969, Doubleday & Co.) Novels A Brittle Heaven (1926, Greenberg) In Such A Night (1927, Martin Secker) Mask of Silenus: A Novel About Socrates (1933, Simon and Schuster) Rogue's Legacy: A Novel About Francois Villon (1942, Coward-McCann) Other works Potable Gold: Some Notes on Poetry and This Age (1929, W. W. Norton) This Modern Poetry (1936, Faber & Faber) Walt Whitman: Builder for America (1941, Julian Messner) The Reader's Shakespeare (1946, Julian Messner) Poetry Handbook (1957, Funk & Wagnalls) Poetry in Our Time (1958, Columbia University Press) Poems – Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ed. Babette Deutsch, illus. Jacques Hnizkovsky (1967, Thomas Cromwell) Translations from Russian Modern Russian Poetry: an Anthology – trans. by Babette Deutsch and Avrahm Yarmolinsky (1921, John Lane) Contemporary German Poetry: an Anthology – trans. by Babette Deutsch and Avrahm Yarmolinsky (1923, Harcourt Brace & Co.) Eugene Onegin – Alexander Pushkin, illus. Fritz Eichenberg (1939, Heritage Society) Heroes of the Kalevala – illus. Fritz Eichenberg (1940, Julian Messner) Poems from the Book of Hours – Rainer Maria Rilke (1941, New Directions) Selected Poems – Adam Mickiewicz, trans. Babetted Deutsch (alongside W. H. Auden, Louise Bogan, Rolfe Humphries and Robert Hillyer) (1955, The Noonday Press) Two Centuries of Russian Verse – trans. Babette Deutsch and Avrahm Yarmolinsky (1966, Random House) Children's books Crocodile – Korney Chukovsky, trans. Babette Deutsch (1931, J. Lippincott) It's A Secret! – illus. Dorothy Bayley (1941, Harper & Bros.) The Welcome – illus. Marc Simont (1942, Harper & Bros.) The Steel Flea – Nikolas Leskov, trans. Babette Deutsch and Avrahm Yarmolinsky, illus. Mstislav Dobufinsky (1943, Harper & Row) – revised 1964, illus. by Janina Domanska Tales of Faraway Folk – trans. Babette Deutsch and Avrahm Yarmolinsky, illus. Irena Lorentowicz (1952, Harper & Row) More Tales of Faraway Folk – trans. Babette Deutsch and Avrahm Yarmolinsky, illus. Janina Domanska (1963, Harper & Row) I Often Wish (1966, Funk & Wagnalls) References External links Babette Deutsch at FactMonster Babette Deutsch in The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia at GeoCities.com Babette Deutsch at The Literary Encyclopaedia (subscription required) – no text as of 2016-07-17 Penguin Translators A–G at Penguin First Editions – one book translated by Deutsch as of 2016-07-17 1895 births 1982 deaths 20th-century American novelists Barnard College alumni American women poets Russian–English translators American literary critics American women literary critics American women novelists 20th-century American women writers 20th-century American poets Women anthologists 20th-century American translators Journalists from New York City Novelists from New York (state) American women non-fiction writers 20th-century American non-fiction writers Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters

4025870

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.%20S.%20Fletcher

J. S. Fletcher

Joseph Smith Fletcher (7 February 1863 – 30 January 1935) was an English journalist and author. He wrote more than 230 books on a wide variety of subjects, both fiction and non-fiction, and was one of the most prolific English writers of detective fiction. Early life and education Fletcher was born in Halifax, West Yorkshire, the son of a clergyman. His father died when he was eight months old, and after which his grandmother raised him on a farm in Darrington, near Pontefract. He was educated at Silcoates School in Wakefield, and after some study of law, he became a journalist. Writing career At age 20, Fletcher began working in journalism, as a sub-editor in London. He subsequently returned to his native Yorkshire, where he worked first on the Leeds Mercury using the pseudonym A Son of the Soil, and then as a special correspondent for the Yorkshire Post covering Edward VII's coronation in 1902. Fletcher's first books published were poetry. He then moved on to write numerous works of historical fiction and history, many dealing with Yorkshire, which led to his selection as a fellow of the Royal Historical Society. Michael Sadleir stated that Fletcher's historical novel, When Charles I Was King (1892), was his best work. Fletcher wrote several novels of rural life in imitation of Richard Jefferies, beginning with The Wonderful Wapentake (1894). In 1914, Fletcher wrote his first detective novel and went on to write over a hundred more, many featuring the private investigator Ronald Camberwell. Fletcher published multiple crime fiction novels during the "Golden Age of Detective Fiction," namely his The Middle Temple Murder (1919) which served as the basic formulaic template for writing detective fiction novels; though, this particular novel (in addition to many of his others) did not share many general traits with those that characterize this particular literary era. On the contrary, it's argued that Fletcher is an almost exact contemporary of Conan Doyle. Most of his detective fiction works considerably pre-date that era, and even those few published within it do not conform to the closed form and strict rules professed, if not unfailingly observed, by the Golden Age writers. Personal life He married the Irish writer Rosamond Langbridge in 1927, with whom he had one son, Rev. Valentine Fletcher, who held various ministries across Yorkshire, including Bradford and Sedbergh, and was himself a writer, author of various children's books and of Chimney Pots and Stacks, on the British domestic chimney pot. Death Fletcher died in Surrey 1935, one week short of his 72nd birthday. He was survived by his wife Rosamond and son Valentine. Works Novels Frank Carisbroke's Stratagem (1888) Andrewlina (1889) Mr. Spivey's Clerk (1890) When Charles the First Was King (1892) In the Days of Drake (1895) Where Highways Cross (1895) Mistress Spitfire (1896) Baden Powell of Mafeking (1900) Lucian the Dreamer (1903) Perris of the Cherry-Trees (1913) The King versus Wargrave (1915) The Rayner-Slade Amalgamation (1917) Paul Campenhaye (1918) The Chestermarke Instinct (1918) The Borough Treasurer (1919) The Middle Temple Murder (1919) The Talleyrand Maxim (1919) Scarhaven Keep (1920) The Herapath Property (1920) The Lost Mr. Linthwaite (1920) The Orange-Yellow Diamond (1920) The Markenmore Mystery (1921) The Root of All Evil (1921) Wrychester Paradise (1921) In the Mayor's Parlour (1922) Ravensdene Court (1922) The Middle of Things (1922) The Million Dollar Diamond (1923) The Charing Cross Mystery (1923) The Mazaroff Murder (1923) The Kang-He Vase (1924) The Safety Pin (1924) Sea Fog (1925) The Bedford Row Mystery (1925) The Cartwright Gardens Murder (1925) The Mill of Many Windows (1925) The Secret Way(1925) The Passenger to Folkestone (1927) Dead Men's Money (1928) The Ransom for London (1929) Murder at Wrides Park (1931) Murder in Four Degrees (1931) The Solution of a Mystery(1931) Murder of the Ninth Baronet (1932) Murder in the Squire's Pew (1932) The Borgia Cabinet (1932) The Solution of a Mystery (1932) The Murder of the Secret Agent (1934) Todmanhawe Grange (completed after his death by Edward Powys Mathers as Torquemada, 1937) And Sudden Death'" (1938) Short stories Miscellaneous Stories (1907)Mr. Poskitt's Nightcaps (1910)The Secret of the Barbican and Other Stories (1924)Green Ink and other stories (1926) Poetry The Juvenile Poems of Joseph S. Fletcher (1879) Early Poems by Joseph Smith Fletcher (1882) Anima Christi (1884) References Further reading Ellis, Roger and Richard Williams, J. S. Fletcher: A Bibliographical Checklist of the British First Editions. Dragonby Press, 2013. External links 1863 births 1935 deaths British male journalists 20th-century English novelists British mystery writers English historical novelists Fellows of the Royal Historical Society Writers from Halifax, West Yorkshire People educated at Silcoates School English male novelists English crime fiction writers British detective fiction writers 20th-century English male writers Writers of historical fiction set in the early modern period

4025878

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical%20Fidelity

Musical Fidelity

Musical Fidelity is a British producer of high-end audio equipment focusing on streaming music players, and its core product range of amplifiers of various types (power, phono, headphone, integrated and pre-amplifiers). Other products have included headphones, Digital-Analog Converters (DACs), CD players, Bluetooth Receivers, ‘all-in-one systems’ (including Phono turntable). Founded in the United Kingdom in 1982, they are known for their unusual industrial design, Nuvistor tube use and Class-AB amplifiers. History Musical Fidelity was founded in 1982 by Antony Michaelson, a clarinettist and Hi-Fi enthusiast, following his exit from Michaelson & Austin, a predecessor company of which he was a partner. Musical Fidelity's first product was "The Preamp", which incorporated moving coil and moving magnet pre-amplification and a single line-level ‘Tuner’ input. This was originally designed to overcome his dissatisfaction with the Michaelson & Austin TVP-1 pre- amplifier. The first batch of “The Preamp” were made on Michaelson's home kitchen table and sold out almost at once through a local dealer. The dealer asked for more product, which resulted in Michaelson making the decision to go into full-time production. This was followed by the ‘Dr Thomas’ power amplifier, designed by Dr Martin Vaughan Thomas, capable of outputting 100-plus watts. Later products included the Preamp II, and the Typhoon Power amplifier. From there, Michaelson commissioned a seemingly endless variety and range of new products using a wide variety of circuit concepts and technologies. Many of these became significant Hi-Fi milestones. Significant products Musical Fidelity is probably best known for its A1 integrated amplifier, a Class AB amplifier, rated at 25W per channel. These utilised a bias level and casework configuration that led to excessive heat generation, leading to habitual failures, of both mains transformers and (85 DegC rated) electrolytic capacitors. The manufacturer's marketing material claimed that the unit produced "...a very sweet, authentic sound, reminiscent of tube amplifiers." This was launched in 1985 and sold over 100,000 units over its lifetime. In 1986, the A370 power amplifier was launched – at that time unusual (in the UK) for being a rack-mountable domestic amplifier. It produced 185 Watts per channel. These were the first of their type to be made by a UK Hi-Fi company. Then followed a range of well received loudspeakers, the MC series (designed by Martin Colloms) and the Reference series, featuring 'TPX' polypropylene drivers. A year later, the Digilog was launched, one of the first stand-alone production DACs. In the late 1980s Musical Fidelity introduced further amplifiers, including the P170 and high-powered rack mount style amplifiers, including the P270, A370 (all featuring Hitachi lateral MOSFETs) and the SA470, SA570. In the early nineties, Musical Fidelity released the P180, with CRPS (Choke Regulated Power Supply). This was possibly the first time bifilar wound coils had been combined with transistor electronics. This design innovation helped suppress electro-magnetic radiation frequencies (EMF), reducing the amount of potential noise interference into the audio circuits . In 1992, the A1000 was launched – one of the first 'super integrated' amplifiers, with a full range of line level inputs coupled to a Class AB power amplifier section producing 50W / channel into 8 ohms. Initially it was only made for Japan but later was well received around the world. The X series was launched in 1997 consisting of a range of cute extruded cylindrical add-on components, which later spawned the XA series. The units consisted of various amplifiers, Digital-to-analogue converters, Phono stages, tuners and CD players and ancillary power supplies. The NuVista preamp was introduced in 1997, the first modern, mass-produced audio product using Nuvistor tubes, which were miniature metal-ceramic enclosed vacuum tubes manufactured by RCA . These were followed by power and integrated amplifiers, with ancillary power supplies. Numerous products have descended from it, such as the Tri-Vista 21 ‘Super DAC’, introduced in 2002, culminating in the latest being the NuVista 800. The kW Pre- and Power Amp was introduced in 2003. The power amplifier was then the highest power audiophile-grade power amp ever made commercially by a UK audiophile company, producing 1 kW of power per channel into 8 ohms. Notably, two mono-blocs and their power supply weighed in at 129 kG. It was followed by the Titan, an upgrade from the kW. In 2015, the Merlin was released, a multi-format music system that came with a turntable, wireless streaming and a pair of unique speakers, allowing users to play vinyl records and stream digital music over high quality apt-X Bluetooth, in a very compact form factor. As of 2018 , the products consist of the Nu-Vista, M8, M6, M5si, M3, MX, LX2, and V90 Series as well as the Encore Streaming Music servers. Most of the series provide a mix of Phono stages, integrated amplifiers, DACs, CD players and Headphone amplifiers. The Nu-Vista series continues in the tradition of using a mix of Nuvistor tubes, transistors and Digital technology. Musical fidelity CDs Michaelson was a professional clarinettist and on the Musical Fidelity label recorded a number of CDs of major works for the clarinet . 2004 Musical Fidelity CD - Mozart Clarinet Concerto K622 In A Major. Antony Michaelson, Michelangelo Chamber Orchestra, Leader Adrian Levine, Conducted by Robert Bailey 2002 Musical Fidelity CD - Mozart and Brahms Clarinet Quintets. Antony Michaelson, Adrian Levine, Kathy Andrew, Stephen Tees, Judith Serkin 2001 Musical Fidelity CD - Mozart And Brahms Clarinet Trios. Antony Michaelson, Stephen Tees, Andrea Hess, Ingrid Jacoby 2001 Musical Fidelity CD – Brahms Clarinet Sonatas. Antony Michaelson, Ingrid Jacoby 1999 Musical Fidelity CD - Weber Clarinet Quintet / Bärmann 3rd Clarinet Quintet . Antony Michaelson, Beverley Davison, Elizabeth Layton, Roger Chase, Jonathan Williams 1994 Musical Fidelity CD- Mozart Clarinet Quintet, Antony Michaelson, Adrian Levine, Colin Callow, Jeremy Williams, Robert Bailey Sonic characteristics of Musical Fidelity products Michaelson stressed that his most important design aim was accuracy and truthfulness to the music. Despite this, Musical Fidelity products generally displayed a sweet, easy going sound quality. Although most reviews identified this quality with MF's products, some did not approve of it. Michaelson thought that for best results, Hi-Fi should not need much set-up and tweaking. He strongly disapproved of what he called 'cable madness'. His refusal to accept the prevailing zeitgeist of cable worship frequently landed him in disputes with a variety of Hi-Fi luminaries. He relished the disagreements. Over time, his view has been borne out by the waning of the market for high-end interconnect and speaker cables sold at very high prices. Change of ownership In 2017, Michaelson decided to retire. A search was conducted for a suitable partner to take over the brand name and continue with the heritage. Eventually he came to an agreement with Heinz Lichtenegger of Audio Tuning (also the owner of Pro-ject) and on 14 May 2018 they took over the brand and its intellectual property. Product range timeline 1980s The Preamp The Preamp 2 Dr. Thomas power amplifier Synthesis Integrated 3a/3b pre-amp MVT MVX Studio T A1 series A100 series B200 series P140(x) P150(x) P170 P270 P180 A370 A470 Digilog B1 series MC loudspeaker series Reference loudspeaker series 1990s A1000 F series Elektra series X series XA series NuVista series Michaelson Audio series 2000s A3 series A5 series A308 series kW series TriVista series Kelly Transducers M1 turntable V series Titan 2010s M1 series M3 series M5 series M6 series Quarkie headphones Musical Fidelity EB and MF headphone series Merlin Round Table turntable V90 series MX series LX series NuVista series See also List of phonograph manufacturers References External links http://www.musicalfidelity.com/ Audio amplifier manufacturers Compact Disc player manufacturers Manufacturing companies established in 1982 Audio equipment manufacturers of the United Kingdom Manufacturing companies based in London Headphone amplifier manufacturers Phonograph manufacturers 1982 establishments in the United Kingdom

4025965

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicle%20of%20a%20Summer

Chronicle of a Summer

Chronicle of a Summer (French original title: Chronique d'un été) is a 1961 French documentary film shot during the summer of 1960 by sociologist Edgar Morin and anthropologist and filmmaker Jean Rouch, with the technical and aesthetic collaboration of Québécois director-cameraman Michel Brault. The film is widely regarded as structurally innovative and an example of cinéma vérité and direct cinema. The term "cinéma vérité" was suggested by the film's publicist and coined by Rouch, highlighting a connection between film and its context, a fact Brault confirmed in an interview after a 2011 screening of Chronique d'un été at the TIFF Bell Lightbox in Toronto. In a 2014 Sight & Sound poll, film critics voted Chronicle of a Summer the sixth-best documentary film of all time. Synopsis The film begins with Rouch and Morin discussing whether it is possible to act sincerely on camera. A cast of real-life individuals are then introduced and led by the filmmakers to discuss topics related to French society and working-class happiness. At the movie's end, the filmmakers show their subjects the footage and have them discuss the level of reality that they thought the movie achieved. Production Chronicle of a Summer was filmed in Paris and Saint-Tropez, France. Rouch used synchronized sound, using a 16 mm camera connected through pilottone with a prototype of Nagra III, a transistorized tape recorder with electronic speed control developed by Stefan Kudelski. Cast All cast members appear as themselves. Jean Rouch Edgar Morin Marceline Loridan-Ivens Marilù Parolini (as Mary Lou) Angelo Jean-Pierre Sergent Jean (worker) Nadine Ballot (student) Régis Debray (student) Céline (student) Jean-Marc (student) Landry (student) Raymond (student) Jacques (office workers) Simone (office workers) Henri (artist) Madi (artist) Catherine (artist) Sophie (One cover girl) Véro (young girl, uncredited) Maxie (Jacques' wife, uncredited) Jacques Rivette (cameo, scene deleted) See also Inquiring Nuns References External links Chronicle of a Summer: Truth and Consequences an essay by Sam Di Iorio at the Criterion Collection 1961 documentary films 1961 films French documentary films French avant-garde and experimental films Self-reflexive films Films directed by Jean Rouch Films produced by Anatole Dauman 1960s French-language films 1960s French films

4026007

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroluminescent%20display

Electroluminescent display

Electroluminescent Displays (ELDs) are a type of flat panel display created by sandwiching a layer of electroluminescent material such as Gallium arsenide between two layers of conductors. When current flows, the layer of material emits radiation in the form of visible light. Electroluminescence (EL) is an optical and electrical phenomenon where a material emits light in response to an electric current passed through it, or to a strong electric field. The term "electroluminescent display" describes displays that use neither LED nor OLED devices, that instead use traditional electroluminescent materials. Beneq is the only manufacturer of TFEL (Thin Film Electroluminescent Display) and TAESL displays, which are branded as LUMINEQ Displays. The structure of a TFEL is similar to that of a passive matrix LCD or OLED display, and TAESL displays are essentially transparent TEFL displays with transparent electrodes. TAESL displays can have a transparency of 80%. Both TEFL and TAESL displays use chip-on-glass technology, which mounts the display driver IC directly on one of the edges of the display. TAESL displays can be embedded onto glass sheets. Unlike LCDs, TFELs are much more rugged and can operate at temperatures from −60 to 105°C and unlike OLEDs, TFELs can operate for 100,000 hours without considerable burn-in, retaining about 85% of their initial brightness. The electroluminescent material is deposited using atomic layer deposition, which is a process that deposits one 1-atom thick layer at a time. Mechanism EL works by exciting atoms by passing an electric current through them, causing them to emit photons. By varying the material being excited, the colour of the light emitted can be changed. The actual ELD is constructed using flat, opaque electrode strips running parallel to each other, covered by a layer of electroluminescent material, followed by another layer of electrodes, running perpendicular to the bottom layer. This top layer must be transparent in order to let light escape. At each intersection, the material lights, creating a pixel. Abbreviations AMEL Active Matrix Electroluminescence TFEL Thin Film Electroluminescence TDEL Thick Dielectric Electroluminescence See also Electroluminescence Display examples Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent technology References Electrical phenomena Luminescence Lighting Display technology

4026104

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One%20Dove

One Dove

One Dove were a Scottish electronic music group active in the early 1990s, consisting of Dot Allison, Ian Carmichael and Jim McKinven, a former member of Berlin Blondes and Altered Images. History Originally called Dove, the group released its debut single, "Fallen", on the Glasgow-based label Soma in October 1991. It was a significant club hit and brought them a deal with the Junior Boy's Own label. Changing their name to avoid confusion with a similarly named group, in 1992 JBO issued a new recording of "Fallen", produced by Andrew Weatherall, which brought the group to greater attention from the British music press. The single was withdrawn one week after release however, due to an unlicensed sampling of a harmonica from a Supertramp song. Further critical acclaim followed with the release of the 12" single "Transient Truth". At this stage, One Dove were still primarily a club-oriented group, but for the single "White Love", an attempt was made to make their music more radio-friendly by including a commercial remix by Stephen Hague. With this increasingly commercial sound, the band became a favourite with publications such as Select and Q, and were often favourably compared with Saint Etienne, another female-fronted group who were having success with pop-dance crossover recordings. In 1993, One Dove released their only album, Morning Dove White, which included the Weatherall version of "Fallen" (minus the Supertramp sample) together with 12" mixes of "Transient Truth" and "White Love". The album was originally set for release in 1992 but was delayed for a full year through disputes between the band and their new record company - London Records had taken over the Boy's Own label. The band were unhappy about the commercialisation of their sound, and the disputes were only resolved when the band agreed to release singles mixed by Stephen Hague, if they could work with him in the studio during the remix sessions. The album was preceded by the single "Breakdown", with remixes by Stephen Hague, William Orbit and Secret Knowledge and a further track from the album, "Why Don't You Take Me," was subsequently released as a single for the Christmas market. For the B-sides of the "Why Don't You Take Me" single (which included a reworking of Dolly Parton's song "Jolene"), the group expanded to a five-piece with the addition of Ed Higgins on percussion and Colin McIlroy on guitar, and showcased a more heavily dub-influenced sound. This line-up later went into the studio to begin work on a second album, but frustrated by record industry politics, split up midway through the sessions. Discography Albums Morning Dove White (#30 UK, 1993) Singles "Fallen" (released by Dove, 1991) "Fallen" (released by One Dove, 1991) "Transient Truth" (1992) "White Love" (#43 UK, July 1993; #14 US Modern Rock, December 1993) "Breakdown" (#24 UK, October 1993) "Why Don't You Take Me" (#30 UK, December 1993) References External links Morning Dove Web, an unofficial website British electronic music groups British techno music groups Scottish musical trios Trip hop groups Musical groups from Glasgow FFRR Records artists

4026209

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sungun%20copper%20mine

Sungun copper mine

The Sungun copper mine ( ) is located in Varzaqan county, East Azarbaijan, Iran, 75 km north west of the provincial town of Ahar. It is the most important geologic and industrial feature in the area and is the largest open-cast copper mine in Iran and is in the primary stages of extraction. The reserves are estimated to be as much as 995 million tons of copper ore. The ore is processed directly at a concentration plant at the mine. The capacity of the concentration plant is 170,000 tons of copper concentrates, with plans to expand to 300,000 tons. References Singer, D.A., Berger, V.I., and Moring, B.C. (2008): Porphyry copper deposits of the world: Database and grade and tonnage models, 2008. US Geological Survey Open-File Report 2008–1155. Hezarkhani, A., and Williams-Jones, A.E. (1998): Controls of alteration and mineralization in the Sungun porphyry copper deposit, Iran; evidence from fluid inclusions and stable isotopes. Economic Geology 93(5), 651–670. Hezarkhani, A., Williams-Jones, A.E., and Gammons, C.H. (1999): Factors controlling copper solubility and chalcopyrite deposition in the Sungun porphyry copper deposit, Iran. Mineralium Deposita 34, 770–783. Tahmasebi, P., Hezarkhani, A., and Mortazavi, M. (2010): Application of Discriminant Analysis for Alteration Separation; Sungun Copper Deposit, East Azerbaijan, Iran. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 6(4), 564–576. Hezarkhani, A. (2006): Petrology of the intrusive rocks within the Sungun Porphyry Copper Deposit, Azerbaijan, Iran. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 27(3), 26–340. See also Mining in Iran Copper mines in Iran Varzaqan County

4026223

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence%20length

Persistence length

The persistence length is a basic mechanical property quantifying the bending stiffness of a polymer. The molecule behaves like a flexible elastic rod/beam (beam theory). Informally, for pieces of the polymer that are shorter than the persistence length, the molecule behaves like a rigid rod, while for pieces of the polymer that are much longer than the persistence length, the properties can only be described statistically, like a three-dimensional random walk. Formally, the persistence length, P, is defined as the length over which correlations in the direction of the tangent are lost. In a more chemical based manner it can also be defined as the average sum of the projections of all bonds j ≥ i on bond i in an infinitely long chain. Let us define the angle θ between a vector that is tangent to the polymer at position 0 (zero) and a tangent vector at a distance L away from position 0, along the contour of the chain. It can be shown that the expectation value of the cosine of the angle falls off exponentially with distance, where P is the persistence length and the angled brackets denote the average over all starting positions. The persistence length is considered to be one half of the Kuhn length, the length of hypothetical segments that the chain can be considered as freely joined. The persistence length equals the average projection of the end-to-end vector on the tangent to the chain contour at a chain end in the limit of infinite chain length. The persistence length can be also expressed using the bending stiffness , the Young's modulus E and knowing the section of the polymer chain. where is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature. In the case of a rigid and uniform rod, I can be expressed as: where a is the radius. For charged polymers the persistence length depends on the surrounding salt concentration due to electrostatic screening. The persistence length of a charged polymer is described by the OSF (Odijk, Skolnick and Fixman) model. Examples For example, a piece of uncooked spaghetti has a persistence length on the order of m (taking in consideration a Young modulus of 5 GPa and a radius of 1 mm). Double-helical DNA has a persistence length of about 390 ångströms. Such large persistent length for spaghetti does not mean that it is not flexible. It just means that its stiffness is such that it needs m of length for thermal fluctuations at 300K to bend it. Another example: Imagine a long cord that is slightly flexible. At short distance scales, the cord will basically be rigid. If you look at the direction the cord is pointing at two points that are very close together, the cord will likely be pointing in the same direction at those two points (i.e. the angles of the tangent vectors are highly correlated). If you choose two points on this flexible cord (imagine a piece of cooked spaghetti that you've just tossed on your plate) that are very far apart, however, the tangent to the cords at those locations will likely be pointing in different directions (i.e. the angles will be uncorrelated). If you plot out how correlated the tangent angles at two different points are as a function of the distance between the two points, you'll get a plot that starts out at 1 (perfect correlation) at a distance of zero and drops exponentially as distance increases. The persistence length is the characteristic length scale of that exponential decay. For the case of a single molecule of DNA the persistence length can be measured using optical tweezers and atomic force microscopy. Tools for measurement of persistence length Persistence length measurement of single stranded DNA is viable by various tools. Most of them have been done by incorporation of the worm-like chain model. For example, two ends of single stranded DNA were tagged by donor and acceptor dyes to measure average end to end distance which is represented as FRET efficiency. It was converted to persistence length by comparing the FRET efficiency with calculated FRET efficiency based on models such as the worm-like chain model. The recent attempts to obtain persistence length is combination of fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) with HYDRO program. HYDRO program is simply noted as the upgrade of Stokes–Einstein equation. The Stokes–Einstein equation calculates diffusion coefficient (which is inversely proportional to diffusion time) by assuming the molecules as pure sphere. However, the HYDRO program has no limitation regarding to the shape of molecule. For estimation of single stranded DNA persistence length, the diffusion time of number of worm-like chain polymer was generated and its diffusion time is calculated by the HYDRO program which is compared with the experiment diffusion time of FCS. The polymer property was adjusted to find the optimal persistence length. See also Polymer Worm-like chain Freely jointed chain Kuhn length Paul Flory References Physical quantities Polymer physics

4026273

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20Bergstr%C3%B6m

Christian Bergström

Per Christian Bergström (born 19 July 1967) is a former tennis player from Sweden, who turned professional in 1985. He did not win any titles (neither singles nor doubles) during his career, but reached three singles quarter-finals in Grand Slam tournaments: Wimbledon (1990, 1994) and Australian Open (1993). The right-hander reached his highest individual ranking on the ATP Tour on 27 January 1992, when he became World No. 32. Career 1984–1985: Junior career Bergström was the Swedish junior champion in 1984 and European junior champion in 1985. He reached the semi-finals of the 1985 U.S. Open Juniors, losing to Joey Blake. At the Junior French Open, he lost in the 3rd round to Thomas Muster. Bergström was ranked No. 2 in the ITF Junior world rankings and turned professional at the end of 1985. Junior Slam results – Singles French Open: 3R (1985) US Open: SF (1985) Junior Slam results – Doubles French Open: QF (1985) US Open: 2R (1985) 1986–1987 Bergström started the year ranked 410 in the world on the ATP rankings and mostly competed on the ATP Challenger Series. He reached the quarter-finals at the Parioli Challenger, the semi-finals at the Bergen Challenger and his best result was winning the Tampere Challenger. He also qualified for two Grand Slam events, the French Open and the US Open, losing in the first round of both. In 1987 Bergström reached the quarter-finals at the Dortmund Challenger and won the Porto Challenger. On the Grand Prix Tour he reached the quarter-finals at the Lorraine Open in Nancy and also in Madrid. Bergström participated in three Grand Slam events, beating countrymen in the first round of each. At the French Open he beat Johan Carlsson in the first round, at Wimbledon, Peter Lundgren and at the US Open, Mikael Pernfors had to retire in the first round. Bergström lost in the second round at all three events and ended the year ranked number 69 in the world on the ATP rankings. 1988–1989 Bergström did not compete in any Challenger tournaments during the 1988 season. On the Grand Prix Tour he reached two quarter-finals, at Metz and Geneva and two semi-finals at Båstad and Toulouse. He had his first victory over a top ten player when he beat the world number 10, Henri Leconte at the Toulouse tournament. The 1989 season was less successful as Bergström reaches three quarter-finals, at Milan, Båstad and Toulouse. In November he reached the semi-finals at the Copenhagen Challenger and finished the year ranked number 106 in the world. 1990–1991 During April 1990, Bergström reached the quarter-finals in Munich as a qualifier, losing to the eventual winner Karel Nováček. He also qualified for the French Open, losing in 5 sets in the 3rd round to the 11th-seeded Michael Chang. At Wimbledon he upset the tournament 11th seed and word number 21, Guy Forget in the fourth round and lost in the quarter-finals to Stefan Edberg. During October he reached the quarter-finals in Toulouse and in November the semi-finals at the London-indoor. As a result of his Wimbledon success, Bergström qualified as one of sixteen players for the Grand Slam Cup, where he lost in the first round to Ivan Lendl. Bergström kicked off 1991 with a fair amount of success by reaching the semi-finals in Wellington and the quarter-finals in Auckland. He also reached the quarter-finals at Rotterdam, Copenhagen, Basel and Toulouse, where he upset world number 5, Michael Stich in the first round. Bergström also made two semi-finals, in Munich where he beat Thomas Muster and in Båstad. His best result in a Grand Slam, was once again at Wimbledon, where he beat Brad Gilbert on his route to the round of 16. Bergström broke into the top 50 in the world for the first time on 22 April 1991 at number 48 on the ATP ranking and during October advanced to number 40 on the ATP rankings. He made his debut for the Swedish Davis Cup team in the World Group qualifying round against the Philippines in Manila. He won both his singles matches and teaming up with Rikard Bergh, won the doubles. 1992–1993 Bergström made his first ATP Tour final at the first tournament of the year in Adelaide losing to Goran Ivanišević in three sets. The following week he reached the quarter-finals in Sydney beating the world number 9, Petr Korda in the second round. He finished his 1992 Australian journey by beating world number 7, Guy Forget on route to the last 16 at the Australian Open. After the Australian Open he reached his highest individual ranking of 32, on the ATP ranking. Later in the year, he also reached the quarter-finals in Båstad and Toulouse. Partnering fellow Swede, Magnus Gustafsson he reached his first and only doubles final on the ATP Tour at Båstad. He made his second Davis Cup appearance for Sweden in the World Group quarter-finals against Australia, when he replaced Gustafsson for the reverse singles and then defeated Richard Fromberg. Bergström ended 1992 ranked number 58 in the world. Bergström begun 1993 by making the final in Adelaide for the second year running, losing to fellow Swede Nicklas Kulti. At the Australian Open he became the first player to defeat Ivan Lendl in the first round of the Australian Open, and by so doing breaking Lendl's record run of 40 consecutive first round victories in Grand Slam appearances. After defeating the eighth seeded Lendl in die first round, he also defeated the world number eleven and tournament tenth seed, Wayne Ferreira before losing to Stefan Edberg in the quarter-finals. Bergström also made the quarter-finals in Beijing and the semi-finals in Båstad and Toulouse and ended the year ranked number 52 in the world. 1994–1996 1994 started less successful for Bergström and he only reaches two quarter-finals prior to the French Open, where he lost in the second round of the qualifying event. His first quarter-final was at the South African Open in Sun City, where he defeated his compatriot and the world number 10, Magnus Gustafsson. His second quarter-final appearance was at the AT&T Challenge in Atlanta. Bergström's best result of the year was at Wimbledon where he reached the quarter-finals for the second time in his career, with victories over Diego Nargiso, Greg Rusedski, Jordi Burillo and Bryan Shelton, before losing to Boris Becker. Bergström started 1995 with a ranking of 112, but struggled to gain any momentum on the 1995 ATP Tour. He finished the year with only two match victories on the Tour and with an ATP ranking of number 259 in world. His best result was on the Challenger Tour, where he had to qualify for the main draw at the Tampere Open, and then made the final before losing to Galo Blanco. In 1996 Bergström participated on ITF Satellite circuit and during April won the Germany 1 Circuit. He made his last appearance at an ATP Tour event at his hometown tournament, the Swedish Open in Båstad where he made the main draw as a lucky loser and then lost in the first round to Richard Fromberg. ATP career finals Singles: 2 (0–2) Doubles: 1 (0–1) Challenger titles Singles: (2) See also List of Sweden Davis Cup team representatives References External links 1967 births Living people Swedish male tennis players Sportspeople from Gothenburg 20th-century Swedish people

4026383

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elena%20Firsova

Elena Firsova

Elena Olegovna Firsova (; also Yelena or Jelena Firssowa; born 21 March 1950) is a Russian composer. Life Firsova was born in Leningrad into the family of physicists Oleg Firsov and Viktoria Lichko. She studied music in Moscow with Alexander Pirumov, Yuri Kholopov, Edison Denisov and Philip Herschkowitz. In 1979 she was blacklisted as one of the "Khrennikov's Seven" at the Sixth Congress of the Union of Soviet Composers for unapproved participation in some festivals of Soviet music in the West. She was married to the composer Dmitri Smirnov and lives in the United Kingdom. Their children are Philip Firsov (an artist and sculptor), and Alissa Firsova (a composer, pianist and conductor). She has composed more than a hundred compositions in many different genres including chamber opera The Nightingale and the Rose after Oscar Wilde and Christina Rossetti (premiered at the 1994 Almeida Opera Festival, London), an orchestra work Augury, (premiered at the 1992 BBC Proms) that includes a choral setting of William Blake's famous lines "To see the world in a grain of sand..." and Requiem to Anna Akhmatova's poem for soprano, chorus and orchestra (premiered at the Konzerthaus Berlin in September 2003). Her favourite genre is a chamber cantata for solo voice and ensemble (or orchestra). Some of them are written to the poems by Alexander Pushkin, Marina Tsvetaeva, Boris Pasternak and Oleg Prokofiev. However, most of them are setting the poems by her favourite poet Osip Mandelstam that include Earthly Life, Tristia, The Stone, Forest Walks, Before the Thunderstorm, Stygian Song, Secret Way, Seashell, Whirlpool, Silentium, Winter Songs, and Petrarch's Sonnets (in Russian translation by Osip Mandelstam). She received commissions from many music festivals, orchestras and ensembles including the Concertgebouw Orchestra, Brodsky Quartet, Manchester Wind Orchestra, Schubert Ensemble, Freden Festival, BBC Proms, Asiago Festival, and Expo 2000 (Hanover). Her music is available through publishers Boosey & Hawkes, London; Hans Sikorski, Hamburg; G. Schirmer, New York. Works Concerto Cello Concerto No. 1 (1973) Chamber Concerto No. 1 for flute and strings (1978) Chamber Concerto No. 2 (Cello Concerto No. 2, 1982) Violin Concerto No. 2 (1983) Chamber Concerto No. 3 (Piano Concerto No. 1, 1985) Chamber Concerto No. 4 for horn and ensemble (1987) Chamber Concerto No. 5 (Cello Concerto No. 3, 1996) Chamber Concerto No. 6 (Piano Concerto No. 2, 1996) Ensembles Odyssey for 7 players (1990) Petrarch's Sonnets (translated by Osip Mandelstam) for voice and ensemble (1976) Music for 12 for ensemble (1986) Insomnia, for four singers (Pushkin, 1993) The Night for voice and saxophone quartet (Boris Pasternak, 1978) Stygian Song for soprano and chamber ensemble (Mandelstam, 1989) Before the Thunderstorm, cantata for soprano and ensemble (Mandelstam, 1994) Black Bells for piano and ensemble (2005) Piano Trio, Op. 8 (1972) 9'. Trio, cl, vn, pfn, 1990, 9'. Boosey & Hawkes. Quartet Amoroso, String Quartet No. 4 (1989) Misterioso, String Quartet No. 3 (1980) Compassione, String Quartet No. 7 (1995) The Stone Guest, String Quartet No. 8 (1995) Purgatorio, String Quartet No. 11, completed in 2008 Silentium for voice and string quartet (Mandelstam, 1991) The Door is Closed, String Quartet No. 9 (1996) La malinconia, String Quartet No. 10 (1998) Lagrimoso, String Quartet No. 5 (1992) String Quartet No. 6 (1994) Farewell, String Quartet No. 12 (2005) Cantata The Stone, cantata for voice and symphony orchestra (Mandelstam, 1983) Earthly Life, chamber cantata for soprano and ensemble (Mandelstam, 1984) Forest walks, cantata for soprano and ensemble (Mandelstam, 1987) Orchestral Augury for chorus and orchestra (William Blake 1988) Nostalgia for orchestra (1989) Tristia, cantata for voice and chamber orchestra (Mandelstam, 1979) The River of Time for chorus and chamber orchestra in memory of Edison Denisov (Gavrila Derzhavin, 1997) Captivity for wind orchestra (1998) Leaving for string orchestra (1998) Cassandra, for orchestra (1992) Secret Way for voice and orchestra (Mandelstam, 1992) Das erste ist vergangen (Christushymnus 2000) (The Former Things are Passed Away) for soprano, bass, mixed choir, and chamber orchestra (Franz Kafka, Bible, etc., 1999) Requiem for soprano, chorus and orchestra (Anna Akhmatova, 2001) The Garden of Dreams, Homage to Dmitri Shostakovich for orchestra (2004) Opera A Feast in Time of Plague, chamber opera after Alexander Pushkin (1973) The Nightingale and the Rose, chamber opera after Oscar Wilde and Christina Rossetti (1991) Vocal Three Poems of Osip Mandelstam, for voice and piano (1980) Shakespeare's Sonnets for voice and organ (or saxophone quartet, 1981) Seashell for soprano and ensemble (Mandelstam, 1991) Whirlpool for voice, flute and percussion (Mandelstam, 1991) Distance for voice, clarinet and string quartet (Marina Tsvetaeva, 1992) No, it is not a Migraine for baritone and piano (Mandelstam, 1995) The Scent of Absence for bass, flute and harp (Oleg Prokofiev, 1998) Winter Songs for soprano and cello (Mandelstam, 2003) Solo Suite for viola solo, Op. 2 (1967) Sonata for clarinet solo, Op. 16 (1976) For Slava for solo cello (2007) Discography Misterioso, String Quartet No.3 Op.24 in: Lydian Quartet in Moscow: E. Firsova, Chaushian, Child, Lee Art and Electronics: AED 10108 Stereo Amoroso, String Quartet No.4 Op.40 in: Chilingirian Quartet: Stravinsky, Schnittke, Smirnov, Roslavets, E. Firsova: Music for String Quartet, Conifer Classics 75605 512522 La Malinconia, String Quartet No.10 Op.84 in: Brodsky Quartet: Beethoven Op.18 and six more: Alvarez, Beamish, E. Firsova, Jegede, Smirnov, Tanaka, Vanguard Classics 99212 Chamber Concerto No.1 for Flute and Strings Op.19 in: Works by modern composers of Moscow: Smirnov, Bobilev, E. Firsova, Pavlenko, Artiomov, Mobile Fidelity MFCD 906 Cassandra for symphony orchestra Op.60 (1992) together with Sofia Gubaidulina: Pro et contra BIS CD-668 STEREO The Mandelstam Cantatas (Forest Walks, Earthly Life, Before the Thunderstorm) Studio for New Music Moscow, Igor Dronov, conductor; Ekaterina Kichigina, soprano Megadisc MDC 7816 For Alissa Op. 102 (2002) in: RUSSIAN ÉMIGRÉS: Rachmaninov, Smirnov, E. Firsova, A. Firsova: Alissa Firsova, piano: Vivat 109 DDD Homage to Canisy, Op.129 for Cello & Piano Lost Vision, Op. 137 for Piano Solo A Triple Portrait, Op.132, commissioned by Marsyas Trio (2011) Night Songs, Op.125 for Mezzo-Soprano, Flute & Cello Spring Sonata, Op.27 for Flute & Piano For Slava, Op.120 for Solo Cello Meditation in the Japanese Garden, Op.54 for Flute, Cello & Piano Three Poems of Osip Mandelstam, Op.23 for Soprano & Piano Tender is the Sorrow, Op.130 for Flute, String Trio and Piano in: A Triple Portrait. Chamber Music by Elena Firsova – Marsyas Trio, Meridian: CDE84635 Bibliography Elena Firsova: On Music; in Sowjetische Musik im Licht der Perestroika, pp. 337–8, Laaber-Verlag, Germany, (German translation by Hannelore Gerlach and Jürgen Köchel) 1990 References Sources Yuri Kholopov: Russians in England: Dmitri Smirnov, Elena Firsova. Article, in: Music From the Former USSR. Issue 2. Moscow: Composer, 1996, pp. 255–303; Ex oriente...: Ten Composers from the Former USSR. Berlin: Verlag Ernst Kuhn, 2002, pp. 207–266 Firsova, Yelena Olegovna by Stephen Johnson, in the New Grove Dictionary of Opera, ed. Stanley Sadie (London, 1992) External links A Complete List of Works Brief biography at Boosey & Hawkes site Composer's home page Texts of her vocal works at "Recmusic" 20th-century classical composers 21st-century classical composers Russian women classical composers Russian classical composers British women classical composers Soviet emigrants to the United Kingdom British opera composers 1950 births Living people Composers from Saint Petersburg 20th-century British composers 21st-century British composers Women opera composers 20th-century women composers 21st-century women composers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony-forming%20unit

Colony-forming unit

In microbiology, colony-forming unit (CFU, cfu or Cfu) is a unit which estimates the number of microbial cells (bacteria, fungi, viruses etc.) in a sample that are viable, able to multiply via binary fission under the controlled conditions. Counting with colony-forming units requires culturing the microbes and counts only viable cells, in contrast with microscopic examination which counts all cells, living or dead. The visual appearance of a colony in a cell culture requires significant growth, and when counting colonies, it is uncertain if the colony arose from one cell or a group of cells. Expressing results as colony-forming units reflects this uncertainty. Theory The purpose of plate counting is to estimate the number of cells present based on their ability to give rise to colonies under specific conditions of nutrient medium, temperature and time. Theoretically, one viable cell can give rise to a colony through replication. However, solitary cells are the exception in nature, and most likely the progenitor of the colony was a mass of cells deposited together. In addition, many bacteria grow in chains (e.g. Streptococcus) or clumps (e.g., Staphylococcus). Estimation of microbial numbers by CFU will, in most cases, undercount the number of living cells present in a sample for these reasons. This is because the counting of CFU assumes that every colony is separate and founded by a single viable microbial cell. The plate count is linear for E. coli over the range of 30 to 300 CFU on a standard sized Petri dish. Therefore, to ensure that a sample will yield CFU in this range requires dilution of the sample and plating of several dilutions. Typically, ten-fold dilutions are used, and the dilution series is plated in replicates of 2 or 3 over the chosen range of dilutions. Often 100µl are plated but also larger amounts up to 1ml are used. Higher plating volumes increase drying times but often don't result in higher accuracy, since additional dilution steps may be needed. The CFU/plate is read from a plate in the linear range, and then the CFU/g (or CFU/mL) of the original is deduced mathematically, factoring in the amount plated and its dilution factor (e.g. CLSI VET01S). An advantage to this method is that different microbial species may give rise to colonies that are clearly different from each other, both microscopically and macroscopically. The colony morphology can be of great use in the identification of the microorganism present. A prior understanding of the microscopic anatomy of the organism can give a better understanding of how the observed CFU/mL relates to the number of viable cells per milliliter. Alternatively it is possible to decrease the average number of cells per CFU in some cases by vortexing the sample before conducting the dilution. However many microorganisms are delicate and would suffer a decrease in the proportion of cells that are viable when placed in a vortex. Log notation Concentrations of colony-forming units can be expressed using logarithmic notation, where the value shown is the base 10 logarithm of the concentration. This allows the log reduction of a decontamination process to be computed as a simple subtraction. Uses Colony-forming units are used to quantify results in many microbiological plating and counting methods, including: The Pour Plate method wherein the sample is suspended in a Petri dish using molten agar cooled to approximately 40–45 °C (just above the point of solidification to minimize heat-induced cell death). After the nutrient agar solidifies the plate is incubated. The Spread Plate method wherein the sample (in a small volume) is spread across the surface of a nutrient agar plate and allowed to dry before incubation for counting. The Membrane Filter method wherein the sample is filtered through a membrane filter, then the filter placed on the surface of a nutrient agar plate (bacteria side up). During incubation nutrients leach up through the filter to support the growing cells. As the surface area of most filters is less than that of a standard Petri dish, the linear range of the plate count will be less. The Miles and Misra Methods or drop-plate method wherein a very small aliquot (usually about 10 microliters) of sample from each dilution in series is dropped onto a Petri dish. The drop dish must be read while the colonies are very small to prevent the loss of CFU as they grow together. However, with the techniques that require the use of an agar plate, no fluid solution can be used because the purity of the specimen cannot be unidentified and it is not possible to count the cells one by one in the liquid. Tools for counting colonies Counting colonies is traditionally performed manually using a pen and a click-counter. This is generally a straightforward task, but can become very laborious and time-consuming when many plates have to be enumerated. Alternatively semi-automatic (software) and automatic (hardware + software) solutions can be used. Software for counting CFUs Colonies can be enumerated from pictures of plates using software tools. The experimenters would generally take a picture of each plate they need to count and then analyse all the pictures (this can be done with a simple digital camera or even a webcam). Since it takes less than 10 seconds to take a single picture, as opposed to several minutes to count CFU manually, this approach generally saves a lot of time. In addition, it is more objective and allows extraction of other variables such as the size and colour of the colonies. OpenCFU is a free and open-source program designed to optimise user friendliness, speed and robustness. It offers a wide range of filters and control as well as a modern user interface. OpenCFU is written in C++ and uses OpenCV for image analysis. NICE is a program written in MATLAB that provides an easy way to count colonies from images. ImageJ and CellProfiler: Some ImageJ macros and plugins and some CellProfiler pipelines can be used to count colonies. This often requires the user to change the code in order to achieve an efficient work-flow, but can prove useful and flexible. One main issue is the absence of specific GUI which can make the interaction with the processing algorithms tedious. In addition to software based on traditional desktop computers, apps for both Android and iOS devices are available for semi-automated and automated colony counting. The integrated camera is used to take pictures of the agar plate and either an internal or an external algorithm is used to process the picture data and to estimate the number of colonies. Automated systems Many of the automated systems are used to counteract human error as many of the research techniques done by humans counting individual cells have a high chance of error involved. Due to the fact that researchers regularly manually count the cells with the assistance of a transmitted light, this error prone technique can have a significant effect on the calculated concentration in the main liquid medium when the cells are in low numbers. Completely automated systems are also available from some biotechnology manufacturers. They are generally expensive and not as flexible as standalone software since the hardware and software are designed to work together for a specific set-up. Alternatively, some automatic systems use the spiral plating paradigm. Some of the automated systems such as the systems from MATLAB allow the cells to be counted without having to stain them. This lets the colonies to be reused for other experiments without the risk of killing the microorganisms with stains. However, a disadvantage to these automated systems is that it is extremely difficult to differentiate between the microorganisms with dust or scratches on blood agar plates because both the dust and scratches can create a highly diverse combination of shapes and appearances. Alternative units Instead of colony-forming units, the parameters Most Probable Number (MPN) and Modified Fishman Units (MFU) can be used. The Most Probable Number method counts viable cells and is useful when enumerating low concentrations of cells or enumerating microbes in products where particulates make plate counting impractical. Modified Fishman Units take into account bacteria which are viable, but non-culturable. See also Cell counting Growth medium Miles and Misra method Most probable number Replica plating Viral plaque References Further reading Microbiology terms Biostatistics

4026647

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram%20Prasad%20Bismil

Ram Prasad Bismil

Ram Prasad Bismil ( Hindi: राम प्रसाद "बिस्मिल") (11 June 1897 — 19 December 1927) was an Indian poet, writer, revolutionary and an Indian freedom fighter who participated in the Mainpuri Conspiracy of 1918, and the Kakori Conspiracy of 1925, and fought against British Raj. He also had a good command over Urdu and the Hindi languages and was an accomplished poet, composing in these languages using the pen names Ram, Agyat and Bismil, the latter through which he became famously known by. He was also a multilingual translator and his Hindi poem "Manipuri ki Pratigya" became very famous. Bismil was hanged on 19 December 1927 by the British for his revolutionary activities. He was associated with Arya Samaj where he got inspiration from Satyarth Prakash, a book written by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. He also had a confidential connection with Lala Har Dayal through his guru Swami Somdev, a preacher of Arya Samaj. Bismil was one of the founding members of the revolutionary organization Hindustan Republican Association. Bhagat Singh praised him as a great poet-writer of Urdu and Hindi, who had also translated the books Catherine from English and Bolshevikon Ki Kartoot from Bengali. Early life Ram Prasad Bismil was born on 11 June 1897 to Muralidhar and Moolmati devi in Shahjahanpur district in erstwhile North-Western Provinces. He was born in a Rajput family.<ref name="https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/voices/remembering-shaheed-ram-prasad-bismil-tomar/ who traced their roots to Barwai in Morena district of Madhya Pradesh, He learned Hindi from his father at home and was sent to learn Urdu from a moulvi. He was admitted to an English-language school, despite his father's disapproval, and also joined the Arya Samaj in Shahjahanpur. Bismil showed a talent for writing patriotic poetry. Contact with Somdev As an 18-year-old student, Bismil read of the death sentence passed on Bhai Parmanand, a scholar and companion of Har Dayal. At that time he was regularly attending the Arya Samaj Temple at Shahjahanpur daily, where Swami Somdev, a friend of Paramanand, was staying. Angered by the sentence, Bismil composed a poem in Hindi titled Mera Janm (en: My Birth), which he showed to Somdev. This poem demonstrated a commitment to remove the British control over India. Lucknow Congress Bismil left school in the following year and travelled to Lucknow with some friends. The Naram Dal ("moderate faction" of the Indian National Congress) was not prepared to allow the Garam Dal to stage a grand welcome of Tilak in the city. They organised a group of youths and decided to publish a book in Hindi on the history of American independence, America Ki Swatantrata Ka Itihas, with the consent of Somdev. This book was published under the authorship of the fictitious Babu Harivans Sahai and its publisher's name was given as Somdev Siddhgopal Shukla. As soon as the book was published, the government of Uttar Pradesh proscribed its circulation within the state. Mainpuri conspiracy Bismil formed a revolutionary organisation called Matrivedi (Altar of Motherland) and contacted Genda Lal Dixit, a school teacher at Auraiya. Somdev arranged this, knowing that Bismil could be more effective in his mission if he had experienced people to support him. Dixit had contacts with some powerful dacoits of the state. Dixit wanted to utilise their power in the armed struggle against the British rulers. Like Bismil, Dixit had also formed an armed organisation of youths called Shivaji Samiti (named after Shivaji Maharaj). The pair organised youths from the Etawah, Mainpuri, Agra and Shahjahanpur districts of United Province (now Uttar Pradesh) to strengthen their organisations. On 28 January 1918, Bismil published a pamphlet titled Deshvasiyon Ke Nam Sandesh (A Message to Countrymen), which he distributed along with his poem Mainpuri Ki Pratigya (Vow of Mainpuri). To collect funds for the party looting was undertaken on three occasions in 1918. Police searched for them in and around Mainpuri while they were selling books proscribed by the U.P. Government in the Delhi Congress of 1918. When police found them, Bismil absconded with the books unsold. When he was planning another looting between Delhi and Agra, a police team arrived and firing started from both the sides. Bismil jumped into the Yamuna and swam underwater. The police and his companions thought that he had died in the encounter. Dixit was arrested along with his other companions and was kept in Agra fort. From here, he fled to Delhi and lived in hiding. A criminal case was filed against them. The incident is known as the "Mainpuri Conspiracy". On 1 November 1919 the Judiciary Magistrate of Mainpuri B. S. Chris announced the judgement against all accused and declared Dixit and Bismil as absconders. Underground activities by Bismil From 1919 to 1920 Bismil remained inconspicuous, moving around various villages in Uttar Pradesh and producing several books. Among these was a collection of poems written by him and others, entitled Man Ki Lahar, while he also translated two works from Bengali (Bolshevikon Ki Kartoot and Yogik Sadhan) and fabricated Catherine or Swadhinta Ki Devi from an English text. He got all these books published through his own resources under Sushilmala – a series of publications except one Yogik Sadhan which was given to a publisher who absconded and could not be traced. These books have since been found. Another of Bismil's books, Kranti Geetanjali, was published in 1929 after his death and was proscribed by British Raj in 1931. Formation of Hindustan Republican Association In February 1920, when all the prisoners in the Manipuri conspiracy case were freed, Bismil returned home to Shahjahanpur, where he agreed with the official authorities that he would not participate in revolutionary activities. This statement of Ram Prasad was also recorded in vernacular before the court. In 1921, Bismil was among the many people from Shahjahanpur who attended the Ahmedabad Congress. He had a seat on the dias, along with the senior congressman Prem Krishna Khanna, and the revolutionary Ashfaqulla Khan. Bismil played an active role in the Congress with Maulana Hasrat Mohani and got the most debated proposal of Poorna Swaraj passed in the General Body meeting of Congress. Mohandas K. Gandhi, who was not in the favour of this proposal became quite helpless before the overwhelming demand of youths. He returned to Shahjahanpur and mobilised the youths of United Province for non-co-operation with the Government. The people of U.P. were so much influenced by the furious speeches and verses of Bismil that they became hostile against British Raj. As per statement of Banarsi Lal (approver) made in the court – "Ram Prasad used to say that independence would not be achieved by means of non-violence." In February 1922 some agitating farmers were killed in Chauri Chaura by the police. The police station of Chauri Chaura was attacked by the people and 22 policemen were burnt alive. Gandhi declared an immediate stop to the non-co-operation movement without consulting any executive committee member of the Congress. Bismil and his group of youths strongly opposed Gandhi in the Gaya session of Indian National Congress (1922). When Gandhi refused to rescind his decision, its then-president Chittranjan Das resigned. In January 1923, the rich group of party formed a new Swaraj Party under the joint leadership of Moti Lal Nehru and Chittranjan Das, and the youth group formed a revolutionary party under the leadership of Bismil. Yellow Paper constitution With the consent of Lala Har Dayal, Bismil went to Allahabad where he drafted the constitution of the party in 1923 with the help of Sachindra Nath Sanyal and another revolutionary of Bengal, Dr. Jadugopal Mukherjee. The basic name and aims of the organisation were typed on a Yellow Paper and later on a subsequent Constitutional Committee Meeting was conducted on 3 October 1924 at Cawnpore in U.P. under the Chairmanship of Sachindra Nath Sanyal. This meeting decided the name of the party would be the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA). After a long discussion from others Bismil was declared there the District Organiser of Shahjahanpur and Chief of Arms Division. An additional responsibility of Provincial Organiser of United Province (Agra and Oudh) was also entrusted to him. Sachindra Nath Sanyal, was unanimously nominated as National Organiser and another senior member Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, was given the responsibility of Coordinator, Anushilan Samiti. After attending the meeting in Kanpur, both Sanyal and Chatterjee left the U.P. and proceeded to Bengal for further extension of the organisation. Manifesto of H.R.A. A pamphlet entitled as The Revolutionary was distributed throughout the United Province in India in the beginning of January 1925. Copies of this leaflet, referred to in the evidence as the "White Leaflet", were also found with some other alleged conspirators of Kakori Conspiracy as per judgement of the Chief Court of Oudh. A typed copy of this manifesto was found with Manmath Nath Gupta. It was nothing but the Manifesto of H.R.A. in the form of a four paged printed pamphlet on white paper which was circulated secretly by post and by hands in most of the districts of United Province and other parts of India. This pamphlet bore no name of the printing press. The heading of the pamphlet was: "The Revolutionary" (An Organ of the Revolutionary Party of India). It was given first number and first issue of the publication. The date of its publication was given as 1 January 1925. Kakori train robbery Bismil executed a meticulous plan for looting the government treasury carried in a train at Kakori, near Lucknow in U.P. This historical event happened on 9 August 1925 and is known as the Kakori train robbery. Ten revolutionaries stopped the 8 Down Saharanpur-Lucknow passenger train at Kakori – a station just before the Lucknow Railway Junction. German-made Mauser C96 semi-automatic pistols were used in this action. Ashfaqulla Khan, the lieutenant of the HRA Chief Ram Prasad Bismil gave away his Mauser to Manmath Nath Gupta and engaged himself to break open the cash chest. Eagerly watching a new weapon in his hand, Manmath Nath Gupta fired the pistol and accidentally shot and killed passenger Ahmed Ali, who had gotten down from the train to see his wife in the ladies compartment. More than 40 revolutionaries were arrested whereas only 10 persons had taken part in the decoity. Persons completely unrelated to the incident were also captured. However some of them were let off. The government-appointed Jagat Narain Mulla as public prosecutor at an incredible fee. Dr. Harkaran Nath Mishra (Barrister M.L.A.) and Dr. Mohan Lal Saxena (M.L.C.) were appointed as defence counsel. The defence committee was also formed to defend the accused. Govind Ballabh Pant, Chandra Bhanu Gupta and Kripa Shankar Hajela defended their case. The men were found guilty and subsequent appeals failed. On 16 September 1927, a final appeal for clemency was forwarded to the Privy Council in London but that also failed. Following 18 months of legal process, Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Roshan Singh and Rajendra Nath Lahiri were sentenced to death. Bismil was hanged on 19 December 1927 at Gorakhpur Jail, Ashfaqulla Khan at the Faizabad Jail and Thakur Roshan Singh at Naini Allahabad Jail. Lahiri had been hanged two days earlier at Gonda Jail. Bismil's body was taken to the Rapti river for a Hindu cremation, and the site became known as Rajghat. Literary works Bismil published a pamphlet titled Deshvasiyon ke nam sandesh (en: A message to my countrymen). While living underground, he translated some of Bengali books viz. Bolshevikon Ki Kartoot (en: The Bolshevik's programme) and Yogik Sadhan (of Arvind Ghosh). Beside these a collection of poems Man Ki Lahar (en: A sally of mind) and Swadeshi Rang was also written by him. Another Swadhinta ki devi: Catherine was fabricated from an English book into Hindi. All of these were published by him in Sushil Mala series. Bismil wrote his autobiography while he was kept as condemned prisoner in Gorakhpur jail. The autobiography of Ram Prasad Bismil was published under the cover title of Kakori ke shaheed by Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi in 1928 from Pratap Press, Cawnpore. A rough translation of this book was prepared by the Criminal Investigation Department of United Province in British India. Translated book was circulated as confidential document for official and police use throughout the country. He immortalised the poem Sarfaroshi Ki Tamanna, Man Ki Lahar and Swadeshi Rang as a war cry during the British Raj period in India. It was first published in journal "Sabah", published from Delhi. Memorials Shaheed Smarak Samiti of Shahjahanpur established a memorial at Khirni Bagh mohalla of Shahjahanpur city where Bismil was born in 1897 and named it "Amar Shaheed Ram Prasad Bismil Smarak". A statue made of white marble was inaugurated by the then Governor of Uttar Pradesh Motilal Vora on 18 December 1994 on the eve of the martyr's 69th death anniversary. The Northern railway zone of Indian Railways built the Pt Ram Prasad Bismil railway station, from Shahajahanpur. There is a memorial to the Kakori conspiracists at Kakori itself. It was inaugurated by the prime minister of India, Indira Gandhi, on 19 December 1983. The Government of India issued a multicoloured commemorative postal stamp on 19 December 1997 in Bismil's birth centenary year. The government of Uttar Pradesh had named a park after him: Amar Shaheed Pt. Ram Prasad Bismil Udyan is near Rampur Jagir village, where Bismil lived underground after the Mainpuri conspiracy case in 1919. See also Ashfaqullah Khan Sukhdev Thapar Chandrashekar Azad Shivaram Rajguru Bhagat Singh References Further reading External links Constitution of Hindustan Republican Association Books of Ram Prasad Bismil in worldcat Hindi-language poets Hindi-language writers Urdu-language poets from India Indian male poets 1897 births 1927 deaths Revolutionary movement for Indian independence People from Shahjahanpur People from Gorakhpur 20th-century executions by British India Hindustan Socialist Republican Association Executed Indian revolutionaries People executed by British India by hanging 20th-century Indian poets Poets from Manipur

4026652

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATSC%20tuner

ATSC tuner

An ATSC (Advanced Television Systems Committee) tuner, often called an ATSC receiver or HDTV tuner, is a type of television tuner that allows reception of digital television (DTV) television channels that use ATSC standards, as transmitted by television stations in North America, parts of Central America, and South Korea. Such tuners are usually integrated into a television set, VCR, digital video recorder (DVR), or set-top box which provides audio/video output connectors of various types. Another type of television tuner is a digital television adapter (DTA) with an analog passthrough. Technical overview The terms "tuner" and "receiver" are used loosely, and it is perhaps more appropriately called an ATSC receiver, with the tuner being part of the receiver (see Metonymy). The receiver generates the audio and video (AV) signals needed for television, and performs the following tasks: demodulation; error correction; MPEG transport stream demultiplexing; decompression; AV synchronization; and media reformatting to match what is optimal input for one's TV. Examples of media reformatting include: interlace to progressive scan or vice versa; picture resolutions; aspect ratio conversions (16:9 to or from 4:3); frame rate conversion; and image scaling. Zooming is an example of resolution change. It is commonly used to convert a low-resolution picture to a high-resolution display. This lets the user eliminate letterboxing or pillarboxing by stretching or cropping the picture. Some ATSC receivers, mostly those in HDTV TV sets, will stretch automatically, either by detecting black bars or by reading the Active Format Descriptor (AFD). Operation An ATSC tuner works by generating audio and video signals that are picked up from over-the-air broadcast television. ATSC tuners provide the following functions: selective tuning; demodulation; transport stream demultiplexing; decompression; error correction; analog-to-digital conversion; AV synchronization; and media reformatting to fit the specific type of TV screen optimally. Selective tuning Selective tuning is the process by which the radio frequency (RF) of the television channel is selected by a receiver from within a band of transmitted RF signals. The tuner usually performs the function of frequency-agile selection, along with rejection of unwanted out-of-band signals. Demodulation "Demodulation" means transforming the signal from the tuner into a signal that a TV set can use to produce images and sound without further consideration for the frequency at which it was transmitted. It is separation of a standard baseband signal from the RF carrier that was used to transmit it through the air (or down a coaxial cable or other long-distance medium.) ATSC as implemented in the US uses 8VSB modulation, which requires less power to transmit, as opposed to the also proposed COFDM modulation (used in European DVB-T, which is less prone to multipath distortion and therefore better received in mobile installations). Transport stream In the US, multiple digital signals are combined and then transmitted from one antenna source to create over the air broadcasts. By the reverse process (demultiplexing), an ATSC receiver first receives the combined MPEG transport stream and then decodes it to display one of its component signals on a TV set. Decompression Since digital signals that are broadcast over the air are compressed (packed smaller), once they are received by the ATSC tuner, these compressed packets of digital data are then decompressed (unpacked to their original size). The ATSC system uses lossy compression, so while the decompressed data size is the same as the original compressed data size, the data produced is not exactly the same as the original data fed into the system at the transmitting site, but it is close enough that most people will not notice a difference. Error correction Error correction is a technology that is used by the ATSC tuner to make sure that any data that is missing can be corrected. For instance, sometimes interference or a poor-quality signal will cause the loss of some data that the ATSC tuner receives. With error correction, the tuner has the ability to perform a number of checks and repair data so that a signal can be viewed on a TV set. Error correction works by adding some extra information to the signal before transmission that can be used upon reception to fill in gaps. Therefore, error correction has the opposite effect of compression—it increases the amount of data to transmit, rather than reducing it like compression does, and it improves the quality and robustness of the signal rather than reducing it. Compression removes redundant (and some non-redundant) data, while error correction adds some redundant data. The reason for using error correction rather than just using less compression and keeping the redundancy that was already there is that error correction systems are specially designed to get the maximum benefit out of a very small amount of redundant data, whereas the natural redundancy of the data doesn't do this job as efficiently, so with error correction the net amount of data needed is still smaller. The ATSC standard (ATSC-E) has a subsection that allows broadcasters to add extra (and variable types) of error correction to their broadcast streams. This error correction service is not mandatory in the US, nor is it mandatory in Canada. It is not known how many HDTV receivers support this error correction standard. For the transmission of HDTV at 720 or 1080, an extra 1% to 3% added error correction codes will help reduce some of ATSC's poorer performance with weak signals under adverse multipath conditions. Reception is greatly reduced due to EMI in the shortwave to VHF and UHF bandwidth from nearby computers of all sorts [light], portable WiFi and Broadband internet [medium to strong], microwave ovens [burst while activated], cell phones and the towers they communicate with, and even power lines with electronic transmissions. AV synchronization AV synchronization is the coordination of audio and video signals being displayed on a digital TV in proper time. AV synchronization ensures that the audio does not lag behind the video that is being displayed on the TV set or vice versa, so that both audio and video are in sync. Image reformatting Media reformatting is extremely important because the formatting of images on TV sets differs significantly according to the technology employed. For instance, some televisions have an interlaced picture, whereas others have a progressive-scan picture. Different televisions have a different aspect ratio. United States government mandates The FCC has issued the following mandates for devices entering the US: By July 1, 2005 all televisions with screen sizes over must include a built-in ATSC DTV tuner. By March 1, 2006 all televisions with screen sizes over must include a built-in ATSC DTV tuner. By March 1, 2007 all televisions regardless of screen size, and all interface devices that include a tuner (VCR, DVD player/recorder, DVR) must include a built-in ATSC DTV tuner. Devices manufactured before these dates can still be sold without a built-in ATSC DTV tuner; the lack of digital tuners legally must be disclosed to consumers and most name-brand retailers have incurred FCC penalties for non-compliance with these requirements. The current regulations are specified in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). Analog TV broadcast switch-off In early 2006 the US Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 became law, which calls for full-power over-the-air television stations to cease their analog broadcasts by February 17, 2009 (this cut-off date had been moved several times previously). On February 11, 2009, the mandatory DTV broadcast date was moved again to June 12, 2009, although stations were allowed to switch earlier. The delay enabled distribution of more coupons for purchase of converter boxes. As of June 12, 2009, TVs and other equipment with legacy NTSC tuners are unable to receive over-the-air broadcasts from United States TV stations, unless the broadcast is from a repeater or low-power transmitter. However, Class-A stations shut down analog transmissions on September 1, 2015 followed by a complete shutdown of all low-power and repeater stations by July 13, 2021. Canada had a similar analog TV termination date set to September 1, 2011 (except in some remote northern regions). It was feared that the US switch-off would cause millions of non-cable- and non-satellite-connected TV sets to "go dark". Viewers who did not upgrade, either to a television with a digital tuner or a set-top box, ended up losing their only source of television, unless they relied only upon the aforementioned non-full-power broadcasters. A Congressional bill authorized subsidized converter boxes in a way that allowed viewers to receive the new digital broadcasts on their old TVs. The transition proceeded with about 235,000 people requesting coupons after the June 12, 2009, transition date. Two $40 coupons were made available per US address nominally from January 1, 2008, through March 31, 2009; each coupon could be used toward the purchase of one approved coupon-eligible converter box. The coupons expired 90 days after initial mailing and were not renewable. All households were eligible to receive coupons from the initial $990 million allocated, after which an additional $510 million in coupons was to be available to households that rely exclusively on over-the-air television reception. On January 4, 2009, the coupon program reached its US$1.34 billion ceiling and any further consumer requests were placed on a waiting list. Canadian government mandates In Canada, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) had set August 31, 2011, as the date on which over-the-air analog TV transmission service would cease in 31 major markets of the country, including all provincial capitals, plus Ottawa (the national capital), and most other major urban centers. As of the end of 2008, there were 22 Canadian DTV transmitters on-air and all existing digital transitional television licenses explicitly proscribe, as a condition of license, the broadcast of more than fourteen hours a week of programming not already on the analogue service. Unlike in the United States, there is no plan to subsidise ATSC converter purchases and no requirement that newly imported receivers decode the digital signal. Canadian retailers are also not required to disclose the inability of new equipment to receive DTV. The Canadian market therefore has been flooded with obsolete new NTSC equipment which lawfully cannot be exported to the US. A limited number of ATSC receivers are in Canadian retail stores as high-definition television (HDTV) receivers. ATSC CECB converter boxes were first carried nationally in October 2008, with chains such as Best Buy and Home Hardware offering limited selection at higher prices than in the US with no government subsidies. ATSC tuners may also be present in most recently manufactured televisions, as well as DVD recorders, HDTV FTA receivers, and personal computer TV tuner cards. As of the beginning of 2012, almost all Canadian broadcasters are broadcasting an ATSC signal, with a handful of exceptions granted for low-power and regional stations. These signals can be reliably tuned in most cities with a good indoor antenna and an ATSC tuner. US-based ATSC signals can be reliably tuned with an outdoor antenna and an ATSC tuner in Canadian markets within 60 miles of the US broadcast towers. These markets include Toronto (from Buffalo), Windsor (from Detroit and Toledo), Vancouver (from Seattle and Tacoma), Montreal (from Burlington and Plattsburgh), Ottawa (from Watertown and Plattsburgh), and Fredericton (from Presque Isle). Indoor antennas (both passive and amplified) are easier to install, but outdoor antennas are better at tuning stations from further distances. Setup and operation Most ATSC tuners have relatively simple on-screen menus, and automatically bring the user to a setup screen when turned on for the first time. This allows the user to pick the time zone and daylight-saving time mode (as all stations transmit time in UTC), and bandscan for stations. The scan "listens" on every channel from 2 to 69, and pauses when it detects a digital carrier wave. If it is able to decode the station, it reads its PSIP data, and adds its virtual channels to the channel map. If no PSIP is transmitted, the physical channel number is used, and each transport stream is enumerated according to its TSID (converted from hexadecimal), or starting sequentially at .1, .2, .3, and so forth, depending on the tuner. Several TV stations are using or have used a temporary channel to send their DTV signals and, upon terminating analog transmission, move their digital transmission either back to their old analog channel, or to a third channel (sometimes the former analog of another local station), chosen in the digital channel election in the U.S. This requires all viewers to re-scan or manually add the new channel and possibly delete the old one. Doing a full re-scan will usually cause other channels to be dropped if they cannot be received at the moment the scan passes their physical channel, so this is typically undesirable, although many ATSC tuners only have this option. Some have an "easy-add" feature which does not delete what is already mapped in memory. Some allow the user to enter the physical channel and an unmapped subchannel, causing the tuner to search the physical channel. Depending on the tuner, this may or may not automatically add the station and its digital subchannels to the map, and/or to the user's "favorites". This may also leave the old "dead" channel mapping in place, so that there is the new 8.1, dead 8.1, new 8.2, dead 8.2, etc. In most cases, TV stations will not have the actual frequency they are currently using on their website. If the auto scan does not pick up the signal and the tuner has manual frequency scan capability try to get the actual frequency from the station engineer. This may allow one to stay on one frequency (channel) versus "scanning" (moving too quickly through) and allow one to make antenna adjustments while observing only a problematic channel. Other errors which appear to be in the tuner are actually the result of incorrect data sent by one or more stations, often including missing electronic program guide data. Many ATSC tuners will remember EPG info for each station, but only for a few hours after viewing a channel on that station. Some will not remember at all (displaying only the required channel banner), while a very few others will store data for days (although this requires staying tuned to each station for more than a few seconds in order to receive the extended info). DirecTV receivers with ATSC tuners can download the guide at any time, while other TiVo units download guide data separately. TV Guide On Screen can also be used for this, but very few if any ATSC tuners include this (which requires downloading all guide data for all channels from one particular station). Stations sending the wrong time are also a major problem, as this can skew or ruin guide data for all stations until the correct time is received again from a different and correctly set station. Manual tuning Each digital OTA channel number is composed of a main number and a subchannel, for example 4.1, 4.2, etc. A dash is an alternate form of representation: 4–1, 4–2... The dot and dash are interchangeable; they both mean the same thing. The main channel numbers refer to the same radio frequencies as previously. However, now "virtual channel" (technically known as logical channel number) numbers are common. So, Channel 4 digital signals may now actually be broadcast on channel 43, or any other frequency. When the ATSC tuner does a channel scan, it finds the signal on channel 43, learns that this material is called "Channel 4", and remembers that mapping. The user can tune to "4", and the tuner will know to tune in 43. Before a scan is done, it may be possible to access the programs directly by manual tuning, by entering 43–1, 43–2... After the scan, the programs would usually be accessed by entering 4–1, 4-2 etc., but it may still be possible to also access them directly at 43 as long as it is also not the same as an already assigned channel. If stations change their broadcast frequencies, it may be possible to access the new frequencies directly as long as it is also not the same as an already assigned channel in which case it will go to that channel instead of the frequency, but the usual procedure is to re-scan all of the channels which will just assign multiple version of any overlapping channels. See also ATSC DVD recorders Digital broadcasting Digital switchover Digital terrestrial television High-definition television in the United States QAM tuner Tuner (radio) Virtual channel References Bibliography External links The FCC's DTV information site Patent and royalty info 2006-12-27 Enabling TV Tuner Technology for All-Digital Cable Networks Tuner Digital television High-definition television Television technology Set-top box Television terminology

4026661

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zallaq

Zallaq

Zallaq () is a town on the western coast of Bahrain. Zallaq was the home to the Al-Dawasir, Al-Zeabi and Al-Gahtam and Al-Seddiqi tribes in Bahrain together with Budaiya and Hawar Islands. It is famous for the Jazaer Beach (also known as Zallaq Beach). The Al Areen Wildlife Park is also near the Jazaer Beach in Zallaq. This area is also famous for its proximity to Bahrain International Circuit and Zallaq Springs, unique destination in bahrain offering dining experiences, lifestyle therapy and cultural events. The town has many fishing boats.. See also Bahrain References External links Photos of Zallaq yeyeyeye Populated places in the Southern Governorate, Bahrain

4026726

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Goldstein%20%28tennis%29

Paul Goldstein (tennis)

Paul Herbert Goldstein (born August 4, 1976) is a retired tennis player from the United States, who turned professional in 1998. He announced his retirement from professional tennis in February 2008, as he was starting working with a clean energy company. As a junior, he won the USTA Boys' 16s National Championship in 1992, and the USTA Boys' 18s National Championships in both 1993 and 1994. He then played college tennis at Stanford University, from which he graduated after a career in which he was named an All-American each of the four years he played, and the team won the national championship each year. He won the gold medal in singles at the 1999 Pan American Games. The right-hander reached career-high ATP Tour rankings of World No. 58 in singles in April 2006, and World No. 40 in doubles in February 2007. He is now head coach of the Stanford Men's tennis team. Early life Goldstein was born in Washington, D.C., and raised in Rockville, Maryland, and is Jewish. He is the son of Clark Goldstein, a former national table tennis champion. He started playing when he was nine. He won the USTA Boys' 16s National Championship in 1992, and the USTA Boys' 18s National Championships in both 1993 and 1994 (in 1994, defeating Jan-Michael Gambill). He also won the 1994 doubles championship with Scott Humphries. He is a 1994 graduate of Sidwell Friends School in Washington, D.C., where he was a four-time Washington Post First Team All Met selection (1991–1994). College career Goldstein played college tennis at Stanford University and graduated in 1998 with a degree in human biology. He was an All-American each year, and the team won the national championship each year. In his senior year he was Pac-10 Player of the Year in 1998, after a 33–2 season in which he was team captain. In 2023, Goldstein was inducted into the Stanford Athletics Hall of Fame. Pan American Games Goldstein won the gold medal in singles at the 1999 Pan American Games defeating Cecil Mamiit. Pro career He had 26 USTA titles through November 2005.Paul Goldstein: Circuit Player of the Week In January 1999 at the Australian Open he shocked world # 8 Greg Rusedski, 6–4, 6–7(11,) 7–6(5), 6–2. In June at Wimbledon he upset both world # 33 Jan Siemerink, 6–4, 5–7, 4–6, 6–2, 6–1, and No. 17 Félix Mantilla, 6–2, 6–4, 6–7(5), 6–2. In August he upset world No. 8 Àlex Corretja of Spain 7–6(11), 7–6(5), in Washington, D.C.. In February 2000 he defeated world No. 17 Pat Rafter of Australia 4–6, 6–1, 6–2, in Delray Beach, Florida. In the 2005 US Open, Goldstein and Jim Thomas upset defending champions and #1 seeds Mark Knowles and Daniel Nestor in the first round, as well as Simon Aspelin and Todd Perry in the QFs, before losing to eventual champions Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan in the SFs. In the 2006 US Open, Goldstein and Thomas again defeated Knowles and Nestor (this time in the 3rd round). Goldstein and Jim Thomas lost in the doubles finals of the 2006 SAP Open to 47-year-old John McEnroe and Jonas Björkman. They also were doubles finalists in two other ATP tournaments in 2006 (Indianapolis, won by Andy Roddick and Bobby Reynolds, and Tokyo, won by Ashley Fisher and Tripp Phillips). In February 2006 he beat world No. 18 Robby Ginepri 6–7(4), 6–3, 6–1, in Las Vegas, and in July he defeated world No. 13 Lleyton Hewitt 6–4, 6–4 in Los Angeles. In the January Australian Open, he beat future champion Novak Djokovic in the first round 6–2, 1–6, 6–3, 6–2. Paul was easily defeated in the next round by Tommy Haas 0–6, 1–6, 2–6. Haas lost to Federer in 5 sets in the fourth round. In January 2007 he defeated world No. 21 Dominik Hrbatý of Slovakia 6–2, 7–6(4), in Adelaide, Australia. The next month he defeated world No. 45 Julien Benneteau in Las Vegas, 6–1, 6–0. Despite losing in the first round of singles at the Tunica Resorts Challenger in May, he and Donald Young won the doubles final, defeating Pablo Cuevas and Horacio Zeballos 4–6, 6–1, 10–4. Tennis exhibitions Goldstein has participated in exhibition events for other tennis players and their charities, including Andy Roddick, Jim Thomas, and the Bryan brothers. On September 27, 2008, he participated in The Bryan Brothers' All-Star Tennis Smash in Thousand Oaks, California, initially playing doubles with Justin Gimblestob, and ending up playing singles with Andre Agassi (losing 7–5). Post-retirement Goldstein officially retired in February 2008 and began working with a clean energy company in the San Francisco Bay area. In 2004 he married his college sweetheart and partner of nine years, Abbie; it was she who persuaded him to play on during the 2007 season. They live in Menlo Park, California, with their three children. In 2014, Goldstein became head coach of the Stanford Men's Tennis Team. Halls of Fame Goldstein was inducted into the ITA Collegiate Tennis Hall of Fame in 2013. Goldstein was inducted into the North California Jewish Sports Hall of Fame in 2015. ATP career finals Doubles: 5 (5 runner-ups) ATP Challenger and ITF Futures finals Singles: 20 (13–7) Doubles: 20 (12–8) Junior Grand Slam finals Doubles: 1 (1 runner-up) Performance timelines Singles Doubles See also List of select Jewish tennis players References External links Goldstein World Ranking History Jewish Virtual Library bio Jews in Sports bio "Paul Goldstein: Circuit Player of the Week", 11/9/05 Jim Thomas (Goldstein's doubles partner) official website Goldstein participating in 2008 tennis exhibition event 1976 births Living people American male tennis players Stanford Cardinal men's tennis players Tennis players from San Francisco Tennis players from Washington, D.C. Tennis players at the 1999 Pan American Games Jewish American sportspeople Jewish tennis players Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States Pan American Games medalists in tennis Universiade medalists in tennis FISU World University Games gold medalists for the United States Medalists at the 1999 Pan American Games 21st-century American Jews

4026883

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas%20Escud%C3%A9

Nicolas Escudé

Nicolas Jean-Christophe Escudé (born 3 April 1976) is a former professional tennis player from France, who turned professional in 1995. He won four singles titles and two doubles titles during his career. Escudé is best remembered for the vital role he played in the 2001 Davis Cup final against Australia on the grass-courts of Melbourne. Escudé beat the recently crowned World No. 1, Lleyton Hewitt in the first rubber with a win in five sets, repeating what he did to Hewitt earlier that year in the fourth round of Wimbledon. Two days later, Escudé won the decisive fifth rubber for France against Wayne Arthurs in four sets. The right-hander reached his highest individual ranking on the ATP Tour on 26 June 2000, when he became World No. 17. He's a natural left-hander who was trained since a child to play right-handed but does everything else lefty. His brother Julien Escudé is a professional football player. Escudé teamed up with Roger Federer in the men's doubles at the French Open in 2000. However they were knocked out by Sébastien Lareau and Daniel Nestor. In 2006, he announced his immediate retirement from the sport due to a persistent shoulder injury that had been keeping him out of the professional tennis circuit for the past 22 months. Escudé was the captain of the France Fed Cup team from 2009 to 2012 . He was also the co-coach of Nicolas Mahut for the 2013 season with Thierry Ascione and from 2013 to 2015 of Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. He is currently the technical director of the French tennis federation. Career finals Singles (4 wins, 2 losses) Doubles (2 wins) Singles performance timeline Top 10 wins References External links Bio – file with Nicolas Escude 1976 births Living people French expatriate sportspeople in Switzerland French male tennis players French tennis coaches Olympic tennis players for France Sportspeople from Chartres Tennis players from Geneva Tennis players at the 2000 Summer Olympics

4026896

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCL

RCL

RCL may refer to: Radial collateral ligament, one of three ligaments in the upper limb on the side of the radius bone: Radial collateral ligament of elbow joint Radial collateral ligament of thumb Radial collateral ligament of wrist joint Ramped Cargo Lighter, Canadian built landing craft of WW2 Ramped Craft Logistic, Landing craft operated by the Royal Logistic Corps of the British Army Ramsey County Library, Minnesota, United States RC Lens (Racing Club de Lens), a French Ligue 1 football team Recoilless rifle Reliance Capital Limited, an Indian financial services company Revised Common Lectionary,in Christianity, a set of readings Revolutionary Communist League (disambiguation), various political parties RLC circuit, an electrical circuit with resistor, inductor, and capacitor, sometimes referred to as an RCL circuit Robot Combat League, TV show of robot fighting competitions Royal Canadian Legion, an ex-servicemen's organisation Royal Caribbean Group (NYSE ticker code RCL), a holding company owning cruise lines Rugby Club Luxembourg, a rugby union club in Luxembourg City

4026968

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carath%C3%A9odory%27s%20extension%20theorem

Carathéodory's extension theorem

In measure theory, Carathéodory's extension theorem (named after the mathematician Constantin Carathéodory) states that any pre-measure defined on a given ring of subsets R of a given set Ω can be extended to a measure on the σ-ring generated by R, and this extension is unique if the pre-measure is σ-finite. Consequently, any pre-measure on a ring containing all intervals of real numbers can be extended to the Borel algebra of the set of real numbers. This is an extremely powerful result of measure theory, and leads, for example, to the Lebesgue measure. The theorem is also sometimes known as the Carathéodory–Fréchet extension theorem, the Carathéodory–Hopf extension theorem, the Hopf extension theorem and the Hahn–Kolmogorov extension theorem. Introductory statement Several very similar statements of the theorem can be given. A slightly more involved one, based on semi-rings of sets, is given further down below. A shorter, simpler statement is as follows. In this form, it is often called the Hahn–Kolmogorov theorem. Let be an algebra of subsets of a set Consider a set function which is finitely additive, meaning that for any positive integer and disjoint sets in Assume that this function satisfies the stronger sigma additivity assumption for any disjoint family of elements of such that (Functions obeying these two properties are known as pre-measures.) Then, extends to a measure defined on the -algebra generated by ; that is, there exists a measure such that its restriction to coincides with If is -finite, then the extension is unique. Comments This theorem is remarkable for it allows one to construct a measure by first defining it on a small algebra of sets, where its sigma additivity could be easy to verify, and then this theorem guarantees its extension to a sigma-algebra. The proof of this theorem is not trivial, since it requires extending from an algebra of sets to a potentially much bigger sigma-algebra, guaranteeing that the extension is unique (if is -finite), and moreover that it does not fail to satisfy the sigma-additivity of the original function. Semi-ring and ring Definitions For a given set we call a family of subsets of a if it has the following properties: For all we have (closed under pairwise intersections) For all there exists a finite number of disjoint sets such that (relative complements can be written as finite disjoint unions). The first property can be replaced with since With the same notation, we call a family of subsets of a if it has the following properties: For all we have (closed under pairwise unions) For all we have (closed under relative complements). Thus, any ring on is also a semi-ring. Sometimes, the following constraint is added in the measure theory context: is the disjoint union of a countable family of sets in A field of sets (respectively, a semi-field) is a ring (respectively, a semi-ring) that also contains as one of its elements. Properties Arbitrary (possibly uncountable) intersections of rings on are still rings on If is a non-empty subset of the powerset of then we define the ring generated by (noted ) as the intersection of all rings containing It is straightforward to see that the ring generated by is the smallest ring containing For a semi-ring the set of all finite unions of sets in is the ring generated by (One can show that is equal to the set of all finite disjoint unions of sets in ). A content defined on a semi-ring can be extended on the ring generated by Such an extension is unique. The extended content can be written: for with the disjoint. In addition, it can be proved that is a pre-measure if and only if the extended content is also a pre-measure, and that any pre-measure on that extends the pre-measure on is necessarily of this form. Motivation In measure theory, we are not interested in semi-rings and rings themselves, but rather in σ-algebras generated by them. The idea is that it is possible to build a pre-measure on a semi-ring (for example Stieltjes measures), which can then be extended to a pre-measure on which can finally be extended to a measure on a σ-algebra through Caratheodory's extension theorem. As σ-algebras generated by semi-rings and rings are the same, the difference does not really matter (in the measure theory context at least). Actually, Carathéodory's extension theorem can be slightly generalized by replacing ring by semi-field. The definition of semi-ring may seem a bit convoluted, but the following example shows why it is useful (moreover it allows us to give an explicit representation of the smallest ring containing some semi-ring). Example Think about the subset of defined by the set of all half-open intervals for a and b reals. This is a semi-ring, but not a ring. Stieltjes measures are defined on intervals; the countable additivity on the semi-ring is not too difficult to prove because we only consider countable unions of intervals which are intervals themselves. Proving it for arbitrary countable unions of intervals is accomplished using Caratheodory's theorem. Statement of the theorem Let be a ring of sets on and let be a pre-measure on meaning that for all sets for which there exists a countable decomposition in disjoint sets we have Let be the -algebra generated by The pre-measure condition is a necessary condition for to be the restriction to of a measure on The Carathéodory's extension theorem states that it is also sufficient, that is, there exists a measure such that is an extension of that is, Moreover, if is -finite then the extension is unique (and also -finite). Proof sketch First extend to an outer measure on the power set of by and then restrict it to the set of -measurable sets (that is, Carathéodory-measurable sets), which is the set of all such that for every is a -algebra, and is -additive on it, by the Caratheodory lemma. It remains to check that contains That is, to verify that every set in is -measurable. This is done by basic measure theory techniques of dividing and adding up sets. For uniqueness, take any other extension so it remains to show that By -additivity, uniqueness can be reduced to the case where is finite, which will now be assumed. Now we could concretely prove on by using the Borel hierarchy of and since at the base level, we can use well-ordered induction to reach the level of the level of Examples of non-uniqueness of extension There can be more than one extension of a pre-measure to the generated σ-algebra, if the pre-measure is not -finite, even if the extensions themselves are -finite (see example "Via rationals" below). Via the counting measure Take the algebra generated by all half-open intervals [a,b) on the real line, and give such intervals measure infinity if they are non-empty. The Carathéodory extension gives all non-empty sets measure infinity. Another extension is given by the counting measure. Via rationals This example is a more detailed variation of the above. The rational closed-open interval is any subset of of the form , where . Let be and let be the algebra of all finite unions of rational closed-open intervals contained in . It is easy to prove that is, in fact, an algebra. It is also easy to see that the cardinal of every non-empty set in is . Let be the counting set function () defined in . It is clear that is finitely additive and -additive in . Since every non-empty set in is infinite, then, for every non-empty set , Now, let be the -algebra generated by . It is easy to see that is the -algebra of all subsets of , and both and are measures defined on and both are extensions of . Note that, in this case, the two extensions are -finite, because is countable. Via Fubini's theorem Another example is closely related to the failure of some forms of Fubini's theorem for spaces that are not σ-finite. Suppose that is the unit interval with Lebesgue measure and is the unit interval with the discrete counting measure. Let the ring be generated by products where is Lebesgue measurable and is any subset, and give this set the measure . This has a very large number of different extensions to a measure; for example: The measure of a subset is the sum of the measures of its horizontal sections. This is the smallest possible extension. Here the diagonal has measure 0. The measure of a subset is where is the number of points of the subset with given -coordinate. The diagonal has measure 1. The Carathéodory extension, which is the largest possible extension. Any subset of finite measure is contained in some union of a countable number of horizontal lines. In particular the diagonal has measure infinity. See also Outer measure: the proof of Carathéodory's extension theorem is based upon the outer measure concept. Loeb measures, constructed using Carathéodory's extension theorem. References Theorems in measure theory

4027110

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Quiaca

La Quiaca

La Quiaca is a small city in the north of the , on the southern bank of the La Quiaca River, opposite the town of Villazón, Bolivia. It lies at the end of National Route 9, from San Salvador de Jujuy (the provincial capital), and at an altitude of above mean sea level. La Quiaca has 13,761 inhabitants as per the . It is the head town of the Yaví Department, which includes also the towns of Barrios, Cangrejillos, El Cóndor, Pumahuasi, and Yaví. The area is serviced by an airport located at . La Quiaca is an approximate antipode to Hong Kong. It has all the amenities of a modern city (potable water, electricity, sewer, Internet). This city is one of the north of the Puna which has all the basic facilities for the convenience of tourists, one of the most important urban settlement in northern Argentina. In the country, this city is the classic reference to the northern end of the country, though in reality this distinction is held by the town of Salvador Mazza, or Pocitos, in the province of Salta. In 1985, after a three-year national tour, the renowned composer León Gieco released a folk album called De Ushuaia a La Quiaca ("From Ushuaia to La Quiaca"). Geography Climate In spite of its location within the tropics, because it is located at over above sea level, La Quiaca has a cold semi-arid climate (BSk, according to the Köppen climate classification), with an annual precipitation of . During winter months, temperatures during the day are cool, averaging in July while the nights can get very cold, with temperatures dropping well below . Precipitation is rare during the winter months although snowfalls are possible. During the summer months, temperatures during the day are mild to warm, averaging although nighttime temperatures can remain cool. Most of the precipitation that La Quiaca receives falls during the summer months. It is possibly the sunniest place in Argentina, averaging 3410 hours of sunshine or 76.9% of possible sunshine ranging from a low of 62.5% in February to a high of 87.5% in July. The highest temperature recorded was on February 4, 1998, while the lowest temperature was . See also Humahuaca Iruya Tilcara Purmamarca References Notes Great Circle Airport: SASQ Populated places in Jujuy Province Argentina–Bolivia border crossings Cities in Argentina

4027298

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1%2C2-Dichloroethene

1,2-Dichloroethene

1,2-Dichloroethene, commonly called 1,2-dichloroethylene or 1,2-DCE, is the name for a pair of organochlorine compounds with the molecular formula CHCl. They are both colorless liquids with a sweet odor. It can exist as either of two geometric isomers, cis-1,2-dichloroethene or trans-1,2-dichloroethene, but is often used as a mixture of the two. They have modest solubility in water. These compounds have some applications as a degreasing solvent. In contrast to most cis-trans compounds, the Z isomer (cis) is more stable than the E isomer (trans) by 0.4 kcal/mol. Production and use cis-DCE, the Z isomer, is obtainable by the controlled chlorination of acetylene: CH + Cl → CHCl Industrially both isomers arise as byproducts of the production of vinyl chloride, which is produced on a vast scale. Unlike 1,1-dichloroethylene, the 1,2-dichloroethylene isomers do not polymerize. trans-DCE has applications including electronics cleaning, precision cleaning, and certain metal cleaning applications. Reactions Both isomers participate in Kumada coupling reactions. trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene participates in cycloaddition reactions. Safety These compounds have "moderate oral toxicity to rats". Environmental aspects The dichloroethylene isomers occur in some polluted waters and soils. Significant attention has been paid to their further degradation, e.g. by iron particles. See also 1,1-Dichloroethene 1,2-Dichloroethane, which is also often abbreviated as 1,2-DCE References External links Chloroalkenes Halogenated solvents

4027526

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dome%20magnifier

Dome magnifier

A dome magnifier is a dome-shaped magnifying device made of glass or acrylic plastic, used to enlarge words on a page or computer screen. They are plano-convex lenses: the flat (planar) surface is placed on the object to be magnified, and the convex (dome) surface provides the enlargement. They usually provide between 1.8× and 6× magnification. Dome magnifiers are often used by the visually impaired. They are good for reading maps or basic text and their inherent 180° design naturally amplifies illumination from ambient side-light. They are suitable for people with tremors or impaired motor skills, because they are held in contact with the page during use. See also Reading stone References Magnifiers Magnifier, dome

4027628

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Institute%20of%20Ocean%20Technology

National Institute of Ocean Technology

The National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) was established in November 1993 as an autonomous society under the Ministry of Earth Sciences in India. NIOT is managed by a Governing Council and is headed by a director. The institute is based in Chennai. The major aim of starting NIOT was to develop reliable indigenous technologies to solve various engineering problems associated with harvesting of non-living and living resources in India's exclusive economic zone, which is about two-thirds of the land area of India. Technology Groups Coastal and Environmental Engineering The group functions with a mandate to develop application-oriented technologies in ocean-related (Coastal & Environmental) areas. The goals of the group are to promote programs consistent with the overall development perspective of the country in the infrastructure sector thereby contributing to the nation building exercise The group caters to specific sponsored-research and industrial sector projects by providing technical support and time-bound, result-oriented research. Coastal and Environmental Engineering (CEE) program aims to bring the state of the art technology in coastal infrastructure development through field observation, numerical modeling and engineering application. Energy & Fresh Water The main area of focus of this group is the utilization of the ocean resources to find alternative technologies for producing fresh water (including clean drinking water) and renewable energy. Currently the group is working on three specific areas, fresh water production using low temperature thermal desalination (LTTD) process and energy production using two distinctly different processes, ocean thermal energy conversion and wave energy. Technologies like Low Temperature Thermal Desalination (LTTD) using coolant water discharge from thermal power plant, wave energy using floating devices such as Backward Bent Ducted Buoy (BBDB), ocean current turbine development, solar desalination, heat exchangers for LTTD and ocean thermal energy conversion are the focal areas of research. Apart from the aspect of technology development, the group has taken initiative in transferring the LTTD technology to the society through industrial partnership. LTTD is set up in many places. We can see LTTD in Kavaratti, Aggati, Minicoy islands, and NCTPS (Chennai). Marine Sensor System Marine Sensor Systems group was established in September 2005 to cater to the mandate of NIOT to develop and demonstrate technologies for oceans. Since then group has been concentrating on the development of different types of underwater sensor systems apart from electronic support given to the other groups in NIOT. Most of the underwater systems are acoustic based systems with underwater electronics. The group's activities have attracted several industries. Needs of NIOT are unique and all the requirements could not be met with the facilities available at NIOT earlier. Now, facilities to qualify electronics under different conditions of underwater operation have been established like, EMI/EMC analyzer, Helium Leak detector, Environment testing systems, Corrosion Chamber and Shock & Vibration testing chamber, under a single umbrella. Marine Biotechnology In order to develop agriculture and tourism, and to study the natural marine resources of the island groups, the Island Development Authority (IDA) was established under the chairmanship of Rajiv Gandhi, the then prime minister of India in the year of 1986. The IDA enlisted the then Department of Ocean Development (DOD), presently Ministry of Earth Sciences, as one of the implementing agencies for carrying out activities that will recuperate the socio-economic status of the island community. Based on the suggestions made by the IDA, the DOD took up several ocean related activities relevant to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep and the Gulf of Mannar group of Islands in order to bring in socio-economic benefits to the island communities. Ocean Acoustics and Modelling The Ocean Acoustics group was formed in the 11th plan period with the aim to focus on research and development in underwater acoustics as most of the applications in the oceans rely on acoustics. Research and Development activities in the following key areas have been taken up. Three major in-house projects and few inter institutional projects are in progress. A fully automated ambient noise measurement system developed by the group is being utilized for collecting time series measurements in Indian shallow waters. The group also maintains an NABL (National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories) accredited Acoustic Test Facility for testing and calibration of underwater acoustic transducers that caters to the needs of internal groups and external institutions/organizations. Ocean Electronics The Ocean Electronics group was created in December 2009 and has a mandate to develop ocean observation systems and demonstrate for applications in the ocean. The group is involved in the development of Deep Ocean Bottom Pressure Recorder (DOPR) & surface buoy data logger for Tsunami Early Warning Systems, Autonomous Underwater Profiling Drifter (AUPD), and technologies for data communication using INSAT satellites. Offshore Structures NIOT has been developing several offshore components for various programs like desalination, mining, data buoys etc. These include pipelines/risers, moorings in deep water for small buoys as well as large vessels. The need for developing several offshore components has been felt for most of the projects handled in NIOT. The group addresses such needs. Technology Projects Deep Sea Mining Polymetallic nodules have economically valuable metals such as Copper, Cobalt, Nickel and Manganese in them and are viewed as potential resources to take care of the depleting land resources and increasing demand of these metals. There are more than 380 million tons of nodules in the retained Indian Pioneer area. However development of deep subsea technology for mining these resources is a major challenge considering the depth of occurrence of these nodules being 4000–6000 m, ultra high pressure environment and very low temperatures, very soft soils for supporting heavy mining equipment and difficulties in vertical transport of the harvested nodules. NIOT has been working on a mining concept where a crawler based mining machine collects, crushes and pumps nodules to the mother ship using a high pressure slurry pump through a flexible riser system. With this perspective, the integrated mining system is under development for demonstration of deep-sea mining of polymetallic nodules. Gas Hydrates This group was created to cater to the sustained development of technology towards harnessing the enormous potential offered by the ocean towards the energy sectors and also to the industries related to offshore activities with particular reference to gas hydrates. Gas hydrates are crystalline combination of a natural gas and water (known technically as a clathrate) looks remarkably like ice but burns if it meets a match lit. Energy in the gas hydrates amount to twice as much as all fossil fuels combined. Gas hydrate estimated to contribute a very large amount of methane, a potential clear hydrocarbon fuel resource. Submersibles Development of deep-water work class ROV by NIOT in collaboration with Experimental Design Bureau of Oceanological Engineering (EDBOE), Moscow was initiated by Polymetallic Nodule Management (PMN) Board of the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), Govt. of India. The submersible is equipped with multifunctional tools and sensors for offshore applications such as deep ocean mineral exploration, seabed imaging, gas hydrate exploration, pipeline routing, submarine cabling, well head detection, sampling etc. Operational Programs Ocean Observation Systems Under the Ocean Observation Network (OON) programme of ESSO MoES, the Ocean observation systems (OOS) group of NIOT is entrusted to undertake the activities on moored buoy programme. The OOS group, erstwhile National Data Buoy Programme, was established in 1996, with the objective to operate, maintain and develop moored buoy observational networks and related telecommunication facilities in the Indian seas. Later, OOS inherited lead responsibility for a number of important and well-established observational programmes in the northern Indian Ocean. Due to the remoteness of the vast open oceans, there have been challenges to continuous observation of the ocean, which was later harmonized by in-situ and satellite based observations. Vessel Management The Vessel Management Cell, or 'VMC', is an operational wing of NIOT which manages the running, operation and maintenance of the fleet of MoES research vessels viz. ORV Sagar Nidhi, BTV Sagar Manjusha, CRV Sagar Purvi and CRV Sagar Paschimi. It was established in 1996, with an aim to manage two coastal research vessels, CRV Sagar Purvi and CRV Sagar Paschimi, that had been acquired by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) for assessing coastal pollution, coastal pollution monitoring, coastal surveys and near shore multidisciplinary work. In 2001, VMC committed to manage a barge, Sagar Shakthi, that was used to implement a 1MW gross pilot plant to demonstrate OTEC technology, which was the first ever such attempt in the world. References External links National Institute of Ocean Technology Ministry of Earth Sciences Centre for Marine Living Resources & Ecology National Centre for Coastal Research Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology The India Meteorological Department NATIONAL CENTRE FOR POLAR AND OCEAN RESEARCH Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services Scientific organizations established in 1993 1993 establishments in Tamil Nadu Research institutes in Chennai Ministry of Earth Sciences

4027722

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haffkine%20Institute

Haffkine Institute

The Haffkine Institute for Training, Research and Testing is located in Parel in Mumbai (Bombay), India. It was established on 10 August 1899 by Dr. Waldemar Mordechai Haffkine, as a bacteriology research centre called the "Plague Research Laboratory". It now offers various basic and applied bio-medical science services. The Institute opened a museum on its premises in March 2014 to showcase Haffkine's research and developments in microbiology and chart the history of the institute. The Institute received ISO 9001:2008 certification in 2012. The Institute now serves as a teaching institution in the field of biomedical sciences and is affiliated to the University of Mumbai for M.Sc (Microbiology, Applied Biology and Organic Chemistry), Ph.D. (Microbiology) and M.D (P.S.M.) degree programs. In addition, the Institute undertakes specialized testing assignments and projects for pharmaceutical and other health-related products. The Institute conducts research in the improvement of the foot-and-mouth disease vaccine, surveillance and microbiological analysis of typhoid, prevalence of drug resistance in bacteria, studies of infections occurring in AIDS patients, and the development of newer chemotherapeutic agents to combat microbial and zoonotic infections. History Dr. Waldemar Haffkine, an orthodox Jewish Russian (born: Odessa, Russian Empire) scientist assigned by the Pasteur Institute to work in India, is recognized as the microbiologist who first developed and used vaccines against cholera and bubonic plague. In October 1896, an epidemic of bubonic plague struck Bombay (now Mumbai) and the government asked Haffkine to help. He embarked upon the development of a vaccine in a makeshift laboratory in a corridor of Grant Medical College. In three months of persistent work (one of his assistants experienced a nervous breakdown, two others quit), a form of vaccine was ready for human trials. On 10 January 1897, Haffkine tested it on himself. The vaccines that Haffkine prepared had remarkable results. Frederick Percival Mackie served as director from 1923–31. Sans Pareil Sans Pareil was once the official residence of the governor of Bombay. This mansion, which was originally a Jesuit chapel, was built as part of the Jesuit monastery on Parel Island in 1673. William Hornby (1771–1784) was the first governor to take up residence at the mansion. The governor's residence moved to its present site on Malabar Hill in 1883 and the property was used by the Bombay Presidency Recorders. Haffkine moved into the building to set up the "Plague Research Laboratory" in 1899, the laboratory being formally opened by the then governor of Bombay, Lord Sandhurst. The Institute was renamed "Bombay Bacteriology Laboratory" in 1906 and finally as "Haffkine Institute" in 1925. References External links Haffkine Institute Haffkine BioPharma Corp 1899 establishments in India Research institutes in Mumbai University of Mumbai Medical research institutes in India Research institutes established in 1899

4027726

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20van%20Lottum

John van Lottum

John van Lottum (born 10 April 1976) is a former tennis player from the Netherlands, who played professionally from 1994 to 2007. During his career, he won 5 Challenger titles in singles; notably defeated Lleyton Hewitt and Todd Martin; and reached the 4th round of Wimbledon in 1998. The right-hander reached his career-high singles ranking on the ATP Tour in April 1999, when he became world No. 62. He has an older sister, Noëlle van Lottum, who played on the WTA Tour for France circuit from 1987 to 1999, with a career-high ranking of world No. 57 in singles. After his tennis career he was considered as a coach for Michaëlla Krajicek, but instead joined TV channel Eurosport as a tennis commentator. In June 2008, he coached Elena Dementieva during the Ordina Open and Wimbledon. Performance timeline Singles ATP Challenger and ITF Futures finals Singles: 13 (5–8) Doubles: 2 (1–1) External links 1976 births Living people Dutch male tennis players Sportspeople from Antwerp

4027769

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredrik%20Jonsson

Fredrik Jonsson

Fredrik Jonsson (born 28 March 1977) is a retired tennis player from Sweden, who turned professional in 1996. The right-hander reached his career-high singles ranking of World No. 108 in July 2000. Jonsson comes from the same hometown as teenage colleague-star Andreas Vinciguerra. Tennis career Juniors As a junior, Jonsson reached as high as No. 19 in the world singles rankings in 1995. His best result was reaching the semifinals at the 1995 Junior Italian Open where he lost to the eventual champion, Mariano Zabaleta. Pro career Jonsson made his ATP main draw singles debut, as a qualifier, at the 1986 Swedish Open where he lost in the first round to Carlos Costa. He subsequently participated mainly on the ITF Futures circuit and the ATP Challenger Tour. In September 1998, he reached his first final on the Challenger tour, when he lost in the final of the Budva Challenger against Tomas Behrend. In October 1998, he won the Samarkand Challenger by beating Oleg Ogorodov in the final. In Grand Slam tennis, his best performance was at the 1999 US Open, when he reached the third round and beat world number 16, Nicolás Lapentti in the second round, before losing to Slava Doseděl. ATP Challenger and ITF Futures finals Singles: 7 (3–4) {| |-valign=top | References 1977 births Living people Swedish male tennis players Sportspeople from Malmö

4027782

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1%2C1-Dichloroethene

1,1-Dichloroethene

1,1-Dichloroethene, commonly called 1,1-dichloroethylene or vinylidene chloride or 1,1-DCE, is an organochloride with the molecular formula CHCl. It is a colorless liquid with a sharp odor. Like most chlorocarbons, it is poorly soluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents. 1,1-DCE was the precursor to the original clingwrap, Saran, for food, but this application has been phased out. Production 1,1-DCE is produced by dehydrochlorination of 1,1,2-trichloroethane, a relatively unwanted byproduct in the production of 1,1,1-trichloroethane and 1,2-dichloroethane. The conversion is a base-catalyzed reaction which uses either NaOH or Ca(OH) with temperature ca. 100 °C. ClCHCHCl + NaOH → ClC=CH + NaCl + HO The gas phase reaction, without the base, would be more desirable but is less selective. Applications 1,1-DCE is mainly used as a comonomer in the polymerization of vinyl chloride, acrylonitrile, and acrylates. It is also used in semiconductor device fabrication for growing high purity silicon dioxide (SiO) films. Polyvinylidene chloride As with many other alkenes, 1,1-DCE can be polymerised to form polyvinylidene chloride. A very widely used product, cling wrap, or Saran was made from this polymer. During the 1990s research suggested that, in common with many chlorinated carbon compounds, Saran posed a possible danger to health by leaching, especially on exposure to food in microwave ovens. Since 2004, therefore cling wrap's formulation has changed to a form of polyethylene. Safety The health effects from exposure to 1,1-DCE are primarily on the central nervous system, including symptoms of sedation, inebriation, convulsions, spasms, and unconsciousness at high concentrations. International Agency for Research on Cancer has put vinylidene chloride in Class 2B, meaning possibly carcinogenic to humans. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health considers 1-DCE a potential occupational carcinogen. It is also listed as a chemical known to the state of California to cause cancer and birth defects. See also 1,2-Dichloroethene Dichloroethane References External links Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry: 1,1-Dichloroethene Chloroalkenes Halogenated solvents Vinylidene compounds

4027936

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaghbub

Jaghbub

Jaghbub () () is a remote desert village in the Al Jaghbub Oasis in the eastern Libyan Desert. It is actually closer to the Egyptian town of Siwa than to any Libyan town of note. The oasis is located in Butnan District and was the administrative seat of the Jaghbub Basic People's Congress. The town remains highly obscure, in spite of the substantial colonial history the city holds. The town was the birthplace of Idris of Libya on 12 March 1890. Geography The Jaghbub oasis is located in a deep depression that extends below sea level. This depression, an area lower than the surrounding region, reaches to about -10 m. The basin of the region is made up of a thin layer of sandy clay. The sand here has the ability to accumulate into waves. History Jaghbub was founded in the year 1856. Senussi origins In the year of its founding, Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi established an important Zawiya there. The Encyclopedia of Africa points to him being the founder of Jaghbub. As a result, Jaghbub became the metaphorical capital for the Senussi movement, and remained so from 1856 to 1895. The role of Jaghbub as a capital was demonstrated through how regional Senussi sheiks would meet annually in Jaghbub to report and discuss the situation at the zawiyas they ran. Senussi ended up dying in Jaghbub in 1859. Jaghbub became a particularly important for the Senussi movement because its location and nomads in the region that were attracted to the Senussi message. Running Senussi operations from Jaghbub also allowed their work to be disentangled from that of any particular tribe. Moreover, the town was along a pilgrimage route to Mecca, and additional sources point to Jaghbub being founded along a trade route. The Senussi's would actively work there to spread their religious influence. The Zawiya founded by Senussi became a site of Islamic intellectual learning and Senussi military training, including horseback training. It would draw in students all across North Africa. Notable figures, such as the poet Rajab Hamad Buhwaish al-Minifi, were educated in Jaghbub. In addition, Omar al-Mukhtar was provided with military training in Jaghbub as well. Moreover, Abd al-Mut'al would also stay in Jaghbub for some time. In the 1880s Jaghbub was receiving smuggled weapons shipments from the Ottoman Empire through the Bedouin tribes. During this time, the Turkish governor of Awjala grew angry with how tribespeople were sending massive quantities of grain to Jaghbub as tribute to the Senussis when they often resisted to paying the Ottoman Empire taxes. Through the latter part of the 19th century, Jaghbub began to attract a small population of migrants escaping Ottoman expropriation of their property in Cyrenacia. Before World War I Both the Ottoman and British Empires laid claim on Jaghbub in the years before the First World War. Through the duration of the Italo-Turkish war, the British Empire considered Jaghbub to be British territory. By 1912, Jaghbub had reemerged as a center of Senussi power. This began diplomatic disputes between Britain and Italy over control of the town as the Senussis were actively resisting Italy from the town. In a meeting between Enver Bey, Sayyid Ahmad, and other Ottoman officers at Jaghbub, the Ottoman officers decided to continue resistance against Italian forces, though they could only do so up to 1913. In 1913, it was uncovered that Dr. Izzet-el-Gindi, sent by the Egyptian Khedive had been acting on behalf of the Italians in secret negotiations between the Khedive of Egypt and Italy to transfer Jaghbub to Italy. More specifically, the Khedive was discovered to have been bribed for doing this. Rodd would later note to the Italian government to stop using the Khedive for the negotiations. Robert Vansittart warned the Khedive that he would be removed from power if something like that were to happen again. Grey would note to an ambassador in London that Britain would not cede Jaghbub as a part of a deal. During and after World War I Sayyid arrested Al-Baruni and Hilal in a prison in Jaghbub after Hilal agreed to a plot rejected by Ahmad al-Sharif to get the Senussis to fight the British. However, in 1916 Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif agreed to open an Ottoman front against the British, sending 500 troops through Jaghbub to occupy several oases. The Italians were concerned by the possibility that British corporations might start building infrastructure in Jaghbub, which could counter Italian influence. In response, debates would begin to ensue over what to do about Jaghbub. In 1920, Muhammad Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi was able to make a deal with Italy to make himself Amir of Cyrenacia and which would give autonomy to Jaghbub along with other towns. In return, they agreed to the Legge Fondamentale of Italy, to not tax locals beyond what was normal, and to disband their armies. However, they never followed through with disbanding their armies. These events occurred within the context of the background towards the start of the Second Italo-Senussi War. Senussi Suppression During Italy's suppression campaign and in the context of the Second Italo-Senussi War, Jahgbub became a target for being known to be a major center of rebel organization. Jaghbub had been known to be a conduit for cross border supply transfers for the Senussis from Egyptian sources. As a result, a diplomatic situation arose between Italy and Egypt, with Italy claiming that Egypt was not supposed to own Jaghbub according to a map made around 1841. Amman has argued that Italian desire to control Jaghbub came from the desire to quell the Senussi movement, which would not be possible without controlling the city. Egypt repeatedly emphasized their concerns for not wanting to cede Jaghbub to Italy, citing multiple issues over potential Arab unrest in Egypt, concerns that they would be losing a strategic location, that the promise was made by the British during the first world war, and that the desire to quell the Senussis could be an excuse to demand other Egyptian oasis towns. From the British perspective, people like Fathi considered Jaghbub to be Egyptian lands from a French and a German map. However, Fathi was willing willing to trade Jaghbub for a piece of territory. As the diplomatic conflict persisted, Italy made their intentions to occupy Jaghbub through force clear. Initially, the British were completely hostile to the idea of transferring Jaghbub to Italy, though they promised to not "encroach" on Italian lands. Complicating the situation was how the British had promised to transfer Jaghbub to Italian control in exchange for Italy ceding the Sallum region to Egypt, but under what treaty is unclear. A dissertation by Donnarumma argues this occurs within the context of Italy and Britain sharing the Mediterranean sea. Eventually, a treaty was signed between Italy and Egypt which transferred Jaghbub to Italy on December 6, 1925. This treaty was sometimes referred to as the treaty of Jaghbub. To avoid Bedouin arrest, the Egyptian government asked the Italians to respect the religion of the locals and to protect the grand Senussi's tomb. After the treaty was signed, debate persisted on whether the locals of Jaghbub would be able to choose their nationality. In their historical analysis, Rappas argues that the deal was agreed to by Britain to improve relations with Italy in an effort to check French power in Europe. Around the same year the treaty was signed, the capital for Senussi operations was moved from Jaghbub to Kufra. After Italy retained control over Jaghbub, they began to construct the Frontier Wire, which was a 270 km long wall that stretched from the Mediterranean coastline all the way to Jaghbub. This wall was made in part from barbed wire. The construction of the wall allowed the Italians to control cross border movement supporting Alwad Ali and prevent rebel leaders, particularly Omar Mukhtar, from escaping into Egypt. Around early 1926, with the help of the Frontier Wire, the Italians were able to successfully occupy Jaghbub, quelling the Senussi armed movement. In 1928, Senussis flocked from Kufra as the Italians had managed to occupy the region, moving back to Jaghbub. By 1932, Jaghbub began to lose its prominence as a trading center. World War II The Siege of Giarabub was fought between Commonwealth and Italian forces during World War II. Italian and Libyan colonial troops led by Colonel Salvatore Castagna resisted a siege by mostly Australian troops for three months before being forced to surrender on 23 March 1941. The resistance of the Italian troops was celebrated by the fascist regime and used to minimize the military defeat in Cyrenaica. Postwar During WWII, questions arose over how to assign colonial territory of the Italian empire postwar. Though some suggestions were made to transfer Jaghbub back into Egyptian control as an autonomous province, an Egyptian ambassador to Britain and a British North African military leader were hesitant to do this out of fear of angering Arab populations and being perceived as harsh. Italian oil company CORI, which was partnered with AGIP acquired a grant to purchase vast swaths of Libyan land southwest of Jaghbub, where it eventually struck oil. Under the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya During the 1977 war between Egypt and Libya, Jaghbub was the site of a prominent battle which killed 2000 people. During Gaddafi's reign, the graves of historical figures in Jaghbub were targeted. The Senussi college and mosque there were ordered to be demolished in 1984. As a part of the demolition process, the bodies of Senussi and his brother in law were either excavated and dumped in the desert or were stolen. A news article written by Michel Cousins asserted that this move failed, as around 2011 pro-Senussi sentiment was likely the highest it had been since the 1960s. Historical sites and architecture Cresti points to all of the religious historical sites in Jaghbub being destroyed in concert with the grave desecration of the Senussis ordered by Gaddafi. They also note that photos of these religious sites however can be obtained at the National Central Library of Rome. The Zawiya in Jaghbub underwent significant redesign circa the 1870s, which changed its size, shape, and added a wall to the city. This wall had a distinct trapezoidal shape from an aerial view. The Qabba there, which housed the tombs of the grand Senussi and his family members, was ornamented with a large dome and was described by Cresti as being the iconic focus of the city. The tomb of the grand Senussi in particular was housed in gold-like covering. A minaret also used to be part of the religious complex. Cresti points to the source of the architectural design of the Qabba to being associated with revivalist-religious Egyptian architecture. Old photos of the city show the presence of the existence of old windmills no longer in use. In addition, one of the structures in Jaghbub that utilized an arch was given a stucco decoration after Italy asserted control over the city. Historical controversy and disputes It appears to be a critical and repeatedly mentioned narrative within secondary sources, and particularly in a dissertation by Ahmida that Senussi moved over to Jaghbub in 1856 in order to escape Ottoman surveillance or interference. However, Osman disputes this, arguing that Jaghbub's location in the path of camel caravan mecca pilgrimage route is why the Senussis chose it as a base of their operations. Yet Shibeika claimed this move was done in light of worsening relations with the Ottoman Empire. However, this was disputed by Minawi and Ladjal, arguing relations were improving between the Senussis and the Ottomans. Miwawi further elaborated on this situation by explaining that Mahdi Al-Senussi wanted to escape the challenge to authority he had over the Bedouin tribes presented by the kaymakamlik created in Jaghbub, which was operated by Tripoli administrators. Other sources have insisted that this escape was done to flee the conflicts that Senussi faced over his heretical views. Everd-Pritchard argued that the move to Jaghbub may have occurred since the Senussis did not consider the Ottomans to be the Caliphs of Islam. Vandewalle stands out among other sources for asserting that Jaghbub became a capital for Senussi operations beginning in 1855, and for asserting that the location was chosen to avoid French confrontation. Zalewski insisted that the initial move was done to avoid Ottoman, French, and Egyptian involvement in their affairs. Senussi suppression One source claims that the British directed the Italians to negotiate the border issue with the Egyptians themselves. However, seeing that British officials like Fathi also had an interest in the issue, more research and secondary sources are needed to clarify what is meant. Alternatively, this could be an outright contradiction in which one of the sources is incorrect. There appears to be agreement that Jaghbub was promised to the Italians by the British, but under what treaty has been disputed. Donnarumma claims this promise was made under the treaty of London in return for transferring the Sallum area to Egypt. However, Ammann clarifies the town was promised under the Milner Scialoia agreement of 1920, with Milner and Sciaola agreeing to it because of the London pact. Move away from Jaghbub Some sources claim that the move away from Jaghbub was done to avoid disputes and situations with the Ottomans. However, other sources particularly stress this move was more the Senussis seeing greater opportunity to expand their influence from making this move. Klaus suggests part of this opportunity came from the desire to strengthen critical trade routes, which would have been difficult to do from Jaghbub. The question of who or what made the transition of moving the Senussi capital from Jaghbub to Kufra in 1895 also remains disputed. Some sources credit the move to Sheikh al-Mahdi. However, Minawi stands out for implying the date of the move was 1896, and that mosque members incentivized the move to Kufra by moving there. Length of the Fence There was even variation between sources on the length of the fence. Vandewalle claimed that the fence was 300 km long. However, the majority of others point to the fence being 270 km long. One source that supports this assertion written by Michael Ebner claims the length of the fence to be 270 km long. Miscellanious Demographics Jaghbub's has grown from roughly 466 people in 1950, 884 in 1970, 2220 people in 2000, to around 2960 people with a median age of 29 as of 2023. Food Jaghbub was an oasis associated with providing dates to caravan travelers. Exploration In 1926, an Italian geographer and geologist Desai went to Jaghbub to learn more about geology and geography there. James Holland was the first documented American to have traveled to Jaghbub, where he took pictures of famous Senussi figures. Film references The construction of the fence was dramatized in the film Lion of the Desert. In addition, the movie Giarabub made in 1942 depicted the conquest of an Italian fort in Libya. See also List of World War II North Africa Airfields Butnan District Districts of Libya Al Jaghbub Oasis Bedouin Recommended readings Notes Further reading J J Protected areas of Libya Baladiyat of Libya

4027985

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Zealand%20Association%20of%20Radio%20Transmitters

New Zealand Association of Radio Transmitters

The New Zealand Association of Radio Transmitters (NZART) is a non-profit organisation of amateur radio enthusiasts in New Zealand. It represents New Zealand amateur radio operators nationally and internationally. NZART is a founding member of the International Amateur Radio Union. It is an association of individual members, however those members are encouraged to form local branches. Membership of NZART is voluntary; it is estimated that approximately 35% of New Zealand's licensed amateur radio operators belong. Members are represented by Councillors to the NZART Council, the executive body tasked with the business management of the association. Governance The NZART Council includes seven executives. These are the NZART President, vice-president, and Immediate Past President (if required). Regional councillors are elected to represent different geographic regions of New Zealand: two from the North Island, two from the South Island, and two from anyway within New Zealand. The NZART Council works with an appointed NZART Business Manager. The Business Manager is employed by NZART (30 hrs per week), and in 2020 an Office Assistant was employed (30 hrs per week). Both are tasked with the day-to-day business operations of the association, including manning their office, and providing administrative duties to AREC, located in Upper Hutt, near Wellington. Additional officers reporting directly to NZART Council include the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) Amateur Radio Emergency Communications, The Engineering Licensing Group (ELG) and the Administration Liaison Officer (ALO), who is charged with liaison with the Radio Spectrum Management Group of the New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment (MBIE). Relations with the New Zealand Government The NZART has performed an advocacy function, commenting on policy and planning initiatives proposed by the New Zealand government in the areas of radio licences, spectrum allocations for broadband wireless, and the future of digital communication. The Association also contributed to the creation of EMF exposure standards in their role as member of the NZ RF Standard Committee. In 2006, the Ministry of Economic Development's Radio Spectrum Management division was assisted by NZART and the local Coastguard Boating Education Service in the creation of an update to the Spectrum Management and Registration Technology (SMART) which allowed people to search online for radio operator information including callsigns. In 2008, it was noted that there were some discrepancies between the SMART system and the callsign book produced by NZART. Publications and services The official journal of the NZART is Break-In, a bi-monthly publication containing articles of interest to the amateur radio community. Also, an annual publication known as the Call Book provides an index of licensed amateurs in New Zealand by call sign, providing addresses for the purpose of contact acknowledgement (QSL), as well as much other information useful to the New Zealand radio enthusiast. Other publications include Ham Shacks, Brass Pounders and Rag Chewers, a history of amateur radio in New Zealand, published in 1997 with assistance from the New Zealand Department of Internal Affairs Historical Branch. In 1980, NZART collaborated with author Jumbo Godfrey ZL1HV to produce a Basic radio training manual: a study course for the amateur radio operators. The Association provides some educational services, such as providing demonstrative lectures on electromagnetic wave theory. Another service offered by the Association is to provide trained personnel and radio communications systems to Amateur Radio Emergency Communications, a group which liaises with the New Zealand Police and Civil Defense services in emergency situations. Break-In The official journal of the NZART is Break-In, and is published bimonthly. The publication is a requirement of the NZART Constitution The term break-in refers to a system in CW whereby the transmitting station can hear the other station's signal during “key up” periods. A total of six issues a year are produced, with the first January/February distributed within the first week of February, and so on. The close off dates for articles/advertising are year-on-year: 10 January for January/February issue. 10 March for March/April issue. 20 April for May/June issue. (produced to coincide with the AGM over Queens Birthday Weekend) 10 July for July/August issue. 10 September for September/October issue. 10 November for November/December issue. Each issue normally contains Technical and General articles of interest to amateur radio operators. Sometimes the articles are of a more general nature with some flavour of radio mixed into the article. In addition, each issue contains a number of columns from various authors covering activities from AREC, Contests, Digitalmodes, DX, Satellites, SOTA, Youth Report and more. As the official journal Break-In contains information about the association, important news and announcements, AGM news and Remits plus the Annual Accounts. As a magazine it has a wealth of information with many members having copies going back to the very first issue produced in January 1928. Call Book Call Book is annual publication that provides an index of all licensed amateurs in New Zealand by call sign, providing addresses for the purpose of contact acknowledgement (QSL), as well as much other information useful to the New Zealand radio enthusiast, such as a series of Repeater/Beacon Maps for both VHF and UHF repeaters based around New Zealand. This eighty page stapled publication is included free with membership of NZART, bundled with the November–December issue of Break-In. Although produced as a paper publication, electronic versions have also been produced on CD-ROM, with the last version produced in this format in 2017. The membership decide each year at the AGM on the format to be produced. Branches Branches of NZART are generally radio clubs and related organisations, and are found across the country. The Branches facilitate the representation of individual members at a national level through the NZART National Conference. Most radio clubs are individually incorporated and operate on a day-to-day basis independently of the NZART.The number following the branch name is their NZART branch number. Numerous branches experienced membership decline (possibly proportionate to a national decline), and have been reduced to a status of "recess" for several years. History The New Zealand Association of Radio Transmitters formed on 16 August 1926. In the same year, Gordon Smithson (Z1AF) made the first NZART broadcast. The first publication of Break-in, the NZART journal, was in 1928. In 1929 NZART became a more powerful organisation, joining the International Amateur Radio Union and successfully lobbying the New Zealand Government for a reduction in the compulsory licensing fees. In 1934 the Association became an incorporated society and in 1982 their membership numbers reached a high of 4,397. The first NZART written submission to the New Zealand government was in 1989 and related to the proposed Radiocommunications Bill. In 1998 the Association established the Radioscience Education Trust. NZART is registered as a charity in 2017. Presidential Terms Forty six radio amateurs have led NZART as president. See also Amateur radio call signs of New Zealand References External links NZART official web site New Zealand Organizations established in 1926 Clubs and societies in New Zealand 1926 establishments in New Zealand Radio in New Zealand Organisations based in Upper Hutt

4028343

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Mattern%20Montgomery

Richard Mattern Montgomery

Richard Mattern Montgomery (December 15, 1911 – August 27, 1987), was a lieutenant general in the United States Air Force, and chief-of-staff of the U. S. Strategic Air Command from 1952 to 1956. He was vice commander-in-chief of the United States Air Force in Europe, from 1962 until he retired in 1966. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, in Arlington, Virginia. Education and training He attended the United States Military Academy at West Point, graduating with a lieutenant's commission in 1933. One year later he completed pilot training at Kelly Field, Texas. This was the beginning of an active flying career in which Montgomery logged more than 10,000 hours in more than 80 types of aircraft, including the KC-135 jet tanker (military counterpart of the Boeing 707), B-47 and B-52 intercontinental jet bombers. Career Vice commander in chief, U.S. Airforces in Europe Sep 1962 – Sep 1966 Montgomery was assigned as vice commander in chief, U.S. Air Forces in Europe, at Wiesbaden AB, Germany, September 1, 1962, with promotion to the grade of lieutenant general. Vice chief of staff, Headquarters U.S. Air Force Aug 1959 – Sep 1962 In August 1959 he was named assistant vice chief of staff, Headquarters U.S. Air Force. He served for two years in this capacity under his previous commander General Curtis E. LeMay, who was then vice chief of staff. At the end of his Pentagon tour he was presented with the Distinguished Service Medal by General LeMay, U.S, Air Force chief of staff. For the next year he continued in the same job when General Frederic H. Smith became vice chief of staff. Deputy commander of the 2nd Air Force (SAC) Sep 1956 – Aug 1959 In 1956 he was assigned as deputy commander of the 2d Air Force (SAC). Following this two-year tour, he became commander of the 3d Air Division at Guam, with responsibility for SAC Forces West of the 180th meridian. Chief of staff to General Curtis E. LeMay Sep 1952 – Sep 1956 The assignment which did most to shape his subsequent career was that of chief of staff, Headquarters, Strategic Air Command, Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, in September 1952, a post he held until September 1956. As a principal staff assistant to then SAC commander in chief General Curtis E. LeMay, Montgomery participated in the buildup of SAC into the most powerful military force in the world history. Joint Strategic Plans & Operations Group 1947–1949 A 1947 graduate of the Air War College, Montgomery became a member of the Joint Strategic Plans and Operations Group for General Douglas MacArthur in Tokyo. The following year he joined the 51st Fighter Wing at Naha Air Force Base, Okinawa. Flying then the new F-80 jet "Shooting Star" aircraft, the 51st Jet Fighter Wing pioneered in long overwater mass jet training flights in the Far East under Montgomery's leadership. Deputy commander Briggs Air Force Base 1949–1952 Returning to the U.S. in 1949, he was assigned to Biggs Air Force Base in Texas and early in 1950 became deputy commander of the 97th Bombardment Wing located there. His assignment to SAC headquarters followed that tour of duty. A veteran of more than 30 years Air Force service, Montgomery was twice awarded the Legion of Merit while serving with the Strategic Air Command. Aviation cadet training program/model basic flying school 1947–1949 Throughout his earlier years in the air corps, Montgomery held varied staff and command assignments. His first wartime job was concerned with organization of the aviation cadet training program. During this period he established a model Basic Flying School at Independence, Kansas. Later he was assigned to the Office of the Assistant Chief, Air Staff Training, Army Air Force headquarters in the Pentagon, where his extensive field experience was brought to bear on the entire Air Force wartime training program. References External links United States Air Force generals United States Military Academy alumni Burials at Arlington National Cemetery Recipients of the Legion of Merit 1911 births 1987 deaths

4028378

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilt%20%28British%20band%29

Tilt (British band)

Tilt is an English group of electronic record producers, composed of Mick Park and Nic Britton. Formed in Coventry, by Mick Park and Mick Wilson in 1990, they became residents at The Eclipse, the first legal all night rave venue in the UK. Their time at Eclipse was inspirational, playing alongside Sasha, and motivating the boys to produce their own musical material. In 1993, they met with John Graham and Tilt was formed. 3 years later, out of their studios in Stoke-on-Trent, their first hit single "I Dream", released on Paul Oakenfold's Perfecto Records. After multiple successful singles including "My Spirit", "Places", and the captivating "Butterfly", along with "Rendezvous", which they recorded with Paul van Dyk, they saw themselves signed to Hooj Choons, the label of dance labels in that era. The Hooj Choons label released "Invisible", Top 20 in the UK Singles Chart. The unforgettable & timeless cover version of Robert Miles' "Children" and their "Dark Science EP" and at this point had reckoned seven UK chart hits. In 1997, the boys collaborated with the legendary Sex Pistols Manager Malcolm McLaren on Lakme 'The Bell Song' - which received critical acclaim. Graham left Tilt in 1999 to pursue his solo career and Parks and Wilson continued to release singles until joined by Andy Moor which saw the release of the album, Explorer, on Hooj Choons subsidiary label, Lost Language. Moor and Wilson subsequently left the band to pursue their own paths and in 2011, Nic Britton re-joined Mick Park as TILT with releases on Black Hole Recordings. The production of ‘No Other Day’ featured Maria Nayler ("Angry Skies" & "Headstrong") and re-released the Oakey favourite "The World Doesn’t Know" for Lost Language’s 100th release. Mick Park and Nic Britton the celebrated their huge remix of Cosmos "Take Me With You" supported by BBC Radio One and Kiss (UK radio station) and have since collaborated with Ben Shaw, Sam Mollison and Dominique Atkins (aka) 'Grace' and have released productions on Mesmeric Records, Black Hole Recordings, Perfecto Records, Pro B-Tech and Lost Language all being championed from a plethora of DJ's including Carl Cox, John Digweed, Hernan Cattaneo, Nick Warren, Paul Oakenfold & Pete Tong to name a few! After releasing their 'Best Of' album "Stop The World Revolving", 2014 was a flurry of activity. The production of an E.A.R (Electronic Artists Revealed) tutorial for Mac Pro and work on their album "Resonator" (Pro B-Tech), which hit No.2 in the Beatport charts and involved working with multiple artists, this resulted in a tour with a live visual show to critical acclaim from the dance community. After fantastic reviews from their 2015 release "Quad" on Stripped Recordings. TILT toured with Paul Oakenfold at sell out venues, including Ministry of Sound, Session & Cream and started a monthly residency with Frisky Radio with their programme 'Trip Switch' showcasing the hottest underground tunes. New challenges awaited with long standing collaborators Natasha Cadman and Silinder and delightful collaboration with the Queen of Soul and Gospel Music, Ruby Turner (Jools Holland) her first dance record production, "Deeper In Love", released on Perfecto House Records in 2017. Tilt are no strangers to the Irish connection (Psalm 33 with Sinead O'Connor-Tilt & Redanka's Jah remix) and 2019 saw them remix U2 "Summer of Love"(Island Records) with huge support from BBC Radio One, Paul Oakenfold, Rusty Egan and Solarstone and widespread acclaim meant they would go on to do 5 projects for the esteemed rockers. Averse to 'sitting still' 2019 was the birth of their own imprint record label / clothing brand ‘Guerilla Movement’with merch flying off the shelves, proving their versatility and in 2020 released their mix with Redanka commissioned by Bono of "Where the streets have no name" 2021/22 reunited Park with Wilson on a remix of "Gangsters" (The Specials), used by the Coventry City of Culture for their 2021 celebrations. The last 2 years have kept Tilt ever busy with scoring the music for their first film 'Wolflands. Recent projects include collaborations with Robbie Williams, Happy Mondays front woman Rowetta and Inder Goldfinger (Ian Brown) for UNKLE feat Ian Brown Tilt remix, with James Lavelle With a career spanning 3 decades, it's about time they toured... (coming 2024) Selected discography Albums 2005: Explorer (Lost Language) 2013: Stop the World Revolving (compilation) (Lost Language) 2014: Resonator (Pro B Tech Records) Singles 1995: "I Dream" (UK #69) (Warner Music / Perfecto) 1997: "My Spirit" (UK #61) (Warner Music / Perfecto) 1997: "Places" (UK #64) (Warner Music / Perfecto) 1998: "Butterfly" (UK #41) (US #31) (feat. Zee) (Warner Music / Perfecto) 1999: "Children" (UK #51) (Deconstruction Records) 1999: "Invisible" (UK #20) (Hooj Choons) 1999: "Angry Skies" (TILT & Maria Nayler)(Deconstruction Records) 2000: Dark Science EP (UK #55) (Hooj Choons) 2002: "Headstrong" (feat. Maria Nayler) (Baroque Records) 2004: "The World Doesn't Know" (UK #36) (Lost Language) 2004: "Twelve" (Lost Language) 2011: The Century EP (Lost Language) 2013: "My Release" (feat. Maria Nayler) (Black Hole Recordings) 2013: "Here Is Not Now" (feat. Sam Mollison) (Pro B Tech Records) 2015: "30 Hits of Acid" (feat. G-Man) (Pro B Tech Records) 2015: "Quad" (Stripped Recordings) 2018: "Black Samurai" (Tactal Hots Music) 2018: "Sinai" (Tactal Hots Music) 2023: "Reign" (UNKLE feat Ian Brown) with James Lavelle References External links Official Tilt website UK Official Charts Company from Official Charts Company US Chart stats from Billboard.com Musical groups established in 1995 Musical groups from Coventry English DJs English electronic music groups British trance music groups Electronic dance music DJs

4028405

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valmet%20Nr%20I

Valmet Nr I

Nr I is a class of articulated six-axle (B′2′B′ wheel arrangement), chopper-driven tram operated by Helsinki City Transport on the Helsinki tram network. All trams of this type were built by the Finnish metal industry corporation Valmet between the years 1973 and 1975. Between 1993 and 2004 all trams in the class were modernised by HKL and redesignated as Nr I+ class. Currently HKL classifies them as NRV I. Overview Nr I were the first type of articulated tram operated by the HKL. The design of the Nr I type trams was based on the GT6 type trams built by Duewag for various cities in western Europe since 1956, but the Nr I incorporated several technological innovations that had not been available when the GT6 was designed. The Nr I trams were delivered by Valmet between 1973 and 1975, with the first seven trams delivered in 1973, further 18 delivered in 1974 and the final 15 in 1975. As the first mass-produced tram type in the world, the Nr I featured thyristor chopper control. The first tram of this class entered revenue-earning service on 16 December 1973 on line 10. Although the trams of this type are numbered 31 to 70, the first unit was not the 31st tram to be used by the HKL. The HKL tram numbering system had been reset in 1959, with the numbering of new trams delivered that year beginning from 1. In the early 80s the city of Gothenburg, the forerunner in creation of modern light rail systems in Europe, wished to purchase Nr I -based trams from Valmet for its own tram network. However, due to pressure from the Swedish government, Göteborgs spårvägar were forced to place an order with the Swedish ASEA instead. In Helsinki a further developed version of the Nr I, the Nr II class, was delivered by Valmet for HKL between 1983 and 1987. The Nr II class trams have an identical external appearance and very similar interior layout to the Nr I class. From November 1993 onwards, starting with tram number 45, all Nr I units were modernised by HKL into Nr I+ class. The modernisation included updates to the technics of the trams, changes to the interior layout, addition of electronic displays displaying the name of the next stop, as well as replacement of the original seats with new ones. The last tram to be modernised was number 53, modernised in July 2004. A second modernisation process, labelled "life extension programme" by the HKL, begun in 2005. Like the earlier process, this programme includes updating much of the technics and changes to the interiors. Additionally the chassis of the trams will be sand-blasted and given a new surface finish. For some trams the life extension programme will be carried out in Germany. Liveries For the Nr I type trams, HKL decided to adopt a new livery. Instead of the traditional green/yellow colours, the new trams were painted light grey, with an orange stripes running along the top and bottom of the carriage. In 1986 HKL decided to abandon the unpopular orange/grey livery, and by 1995 all trams of this type were painted in the green/yellow colours, with the top half of the tram painted yellow and the bottom half green. Tram number 45, the first to be modernised into Nr I+ class, was painted in an experimental livery coinciding with the modernisation. The livery was identical with the standard green/yellow colours, but had an additional narrow yellow stripe running along the bottom of the carriage. This livery was not adapted to any other trams, and number 45 later reverted to the standard livery. Interior layout and design As built the Nr I class trams had a seating capacity of 41, with approximately 100 standing places, with the exception of the last tram of the class, number 70, which only had 39 passenger seats. Subsequently, the number of seats in all units was redecued by two, bringing the seating capacity down to 39 for numbers 31–69 and 37 for number 70. From 1982 onwards the conductor's seat was removed from all units (from thereon tickets were sold by the driver), and coinciding with this the seating arrangements of all Nr I trams was standardised to 39 passenger seats. Following the 1993–2004 modernisation process, HKL officially gives the seating capacity of all units as 39, with 106 standing places. Originally the seats of the Nr I class were covered beige-coloured artificial leather upholstery. As a part of the first modernisation process the original seats were substituted with ones upholstered in green fabric and featuring headrests made from green plastic. Future HKL are planning to order 40 new low-floor trams to enter service between 2009 and 2016. Coinciding with this, some of the Nr I class units are planned to be withdrawn from service. The Nr II class trams have been fitted with a low-floor midsection from 2006 onwards, and fitting the Nr I class units with similar midsections to increase their lifespan is also reported to be under consideration (as of June 2008). See also Trams in Finland References External links NrI Tram vehicles of Finland

4028423

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel%20%28New%20York%20nightclub%29

Tunnel (New York nightclub)

Tunnel was a nightclub located at 220 Twelfth Avenue, in the Chelsea neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. It operated from 1986 to 2001. The nightclub was located within the Terminal Warehouse Company Central Stores Building, also known as Chelsea Terminal Warehouse, which is now part of the West Chelsea Historic District. History Tunnel, less popularly and incorrectly also known as "The Tunnel," was owned by Boaz Aharoni, a real-estate developer, and Elli Dayan, founder and former chairman of Bonjour International, a company best known for blue jeans. The club was built in a space which was formerly a railroad freight terminal. Dayan sold the property to Marco Riccota in January 1990. Peter Gatien acquired the 80,000-square-foot nightclub in 1992. Tunnel closed its doors late in 2001 due to non-payment of rent and New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani's quality-of-life campaign. Gatien had been accused of drug trafficking, charges he was acquitted of, although he and his wife pleaded guilty to tax evasion and were deported to Canada in 2003. Description The club was named for the tunnel-like shape of the main room, in which train tracks from the early 1900s ran through a sunken area of the dance floor. These were a relic of an era in which railroad sidings from the Eleventh Avenue freight line of the New York Central Railroad ran directly into warehouse buildings in that area, so that goods could be transferred to and from freight cars which crossed the Hudson on car floats from Hoboken. The club was architecturally distinctive: a long, narrow space with multiple rooms on several levels. The dance floor featured several dance cages. The decor of the club changed frequently. One room, decorated by artist Kenny Scharf, was called the Kenny Scharf Lava Lounge. Others were decorated as Victorian libraries, S/M dungeons, and lounges. The club featured unisex bathrooms, which were the converted locker rooms formerly used by the freight terminal's workers. They had modern stalls with partitions and doors for privacy, extant rows of old lockers attached to the wall, as well as marks where the former shower stalls had been removed. In the late 1980s, Club Kids, including Michael Alig, Amanda Lepore, and RuPaul, often gathered in the V.I.P. room in the basement. During its lifespan, Tunnel frequently hosted Johnny Dynell and Roman Ricardo in the late 80s and into the early 90s. More DJs included Junior Vasquez, Danny Tenaglia, Jonathan Peters, Peregrine Hood, Little Louie Vega, DJ Renegade, Eddie Baez, DJ Justin Time, DJ Corbett, DJ DA, Bobby Rios and Hex Hector after the close of the original Sound Factory in the mid-1990s. It later presented Kurfew, a trance-techno oriented Saturday night party started by promoter Jeff Brenner and hosted by talent such as Lady Bunny, DJ Urbanox, Peppermint, DJ Vito Fun, DJ Redstar (DJ Chris Sharpe on WLIR), DJ Michael T, Amanda Lepore, DJ Jason, and DJ Steve Sidewalk. Tunnel introduced young clubbers to talent including Danny Tenaglia, Jonny McGovern, and Cazwell (as Morplay). Renowned doorman Fernando Sarralha was the keeper of the velvet rope. While the club attracted primarily gay audiences, it also attracted members of the hip hop community. One advantage of the multiple rooms of the club was the ability to host different types of parties, with as many as five or more DJs spinning different styles of music to varying crowds. In 1998, DJ Amadeus was named the resident DJ at Tunnel. In popular culture Celebrities Actor Vin Diesel once worked as a bouncer at Tunnel. Tunnel was one of the clubs promoted by Michael Alig and a hangout of the Club Kids, before Alig's conviction and subsequent incarceration for murdering Andre "Angel" Melendez. Films Tunnel is the location of the aliens' dance sequence in Richard W. Haines' film Alien Space Avenger (1989). Tunnel is the location of the opening sequence in Hype Williams' film Belly (1998). Tunnel was used for a scene in the movie Vampire's Kiss (1988), filmed between August and October 1987. The interior of Tunnel was used for the 'ghost train' scene of Ghostbusters II. A scene from Larry Clark's film Kids (1995) was shot at Tunnel in the summer of 1994. In the documentary film, Glory Daze: The Life and Times of Michael Alig (2015), Michael Alig recounts having enjoined the help of an unwitting taxi driver to help him and his co-killer Robert D. "Freeze" Riggs transport and throw into the river, near Tunnel, the box containing the upper body remains of Andre "Angel" Melendez. A scene from Straight Outta Compton (2015) shows Eazy-E meeting up with Ice Cube in a club; in a radio interview, Ice Cube says the club in question was Tunnel. Literature In Bret Easton Ellis' novel, American Psycho (1991), the club is frequented by Patrick Bateman and his associates as a trendy place to bring women or to purchase cocaine. Music Tunnel was the featured location in Johnny Kemp's video for his classic hit single "Just Got Paid" (1987). The rap group Onyx released a song called "The Tunnel" on their album Wakedafucup (2014), detailing their history with the historic night club. Tunnel is featured in Queen Pen's hit single, "Party Ain't A Party", in the lyric: "catch me on the rebound, or maybe at the Tunnel". Tunnel is referenced in Mobb Deep's track "The Infamous Prelude" off their seminal album, "The Infamous" (1995). The music video for DMX's debut single Get At Me Dog was filmed at Tunnel. Tunnel is referenced in Jayo Felony's hit single "Whatcha Gonna Do", in the lyric "Went to the Tunnel and brought down the roof". Tunnel is referenced in Nas's track "Blue Benz" off his thirteenth studio album, "King's Disease" (2020). Television In the HBO TV series Sex and the City episode Coulda, Woulda, Shoulda, Carrie Bradshaw discusses having a "drunken night" at Tunnel at age 22, which resulted in an unplanned pregnancy. In the episode Splat!, Lexi Featherston mentions that she used to go to Tunnel with Carrie in her youth. See also List of electronic dance music venues References Notes Defunct nightclubs in New York (state) Nightclubs in Manhattan Chelsea, Manhattan Eleventh Avenue (Manhattan)

4028488

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilie%20Autumn

Emilie Autumn

Emilie Autumn Liddell (born September 22, 1979) is an American singer-songwriter, poet, author and violinist. Autumn's musical style is described by her as "Fairy Pop", "Fantasy Rock" or "Victoriandustrial". It is influenced by glam rock and from plays, novels, and history, particularly the Victorian era. Performing with her all-female backup dancers The Bloody Crumpets, Autumn incorporates elements of classical music, cabaret, electronica, and glam rock with theatrics, and burlesque. Growing up in Malibu, California, Autumn began learning the violin at the age of four and left regular school five years later with the goal of becoming a world-class violinist; she practiced eight or nine hours a day and read a wide range of literature. Progressing to writing her own music, she studied under various teachers and went to Indiana University, which she left over issues regarding the relationship between classical music and the appearance of the performer. Through her own independent label Traitor Records, Autumn debuted in 1997 with her classical album On a Day: Music for Violin & Continuo, followed by the release in 2003 of her album Enchant. Autumn appeared in singer Courtney Love's backing band on her 2004 America's Sweetheart tour and returned to Europe. She released the 2006 album Opheliac with the German label Trisol Music Group. In 2007, she released Laced/Unlaced; the re-release of On a Day... appeared as Laced with songs on the electric violin as Unlaced. She later left Trisol to join New York based The End Records in 2009 and release Opheliac in the United States, where previously it had only been available as an import. In 2012, she released the album Fight Like a Girl. She played the role of the Painted Doll in Darren Lynn Bousman's 2012 film The Devil's Carnival, as well as its 2015 sequel, Alleluia! The Devil's Carnival. Life and career 1979–2000: Beginnings Emilie Autumn was born in Los Angeles, California, on September 22, 1979. Autumn grew up in Malibu, California. She has stated that "being surrounded by nature and sea had a lot to do with [her] development as a 'free spirit.'" Her mother worked as a seamstress, and she has said that her father was a German immigrant with whom she did not share a close relationship. While not musicians, her family enjoyed various genres of music. When Autumn was four years old, she started learning the violin, and later commented: "I remember asking for a violin, but I don't remember knowing what one was. I might have thought it was a kind of pony for all I know, but I don't remember being disappointed." Four years later, Autumn made her musical debut as a solo violinist performing with an orchestra, and won a competition. At the age of nine or ten, she left regular school with the goal of becoming a world-class violinist. On her time at the school, she remarked, "I hated it anyway, what with the status as 'weird,' 'antisocial,' and the physical threats, there seemed to be no reason to go anymore, so I just didn't." She practiced eight or nine hours a day, had lessons, read a wide range of literature, participated in orchestra practice, and was home-schooled. Growing up, she owned a large CD collection of "violin concertos, symphonies, chamber music, opera, and a little jazz". She began writing her own music and poetry at age thirteen or fourteen, though she never planned to sing any of her songs. She studied under various teachers and attended Indiana University in Bloomington, but left after two years there, because she disagreed with the prevailing views on individuality and classical music. She believed that neither the audience nor the original composer would be insulted by the clothing and appearance of the performer. While convinced that she would only play violin, eighteen-year-old Autumn decided to sing on one of her songs as a way of demonstrating to a major music producer, who wanted to sign her on a label, how it should sound. She became unhappy with the changes done to her songs, and decided to break away from the label and create her own independent record label, Traitor Records. Through it, she debuted with her classical album On a Day: Music for Violin & Continuo, which she recorded in 1997 when she was seventeen years old; its title refers to the fact that the album took only a day to record. It consists of her performing works for the baroque violin accompanied by Roger Lebow on the baroque cello, Edward Murray on harpsichord, and Michael Egan on lute. She considered it "more of a demo despite its length", and released it as "a saleable album" after fans who enjoyed her "rock performances starting asking for a classical album so that they could hear more of the violin." She also debuted with her poetry book Across the Sky & Other Poems in 2000, later re-released in 2005 as Your Sugar Sits Untouched with a music-accompanied audiobook. 2001–04: Enchant and collaborations As part of a recording project, Autumn traveled to Chicago, Illinois, in 2001, and decided to stay because she enjoyed the public transportation system and music scene there. She released the 2001 EP Chambermaid while finishing Enchant—she alternatively labeled the musical style on Chambermaid as "fantasy rock" and cabaret—and wrote the 2001 charity single "By the Sword" after the events of September 11, 2001. According to her, the song is about strength, not violence; the act of swearing by the sword represents "an unbreakable promise to right a wrong, to stay true". On February 26, 2003, Autumn released her concept album Enchant, which spanned multiple musical styles: "new-age, pop and trip hop chamber music". Written during her late teenage years, Enchant revolved around the supernatural realm and its effect on the modern-day world. Autumn labeled it as "fantasy rock", which dealt with "dreams and stories and ghosts and faeries who'll bite your head off if you dare to touch them". The faery-themed "Enchant Puzzle" appeared on the artwork of the album; her reward for the person who would solve it consisted of faery-related items. Her bandmates consisted of cellist Joey Harvey, drummer Heath Jansen, guitarist Ben Lehl, and bassist Jimmy Vanaria, who also worked on the electronics. At the same time of Enchants release, Autumn had several side projects: Convent, a musical group for which she recorded all four voices; Ravensong, "a classical baroque ensemble" that she formed with friends in California; and The Jane Brooks Project, which she dedicated to the real-life, 16th-century Jane Brooks—a woman executed for witchcraft. On the night of the Enchant release party, Autumn learned that Courtney Love had invited her to record an album, America's Sweetheart, and embark on the tour to promote it. Contributing violin and vocals, Autumn appeared in Love's backing band The Chelsea— along with Radio Sloan, Dvin Kirakosian, Samantha Maloney, and Lisa Leveridge—on the 2004 tour. Much of Autumn's violin work was ultimately not released on the album; she commented: "This had to do entirely with new producers taking over the project after our little vacation in France, and carefully discarding all of our sessions." She performed live with Love and The Chelsea on Late Show with David Letterman on March 17, 2004, and at Bowery Ballroom the next day. In September 2004, her father died from lung cancer, even though he had quit smoking twenty years earlier. Near the end of 2004, she was filmed for an appearance on an episode of HGTV's Crafters Coast to Coast, showing viewers how to create faery wings and sushi-styled soap—both products she sold in her online "web design and couture fashion house", WillowTech House. On December 23, 2004, she appeared on the Chicago-based television station WGN as part of the string quartet backing up Billy Corgan and Dennis DeYoung's duet of "We Three Kings". 2005–09: Opheliac, Laced/Unlaced, and A Bit o' This & That Autumn began work on her concept album Opheliac in August 2004, and recorded it at Mad Villain Studios in Chicago. In August 2005, she created the costumes for Corgan's music video for the track "Walking Shade"; she also contributed violin and vocals for the track "DIA" from his 2005 album TheFutureEmbrace. In late 2005, Autumn also recorded vocals and violin for "The Gates of Eternity" from Attrition's 2008 album All Mine Enemys Whispers: The Story of Mary Ann Cotton, a concept album focusing on the Victorian serial killer Mary Ann Cotton. Autumn later protested the release of the song, claiming that it was unfinished, "altered without her permission", and had been intended only as a possible collaboration with Martin Bowes. In January 2006, Autumn performed a song from the album, "Misery Loves Company", on WGN, before the album's release by the German label Trisol Music Group in September. She released the limited-edition, preview EP Opheliac through her own label, Traitor Records, in spring 2006; while the Opheliac EPs were being shipped, Autumn claimed that her offices had been robbed, causing the delay in the album release and the shipping of the EPs. According to her, Opheliac "was the documentation of a completely life-changing and life-ending experience". At one time, Autumn did have plans to film a music video for her song "Liar", which included "bloody bathtubs". Her song "Opheliac" later appeared on the 2007 albums 13th Street: The Sound of Mystery, Vol. 3, published by ZYX Music, and Fuck the Mainstream, Vol. 1, published by Alfa Matrix on June 19. On October 9, 2006, she appeared on the Adult Swim cartoon Metalocalypse as a guest artist and on the subsequent 2007 album The Dethalbum. November 2006 saw the release of the EP Liar/Dead Is the New Alive, which featured remixes of songs from Opheliac and new material. Autumn released her instrumental album, Laced/Unlaced in March 2007; it consisted of two discs: Laced, the re-release of On a Day..., and Unlaced, new songs for the electric violin. She decided to re-release On a Day as Laced because she "felt that it made a nice contrast to the metal shredding fiddle album, "Unlaced", and [...] loved that it was the perfect representation of "then" versus "now". She also performed live at the German musical events Wave Gotik Treffen and M'era Luna Festival in 2007. She later released A Bit o' This & That: a rarities album of her covers, including songs from The Beatles and The Smiths, classical pieces, and her own songs. In 2008, she released the EP 4 o'Clock, which contained remixes of songs from Opheliac, new songs, and a reading from her autobiographical novel The Asylum for Wayward Victorian Girls. She also released another EP, Girls Just Wanna Have Fun &Bohemian Rhapsody, the same year. A year later, Autumn broke away from Trisol Music Group to join The End Records and re-release Opheliac in the United States on October 27, 2009; previously, it was only available there as an import. The re-release included extras such as pictures, bonus tracks, an excerpt from The Asylum for Wayward Victorian Girls, and a video. In addition to releasing her own material, Autumn collaborated with other musicians. She contributed backing vocals and violin to the track "Dry" by Die Warzau and made an appearance in the band's music video for "Born Again". She played violin on the song "UR A WMN NOW" from OTEP's 2009 album, Smash the Control Machine. Additionally, two of her tracks appeared in film soundtracks: "Organ Grinder" from 4 o'Clock on the European edition of Saw III and a remixed version of "Dead Is The New Alive" from Opheliac on the international version of Saw IV. 2010–present: The Asylum for Wayward Victorian Girls and Fight Like a Girl Autumn's debut novel, The Asylum for Wayward Victorian Girls, was self-published in late 2009, with a second edition following in 2010. Because of the book's nature and possible autobiographical sections, she claimed its release was delayed because some did not want it published. The book combines Autumn's own real life journal entries, including those chronicling her time in a psych ward, and the diary of a fictional Victorian-era asylum inmate named "Emily". Autumn has said that the intent of the book was to show "there’s very little difference from asylums for ladies in 1841 and the ones for us now," and that the subject of mental illness remains misunderstood. In June 2010, Autumn released the acronym of her upcoming album, F.L.A.G., on her Twitter account, before revealing the full title as Fight Like a Girl. In her words, the meaning behind the title is "about taking all these things that make women the underdogs and using them to your advantage". Based on her novel, The Asylum for Wayward Victorian Girls, the album has been described as "an operatic feminist treatise set inside an insane asylum, wherein the female inmates gradually realize their own strength in numbers". On August 30, 2010, she announced that she would be undergoing jaw surgery, and had to postpone her North American tour dates while she recovered. In September 2011, she posted the full lyrics to the album's title track, "Fight Like a Girl", on her Twitter account. Autumn appeared at the 2011 Harvest Festival in Australia, and had planned to debut two songs from Fight Like a Girl during those performances. On April 11, 2012, Autumn released the single "Fight Like a Girl", with the song "Time for Tea" appearing as a B-side. On April 16, 2012, Autumn announced her plans to debut a three-hour musical adaptation of her autobiographical novel on London's West End theatre in 2014. According to her interview with Mulatschag, she has plans to play the roles of both protagonists, Emilie and Emily. In late 2011, a twelve-minute teaser was released for Darren Lynn Bousman and Terrance Zdunich's project The Devil's Carnival, featuring Autumn as The Painted Doll, her first major acting role. The film was released in April 2012. "Bloody Crumpets" members Beth "The Blessed Contessa" Hinderliter and Maggie "Captain Maggot" Lally also appear in the film as Woe-Maidens. On June 13, 2012, Autumn announced on her blog the release date of Fight Like a Girl, which was on July 24 of the same year. In 2013, Autumn produced and starred in her first ever music video, directed by Darren Lynn Bousman, for the song "Fight Like a Girl". Also appearing in the video are Autumn's Devil's Carnival co-stars Dayton Callie and Marc Senter, as well as Veronica Varlow, among others. In 2014, it was announced that Autumn would be appearing at a handful of dates on the 2014 Vans Warped Tour with an installation called "The Asylum Experience", which will include music, burlesque, circus sideshow attractions and theater. On September 22, 2018, she released The Asylum for Wayward Victorian Girls: Behind the Musical, an album with songs made for her upcoming musical. In 2018, she also published a short story titled The Gown. On November 3, 2021, Autumn released the single "The Passenger", a cover of the song by Iggy Pop, marking her first official release in three years. In January 2022 she released We Have Instructions, Who's a Little Leech?, and Portraits. Influences and musical style Her music encompasses a wide range of styles. Autumn's vocal range is contralto, but also has the ability to perform in the dramatic soprano range. Her vocal work has been compared to Tori Amos, Kate Bush, and The Creatures. She has released two instrumental albums (On a Day... and Laced/Unlaced), and four featuring her vocals: Enchant, Opheliac, A Bit o' This & That, and "Fight Like a Girl". The 2003 album Enchant drew on "new age chamber music, trip hop baroque, and experimental space pop". Autumn layers her voice frequently, and incorporates electronics and electronic effects into her work on Enchant; she also combines strings and piano for some songs, while others feature mainly the piano or violin. The 2006 release Opheliac featured "cabaret, electronic, symphonic, new age, and good ol' rock & roll (and heavy on the theatrical bombast)". A classically trained musician, Autumn is influenced by plays, novels, and history, particularly the Victorian era. She enjoys the works of Shakespeare, Elizabeth Barrett Browning and husband Robert, and Edgar Allan Poe. She incorporates sounds resembling Victorian machinery such as locomotives, which she noted was "sort of a steampunk thing". While a young Autumn cited Itzhak Perlman as an influence because of the happiness she believed he felt when he played, her main musical influence and inspiration is the English violinist Nigel Kennedy. Her favorite singer is Morrissey from The Smiths. She takes inspiration for her songs from her life experiences and mixes in "layers and layers of references, connections, other stories and metaphors". Autumn has variously described her music and style as "Psychotic Vaudeville Burlesque", "Victoriandustrial'", a term she coined, and glam rock because of her use of glitter onstage. According to Autumn, her music "wasn't meant to be cutesy" and is labeled as "industrial" mainly because of her use of drums and yelling. Her adaption of "O Mistress Mine" was praised by author and theater director Barry Edelstein as "a ravishing, guaranteed tearjerker". For her live performances, which she calls dinner theatre because of her practice of throwing tea and tea-time snacks off of the stage, Autumn makes use of burlesque—"a show that was mainly using humour and sexuality to make a mockery of things that were going on socially and politically"—to counterbalance the more morbid topics discussed in her music, such as abuse, suicide and self-mutilation. Her shows feature handmade costumes, fire tricks, theatrics, and her all-female backing band, The Bloody Crumpets, a group whose members have variously included burlesque performer Veronica Varlow as The Naughty Veronica, performance artist Maggie Lally as Captain Maggot, Jill Evyn as Lady Amalthea (or Moth), actress and performer Beth Hinderliter as The Blessed Contessa, actress Aprella Godfrey Barule as Lady Aprella, German musician Lucina as Little Lucina, cellist Sarah Kim as Lady Joo Hee, German costume designer Vecona as Captain Vecona, Jesselynn Desmond as Little Miss Sugarless, and Ulorin Vex. Her intention is for the live shows to be a statement of "anti-repression" and empowerment. Personal life She keeps a ritual of drawing a heart on her cheek as a symbol of protection. Autumn became vegetarian at age eleven after being unable to rationalize why she should eat farm animals but not her pet dog; in her late-teens, she became vegan. She has stated she believes that there is a link between the treatment of women and animals in society. In August 2014, Autumn said she had developed copper toxicity and was no longer vegan, although still a committed vegetarian. In 2021, Autumn adopted a Toy Manchester Terrier, who she named Darjeeling. She has endorsed companies such as Manic Panic and Samson Tech. Autumn has bipolar disorder, which she has discussed in a number of interviews. Discography Studio albums Enchant (2003) Opheliac (2006) Fight Like a Girl (2012) The Asylum for Wayward Victorian Girls: Behind the Musical (2018) Instrumental albums On a Day... (1997) Laced/Unlaced (2007) Concert tours The Asylum Tour (2007) The Plague Tour (2008) The Gate Tour (2008–2009) The Key Tour (2009) The Door Tour (2011) The Fight Like a Girl Tour (2011–2012) Bibliography Across the Sky & Other Poems (2000) Your Sugar Sits Untouched (2005) The Asylum for Wayward Victorian Girls (2009) The Gown: A Short Story (2017) Filmography 11-11-11 as 11'er in Video (2011) Uncredited The Devil's Carnival (2012) as Painted Doll Alleluia! The Devil's Carnival (2015) as June / The Painted Doll Notes References External links Emilie Autumn MetalBlast.net interview, April 17, 2012. Interview with Emilie Autumn 1979 births 21st-century American poets American contraltos American electronic musicians American feminists American harpsichordists American industrial musicians American people of German descent American rock violinists American women violinists American women poets Dark cabaret musicians Women rock singers Feminist musicians Living people Metropolis Records artists Singers from California Singers from Chicago People with bipolar disorder American women in electronic music Writers from California Writers from Illinois 21st-century American women singers 21st-century American singers Electric violinists 21st-century American violinists Women harpsichordists Steampunk music Women in punk

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha%20Coakley

Martha Coakley

Martha Mary Coakley (born July 14, 1953) is an American lobbyist, lawyer, and former politician who served as Attorney General of Massachusetts from 2007 to 2015. Prior to serving as Attorney General, she was District Attorney of Middlesex County from 1999 to 2007. Coakley was the Democratic nominee in the 2010 special election to fill the United States Senate seat long held by Ted Kennedy (and held in the interim by Paul G. Kirk). Coakley was defeated 52% to 47% by Republican Scott Brown in what was widely considered an upset. She won reelection as Attorney General in the 2010 general election. Coakley was the Democratic nominee for governor in 2014 but lost to Republican Charlie Baker. Coakley was a lobbyist for the e-cigarette company Juul until June 2022. Early life Coakley was born in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, to Edward J. and Phyllis E. Coakley. Her father was a World War II veteran, Korean War veteran, and small business owner. Her mother was a homemaker. When Coakley was one year old, she and her parents moved to North Adams. There, she attended St. Joseph's School and Drury High School, graduating in June 1971. Early career Coakley graduated cum laude with a B.A. from Williams College in 1975 and a J.D. from Boston University School of Law in 1979. In the summer of 1978, while a law student, Coakley clerked for the law firm of Donovan and O'Connor of Adams, Massachusetts. After graduating from law school, Coakley began work as an associate at the law firm of Parker, Coulter, Daley & White and later practiced at Goodwin Procter—both in Boston, Massachusetts. Assistant District Attorney She joined the DA's office in 1986 as an Assistant District Attorney in the Lowell, Massachusetts, District Court office. A year later, she was invited by the U.S. Justice Department to join its Boston Organized Crime Strike Force as a Special Attorney. Coakley returned to the District Attorney's office in 1989 and was appointed the Chief of the Child Abuse Prosecution Unit two years later. In 1997, while serving under Middlesex County, Massachusetts, District Attorney Tom Reilly, she and Gerry Leone led the courtroom prosecution of then 19-year-old English au pair Louise Woodward, who was later convicted in the shaking death of eight-month-old Matthew Eappen of Newton, Massachusetts. Run for State Representative In 1997, a special election was held for Boston's 16th Suffolk district to replace James T. Brett, who was resigning. Five candidates, who all lived in the same Ward 16 neighborhood, including a "thoughtful, but unknown assistant DA named Martha Coakley," entered the race. Coakley lost the race to Marty Walsh, receiving 11.7 percent of the vote. District Attorney In December 1997, Coakley resigned her position in order to campaign for District Attorney in Middlesex County. In 2001, Coakley successfully lobbied Acting Governor Jane Swift to deny clemency to Gerald Amirault, a defendant in the Fells Acres day care sexual abuse trial, whom many regarded as a victim of day care sex abuse hysteria. Clemency for Amirault had been recommended unanimously by the Massachusetts Parole Board. Amirault's co-accused mother and sister had already been released from custody. Wall Street Journal editorial board member Dorothy Rabinowitz cites Coakley's pursuit of the case despite lack of corroborating evidence as an example of questionable judgment on Coakley's part. Coakley's actions as District Attorney in the sexual abuse case of a 23-month-old girl in 2005 have drawn sharp criticism. Coakley, who oversaw the grand jury for the case, did not immediately indict Keith Winfield, a Somerville police officer. On August 1, 2006, after a criminal complaint was threatened to be filed by Larry Frisoli, attorney for the victim's single mother and the Republican candidate running against Coakley for Attorney General, she indicted Winfield. She requested for him to be released without cash bail. The District Attorney succeeding Coakley subsequently secured a conviction. Winfield was given two life sentences for the crime. Coakley later defended her actions by saying she acted appropriately with the evidence that was available at the time. As of 2012, film producer Steve Audette was making a documentary about Winfield's prosecution, conviction, and continued assertion of innocence; Audette was denied access to recordings of the trial in March 2013. Attorney General Coakley was elected Massachusetts Attorney General in the 2006 general election as a Democrat, defeating Republican Larry Frisoli with 73 percent of the vote. She was sworn in on January 17, 2007. Coakley became the first woman to serve as Attorney General in Massachusetts. During the Aqua Teen Hunger Force bomb scare in January 2007, Coakley was widely quoted in the press defending the reaction of Boston's emergency services. Small electronic signs advertising a cartoon had been mistaken for bombs; Massachusetts authorities halted traffic on two bridges and closed the Charles River before realizing the signs were harmless. Coakley defended the precautions because the LED signs had looked suspicious: "It had a very sinister appearance, it had a battery behind it, and wires." Both of those accused of putting up the signs which caused the bomb scare were given plea bargains, received community service and apologized publicly. In May 2007, Coakley testified before the Massachusetts State Legislature in support of the passage of a "buffer zone" law that created a buffer around entrances and driveways of reproductive health care facilities that offer abortion services. The law was signed into effect by Governor Deval Patrick on November 13, 2007, and was subsequently challenged by opponents and overturned by a unanimous decision of the Supreme Court as a violation of the First Amendment. The next month, she signed a Guide to Consumer Credit and activated a Consumer Complaint and Information Hotline for helping people in financial difficulties. In September 2008, Coakley worked with Apple Inc. and the National Federation of the Blind to have Apple redesign the popular iTunes software so it would comply with the federal Americans with Disabilities Act, as well as the Massachusetts Equal Rights Act. In November 2008, Coakley unsuccessfully argued the case of Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts before the United States Supreme Court. On February 5, 2009, she led an 18-state coalition, as well as the Corporation Counsel for the City of New York and the City Solicitor of Baltimore, urging the Environmental Protection Agency to take action in response to the 2007 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Massachusetts v. EPA. Though the Supreme Court ruled that the EPA did have the authority to regulate greenhouse gases under the Clean Air Act, the Agency had yet to make an official decision on whether it believes that greenhouse gas emissions pose dangers to public health or welfare. Coakley inherited litigation of the fatal 2006 Big Dig ceiling collapse from outgoing Attorney General Tom Reilly in 2007. On March 26, 2009, she settled the final lawsuit pertaining to the incident. Through eight lawsuits attached to the incident, Coakley's office recovered $610.625 million on behalf of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Coakley declined to conduct a criminal investigation of an aide to Thomas M. Menino, Mayor of Boston, for allegedly violating laws regarding the destruction of public e-mail records, describing the request as politically motivated. On July 8, 2009, Coakley filed a suit challenging the constitutionality of the Defense of Marriage Act. The suit claims that Congress "overstepped its authority, undermined states' efforts to recognize marriages between same-sex couples, and codified an animus towards gay and lesbian people." Massachusetts is the first state to challenge the legislation. In 2009, Coakley won settlements of $60 million from Goldman Sachs and $10 million from Fremont Investment & Loan for their abuse of subprime loans and lending. In 2010, Coakley helped draft a Massachusetts law regulating obscenity on the internet. In a decision celebrated by civil rights advocates, the law was overturned by a federal judge after a coalition of booksellers and website publishers sued, claiming the new law was unconstitutional and would hold criminally liable anyone who operates a website containing nudity or sexual material, including subjects such as art or even health information such as pregnancy or birth control. They said the law failed to distinguish between open websites and obscene material. Federal Judge Rya W. Zobel stated that the plaintiffs demonstrated "without question" that the law violated the First Amendment by infringing on and inhibiting free speech. During Coakley's tenure as Attorney General, misconduct at Massachusetts' crime laboratories led to the reexamination of tens of thousands of drug convictions. Chemist Annie Dookhan was accused of forging reports and tampering with samples to produce desired results. Similarly, Sonja Farak was accused of tampering with the evidence she was tasked with analyzing by using it to get high herself. The actions of both women, who acted independently, resulted in tens of thousands of drug counts being dismissed, the largest single mass dismissal of criminal cases in U.S. history. How to Fix a Drug Scandal is an American true crime documentary miniseries that was released on Netflix on April 1, 2020, that was created by Erin Lee Carr, who followed the aftereffects of this notorious case. How to Fix a Drug Scandal depicts the role of Martha Coakley, who was accused of political cover up. Political campaigns 1997 Massachusetts state representative campaign Martha Coakley finished fourth with 12% of the primary vote in her first run for office against future Boston Mayor and US Secretary of Labor Marty Walsh (33%), neighborhood activist Charles Tevnan (16%) and Edward Regal (10%). 1998 District Attorney campaign Martha Coakley won the Democratic primary (48%) against Michael A. Sullivan (28%) and Timothy Flaherty (25%) and coasted to a 71–29% general election win against Republican Lee Johnson. 2002 District Attorney campaign Martha Coakley was unopposed in both the primary and the general election. 2006 Attorney General campaign Martha Coakley was unopposed in the Democratic primary. She won the General election (73%-27%) against Republican Larry Frisoli. 2010 U.S. Senate campaign On September 1, 2009, Coakley was the first candidate to take out nomination papers to run in a special election to succeed the late Edward M. Kennedy in the United States Senate in the special election in 2010. Two days later, on September 3, Coakley officially announced her candidacy on her website. She won the Democratic primary on December 8, 2009. Her opponents were Republican Scott Brown and Libertarian Joseph L. Kennedy (no relation to the Kennedy family). Coakley was endorsed by The Boston Globe on January 14, 2010. In her last television debate January 11, 2010, at the University of Massachusetts Boston, when asked about the prospects of victory in Afghanistan, Coakley stated, "I think we have done what we are going to be able to do in Afghanistan. I think that we should plan an exit strategy. Yes. I'm not sure there is a way to succeed. If the goal was and the mission in Afghanistan was to go in because we believed that the Taliban was giving harbor to terrorists, we supported that. I supported that. They're gone. They're not there anymore. They're in, apparently Yemen, they're in Pakistan. Let's focus our efforts on where Al Qaeda is." This statement drew criticism from Scott Brown and his supporters, including Rudy Giuliani. Coakley committed a number of gaffes during the campaign. When criticized for leaving the state for a Washington fundraiser instead of campaigning, Coakley responded by saying "As opposed to standing outside Fenway Park? In the cold? Shaking hands?" Barack Obama, in reflecting on his presidency, cited this comment as an instigating factor for Coakley's election loss, as well as a hurdle for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Coakley also referred to Red Sox star pitcher and Brown supporter Curt Schilling as "another Yankee fan," making her a target of derision. Coakley admitted to making a mistake while filing the financial disclosure forms for her Senate run, claiming to have no personal assets when she had an account under her husband's name with over $200,000 and a personal IRA containing approximately $12,000. On January 19, 2010, Coakley was defeated by Brown 52% to 47% in the special election. Brown received 1,168,107 votes, Coakley received 1,058,682 votes, and Joseph L. Kennedy received 22,237 votes. 2010 Attorney General campaign Coakley successfully ran for reelection, defeating her main challenger, Republican nominee Jim McKenna. 2014 Massachusetts gubernatorial campaign On September 15, 2013, WCVB-TV learned of Coakley's intention to run for the Massachusetts governorship when incumbent Democrat Deval Patrick retired in 2014. Coakley was set to formally announce her entry into the race the following Monday. She won the Democratic nomination on September 9, 2014. On November 4, 2014, she was narrowly defeated in the general election for governor by Republican Charlie Baker, who was endorsed by the Boston Globe despite the Globe'''s having endorsed Coakley four years prior in her Senate campaign. After the election, the Globe wrote that Coakley had been "redeemed, even in defeat," saying that she had been "haunted" by her failed bid for the U.S. Senate four years earlier and had been a "relentless, and frequently terrific, campaigner. Coakley worked her heart out meeting voters across the state. She arrived at the rationale for her candidacy that eluded her four years ago: She had proven she cares about the state's most vulnerable citizens." The Globe added that "this person of remarkable accomplishments, grace, and resilience looks to be leaving public life. That's a big loss." Post-political career From 2015 through early 2019, Coakley worked for Foley Hoag, a Boston-based law firm, as a lawyer and lobbyist. While at the firm, Coakley represented the fantasy sports website DraftKings and student-loan firm Navient when state governments were examining the practices of these industries. In April 2019, it was announced that Coakley had taken a full-time role with electronic cigarette maker Juul on their government affairs team. As a former attorney general, lobbying attorneys general for the vaping industry has called into question the ethics of Coakley's work for Juul, a leader in the electronic cigarette industry accused of marketing addictive nicotine products to youths. Personal life Coakley resides in Medford, Massachusetts. She is married to retired police Deputy Superintendent Thomas F. O'Connor Jr. See also List of female state attorneys general in the United States References External links Attorney General Martha Coakley official Massachusetts government website Collected news and commentary at the Boston Herald Collected news and commentary] at MassLive.com 2010 US Senate campaign contributions from OpenSecrets.org Martha Coakley: Why I'm Running for Senate, Martha Coakley, Christian Science Monitor'', January 15, 2010 |- |- |- 1953 births Living people 21st-century American politicians 21st-century American women politicians American women lawyers Boston University School of Law alumni Candidates in the 2010 United States elections District attorneys in Middlesex County, Massachusetts Massachusetts Attorneys General Massachusetts Democrats Massachusetts lawyers People associated with Foley Hoag People from North Adams, Massachusetts Politicians from Pittsfield, Massachusetts Williams College alumni Women in Massachusetts politics

4028538

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay%20it%20forward

Pay it forward

Pay it forward is an expression for describing the beneficiary of a good deed repaying the kindness to others rather than paying it back to the original benefactor. The concept is old, but the particular phrase may have been coined by Lily Hardy Hammond in her 1916 book In the Garden of Delight. Robert Heinlein's 1951 novel Between Planets helped popularize the phrase. "Pay it forward" is implemented in contract law of loans in the concept of third party beneficiaries. Specifically, the creditor offers the debtor the option of paying the debt forward by lending it to a third person instead of paying it back to the original creditor. This contract may include the provision that the debtor may repay the debt in kind, lending the same amount to a similarly disadvantaged party once they have the means, and under the same conditions. Debt and payments can be monetary or by good deeds. A related type of transaction, which starts with a gift instead of a loan, is alternative giving. History Paying forward was used as a key plot element in the denouement of a New Comedy play by Menander, Dyskolos (the title can be translated as "The Grouch"), a prizewinning play in ancient Athens in 317 BC. The oldest, and perhaps most basic pattern of this concept, is the inter-generational devotion of parents to their children, re-enacting what their own parents did for them. In her 1916 book In the Garden of Delight, Lily Hardy Hammond reflects, "I never repaid Great-aunt Letitia's love to her, any more than she repaid her mother's. You don't pay love back; you pay it forward." American author and former war correspondent Richard Harding Davis, had already published a popular short story in The Metropolitan Magazine (dated March, 1914) entitled "The Boy Scout," that also dealt directly with the same concept. In it, a young "Scout" does a "good deed" that eventually reverberates world-wide. Regarding money, the concept was described by Benjamin Franklin, in a letter to Benjamin Webb dated April 25, 1784: In Ecclesiastes 11:1, it is written: Cast your bread upon the waters, for you will find it after many days. Jesus taught in Matthew 18:21–35, that paying it forward is a requirement for those who have received God's forgiveness. He told a parable of a man who had been forgiven a huge debt by the king, because the debtor had begged for mercy. However, after being freed from the debt, he found a fellow who owed him a very small debt, by comparison. Although he had been shown a great mercy, he refused the same consideration to his fellow who had pled for more time to pay. When the king found this out, he was angry, and threw the original debtor into prison until he paid the entire debt. Jesus summarized the story by saying, "So likewise shall my heavenly Father do also unto you, if ye from your hearts forgive not every one his brother their trespasses." Ralph Waldo Emerson, in his 1841 essay "Compensation", wrote: "In the order of nature we cannot render benefits to those from whom we receive them, or only seldom. But the benefit we receive must be rendered again, line for line, deed for deed, cent for cent, to somebody." Woody Hayes (1913 – 1987), winner of five national titles as football coach at Ohio State University, misquoted Emerson as having said "You can pay back only seldom. You can always pay forward, and you must pay line for line, deed for deed, and cent for cent." He also shortened the (mis)quotation into "You can never pay back; but you can always pay forward" and variants. The 1929 novel, Magnificent Obsession, by Lloyd C. Douglas, also espoused this philosophy, in combination with the concept that good deeds should be performed in confidence. An anonymous spokesman for Alcoholics Anonymous said in The Christian Science Monitor in 1944, "You can't pay anyone back for what has happened to you, so you try to find someone you can pay forward." Also in 1944, the first steps were taken in the development of what became the Heifer Project, one of whose core strategies is "Passing on the Gift". In Robert Heinlein's 1951 novel Between Planets, the circumstances of war place the protagonist in a country where it is illegal to spend his foreign money. He is hungry and a stranger gives him enough to pay for lunch: The mathematician Paul Erdős heard about a promising math student unable to enroll in Harvard University for financial reasons. Erdős contributed enough to allow the young man to register. Years later, the man offered to return the entire amount to Erdős, but Erdős insisted that the man rather find another student in his situation, and give the money to him. It is also possible for the original beneficiary to become part of the later chain of kindness. Some time in 1980, a sixteen-page supplemental Marvel comic appeared in the Chicago Tribune entitled “What Price a Life?” and was subsequently reprinted as the backup story in Marvel Team-Up #126 dated February 1983. This was a team-up between Spider-Man and The Incredible Hulk, in which Spider-Man helps the Hulk escape from police who mistakenly thought that he was attacking them. Afterwards, they meet in their secret identities, with Peter Parker warning Bruce Banner to leave town because of the Hulk's seeming attack on police. But Banner is flat broke, and cannot afford even bus fare. As a result, Parker gives Banner his last $5 bill, saying that someone had given him money when he was down on his luck, and this was how he was repaying that debt. Later, in Chicago, the Hulk confronts muggers who had just robbed an elderly retired man of his pension money, all the money he had. After corralling the muggers, the Hulk turns towards the victim. The retiree thinks that the Hulk is about to attack him as well, but instead, the Hulk gives him the $5 bill. It transpires that the very same old man had earlier given a down-on-his-luck Peter Parker a $5 bill. "Pay it Forward Chains" in fast food stores has become somewhat common, where people pay for the drink or food items in front of them. Starbucks, for example, frequently has long chains, including one of 378 customers at a Florida Starbucks. There has, however, been some controversy around them, as Baristas who experience them complain about mixed up orders while other customers have found themselves stuck with significantly larger payments than the cost of their food and potential confrontations as a result. The concept of setting up a "Pay It Forward chain" in order to profit from a massive order was lampooned in an episode of the Netflix series, I Think You Should Leave with Tim Robinson. This resulted in an internet meme based on the order he placed, "55 Burgers, 55 Fries, 55 Tacos, 55 Pies, 55 Cokes, 100 Tater Tots, 100 Pizzas, 100 Chicken Tenders, 100 Meatballs, 100 Coffees, 55 Wings, 55 Shakes, 55 Pancakes, 55 Pastas, 55 Peppers, and 155 Taters, totaling $680" which was sold on its own t-shirt. 1999 novel, film and subsequent projects In 1999, Catherine Ryan Hyde's novel Pay It Forward was published and then adapted in 2000 into a film of the same name, distributed by Warner Bros. and starring Kevin Spacey, Helen Hunt and Haley Joel Osment. In Ryan Hyde's book and movie, it is described as an obligation to do three good deeds for others in response to a good deed that one receives. Such good deeds should accomplish things that the other person cannot accomplish on their own. In this way, the practice of helping one another can spread geometrically through society, at a ratio of three to one, creating a social movement with an impact of making the world a better place. The Pay it Forward Movement and Foundation was founded in the USA helping start a ripple effect of kindness acts around the world. The newly appointed president of the foundation, Charley Johnson, had an idea for encouraging kindness acts by having a Pay it Forward Bracelet that could be worn as a reminder. Since then, over a million Pay it Forward bracelets have been distributed in over 100 countries sparking acts of kindness. Few bracelets remain with their original recipients, however, as they circulate in the spirit of the reciprocal or generalized altruism. In 2007, International Pay It Forward Day was founded in Australia by Blake Beattie. It has now spread to 70 countries with over 50 state and city proclamations. It is estimated that it has inspired over five million acts of kindness and has featured on 7, 9, 10, ABC, NBC, Fox 5, Fox 8 and Global News in Canada. On April 5, 2012, WBRZ-TV, the American Broadcasting Company affiliate for the city of Baton Rouge, Louisiana, did a story on The Newton Project, a 501(c)(3) outreach organization created to demonstrate that regardless of how big the problems of the world may seem, each person can make a difference simply by taking the time to show love, appreciation and kindness to the people around them. It is based on the classic pay-it-forward concept, but demonstrates the impact of each act on the world by tracking each wristband with a unique ID number and quantifying the lives each has touched. The Newton Project's attempt to quantify the benefits of a Pay It Forward type system can be viewed by the general public at their website. Economic model Several firms have adopted the pay it forward approach as an economic model. These include Karma Kitchen, where patrons' meals have already been paid for by previous customers, and customers are then encouraged to contribute toward future patrons' meals. Heifer Project International pioneered the approach in sustainable development, and it has been utilized by microfinance lenders. Some authors advocate the pay it forward approach be utilized as the primary means of economic transaction. Experiments and explanations Several experiments document that individuals pay forward in the sense that they pass on a behavior that they have experienced. Individuals who are given more money are, for example, more likely to donate to a stranger. Individuals who are assigned easy tasks are more like to assign someone else to an easy tasks. Finally, drivers who experience that others are insisting on their right of way are more likely to insist on their right of way. Two explanations for the observed paying-it-forward have been considered. Evolutionary biologists and psychologists argue that being helped or harmed leads to an emotional reaction such as gratitude or anger, which in turn trigger the respective behavior. Being given an annoying task renders an individual angry and this is why she assigns an annoying task to the next person. Alternatively, individuals may learn from their experience what seems to be appropriate behavior (social learning theory). Being given an annoying task indicates to the individual that this assignment is adequate in this context. This then leads the individual to assign the annoying task to the next person. Schnedler (2020) finds that individuals no longer pay forward if behavior cannot be directly imitated. This suggests that at least in the experiments so far paying forward is driven by social learning rather than emotions. See also Cool To Be Kind Eleemosynary Feed the Deed Free Money Day Gift economy Random act of kindness Reciprocity (social psychology) Reciprocity (cultural anthropology) Six degrees of separation Social business Social responsibility Suspended coffee References External links Pay it Forward Day UK International Pay it Forward Day Pay It Forward Life Pay It Forward movie Giving 1784 introductions Sociological terminology

4028633

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal%20Expellee%20Law

Federal Expellee Law

The Federal Law on Refugees and Exiles (, BVFG; Gesetz über die Angelegenheiten der Vertriebenen und Flüchtlinge; literally: Law on the affairs of the expellees and refugees) is a federal law passed by the Federal Republic of Germany on 19 May 1953 to regulate the legal situation of ethnic German refugees and expellees who fled or were expelled after World War II from the former eastern territories of the German Reich and other areas of Central and Eastern Europe. The law was amended on 3 September 1971. The major force behind the law was the All-German Bloc/League of Expellees and Deprived of Rights party, which had among its supporters – besides German citizens, who had fled or were expelled from formerly German territory annexed by Poland and the Soviet Union – many formerly non-citizens, who experienced by the end of World War II and the post-war years of ethnic cleansing, denaturalisation, robbing and humiliation (1945–1950) carried out by the governments of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and Yugoslavia. Provisions The law applies to refugees and exiles (also known as expellees), which it defines as a German citizen or an ethnic German who resided in the former eastern territories of the German Reich, "located temporarily under foreign administration", or in areas outside the German Reich as at 31 December 1937, who as a result of the events of World War II suffered expulsion, in particular by removing or escape. Those expellees who were not already German nationals became entitled to German citizenship. The law did not apply to German nationals, including expellees and refugees from other countries, who at the time the Federal Republic of Germany was founded in 1949, were entitled to German citizenship under the 1913 nationality law and under Article 116 (2) of the Basic Law (federal constitution), but rather to ethnic Germans who only later managed to escape persecuting states and were entitled to German citizenship under the 1913 law. The law also contained a heredity clause entitling children of expellees to inherit German ethnicity and citizenship: "If one parent was a German citizen or ethnic German residing on December 31, 1937, or earlier, in the areas of exile..." Inheriting the status of "expelled" resulted in an increase in the number of persons covered by the Act. According to the statistical yearbook, in 1971 in West Germany there were 8.96 million "expellees" under the law who could apply for a document certifying this classification (; i.e. Federal Expellee Card). The law also recognises as refugees and expellees entitled to German citizenship refugees from Germany, who emigrated or were expelled after 30 January 1933 to flee factual or impending persecution on the grounds of their political opposition, their racial classification, their religion or philosophy of life (). The persons entitled to German citizenship also include (former) foreign citizens of states of the Eastern Bloc, who themselves – or whose ancestors – were persecuted or discriminated between 1945 and 1990 for their German or alleged German ethnicity by their respective governments. The argument goes that the Federal Republic of Germany had/has to administer to the needs of these foreigners, because their respective governments in charge of guaranteeing their equal treatment as citizens, severely neglected or contravened that obligation. See also German Law of Return German nationality law References External links Bundesvertriebenengesetz at juris.de Aftermath of World War II in Germany German nationality law Refugees in Germany Post–World War II forced migrations

4028710

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spheres%20of%20Justice

Spheres of Justice

Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality is a 1983 book by the philosopher Michael Walzer. Summary Walzer explores the concept of distributive justice, which concerns the fair allocation of goods and resources in society. He argues against the idea of a single universal principle of justice that can be applied uniformly across all spheres of life. Instead, he suggests that different social goods should be distributed according to different principles, taking into account the specific characteristics and values of each sphere. Walzer argues in favour of an idea he calls "complex equality", and against the view that goods with different meaning and content can be lumped together into the larger category of primary goods, as is advocated by John Rawls, in his A Theory of Justice (1971). According to Walzer, each sphere has its own internal logic and should be governed by distinct principles of distribution that reflect the particular goods and values at stake. Reception Spheres of Justice has, together with Just and Unjust Wars (1977) and Interpretation and Social Criticism (1987), been identified as one of Walzer's most important works by the philosopher Will Kymlicka. References Bibliography External links preview through Google Books (large images) 1983 non-fiction books Basic Books books Books by Michael Walzer Books in political philosophy English-language books

4028714

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick%20Leagas

Patrick Leagas

Patrick Leagas is a British musician. Leagas was a founding member of Death In June. After leaving Death In June in 1985 during a tour in Italy, Leagas formed Sixth Comm in 1986 and began working under the name Patrick O-Kill. Sixth Comm frequently collaborated with the Dutch neopagan Freya Aswynn and expressed neopagan themes. Leagas later met vocalist Amodali at a Liverpool club in 1989. The two collaborated extensively in the 1990s as Mother Destruction, which released five albums with pagan themes and influences from electronic dance music. After this, Leagas left music for a period of time when he focused on family life and lived abroad. He returned to music with a double album with Sixth Comm in 2006. References Living people Year of birth missing (living people) Death in June members English modern pagans Performers of modern pagan music

4028727

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive%20pump

Inductive pump

An Inductive pump is a magnetically regulated positive displacement pump used to pump liquids and gases. It is capable of handling many corrosive chemicals as well as solvents and gases. It is characterized by a single piston that reciprocates within a magnetic field and therefore doesn’t require a dynamic seal to link the piston to an outside mechanical power source. Check valves are placed at both ends of the piston housing allowing the simultaneous suctioning and pumping that reverses with each stroke. This is known to reduce pulsations especially at higher flow rates. The piston and housing are constructed of materials that are inert to many liquids and gasses. Because the piston and housing are non-plastic materials the positive displacement chamber does not change in dimension from flexing and distortion thus allowing inductive pumps to remain very accurate with no significant changes over time. Inductive pumps are extremely accurate as each stroke contains the same volume created by a solid piston inside a solid chamber. The number of strokes can be counted or timed to determine the total volume delivered. They can be used in sterile and controlled environments as they will not leak to the outside of the housing even if the piston has experienced wear. Efficiency Inductive pumps are considered highly accurate and energy efficient. Inductive pumps use two primary parameters to control flow, they are Rate and Dwell. Rate is used to determine the number of strokes per second or in any given time interval. Dwell is used to control the length of time the energizing coil remains on during the Rate cycle. Essentially if the piston has completed its stroke and is waiting for the reverse cycle to occur, there is no need to continue energizing the coil as most of this energy will be converted to heat as no more work is being done by the piston. The Dwell setting allows adjustment of this ON time during the rate cycle. Also the Dwell setting allows for a true pressure control parameter for the pump. By reducing the Dwell time even further one can reduce the total energy applied to the piston during the pumping cycle. This can reduce the maximum output pressure during pumping. This differs from many other pumps as they commonly reduce flow to reduce pressure in a given circumstance, however if an occlusion occurs to the output channel other pumps tend to build up to their maximum pressure until they either burst the tubing or damage their internal mechanism. Inductive pumps can be shut off at the outlet and will not exceed the pressure they are set at. Pumping against a closed output does not cause damage to the pump. History The Inductive Pump was first patented in the United States by Laurence R. Salamey in 1998 U.S. patent number 5 713 728 and again in 1999 U.S. patent number 5 899 672. An additional patent has been filed for in 2014 by Salamey. The pump was originally designed as an improvement to peristaltic and diaphragm pumps as they were susceptible to fracturing of the pumping chamber with use due to their flexing of plastic parts. Inductive pumps were found to be an improvement to accuracy and length of service before repairs were required. Over time Salamey continued to develop his understanding of magnetic fields and their use for propagation of force with the inductive pump. This has led to further refinements and increased efficiency. Additionally inductive pumps have developed the ability to achieve much higher pressures in excess of 3,000 psi. The same inductive pump technology can be applied to very small pumps delivering volumes in the micro-liter range to much larger pumps delivering volumes in the 10 gallon per minute range. Understanding of magnetic field propagation has led to increased design simplicity which is a hallmark of inductive pumps. There are very few moving parts and no mechanical linkages. The piston is the only moving part aside from the check valves and it is driven by an electrically controlled magnetic field. Applications Inductive pumps have been used in many different applications such as the following: Industrial chemical feed systems Water Treatment chemical injection process Oil bearing lubrication of industrial pump and motor bearings (Block and Budris, 2004) Automotive pumping systems i.e. fuel pumps, vacuum pumps, exhaust treatment pumps etc. Micro-liter disbursement of flavoring in food manufacturing High Pressure injection of chemicals into oil and gas transfer lines Industrial waste water treatment before discharge Industrial laundry chemical feed systems Sub-oceanic in situ mass spectroscopy environmental testing Environmental sampling and chemical treatment dosing Important design characteristics Inductive pumps use both sides of the piston to pump and suction simultaneously. This means that both sides of the pump piston are always experiencing the inlet pressure at a minimum until the pressure cycle that would exceed the inlet pressure. This may be interpreted as meaning the net head pressure in a closed circuit, at the beginning of a stroke cycle, is always zero. Therefore, inductive pumps may be used in very high pressure closed circuits to circulate liquids at very low differential pressures. Essentially the inductive pump does not have to overcome the closed system pressure in order to move liquid in the system. This results in far less use of energy to move liquid with the circuit. This also provides additional circulation without any dynamic seals that could eventually leak to the outside of the system. Additionally inductive pumps may also be connected in series to approximately double the pressure while not increasing the volume. They may also be connected in parallel to approximately double the volume while not increasing the pressure. Most positive displacement pumps cannot increase output pressure when placed in series as they both stop when they reach their max operating pressure. The inductive pumps add to each other due to the zero differential seen on the second pump from the first pump. Technology The fundamental basis for induced voltage in a magnetic field comes from Faraday's law describing an induced electromotive force (EMF) as follows: Emf = -N (∆Φb / ∆t) (Nave, C. R. 2011). This states that as the number of magnetic flux lines increase or decrease there is a subsequent change in induced voltage of negative or positive polarity. However the relationship of electric forces and magnetic forces were summed up in the Lorentz Force Law as: F = qE + qv x B. Here, all three forces were found to be perpendicular to each other (Nave, a, 2011). Thus Lorentz gave a specially oriented direction to each of the forces, allowing prediction of the direction of forces within the inductive pump architecture. Salamey further investigated the relationship of magnetic flux to circumferential area about the magnetic field where most of the magnetic forces were found to create mechanical forces used to direct the motion of the piston. Salamey further describes, in his second patent, the incorporation of a magnetic field gap. The gap is defined as a region of non-magnetic conduction circumferentially located at either end of the piston bore. The magnetic gap allows for increased propagation of magnetic flux through the magnetic piston body causing an increased force pulling the piston towards the magnetic end-pole (Salamey, 1999). Efficiencies Inductive pumps are designed for increased efficiency and were intended to reduce energy consumption in an environment that is increasingly demanding energy conservation. Most electric motors are, on average, about 85% efficient as evidenced by the usual stall test that shows a marked increase in current draw when the motor is stopped mechanically. Inductive pumps show no increase in current draw when stalled during operation as better than 95% of the current is being used to create a force on the piston. There are very few mechanical losses compared to conventional piston pumps and other technologies because there are no mechanical linkages between the piston and outside power sources. The inductive pump piston is driven directly by the magnetic field formed within the body structure about the bore and within the piston. There are minimal friction losses between the piston and bore due to a circumferential magnetic field that pulls the piston equally in all directions towards the wall of the bore. The resulting force is more axial along the path of the piston creating output pressure. Most other pumps use different types of gear reduction mechanisms to slow the motor rotation when driving the piston. These linkages result in significant energy losses in addition to the inefficiencies of the motor. Inductive pumps use various proprietary coatings to reduce friction drag and increase efficiency. Specific models of inductive pumps incorporate a seal-less ceramic interface with matching ceramic bore and piston interfaces ground to close tolerances that do not require use of elastic seals. Ceramic interfaces are inert to extremely caustic industrial acids, alkalis, and solvents. References Block, H. & Budris, A. (2004) Pump user’s handbook: life extension. Lilburn, GA: The Fairmont Press, Inc. Nave, C. R. "Faraday's Law". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Retrieved 19 August 2014. Nave, C. R. (a) “Lorentz Force Law” HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Retrieved 19 August 2014. Salamey, L. (1999). U S. Patent Not. 5,899,672. Washington, D C: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Whelan, P. M., Hodgeson, M. J., (1978). Essential Principles of Physics (2nd ed.). 1978, John Murray, Pumps

4028731

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westgate%20Resorts

Westgate Resorts

Westgate Resorts is an American timeshare resort company founded by David A. Siegel in 1982. The company first expanded from Central Florida to Miami and Daytona Beach. As of July 2021, Westgate Resorts has 22 locations across the United States. History Founded in 1982, Westgate Resorts operates as a subsidiary of Central Florida Investments, Inc. (CFI), which employs over 10,000 people and has evolved into the largest privately held corporation in the Central Florida area. Siegel opened CFI, a real estate development firm, with an office located in his family garage in 1970. The Westgate family of resorts was born in 1982 with the opening of a 16-unit resort at Westgate Vacation Villas. Westgate Lakes Resort & Spa opened in 1996, followed by Westgate Towers in 1997; Westgate Town Center and Westgate Smoky Mountain Resort & Spa in 1999; Westgate Flamingo Bay in 2001; Westgate Blue Tree Resort, Westgate Park City Resort & Spa and Westgate River Ranch in 2002; and Westgate Palace and Westgate Historic Williamsburg in 2003. Westgate Resorts now encompasses more than 13,500 villas at 22 full-service resorts. Siegel was recognized as a CEO of the Year honoree by the Orlando Business Journal in 2014. In 2016 Westgate Smoky Mountain Resort suffered extensive damage from a fire, rebuilding is said to have begun quickly. In May 2018, musician Barry Manilow returned to Las Vegas as the exclusive headliner at the Westgate International Theater at Westgate Las Vegas Resort & Casino. In June 2018, Westgate acquired the former Hilton New York Grand Central, a 23-floor, 300-room, two-tower hotel located in the historic Tudor City neighborhood within Midtown Manhattan's East Side that has been rebranded Westgate New York City. The Queen of Versailles In 2012, filmmaker Lauren Greenfield released a documentary entitled The Queen of Versailles, based on a series of interviews with Siegel, his wife Jackie Siegel, and their attempt to build a 90,000 square foot mansion, Versailles house, modeled after the famous French original. In the film, David Siegel is shown struggling (and ultimately failing) to secure funding for Westgate's Las Vegas high-rise resort, the PH Towers Westgate. Siegel's son and senior Westgate executive, Richard, is quoted as saying that David Siegel's determination not to lose the PH Tower was a major source of the company's financial troubles in 2009-11. On November 22, 2011, a controlling interest in the property was sold to Resort Finance America LLC. Lawsuits Legal dispute with building contractor Westgate Resorts was sued in a federal court in Las Vegas for failure to pay bills relating to the pH Towers and building work allegedly carried out to a poor standard. On February 27, 2013, Clark County District Judge Elizabeth Gonzalez ordered Westgate Resorts to pay the plaintiff, Tutor-Saliba Corp., $9 million in unpaid bills, and awarded $2.6m to Westgate for various shoddy building works including a cracked concrete swimming pool. Class action lawsuit Westgate Resorts was sued by 300 former sales employees in 2010 for unpaid sales commissions. They won the lawsuit and Westgate Resorts were ordered to pay $600,000. Despite paying $50,000 initially, Westgate stopped payment and the matter went back to the courts for another three years. The matter was finally settled under Judge Michael Baxley, and Westgate agreed to pay $500,000, $100,000 less than the original judgement required. In January 2014, Westgate Resorts filed dozens of new lawsuits against many of its former employees who were involved with this class action lawsuit, claiming that it deserves to recover previously paid sales commissions. According to the Orlando Sentinel, many of those included in these new lawsuits feel that these new legal actions are "...retaliation for the award granted to the defendant in a class action lawsuit," and one of the lawyers representing the former Westgate employees is quoted as saying that the action is "unconscionable". United States of America versus Westgate Resorts Ltd On January 20, 2009, Westgate Resorts Ltd. was found guilty and had to settle with the US Government for its violations of the Telemarketing Sales Rule ("Rule"), 16 C.F.R. Part 310, including the National Do Not Call Registry provisions. As part of its settlement with the US Government, it had to pay a $900,000 fine. Sexual harassment lawsuit In 2004, Central Florida Investments and David Siegel were sued by former Westgate employee Dawn Myers. In 2008, they were found liable for battery after a trial in the United States District Court for the Middle District of Florida. The jury awarded $5,378,863.14 but the judge reduced the award to $610,469.84: $103,622.09 in compensatory damages and $506,847.75 in punitive damages. This award arose from Myers's claim of battery under state law, but her claims of sexual harassment were found to be time-barred. In January 2010, The United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit dismissed an appeal and cross-appeal, affirming the district court's verdict. Lawsuit against the Sundance Institute and the filmmakers of The Queen of Versailles On January 10, 2012, David Siegel and Westgate Resorts, Ltd filed a lawsuit in Florida against the Sundance Institute and the filmmakers of The Queen of Versailles, claiming that Sundance's published film description was defamatory. On January 23, 2013, the United States District Court Judge Conway of the Middle District of Florida, ordered a stay of the lawsuit pending arbitration. In her order, Judge Conway called the testimony previously offered by Mr. Siegel during court hearings, "inconsistent and incredible and thus lacking weight". The matter was subsequently heard before an arbitrator for the Independent Film & Television Alliance (IFTA) in June 2013. On March 13, 2014, the arbitrator awarded in favor of the filmmakers, Lauren Greenfield and Frank Evers, including an order that David Siegel and Westgate Resort pay $750,000 to the filmmakers. The arbitrator wrote in the award, "Having viewed the supposedly egregious portions of the Motion Picture numerous times, [the Arbitrator] simply does not find that any of the content of the Motion Picture was false." The arbitrator also wrote that Westgate had failed to show how it was damaged from the documentary. Finally, the arbitrator wrote that Westgate "did not remotely establish the type of malice required for a defamation claim on behalf of a public figure." Political controversy CEO David Siegel, a Republican, sent an email in the fall of 2012 to all of his employees suggesting that he might "reduce the size of this company" if Obama were to win the 2012 presidential election. The email was widely interpreted by the media as a threat to the employees about possible layoffs if Barack Obama were to be re-elected. Siegel admitted in the documentary The Queen of Versailles as to possibly illegal activities in Florida during the 2000 United States elections, which he claims were singularly responsible for getting George W. Bush into the White House. In an August 2012 interview with Bloomberg Businessweek, Siegel elaborated on his claims: References External links Timeshare Division Westgate Events Westgate Owner Rewards Real estate companies of the United States Companies based in Orlando, Florida Siegel family Timeshare chains Real estate companies established in 1982 Hospitality companies established in 1982 American companies established in 1982 1982 establishments in Florida 1982 establishments in the United States

4028737

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20Lib/Dream%20Machines

Computer Lib/Dream Machines

Computer Lib/Dream Machines is a 1974 book by Ted Nelson, printed as a two-front-cover paperback to indicate its "intertwingled" nature. Originally self-published by Nelson, it was republished with a foreword by Stewart Brand in 1987 by Microsoft Press. In Steven Levy's book Hackers, Computer Lib is described as "the epic of the computer revolution, the bible of the hacker dream. [Nelson] was stubborn enough to publish it when no one else seemed to think it was a good idea." Published just before the release of the Altair 8800 kit, Computer Lib is often considered the first book about the personal computer. Background Prior to the initial release of Computer Lib/Dream Machines, Nelson was working on the first hypertext project, Project Xanadu, founded in 1960. An integral part to the Xanadu vision was computing technology and the freedom he believed came with it. These ideas were later compiled and elaborated upon in the 1974 text, around the time when locally networked computers had appeared and Nelson found global networks as a space for the hypertext system. Synopsis Computer Lib In Computer Lib. You can and must understand computers NOW, Nelson covers both the technical and political aspects of computers. Nelson attempts to explain computers to the laymen during a time when personal computers had not yet become mainstream and anticipated the machine being open for anyone to use. Nelson writes about the need for people to understand computers more deeply than was generally promoted as computer literacy, which he considers a superficial kind of familiarity with particular hardware and software. His rallying cry "Down with Cybercrud" is against the centralization of computers such as that performed by IBM at the time, as well as against what he sees as the intentional untruths that "computer people" tell to non-computer people to keep them from understanding computers. Dream Machines Dream Machines. New Freedom through Computer Screens- a Minority Report, is the opposite of the Computer Lib side. Nelson explores what he believes is the future of computers and the alternative uses for them. This side was his counterculture approach to how computers had typically been used. Nelson covers the flexible media potential of the computer, which was shockingly new at the time. He saw the use of hypermedia and hypertext, both terms he coined, being beneficial for creativity and education. He urged readers to look at the computer not as just a scientific machine, but as an interactive machine that can be accessible to anyone. In this section, Nelson also described the details of Project Xanadu. He proposed the idea of a future Xanadu Network, where users could shop at Xanadu stands and access material from global storage systems. Format Both the 1974 and 1987 editions have an unconventional layout, with two front covers. The Computer Lib cover features a raised fist in a computer. Once flipped over, the Dream Machines cover shows a man with a cape flying with a finger pointed to a screen. The division between the two sides is marked by text (for the other side) rotated 180°. The book was stylistically influenced by Stewart Brand's Whole Earth Catalog. The text itself is broken up into many sections, with simulated pull-quotes, comics, sidebars, etc., similar to a magazine layout. According to Steven Levy, Nelson's format requirements for the book's "over-sized pages loaded with print so small you could hardly read it, along with scribbled notations, and manically amateurish drawings" may have contributed to the difficulty of finding a publisher for the first edition - Nelson paid 2,000 dollars out of his own pocket for the first print run of several hundred copies. Besides the Whole Earth Catalog, the layout also bore similarities to the People's Computer Company (PCC) newsletter, published by a Menlo Park based group of the same name, where Nelson's book would gain (as described by Levy) "a cult following ... Ted Nelson was treated like royalty at [PCC] potluck dinners." Neologisms In Computer Lib, Nelson introduced a few words that he coined : Cybercrud: "the author's own term for the practice of putting things over on people using computers (especially, forcing them to adapt to a rigid, inflexible, poorly thought out system)". In the text, Nelson puts forth the rallying cry "Down with Cybercrud!" Hypertext: originally coined in 1965, is text displayed which references other information that a user can access. Nelson explores the types of the term and its future in computers greatly within Computer Lib. Some include: Chunk style consists of 'chunks' of separate text or media connected by links. Stretch text is text that extends itself. Instead of linking, it zooms in depending on the detail needed. Intertwingularity: Nelson says "Everything is deeply intertwingled". He says that all subjects and information are connected. The term comes from the merging of intertwined and intermingled. Fantics: "the art and science of getting ideas across, both emotionally and cognitively". Nelson explains this as the audience receiving feelings while also receiving information from content. Legacy After its release, it drew an underground following from media theorists to computer hackers. In his book Tools for Thought, Howard Rheingold calls Computer Lib "the best-selling underground manifesto of the microcomputer revolution." It has since been referred to as "the most influential book in the history of computational media", as well as "the most important book in the history of new media" in The New Media Reader. One of the most widely adopted ideas from Computer Lib was Ted Nelson's "chunk-style" hypertext. This type of hypertext is used in most websites today. As the book came out before the first personal computer and its rise in popularity, Nelson has been credited with predicting how we interact with computers in terms of arts and entertainment, like video games. He was one of the first to present the computer as an "all-purpose machine". References Citations Bibliography External links Computer Lib/Dream Machines Retrospective - Excerpts from "Computer Lib" Xanadu, Network Culture, and Beyond. Chapter from Tools for Thought (book on history of computers) by Howard Rheingold 1974 non-fiction books Texts related to the history of the Internet Books by Ted Nelson Self-published books Microsoft Press books Tête-bêche books