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4013373

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2%2C2-Dimethylbutane

2,2-Dimethylbutane

2,2-Dimethylbutane, trivially known as neohexane, is an organic compound with formula C6H14 or (H3C-)3-C-CH2-CH3. It is therefore an alkane, indeed the most compact and branched of the hexane isomers — the only one with a quaternary carbon and a butane (C4) backbone. Synthesis 2,2-Dimethylbutane can be synthesised by the hydroisomerisation of 2,3-dimethylbutane using an acid catalyst. It can also be synthesised by isomerization of n-pentane in the presence of a catalyst containing combinations of one or more of palladium, platinum, rhodium and rhenium on a matrix of zeolite, alumina, silicon dioxide or other materials. Such reactions create a mixture of final products including isopentane, n-hexane, 3-methylpentane, 2-methylpentane, 2,3-dimethylbutane and 2,2-dimethylbutane. Since the composition of the final mixture is temperature dependant the desired final component can be obtained choice of catalyst and by combinations of temperature control and distillations. Uses Neohexane is used as an additive in fuels and in the manufacture of agricultural chemicals. It is also used in a number of commercial, automobile and home maintenance products, such as adhesives, electronic contact cleaners and upholstery polish sprays. In laboratory settings, it is commonly used as a probe molecule in techniques which study the active sites of metal catalysts. Such catalysts are used in hydrogen-deuterium exchange, hydrogenolysis, and isomerization reactions. It is well suited to this purpose as 2,2-dimethylbutane contains both an isobutyl and an ethyl group. See also Methylbutane (isopentane) 2-Methylpentane (isohexane) References Alkanes Neopentyl compounds

4013387

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haytor

Haytor

Haytor, also known as Haytor Rocks, Hay Tor, or occasionally Hey Tor, is a granite tor on the eastern edge of Dartmoor in the English county of Devon. Location The tor is at grid reference , near the village of Haytor Vale in the parish of Ilsington. There is an electoral ward with the same name. The population at the 2011 census is 2,862. History Idetordoune (1566), Ittor Doune (1687), Idetor (1737), Eator Down (1762) and Itterdown (1789) are a few recorded examples of earlier names by which Haytor was known. The name Haytor is of comparatively recent origin, and is probably a corruption of its old name and that of the Haytor Hundred, which covered the coastal area between the River Teign and River Dart, itself now considered to have been named after a lost village located somewhere between Totnes and Newton Abbot. In the 19th century steps were made to allow pedestrians up to the top of the tor and a metal handrail fixed to allow tourists easier access to the summit. This was not entirely welcomed and in 1851, a Dr Croker complained about the rock steps that had been cut "to enable the enervated and pinguedinous scions of humanity of this wonderful nineteenth century to gain the summit". The handrail was removed in the 1960s due to it rusting: the stumps of the uprights are still embedded in the rock. In 1953, Haytor was used as a major location for the feature film Knights of the Round Table starring Robert Taylor and Ava Gardner. An "elaborate and impressive castle" was built between the two main rock piles of the tor and traditional medieval sports, including jousting, were staged here for the film. The whole of Haytor Down was sold to the newly formed Dartmoor National Park Authority in 1974. Geology Haytor has the form of a typical "avenue" tor, where the granite between the two main outcrops has been eroded away. Its characteristic shape is a notable landmark visible on the skyline from many places in south Devon between Exeter and Totnes. The majority of the tor consists of coarse-grained granite, but at the base of the western outcrop is a layer of finer-grained granite which has eroded more than the rock above, leaving a pronounced overhang (a rock shelter) of two or three feet in places. Haytorite, a variety of quartz found in an iron mine adjacent to the Hay Tor granite quarries, was named “in honour of its birth-place”. Quarrying The granite below the tor has fewer large feldspar crystals than at the tor itself, and this was preferred for building. There are several quarries on the northern slopes of Haytor down which were worked intermittently between 1820 and 1919. Between 1820 and 1858 the rock from these quarries was transported by the Haytor Granite Tramway to the Stover Canal. The tramway itself was built out of the granite it would carry, and due to its durable nature much of it remains visible today. Haytor granite was used in the reconstruction of London Bridge which opened in 1831 and was moved in 1970 to Lake Havasu City in Arizona. The last rock quarried here in 1919 was used for the Exeter war memorial. Today Haytor rocks and quarries are protected from development and disturbance as a Site of Special Scientific Interest. The area is considered a natural beauty spot and is arguably Dartmoor's most famous landmark, visited by coach parties and walking groups. It is accessible by road and at a height of right on the eastern side of the moor, it provides views of the coastline, the Teign Estuary and the rolling countryside between, with the ridge of Haldon behind. In 2013, Simon Jenkins rated the view from Haytor as one of the top ten in England. The smaller, western outcrop is sometimes known as "Lowman". Rock climbers make use of both outcrops; each has routes of varying difficulty. The road that passes below the tor hosted a summit finish on Stage 6 of the 2013 Tour of Britain, and the climb was again used for the finish of the sixth stage of the 2016 Tour of Britain. References Sources External links Dartmoor Archive - Hay Tor Images Tors of Dartmoor Dartmoor

4013700

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanur%2C%20Malappuram

Tanur, Malappuram

Tanur (English: ) is a coastal town, a municipality, and a block located in Tirur Taluk, Malappuram district, Kerala, India. It is located on the Malabar Coast, north of Tirur and 9 kilometres south of Parappanangadi. It is the 17th-most populated municipality in the state, the fourth-most populated municipality in the district, and the second-most densely populated municipality in Malappuram district, having about 3,568 residents per square kilometre as of the year 2011. Tanur is located south of the estuary of Poorappuzha River, which is a tributary of Kadalundi River. Tanur was one of the major ports in the southwestern coast of India during the medieval period. It was ruled by the Kingdom of Tanur, also known as Vettathunadu, who were vassals to the Zamorin of Calicut. In the early medieval period, under the chiefs of Kozhikode and Tanur, Tanur developed as one of the important maritime trade centre on the Malabar Coast. Later it became a part of Vettathunadu Taluk in Malabar District under British Raj, which was merged with the Ponnani taluk in 1860–1861. Tanur railway station is a part of the oldest Railway line of Kerala laid in 1861 from Tirur to Chaliyam. Presently, the status of Tanur is reduced to a major fishing centre in Kerala. History The ancient maritime port of Tyndis, which was then a centre of trade with Ancient Rome, is roughly identified with Tanur. Tyndis was a major center of trade, next only to Muziris, between the Cheras and the Roman Empire. Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) states that the port of Tyndis was located at the northwestern border of Keprobotos (Chera dynasty). The North Malabar region, which lies north of the port at Tyndis, was ruled by the kingdom of Ezhimala during Sangam period. According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a region known as Limyrike began at Naura and Tyndis. However, the Ptolemy mentions only Tyndis as the Limyrikes starting point. The region probably ended at Kanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day Malabar Coast. The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000 sesterces. Pliny the Elder mentioned that Limyrike was prone by pirates. The Cosmas Indicopleustes mentioned that the Limyrike was a source of peppers.Das, Santosh Kumar (2006). The Economic History of Ancient India. Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd. p. 301. The name "Tanur(Thanni-ur)" is derived from the Malayalam language. "Thanni" refers to the Bastard myrobalan tree, Terminalia bellirica, while "ur" refers to the settlement. Tanur was an important trading port with trade connections with Middle East during the early medieval period. When Kingdom of Tanur became vassal to the Zamorin of Calicut, Tanur also became a major port like other port towns in the kingdom. The Zamorin earned a greater part of his revenue through the maritime trade through ports. Vettathunad, also known as the Kingdom of Tanur, was a coastal city-state kingdom in the Malabar Coast. It was ruled by the Vettathu Raja, who was a vassal of the Zamorin of Calicut. Parts of Tirurangadi, Tirur, and Ponnani Taluks were ruled by the Vettathu Rajas. Vettathunad was known for its trade relationship with the Middle Eastern merchants in the medieval period. Tanur was a major port town in the Malabar Coast during the medieval period. Tanur was also an important trade centre. The Veṭṭathunāṭu rulers owed their allegiance to the kings (Zamorin) of Calicut, a regional power on the Malabar coast. With the emergence of the Portuguese in India, the Veṭṭathunāṭu ruler sided with them against his overlord at Calicut. It is believed that St. Francis Xavier visited Tanur in 1546AD. The Raja converted to Christianity though only for a few months in 1549. It is also known that during the Battle at Chaliyam Fort in 1571 carried out by the naval force of Zamorin with the support of native Mappilas, which ousted the Portuguese from the region of Zamorin of Calicut, Chaliyam was the northern border of Kingdom of Tanur. Its southern border was somewhere near Thavanur on the bank of Bharathappuzha river. Vettathunadu had sea coast and four major rivers (Chaliyar, Kadalundi River, Tirur River, and Bharathappuzha river). The rulers of Tanur were great admirers of art and culture. Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, the father of modern Malayalam language, and many of the members of the medieval Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics were natives of Tirur in Vettathunadu. Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri, another prominent figure of 16th century Kerala, was also born at Kurumbathur near Athavanad. In the 16th century, Portuguese arrived here just after the arrival of Vasco Da Gama near Calicut. Kingdom of Tanur was one of the earliest Portuguese colonies in the Indian Subcontinent. The ruler of the Kingdom of Tanur, who was a vassal to the Zamorin of Calicut, sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Kozhikode. As a result, the Kingdom of Tanur (Vettathunadu) became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. The ruler of Tanur also sided with Cochin. Many of the members of the royal family of Cochin in 16th and 17th members were selected from Vettom. However, the Tanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the Battle of Cochin (1504). However, the allegiance of the Mappila merchants in Tanur region still stayed under the Zamorin of Calicut. Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, who is considered as the father of modern Malayalam literature, was born at Tirur (Vettathunadu) during Portuguese period. The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, including series expansion for trigonometric functions. The Kerala school was mainly based at Kingdom of Tanur. The naval chiefs of Zamorin, commonly known as Kunjali Marakkars, had close relationship with the medieval port town of Tanur. In 1523, when the Portuguese Viceroy Menezes sailed with all the available ships to Hormuz, an Arab merchant, one Kutti Ali of Tanur, had the effrontery to bring a fleet of two hundred vessels to Calicut, to load eight ships with pepper, and to despatch them with a convoy of forty vessels to the Red Sea before the very eyes of the Portuguese. In 1532 with the help of the ruler of Tanur, a chapel was built at Chaliyam, together with a house for the commander, barracks for the soldiers, and store-houses for trade. Diego de Pereira, who had negotiated the treaty with the Zamorin, was left in command of this new fortress, with a garrison of 250 men; and Manuel de Sousa had orders to secure its safety by sea, with a squadron of twenty-two vessels. The Zamorin soon repented of having allowed this fort to be built in his dominions, and used ineffectual endeavours to induce the ruler of Parappanangadi, Caramanlii (King of Beypore?) (Some records say that the ruler of Tanur was also with them ) to break with the Portuguese, even going to war against them. In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by the Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam Fort.] During the last decades of 18th century CE, Vettathunadu became a part of Kingdom of Mysore. Tanur is located on Tirur-Kadalundi Tipu Sultan Road. It is one of the earliest roads in Kerala, which was created by Tipu for his conquests. Following the Treaty of Seringapatam in 1792, Tanur became a part of British India. During the arrival of British, according to William Logan, the kingdom ("nadu") was divided into 21 "Amsoms" as shown below (A main bazaar in each Amsom is given in bracket): Anantavur (Cherulal), Chennara, Clari (Kuttippala), Iringavur, Kalpakanchēri (Kadungathukundu), Kanmanam (Thuvvakkad), Mangalam, Mēlmuri, Niramaruthūr, Ozhūr, Pachattiri, Pallippuram, Pariyāpuram, Ponmundam (Vailathoor), Purathur, Rayiramangalam, Thalakkad (Betteth Puthiya Angadi), Thanalur, Trikkandiyoor (Tirur), Triprangode, and Vettom. According to Logan, the Kshatriya family of the Vettathu Rajas became extinct with the death of the last Raja on 24 May 1793. It was an important town in Malabar District during the British rule. During the first decades of British era Vettathunadu was the name of a Taluk in Malabar District consisting of Tanur and Tirur regions of present-day Tirur Taluk, and it was situated on the northern bank of the River Bharathappuzha. Later it was merged with Ponnani taluk. Tanur railway station is one of the oldest railway stations in Kerala. It was a part of the first rail route (Tirur–Chaliyam) in Kerala, which began in the year 1861. In 1957, the region was separated from Ponnani taluk to form Tirur Taluk. Civic administration The town is administered by Tanur Municipality, headed by a chairperson. For administrative purposes, the town is divided into 44 wards, from which the members of the municipal council are elected for a term of five years. { "type": "ExternalData", "service": "geoshape", "ids": "Q13112429"} Tanur Municipality Election 2020 Law and Order The municipality comes under the jurisdiction of the Tanur police station, which was formed on 29 February 1962. The station is located on Tanur-Parappanangadi public road about 100 yards west of Tanur junction. The station has the jurisdiction over the municipality of Tanur and the Gram panchayats of Tanalur, Ozhur, Niramaruthur, and Nannambra. The jurisdictional courts of Tanur Police Station are Judicial First Class Magistrate Court at Parappanangadi, Subdivisional Magistrate Court at Tirur, and Sessions Court at Manjeri. The border police stations are headquartered at Tirur, Parappanangadi, Kalpakanchery, and Tirurangadi. Tanur is also headquarters of one among the six subdivisions of Malappuram District Police. The police stations at Tanur, Parappanangadi, Tirurangadi, Kalpakanchery, and Kadampuzha comes under the jurisdiction of Tanur subdivisional zone of district police. Transport Tanur railway station, in the heart of the town, is located from Malappuram on the Shoranur - Mangalore Section of the Southern Railway. The nearest airport is Karipur Airport, which is approximately from the town. Tipu Sultan Road (Tirur-Kadalundi Road), one among the oldest roads of Kerala (laid in 18th century CE), passes through Tanur town. Geography Tanur is located at . It has an average elevation of . Places of Interest Tanur Beach Tanur harbour Purappuzha estuary (Purappuzha Azhimukham) Kodinhi backwater (Kodinhi Kayal) EducationGovt Arts and Science College Tanur: C.H. Muhammad Koya Memorial Govt. Arts & Science College Tanur was established in 2013. The college is affiliated to the University of Calicut. Now the college is temporarily located at Puthentheru, about 2 km away from Tanur town. College offers UG courses in B.A English, B.Com., BBA, BCA, and B.Sc. Electronics. The college has been an entrance to the world of higher education for the public, especially for the people from coastal area.Islahul Uloom Arabic College: Islahul Uloom Arabic College in Tanur town is one among the oldest Arabic Colleges in Kerala. It was built in 1924 under the leadership of Pangil Ahmed Kutty Musliyar, a personality who died in 1946. The decision to building an Islamic Institution in Tanur was made by Asasul Islam Sabha of Tanur, in a meeting held at Tanur Valiya Kulangara Palli, on October24 1924.Devadhar Government Higher Secondary School: Established in 1919, it is one of the oldest secondary schools in Kerala. There are also many private and government schools as well as a state Industrial training institute and a government arts and science college. Another important school near Tanur is Govt. Higher Secondary School, Kattilangadi, Tanur. A Govt. Fisheries Vocational Higher Secondary school is also there. Wards of Tanur Tanur Municipality is composed of the following 44 wards: Suburbs of TanurOn Kadalundy Route' Chiramangalam, Mukkola and Moolakkal Devadhar, Puthentheru and Vattathani Valiyapadam, Moochikkal and Cherumoochikkal Peruvazhiyambalam, Pookkayil and Naduvilangadi Tanur Block Tanur Block Panchayat is the local body responsible for the block-level administration of the following Gram panchayats: Cheriyamundam Niramaruthur Ozhur Perumanna-Klari Ponmundam Tanalur Valavannur See also Tanur (State Assembly constituency) Tanur railway station Kingdom of Tanur Tirur Taluk References External links Official website Populated coastal places in India Cities and towns in Malappuram district Parappanangadi area

4013736

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutzler%27s

Hutzler's

Hutzler's, or Hutzler Brothers Company, was a department store founded in Baltimore by Abram G. Hutzler (1836–1927) in 1858. From its beginning as a small dry goods store at the corner of Howard and Clay Streets in downtown Baltimore, Hutzler's eventually grew into a chain of 10 department stores, all of which were located in Maryland. Early years At age 23, Abram Hutzler was not yet old enough to secure credit; his father, Moses Hutzler, signed the official documents Abram needed to open the store in July 1858. Although the store originally traded as M. Hutzler & Son, Moses Hutzler was otherwise not involved in the business. After Abram brought his two brothers, Charles and David, into the business in 1867, the retail store was left in David's hands while Abram and Charles operated a wholesale business. The retail store expanded into three other storefronts on Howard Street in 1874, 1881 and 1887, gradually transforming into a department store. Abram and Charles discontinued the wholesale business in 1888 to concentrate on the company's retail operations. The original Howard Street locations were razed in 1888 and replaced by the five-story Hutzler Brothers Palace Building, designed by the architectural firm of Baldwin & Pennington. An example of neoclassical architecture, the Palace was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1984. Its exterior features included Nova Scotia gray stone, carved with Arabesque heads and foliage, and large display windows. Facing Clay Street, a keystone carved with the image of Moses Hutzler was placed over a display window. The new store was organized into several departments and employed 200 workers. In 1908, the company incorporated as Hutzler Brothers Company of Baltimore City. This was later amended to Hutzler Brothers Company. When Hutzler's opened its Colonial Tea Room on the fourth floor of the Palace building in 1917, more than one thousand people dined there. As well as providing shoppers with a convenient and popular dining location, the Tea Room also served as a venue for fashion shows. Innovative retail practices An innovator of progressive retailing practices, Hutzler's established the one-price policy in 1868. With one-pricing, all customers pay the same price, set by the store for a specific item, for specific period of time. This policy replaced the process of higgling or haggling to negotiate prices determined by the bargaining skill of individual customers. One-pricing for basic commodities was practiced before the Civil War, but Hutzler's may have been the first retailer to apply the policy to such a broad range of merchandise, including every item in the store. Hutzler's led the retailing industry as one of the first to establish a liberal return policy, granting refunds to dissatisfied customers, and the first Maryland retailer with its own fleet of delivery trucks. It is also believed to be the first retail chain that did not discriminate against African-American customers. They operated the first bargain counter during the civil war. Downtown expansion A five-story building on Saratoga Street and two smaller buildings on Howard Street were added to the Hutzler's downtown location in 1916. Then in 1924 another five floors were added to the Saratoga Street building, bringing it up to 10 floors. Hutzler's Downstairs, an outlet for discounted merchandise, opened in the store's basement in September 1929. A five-story art deco style expansion to the downtown store, described as "Greater Hutzlers", opened on October 1, 1932. This building eventually extended to nine floors and became known as the Tower building. When it reached the peak of its operations in the 1950s, the Downtown location covered of retail space. Suburban expansion In 1952, after nearly 100 years exclusively on the original site, Hutzler's opened its first branch store in Towson, Maryland. Other stores followed at Westview Mall, Eastpoint Mall, Southdale Center (this location was moved to Harundale Mall), Security Square Mall, Harford Mall, White Marsh Mall, and Salisbury Mall. In 1980, a small store in the Inner Harbor area was opened. Designed for customers using automobiles, rather than pedestrian traffic, the Towson Hutzler's lacked the showcase windows of the downtown store. On the third floor of the Towson Hutzler's, customers dining in the store's Valley View Room, also known as the Tea Room, enjoyed a view overlooking the historic Hampton Mansion. The store restaurant had its own bakery, featuring Lady Baltimore cake and Goucher cake. Like the Tea Room in the Palace building downtown, the Valley View Room in the Towson Hutzler's also held fashion shows. Declining years In response to declining business in the 1980s, Hutzler's hired Angelo Arena from Marshall Field's in 1983 to take charge of the company and reverse the downward trend. In the Fall of 1984, he moved the downtown store from its original location into the new Atrium building next door, site of Hochschild Kohn's former downtown location. The "Palace" name was also moved to the new building. By the time Arena arrived in 1983, the Hutzler's Palace store had contracted to of retail floor space. Its new location in the Atrium building reduced Hutzler's to 70,000 square feet. The move to the Atrium was part of a five-year plan, announced by Arena in August 1984, to buy four Hochshild Kohn's locations and to expand Hutzler's from eight to 15 stores in the Baltimore area. Arena's efforts were unsuccessful. Hutzler's began closing stores, first with the Inner Harbor store in December 1986. The other locations followed until 1990, when all were gone. Hutzler's remained a family-owned, Maryland business throughout its 132 years. Its downtown location is believed to hold the record among American department stores for the longest survival at an original location. David A. Hutzler, who joined the company's board in 1976, remained at his position until the company closed in 1990, without going through bankruptcy or lawsuits as its operations ended and assets were liquidated. Literature See also Bargain bin References External links "Downtown Department Stores, and other Retail Goodies" Towson Hutzler's during Christmas Towson Hutzler's exterior Hutzler's downtown Baltimore store American companies established in 1858 Retail companies established in 1858 Retail companies disestablished in 1990 Defunct department stores based in Maryland Defunct companies based in Baltimore 1858 establishments in Maryland 1990 disestablishments in Maryland Department stores on the National Register of Historic Places Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Baltimore

4013761

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KYK-13

KYK-13

The KYK-13 Electronic Transfer Device is a common fill device designed by the United States National Security Agency for the transfer and loading of cryptographic keys with their corresponding check word. The KYK-13 is battery powered and uses the DS-102 protocol for key transfer. Its National Stock Number is 5810-01-026-9618. Even though the KYK-13 was first introduced in 1976 and was supposed to have been made obsolete by the AN/CYZ-10 Data Transfer Device, it is still widely used because of its simplicity and reliability. A simpler device than the CYZ-10, the KIK-30 "Really Simple Key Loader" (RASKL) is now planned to replace the KYK-13s, with up to $200 million budgeted to procure them in quantity. Components P1 and J1 Connectors - Electrically the same connection. Used to connect to a fill cable, COMSEC device, KOI-18, KYX-15, another KYK-13, or AN/CYZ-10. Battery Compartment - Holds battery which powers KYK-13. Mode Switch - Three-position rotary switch used to select operation modes. "Z" - Used to zeroize selected keys. ON - Used to fill and transfer keys. OFF CHECK - Used to conduct parity checks. Parity Lamp - Blinks when parity is checked or fill is transferred. Initiate Push Button - Push this button when loading or zeroizing the KYK-13. Address Select Switch - Seven-position rotary switch. "Z" ALL - Zeroizes all six storage registers when Mode Switch is set to "Z." 1 THROUGH 6 - Six storage registers for storing keys in KYK-13. References Key management National Security Agency encryption devices Military equipment introduced in the 1970s

4013803

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perioperative

Perioperative

The perioperative period is the period of a patient's surgical procedure. It commonly includes ward admission, anesthesia, surgery, and recovery. Perioperative may refer to the three phases of surgery: preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative, though it is a term most often used for the first and third of these only - a term which is often specifically utilized to imply 'around' the time of the surgery. The primary concern of perioperative care is to provide better conditions for patients before an operation (sometimes construed as during operation) and after an operation. Perioperative care Perioperative care is the care that is given before and after surgery. It takes place in hospitals, in surgical centers attached to hospitals, in freestanding surgical centers, or health care providers' offices. This period prepares the patient both physically and psychologically for the surgical procedure and after surgery. For emergency surgeries this period can be short and the patient may be oblivious to this; for elective surgeries 'preops', as they are called, can be quite lengthy. Information obtained during preoperative assessment is used to create a care plan for the patient. Findings from a systematic review of perioperative advance care planning suggest the importance and value that various types of decision aids have for patients to clarify their goals and specify others who can make decisions for them in case of unexpected surgical difficulties. Phases Preoperative The preoperative phase is used to perform tests, attempt to limit preoperational anxiety and may include the preoperative fasting. Intraoperative The intraoperative period begins when the patient is transferred to the operating room table and ends with the transfer of a patient to the Post Anesthesia Care Unit (PACU). During this period the patient is monitored, anesthetized, prepped, and draped, and the operation is performed. Nursing activities during this period focus on safety, infection prevention, opening additional sterile supplies to the field if needed and documenting applicable segments of the intraoperative report in the patients Electronic Health Record. Intraoperative radiation therapy and intraoperative blood salvage may also be performed during this time. Postoperative The postoperative period begins after the transfer to the Post Anesthesia Care Unit (PACU) and terminates with the resolution of the surgical sequelae. It is quite common for the last of this period to end outside of the care of the surgical team. It is uncommon to provide extended care past the discharge of the patient from the PACU. See also Pre-anesthesia checkup References External links AORN - Association of periOperative Registered Nurses AfPP - Association for Perioperative Practice Evidence Based Perioperative Medicine Surgery

4013838

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobster-tailed%20pot%20helmet

Lobster-tailed pot helmet

The lobster-tailed pot helmet, also known as the zischägge, horseman's pot and harquebusier's pot, was a type of post-Renaissance combat helmet. It became popular in Europe, especially for cavalry and officers, from c. 1600; it was derived from an Ottoman Turkish helmet type. The helmet gradually fell out of use in most of Europe in the late 17th century; however, the Austrian heavy cavalry retained it for some campaigns as late as the 1780s. Origin The lobster-tailed pot helmet had an oriental origin, being derived from the Ottoman Turkish çiçak (pronounced 'chichak', Turkish – çiçek Çiçek means flower in Turkish which is attributed to the shape of the helmets top side) helmet, which developed in the 16th century. It was adopted by the Christian states of Europe in the early 17th century. The chichak was almost identical to the later European helmets – it had a forward projecting peak, sliding bar nasal, cheekpieces and neck guard; only its tendency to have a conical rather than rounded skull was distinctive. The European derivative of this helmet saw widespread use during the Thirty Years War when it became known as the zischägge, a Germanisation of the original Turkish name. Characteristics The lobster-tailed pot had a rounded skull-piece, which was sometimes fluted. The skulls of English-made helmets were usually formed from two sections, joined by a raised comb running from front to back; the skulls of helmets manufactured on the continent were most often raised from a single-piece of metal. Cheekpieces, commonly made in one piece but occasionally articulated, were attached to the skull by leather strapping; however, the better quality examples are sometimes hinged. To protect the face there was either a fixed forward projecting peak that incorporated a sliding nasal bar retained by a large screw, or a hinged peak with three attached bars. Finally, the helmet had a laminated defence (or a single-piece of plate ridged to imitate separate lames) to protect the back of the head and neck that was said to resemble the tail of a lobster. Another common name for the helmet was the "harquebusier's pot", the harquebusier being the most common type of cavalry in Western Europe during the 17th century. The single nasal-bar type was characteristic of Continental Europe, whilst the three-barred type with a pivoting peak was more widely used in the British Isles. Many European-made lobster-tailed pot helmets were later imported to Britain during the English Civil War. Occasionally, older helmets like the burgonet or sallet were modified to resemble the 'lobster-pot.' As stated by General George Monck in 1644, the "headpiece with three small bars" was intended to be pistol-proof. Decoration and appearance The appearance and finish of lobster-tailed pots varied greatly, from the highly decorated, superb-quality examples made for individual commanders down to crudely executed "munition-quality" types, which were mass-produced to equip large numbers of ordinary cavalry troopers. High quality helmets could be decorated using a range of techniques, including repoussé, engraving and blue-and-gilt finishes. An extant helmet made for King James II of England had the three bar face defence replaced by a pierced openwork plate depicting the full royal arms of England, sight being afforded by spaces within the design. Many helmets were blackened or browned as a treatment to weatherproof them and protect against rust. The better quality helmets given this treatment would often have had their sombre appearance relieved by the use of numerous gilded rivet heads. Some of the most flamboyantly decorated helmets were produced for the Polish winged hussars, with metal crests and enlarged, decoratively shaped, nasals being not uncommon. A number of extant helmets have tubular plume-holders attached, this, taken with the evidence of contemporary illustrations, indicates the use of feather plumes. Use This form of helmet was widely used during the Thirty Years War and the English Civil War; it was commonly known as a zischägge in Germany and a 'horseman's pot' or 'three-barred pot' in Britain; the term 'lobster-tailed pot' is widely used in modern scholarship. The typical cavalryman of the period, the harquebusier, would have worn the helmet with a buff coat, bridle-hand gauntlet and breastplate and backplate. It was also sometimes worn by a more heavily armoured type of cavalry, the cuirassier, combined with three-quarter armour. It was used by cavalry on both sides of the English Civil War including Oliver Cromwell's Ironside cavalry. The common misconception of Cavaliers wearing plumed wide-brimmed hats whilst the Roundheads wore helmets is definitively disproved by a surviving order signed by Charles I himself for 33 'potts', along with other cavalry armour, for the use of his own troop of horse in 1642. Another order, this time from the Parliamentarian authorities, dating to 1644 for 300 "potts with three barres English" indicates that each helmet, no doubt of basic quality, cost 7 shillings. Similar helmets were worn in the 17th century by Polish winged hussars and were termed "szyszak" in Polish, again a derivative of the original Turkish name. Austrian cuirassiers were equipped with the lobster-tailed pot helmet as late as the 1780s, long after its use had died out elsewhere, when campaigning against the Ottoman Turks. Gallery Notes References Blackmore, D. (1990) Arms & Armour of the English Civil Wars, Trustees of the Royal Armouries. Brzezinski, R. (McBride, A. - illustrator) (1987) Polish Armies 1569-1696 (1), Osprey Publishing, London. Bull, S. (1991) An Historical Guide to Arms and Armour, Studio Editions, London, Haythornthwaite, P. (1994) The Austrian Army, 1740-1780: Cavalry Osprey Publishing. Oakeshott, Ewart (1980) European Weapons and Armour: From the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution. Lutterworth Press. Robinson, H.R., (2002) Oriental Armour, Courier Dover Publications. Tincey, J. (McBride, A. - illustrator) (1990) Soldiers of the English Civil War (2) Cavalry, Osprey Publishing, 17th-century introductions Early Modern helmets New Model Army Western plate armour English Civil War be:Ерыхонка ru:Ерихонка

4014119

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Spadavecchia

John Spadavecchia

John Spadavecchia is an American professional poker player from Lighthouse Point, Florida. Spadavecchia has been a regular on the poker tournament circuit since the 1980s, with his first finish in the money of a World Series of Poker (WSOP) event coming in the 1988 World Series of Poker in the $10,000 no limit Texas hold 'em main event where he finished 28th, earning him $8,750. World Series of Poker bracelets Poker career Spadavecchia has cashed in a total of three World Series of Poker main events, the first coming in 1988. The second cash was in 1994 where he made the final table, placing third, earning him $294,000. The third came in 2007 where he placed 60th, earning him $154,194. He has cashed in the WSOP events more than two dozen times. Spadavecchia won his bracelet in the 1991 WSOP, defeating three-time bracelet winner Dewey Tomko, to win the title and $58,500 cash prize. He came close to winning a second bracelet in 1995 in the $2,500 Seven Card Stud event, but lost to Dan Robison in the heads-up play. He has cashed in the World Series of Poker Circuit Events a total of seven times, including two first-place finishes, for a total of $791,796. That figure puts him third on the all-time total WSOP circuit event earnings list. His biggest career win came in the 2005/2006 WSOP Circuit Event - Caesars Palace no limit hold 'em $10,000 buy-in Championship. There he placed first, earning him $648,320. That win qualified him to play in the 2006 World Series of Poker Tournament of Champions. As of 2009, his total live tournament winnings exceed $2,500,000. His 26 cashes at the WSOP account for $1,104,613 of those winnings. Notes American poker players Living people World Series of Poker bracelet winners World Series of Poker Circuit event winners Year of birth missing (living people) Super Bowl of Poker event winners People from Lighthouse Point, Florida Sportspeople from Broward County, Florida

4014288

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/020120

020120

020120 is a live album from The Mad Capsule Markets. It was recorded live on January 20, 2002 at Zepp Tokyo. The music is basically material from the Osc-Dis and the 010 albums, but it did include a faster version of Kami-Uta as an encore track and for the intro tape, the show opens with Crass' song Gotcha (who inspired the band in their earlier days). The UK version issued the live DVD alongside the CD with a slightly altered track listing from the Japanese version (there was no Kami Uta and Interview on the DVD) but it made the fanbase of The Mad Capsule Markets much stronger. Track listing "Introduction 010" "Come" "Chaos Step" "Gaga Life" "Jam!" "Out/Definition" "Good Girl" "All The Time In Sunny Beach" "Midi Surf" "Kumo" "Bit Crusherrrr" "No food, Drink, or Smoking" "This is the Mad Style" "Good Day" "Fly High" "R.D.M.C" "Tribe" "Pulse" "神Kami-Uta歌" "Island" Albums recorded at Zepp Tokyo The Mad Capsule Markets live albums 2002 live albums Victor Entertainment live albums

4014302

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Assembly%20%28Armenia%29

National Assembly (Armenia)

The National Assembly of Armenia (, Hayastani Hanrapetyut'yan Azgayin zhoghov or simply Ազգային ժողով, ԱԺ Azgayin Zhoghov, AZh), also informally referred to as the Parliament of Armenia (խորհրդարան, khorhrdaran) is the legislative branch of the government of Armenia. Overview The National Assembly was originally established in 1918 as the Khorhurd () by the Armenian National Council following their declaration of independence. Acting as the nation's provisional legislative body, the Armenian National Council tripled its membership, forming an interim coalition government composed of Dashnaks and Populists. Following the Armenian parliamentary elections of 1919, the National Assembly's membership increased again up to 80 deputies including several minority representatives. The Khorhurd continued to function with an overwhelming Dashnak majority through four Prime Ministers in the span of two years, until the Sovietisation of Armenia in 1920. From 1938, the National Assembly of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic was referred to as the Supreme Council of Armenia. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the adoption of the new Constitution of Armenia in 1995, the formation of the current National Assembly was established. The National Assembly is a unicameral body. The National Assembly consists of at least 101 seats, but with additional seats allocated, it may grow and reach to about 200 seats in extremely rare cases. The President of the National Assembly is Alen Simonyan. Electoral system After electoral system amendments introduced in April 2021 members of parliament are elected only through closed party lists by party list proportional representation method. Four mandates are reserved for national minorities, provided they are included in corresponding section of party lists. Any top segment of a party list can not include over 70% of representatives of the same sex. Parties need to pass 5% of votes and alliances (blocs) 7% threshold respectively to be included in mandate distribution. By law, parliament must have at least 3 political forces present, even if one or more of them did not pass the electoral threshold. In this case, the sheer percentage decides which party enters parliament, regardless of whether it is a party or a bloc. If neither party wins over 50% of mandates in the first round and no coalition with sufficient mandates is established within 6 days after the election results announcement a second round of elections will be carried out on 28th day of the first round voting. Two best-performing political forces are allowed to participate in the second round. All mandates received as per first round will be preserved. The party (or a newly formed coalition) which wins second round of elections will be given additional number of mandates to reach 54% of all seats (provided the newly formed coalition does not already have over 54% of mandates from the results of the first round). If any party or bloc wins over 2/3 of mandates sufficient additional mandates are distributed among all other political forces represented in the parliament to ensure that at least 1/3 of all seats are held by forces other than the winning one. Since the requirement of assignment of 1/3 of all mandates to non-ruling parties is stipulated by the Constitution some argue, that when withdrawal of oppositional MPs leads to violation of that rule the ruling party shall be forced to call new snap elections. This is however not a consensus opinion and probably shall be dealt with in Constitutional Court. Historically, significant share of cast votes (1995: 12.8%, 1999: 18.6%, 2003: 24.0%, 2007: 24.7%, 2012: 1.6%, 2017: 9.1%, 2018: 14.9%, 2021: 19.8%) fell below election threshold and was disregarded in mandate distribution. Representatives Speakers of the Parliament of the First Republic of Armenia (1918–1920) Avetik Sahakyan 1 August 1918 – 1 August 1919 Avetis Aharonyan 1 August 1919 – 4 November 1920 Hovhannes Kajaznuni 4 November 1920 – 2 December 1920 Chairmen of the Supreme Council (1990–1995) Levon Ter-Petrosyan 4 August 1990 – 11 November 1991 Babken Ararktsyan 24 December 1991 – 27 July 1995 Presidents of the National Assembly (1995–) Babken Ararktsyan 27 July 1995 – 4 February 1998 Khosrov Harutyunyan 4 February 1998 – 11 June 1999 Karen Demirchyan 11 June 1999 – 27 October 1999 Armen Khachatryan 2 November 1999 – 12 June 2003 Artur Baghdasaryan 12 June 2003 – 1 June 2006 Tigran Torosyan 1 June 2006 – 26 September 2008 Hrayr Karapetyan (acting) 26 September 2008 – 29 September 2008 Hovik Abrahamyan 28 September 2008 – 21 November 2011 Samvel Nikoyan 6 December 2011 – 31 May 2012 Hovik Abrahamyan 31 May 2012 – 13 April 2014 Galust Sahakyan 29 April 2014 – 18 May 2017 Ara Babloyan 18 May 2017 – 14 January 2019 Ararat Mirzoyan 14 January 2019 – 2 August 2021 Alen Simonyan 2 August 2021 – present Vice-Presidents of the National Assembly Babken Ararktsyan 1990 – 1991 Gagik Harutyunyan 1990 – 1991 Ara Sahakian 1991 – 1998 Artashes Tumanyan 1991 – 1995 Karapet Rubinyan 1995 – 1998 Albert Bazeyan 1998 – 1999 Yuri Bakhshyan 1998 – 1999 Ruben Miroyan 1999 Gagik Aslanian 1999 – 2003 Tigran Torosyan 1999 – 2006 Vahan Hovhannisyan 2003 – 2008 Ishkhan Zakarian 2007 Arevik Petrosyan 2007 – 2010 Hrayr Karapetyan 2008 – 2009 Samvel Nikoyan 2009 – 2012 Samvel Balasanyan 2010 – 2012 Hermine Naghdalyan 2012 – 2017 Eduard Sharmazanov 2011 – 2019 Arpine Hovhannisyan 2017 – 2019 Mikayel Melkumyan 2017 – 2019 Alen Simonyan 2019 – 2021 Lena Nazaryan 2019 – 2021 Vahe Enfiajyan 2019 – 2021 Ruben Rubinyan 2021 – present Hakob Arshakyan 2021 – present Latest election Current political representation in the National Assembly following the 2021 Armenian parliamentary election: Committees Standing Committees The National Assembly has eleven standing committees: Standing Committee on Defense and Security Standing Committee on Economic Affairs Standing Committee on European Integration Standing Committee on Financial and Budgeting Affairs Standing Committee on Foreign Relations Standing Committee on Health Care and Social Affairs Standing Committee on Human Rights and Public Affairs Standing Committee on Science, Education, Culture, Diaspora, Youth and Sport Standing Committee on State and Legal Affairs Standing Committee on Territorial Administration, Local Self-Government, Agriculture and Environment Standing Committee on Territorial Integration Changes according to the Constitutional Reform of 2015 According to the new constitution of Armenia (2015 Constitutional Reforms), the functions of committees previously defined as ad hoc committees are divided into temporary and inquiry committees. As stated in article 107 of the new Constitution, temporary committees may be developed only by the decision of the National Assembly to discuss certain draft laws and acts of the National Assembly and present views or statements connected to the National Assembly. Article 108 is about the inquiry committees of the National Assembly. 1. The inquiry committee should be formed if at least the twenty-five percent of the total number of parliamentarians present the demand, in order to acquaint facts of public interests to the National Assembly. 2. The National Assembly regulates the number of members of an inquiry committee. The places of the inquiry committees should be proportional to the number of faction's members. The chair of the committee should be the member of the parliament who presented a request. 3. If minimum one-quarter of an inquiry committee demands; state, local self-government bodies and officials are compelled to introduce to the committee required information regarding its remit, if the information is not classified as secrets protected by law. All the other regulations concerning temporary and inquiry committee should be established by the Law on Rules of Procedure of the National Assembly. Concerns relating to the ad hoc committees and the international experience According to the latest Constitutional Reforms Armenia will have a parliamentary state governance system. This means that compared to the semi-presidential system the powers of the Parliament will be enhanced, an example of this is the right of oversight of the executive power of the republic which is and will be exercised by the Government (as of article 85 of the current and article 145 the new Constitutions). So, the Parliament will have more powers and functions; therefore, it needs more tools to exercise these powers and perform its functions. An inquiry committee is a great tool for the parliament to exercise oversight and that is why according to articles 107 and 108 of the new Constitution there is a differentiation between temporary and inquiry committees. However, in late 2015, there was a concern relating to the powers of these committees as prescribed by the article 108 of the new Constitution. Edmon Marukyan, the only non-party Deputy of the National Assembly of Armenia, suggested an addendum to the point 3 of article 108. According to him, the addendum should prescribe that the inquiry committees should be empowered to demand state and local self-government body officials to be present in the sittings of the committees and provide relevant explanations. The improvement was suggested for the first time on 11 September 2015, during the session of the Standing Committee on State and Legal Affairs of the National Assembly. By then, the suggestion received a positive feedback and the committee members stated that it could be approved on the constitutional level. However, the decision on the official proposal to the National Assembly was to include the addendum in the rules of procedure of the NA rather than in the Constitution. The international experience shows that giving such powers to inquiry committees is a common thing. Point 7 of rule 176 of the Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament states that "A committee of inquiry may contact the institutions or persons referred to in Article 3 of the Decision referred to in paragraph 2 with a view to holding a hearing or obtaining documents." Even though it was prescribed neither by the Constitution nor the Rules of Procedure of the National Assembly that temporary committees have the power to hold a hearing with the presence of state and local self-government body officials, there was such a case when the committee held a closed-door hearing. On 23 October 2008 with the order of the President of Armenia, a temporary committee of experts was formed on obtaining facts and evidence on the incidents of 1 March 2008. So as to gain the necessary information the committee was given the tools typical to a real parliamentarian inquiry committee. Ad hoc committees as prescribed by the Constitution and Laws Ad hoc committees are special temporary committees established by the decision of the National Assembly to discuss certain draft laws, or investigate certain issues, events or facts and to submit conclusions to the National Assembly. The aim of these committees is to draw attention to exceptional cases that are not covered by the standing committees. According to the Constitution of Armenia, Article 73 "If appropriate, interim committees may be established as prescribed by the law on the Rules of Procedure of the National Assembly for preliminary discussion of certain draft laws or for submitting to the National Assembly opinions, statements on certain issues, events and facts". Following the consideration and definition in the Constitution the Law on Rules of Procedure of the National Assembly clearly defines all the issues concerning the add hoc committees. More particularly, according to the article 22 of the mentioned law, add hoc committees are created by the decision of the National Assembly. The decision should contain information relating to the tasks, terms and procedures of an add hoc committee, meaning that the committee should operate only in very strict limitations set to the spheres of its investigation, the resources it may gain access to and also to the timeframes. The ultimate reason for existence of such committees is to deliver a report on its finding during a session of the National Assembly. Based on these reports, the Deputy may create a draft resolution in 2 days and if agreed by the Lead Committee, the resolution may be included in the draft agenda for upcoming four-day session. Ad hoc committees: their goals, procedures, and results Committee on Ethics One of the current add hoc committees of the National Assembly of Armenia is the Committee on Ethics. This is not a classical add hoc committee as it does exist during every session of the National Assembly but the committee functions till the beginning of the successive session when a new committee is formed. According to the Article 24.1 of the Law of the Republic of Armenia on the Rules of Procedure of the National Assembly, each faction has the right to nominate at least 1 Deputy to the ethics committee. The chairperson of the committee and the vice-chairperson are appointed from the members of the committee by the nomination of faction, although the Chairperson of the National Assembly is the one to appoint the chairperson of the ethics committee, the vice chairperson, and to approve other members. If the chairperson of the ethics committee is from a non-opposition faction, the vice chairperson should be from the opposition faction and the vice versa. Factions have the right to change their representative in the ethics committee. According to the Article 24.2 of the Law of the Republic of Armenia on the Rules of Procedure of the National Assembly the ethics committee provides conclusion to the National Assembly on violation by a Deputy of the requirements not to be engaged in entrepreneurial activities, not to hold offices in state or commercial organizations, and not to perform other paid work except for scientific, pedagogical or creative work (1st Paragraph of the Article 65 of the Constitution). The committee also decides if there was a violation of 2nd Paragraph of the Article 6.1 of the mentioned law i.e. the very basic requirements to abide the laws, to respect moral norms of the society, to be respectful to the colleagues, not to be guided by personal interests and so on, provides a Deputy with conclusion if his/her job is scientific, pedagogical or creative and more. The Committee on Ethics can require and obtain materials and documents relevant to the issues examined by the committee from any state agency; it can also demand to the state agencies with the exception of courts, judges and prosecutors to carry out checks, studies and expert examinations on the issues examined in the committee. The members of the ethics committee are free to enter any state institution or to examine any document relating to the case. Any individual can apply to the committee on ethics in cases prescribed by the law. The applicant should submit a written application with all the relevant documents. By proposal of the chairperson of the ethics committee but no later than ten days the committee starts the examination of the issue raised in the application or rejects its examination. The committee on ethics finishes its examination of the issue in 30 days after starting an examination; it may also extend the deadline by 20 days in case of necessity to implement a deeper research. The sittings of the committee are closed except of cases when the Deputy in the application suggests holding an open sitting. Sitting of the committee is valid if at least half of the members are present, and the sitting is held by the chairperson of the committee, the vice chairperson, or another member according to the prescriptions of the law. Member of the committee assigned for the examination of the issue is the main reporter and the Deputy indicated in the application is the supplementary reporter. The decisions and conclusions of the committee are adopted by the majority of votes if more than half of the members participated in the voting. The content of the application and name of the Deputy indicated in the application are not publicly available until the adoption of the final decision. The members of the ethics committee and other people participating in the activities of the committee cannot publicize details of the examination. One of the recent cases in this committee was an application indicating names of several Deputies and reporting that they voted instead for other Deputies during the voting. After examining the application, listening to the committee member appointed for the case and to the accused Deputies the committee on ethics found them guilty of violating the duty to abide the laws. Also, in order to eliminate this kind of issues in the future, the committee made a suggestion to make supplements and changes in the Law of the Republic of Armenia on the Rules of Procedure of the National Assembly more specifically consider voting instead for other Deputies disturbance of the order and enforce the presiding officer to take immediate disciplinary measures against these Deputies that is depriving the Deputy from the right to be present during the session of the National Assembly. The National Assembly approved this suggestion. Ad hoc Committee on Studying the Activity of the Gas Supply System in Armenia This committee was established in February 2014 to examine the protection level of natural gas consumers' interests (calories of supplied gas, testing gas usage counters, argumentations for the loss), examine the lawfulness of the accumulation of debt for natural gas during 2011–2013 and reasonableness of the amount of debt, to make predictions about the possibilities of alternative gas importers and other thoroughly listed issues relating to the gas supply system in Armenia as a whole including examination of prices for the gas and international practices. The committee hold closed sittings, the decisions and conclusions were adopted by the majority of votes, the committee had the right to require and obtain materials and documents relevant to the issues examined by the committee from any state agency; it can also demand to the state agencies with the exception of courts, judges and prosecutors to carry out checks, studies and expert examinations on the issues examined in the committee and so on. The committee presented its findings and conclusion during the session of the National Assembly of 7 April 2015. See also Elections in Armenia List of legislatures by country List of political parties in Armenia National Assembly of Artsakh Politics of Armenia President of the National Assembly of Armenia Programs of political parties in Armenia References Notes External links Politics of Armenia Political organizations based in Armenia 1918 establishments in Armenia Armenia Armenia Armenia

4014507

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maulana%20Azad%20National%20Institute%20of%20Technology

Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology

Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal (MANIT or NIT Bhopal, NIT-B) is a public technical university located in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India. It is part of a group of publicly funded institutions in India known as National Institutes of Technology. It is named after the Independent India's first Minister of Education (India), scholar and independence activist Abul Kalam Azad who is commonly remembered as Maulana Azad. Established in the year 1960 as Maulana Azad College of Technology (MACT) or Regional Engineering College (REC), Bhopal, it became a National Institute of Technology in 2002 and was recognised as an Institute of National Importance under the NIT Act in 2007. The institute is fully funded by Ministry of Education, Government of India and is governed by the NIT Council. It offers bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees in science, technology, engineering, architecture and management. History MANIT was started in 1960 as Maulana Azad College of Technology (MACT), named after the first Minister of Education of India, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. MACT started functioning in 1960 at Govt S.V. Polytechnic with an intake of 120 students and seven faculty members. It was one of the first out of eight Regional Engineering Colleges started during the second five-year plan (1956-1960) in India, where the main focus was development of the public sector and rapid industrialisation. To ensure enough supply of trained personnel to meet the demand of rapid industrialisation, a decision was taken to start the Regional Engineering Colleges (RECs), one in each major state of India to churn out graduates with good engineering merit. Thus a total of seventeen RECs were established 1959 onwards, one in each major state of India. Each college was a joint and cooperative enterprise of the central government and the concerned state government. MACT was one of the first eight REC's to be established in each region in India. It was established in the Western Region along with Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur and Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat. It started operating in the premises of "Swami Vivekananda Polytechnic" Bhopal. Mr. S. R. Beedkar, Principal of Swami Vivekananda Polytechnic was appointed as the planning officer of the institute. The foundation stone of the Institute building was laid by the then Prime Minister of India Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru on 23 April 1961. The Institute gradually progressed to become a high level education center with steady development of infrastructure as well as academics. J. N. Moudgill became the first principal of MACT in 1962. Five years degree programs in Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Electrical Engineering were started in 1962 itself. In 1963, the five-year program of Bachelor of Architecture was started as well. In 1964, the institute was shifted to its own building which is its present campus. As the necessity of science and technology kept on growing, more undergraduate programs kept on getting added like: Electronics and Communications Engineering in 1972; Computer Science and Engineering in 1986; 3-year Master of Computer Applications (MCA) in 1988 and Information Technology in 2001 (which was later merged with "Computer Science and Engineering" in 2013). The success of technology-based industry led to high demand for technical and scientific education. During the Premiership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the then Minister of Human Resource Development, Murli Manohar Joshi decided to upgrade all "Regional Engineering Colleges" to "National Institutes of Technology" that shall be funded by the Central Government itself. Hence, in 2002, all REC's became NIT's and MACT became Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology (MANIT). In the same year, MANIT was granted deemed university status. With this advancement, the World Bank assisted "Technical Education Quality Improvement Program" started in 2003, for the rapid academic and infrastructural growth of the college. In addition to engineering programs, an MBA program as well commenced from 2006. The Government of India in 2007 passed the NIT Act as per which MANIT was declared an Institute of National Importance. Campus MANIT is spread over which makes it one of the largest NITs in India in terms of total campus area. The entire campus consists of administrative and academic buildings, workshops, library and community centers, residential accommodations for students and staff and other general amenities such as Post Office, a Digital Library, a Bank with ATM, Shopping complex, a School for children, medical care unit, an auditorium with the capacity of 1000 persons and sports complex with vast expand of open area. An official branch of the State Bank of India also operates from the main campus. The campus is divided into four sectors. These sectors have the following facilities/features:- Academic sector Total area of academic block Total building area of offices Computer center Dispensary Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Auditorium with a seating capacity of 1000 persons Institute Cafeteria, Amul parlour, Nescafé huts, Teology, Neelam fast food corner, fast food court Gymnastic hall Football ground, Track and field's ground; cricket ground, basketball grounds and volleyball court Sports complex with indoor games facilities such as table tennis, chess and carrom room, badminton courts, and meditation hall Hostel sector Built-in area of hostels } 9 Boys + 1 NRI Boys Hostels (hostel no. 1–12, except hostel no. 7 & 12) 2 Girls Hostels (hostel no. 7 and 12) Residential area Built-in area of staff quarters Total 369 staff quarters Children park Officers club Artificial lake "Lotus Lake" and MANIT Boat Club Visitor accommodation Faculty/officer quarters Bachelor flats Dormitories VIP Guest House Faculty Guest House Organisation and administration Governance The NIT Council is the governing body of India's National Institutes of Technology (NIT) system. The NIT Council consists of Board of Governors of the concerned NIT. Departments MANIT has various academic departments with a wide range of courses. The department at MANIT are as follows: Architecture and Planning Engineering: Biological Science and Engineering Civil Engineering Chemical Engineering Computer Science and Engineering Electrical Engineering Electronics and Communication Engineering Mechanical Engineering Material Science and Metallurgical Engineering Science: Physics Chemistry Mathematics Applied Mathematics Bioinformatics Computer Applications Humanities Management Studies Academics Academic programs MANIT offers the following undergraduate, postgraduate and doctoral degrees: Bachelor of Technology Bachelor of Architecture Bachelor of Planning Master of Technology Master of Business Administration Master of Planning Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) Master of Computer Applications All course work and examinations for all majors and subjects are conducted in English. Admissions Admission to undergraduate courses is through the national level engineering entrance examination – through the Joint Entrance Examination - Main. The selection is very tough as only top 5% of the applicant are able to secure admissions. Prior to the start of JEE Main, admission to MANIT was through the All India Engineering Entrance Examination (AIEEE) until 2013. For NRI's and foreign nationals, the admission is conducted through DASA (Direct Admissions for Students Abroad) where a qualifying score of the SAT Subject Test in Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics is required. Other than DASA, scholarships programs for admission are provided through the Indian Council for Cultural Relations. Students from different countries such as Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Oman, UAE etc. take admission into the institute every year. Students for postgraduate programs are selected through Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering for the M.Tech. program and through NIT MCA Common Entrance Test for the MCA program. Admission to the MBA program is through the Common Admission Test. Ranking MANIT is ranked 80th among the engineering colleges of India by National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2023. Notable alumni Ajit Jogi - first chief minister of Chhattisgarh; member of the Indian National Congress P. C. Sharma - Cabinet Minister of Madhya Pradesh State Government (Law and Legal Affairs Department, Public Relations Department, Science and Technology Department, Department of Civil Aviation) Rambabu Kodali - pro-vice chancellor of Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology Suresh Pachouri - veteran member of the Indian National Congress Naveen Polishetty - Indian film and television actor in the Telugu and Hindi language films Rajeev Verma - noted Indian film and television actor Satish Kumar Sharma - chairman and managing director of Nuclear Power Corporation of India Santosh Choubey - founder and chairman AISECT and chancellor AISECT Group of Universities including Rabindranath Tagore University See also List of educational institutions in Bhopal List of institutions of higher education in Madhya Pradesh List of National Institutes of Technology in India References External links Universities and colleges in Bhopal National Institutes of Technology Engineering colleges in Madhya Pradesh Universities and colleges established in 1960 Memorials to Abul Kalam Azad 1960 establishments in Madhya Pradesh All India Council for Technical Education

4014599

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOSDIS

EOSDIS

The Earth Observing System Data and Information System (EOSDIS) is a key core capability in NASA’s Earth Science Data Systems Program. Designed and maintained by Raytheon Intelligence & Space, it is a comprehensive data and information system designed to perform a wide variety of functions in support of a heterogeneous national and international user community. EOSDIS provides a spectrum of services; some services are intended for a diverse group of casual users while others are intended only for a select cadre of research scientists chosen by NASA's peer-reviewed competitions, and then many fall somewhere in between. The primary services provided by EOSDIS are User Support, Data Archive, Management and Distribution, Information Management, and Product Generation, all of which are managed by the Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS) Project. Overview EOSDIS ingests, processes, archives, and distributes data from a large number of Earth-observing satellites, and provides end-to-end capabilities for managing NASA's Earth science data from various sources – satellites, aircraft, field measurements, and various other programs. For the Earth Observing System (EOS) satellite missions, EOSDIS provides capabilities for command and control, scheduling, data capture and initial (Level 0) processing. These capabilities, constituting the EOSDIS Mission Operations, are managed by the Earth Science Mission Operations (ESMO) Project. NASA network capabilities transport the data to the science operations facilities. EOSDIS consists of a set of processing facilities and Distributed Active Archive Centers distributed across the United States. These processing facilities and DAACs serve hundreds of thousands of users around the world, providing hundreds of millions of data files each year covering many Earth science disciplines. The EOSDIS project as of September 2012 reported it contained approximately 10 PB of data in its database with ingestion of approximately 8.5 TB daily. The remaining capabilities of EOSDIS constitute the EOSDIS Science Operations, which are managed by the Earth Science Data and Information System (ESDIS) Project. These capabilities include: generation of higher level (Level 1-4) science data products for EOS missions; archiving and distribution of data products from EOS and other satellite missions, as well as aircraft and field measurement campaigns. The EOSDIS science operations are performed within a distributed system of many interconnected nodes (Science Investigator-led Processing Systems and distributed, discipline-specific, Earth science Distributed Active Archive Centers) with specific responsibilities for production, archiving, and distribution of Earth science data products. The Distributed Active Archive Centers serve a large and diverse user community (as indicated by EOSDIS performance metrics) by providing capabilities to search and access science data products and specialized services. History From early 1980 through 1986, NASA supported pilot data system studies to assess the feasibility and development of publicly accessible electronic data systems. Part of the congressional approval of the EOS mission in 1990 included the NASA Earth Science Enterprise, which supported the development of a long-term data and information system (EOSDIS). This system would be accessible to both the science research community and the broader public, built on a distributed open architecture. With these functional requirements for space operations control and product generation for EOS, the EOSDIS would also be responsible for the data archival, management, and distribution of all NASA Earth science mission instrument data during the mission life. Methods of Search Distributed Active Archive Centers EOSDIS Distributed Active Archive Centers are custodians of EOS data, provide long-term storage and preservation of the data, and ensure that data can be easily accessed by users. Each center is distinguished from one another by their specific Earth system science discipline. In addition to the search-and-order capabilities provided by the Global Change Master Directory (GCMD) and the Common Metadata Repository (or CMR, which has replaced the former EOS Clearinghouse, or ECHO), the Distributed Active Archive Centers have individual online systems that allow them to provide unique services for users of a particular type of data. The center-specific systems emphasize data products, services, and data-handling tools unique to the DAAC. DAAC-specific search tools GCMD - Dataset Directory The Global Change Master Directory (GCMD) is a directory for Earth science data and services. The GCMD database currently has more than 30,000 Earth science data sets and service descriptions covering all aspects of Earth and environmental sciences. One can use the search box or select from the available keywords to search for data and services. ECHO - Application Program Interfaces (APIs) for Search and Order Global Change Master Directory The Common Metadata Repository (CMR) Formerly known as the EOS ClearingHouse (ECHO), CMR is a metadata catalog of NASA's EOS data and a registry for related data services (e.g. reformatting, pattern recognition). CMR's catalog contains more than 3200 data sets held at 12 EOSDIS DAACs. Users can access the data and services by using general or community-tailored clients that access CMR using a series of Application Program Interfaces (APIs) defined using web services. Earthdata Search Earthdata Search replaced Reverb as EOSDIS's web-based client for discovering and ordering cross-discipline data from all of CMR's metadata holdings in January 2018. Earthdata Search allows users, including those without specific knowledge of the data, to search science data holdings, retrieve high-level descriptions of data sets and detailed descriptions of the data inventory, view browse images, and submit orders via CMR to the appropriate data providers. Cross-DAAC searches through Earthdata Search – use the Common Metadata Repository (CMR) Distributed Active Archive Centers A Distributed Active Archive Center (DAAC) is a part of EOSDIS. DAACs process, archive, document, and distribute data from NASA's past and current Earth Observing System (EOS) satellites and field measurement programs. Each of the twelve DAACs serves one or more specific Earth science disciplines and provides its user community with data products, data information, user services, and tools unique to its particular science. The following is a list of DAACs and data specializations: Alaska Satellite Facility (ASF) DAAC: Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data, sea ice, polar processes, geophysics. Atmospheric Science Data Center (ASDC): radiation budget, clouds, aerosols, tropospheric chemistry. Crustal Dynamics Data Information System (CDDIS): satellite geodesy. Global Hydrometeorology Resource Center (GHRC) DAAC: severe weather interactions, lightning, atmospheric convection. Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC): global precipitation, solar irradiance, atmospheric composition, atmospheric dynamics, global modeling. Land Processes DAAC (LP DAAC): surface reflectivity, land cover, vegetation indices. Level 1 Atmosphere Archive and Distribution System (LAADS) DAAC: radiance, atmosphere. National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC DAAC): snow, ice, cryosphere, climate. Oak Ridge National Laboratory DAAC (ORNL DAAC): biogeochemical dynamics, terrestrial ecology, carbon and nitrogen cycle, environmental processes. Ocean Biology DAAC (OB.DAAC): ocean biology, ocean color, ocean biogeochemistry, sea surface temperature. Physical Oceanography DAAC (PO DAAC): sea surface temperature, ocean winds, circulation and currents, topography and gravity. Socioeconomic Data and Applications Data Center (SEDAC): human interactions, land use, environmental sustainability, geospatial data, multilateral environmental agreements. See also ECHO Clearinghouse Global Change Master Directory Goddard Space Flight Center References External links NASA.gov NASA.gov NASA.gov NASA Distributed Active Archive Center (DAAC) Official website NASA programs Earth observation Goddard Space Flight Center Data centers Spacecraft communication

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying%20and%20gliding%20animals

Flying and gliding animals

A number of animals are capable of aerial locomotion, either by powered flight or by gliding. This trait has appeared by evolution many times, without any single common ancestor. Flight has evolved at least four times in separate animals: insects, pterosaurs, birds, and bats. Gliding has evolved on many more occasions. Usually the development is to aid canopy animals in getting from tree to tree, although there are other possibilities. Gliding, in particular, has evolved among rainforest animals, especially in the rainforests in Asia (most especially Borneo) where the trees are tall and widely spaced. Several species of aquatic animals, and a few amphibians and reptiles have also evolved this gliding flight ability, typically as a means of evading predators. Types Animal aerial locomotion can be divided into two categories: powered and unpowered. In unpowered modes of locomotion, the animal uses aerodynamic forces exerted on the body due to wind or falling through the air. In powered flight, the animal uses muscular power to generate aerodynamic forces to climb or to maintain steady, level flight. Those who can find air that is rising faster than they are falling can gain altitude by soaring. Unpowered These modes of locomotion typically require an animal start from a raised location, converting that potential energy into kinetic energy and using aerodynamic forces to control trajectory and angle of descent. Energy is continually lost to drag without being replaced, thus these methods of locomotion have limited range and duration. Falling: decreasing altitude under the force of gravity, using no adaptations to increase drag or provide lift. Parachuting: falling at an angle greater than 45° from the horizontal with adaptations to increase drag forces. Very small animals may be carried up by the wind. Some gliding animals may use their gliding membranes for drag rather than lift, to safely descend. Gliding flight: falling at an angle less than 45° from the horizontal with lift from adapted aerofoil membranes. This allows slowly falling directed horizontal movement, with streamlining to decrease drag forces for aerofoil efficiency and often with some maneuverability in air. Gliding animals have a lower aspect ratio (wing length/breadth) than true flyers. Powered flight Powered flight has evolved at least four times: first in the insects, then in pterosaurs, next in birds, and last in bats. Studies on theropod dinosaurs do suggest multiple (≥3) independent acquisitions of powered flight however, and a recent study proposes independent acquisitions amidst the different bat clades as well. Powered flight uses muscles to generate aerodynamic force, which allows the animal to produce lift and thrust. The animal may ascend without the aid of rising air. Externally powered Ballooning and soaring are not powered by muscle, but rather by external aerodynamic sources of energy: the wind and rising thermals, respectively. Both can continue as long as the source of external power is present. Soaring is typically only seen in species capable of powered flight, as it requires extremely large wings. Ballooning: being carried up into the air from the aerodynamic effect on long strands of silk in the wind. Certain silk-producing arthropods, mostly small or young spiders, secrete a special light-weight gossamer silk for ballooning, sometimes traveling great distances at high altitude. Soaring: gliding in rising or otherwise moving air that requires specific physiological and morphological adaptations that can sustain the animal aloft without flapping its wings. The rising air is due to thermals, ridge lift or other meteorological features. Under the right conditions, soaring creates a gain of altitude without expending energy. Large wingspans are needed for efficient soaring. Many species will use multiple of these modes at various times; a hawk will use powered flight to rise, then soar on thermals, then descend via free-fall to catch its prey. Evolution and ecology Gliding and parachuting While gliding occurs independently from powered flight, it has some ecological advantages of its own as it is the simplest form of flight. Gliding is a very energy-efficient way of travelling from tree to tree. Although moving through the canopy running along the branches may be less energetically demanding, the faster transition between trees allows for greater foraging rates in a particular patch. Glide ratios can be dependent on size and current behavior. Higher foraging rates are supported by low glide ratios as smaller foraging patches require less gliding time over shorter distances and greater amounts of food can be acquired in a shorter time period. Low ratios are not as energy efficient as the higher ratios, but an argument made is that many gliding animals eat low energy foods such as leaves and are restricted to gliding because of this, whereas flying animals eat more high energy foods such as fruits, nectar, and insects. Mammals tend to rely on lower glide ratios to increase the amount of time foraging for lower energy food. An equilibrium glide, achieving a constant airspeed and glide angle, is harder to obtain as animal size increases. Larger animals need to glide from much higher heights and longer distances to make it energetically beneficial. Gliding is also very suitable for predator avoidance, allowing for controlled targeted landings to safer areas. In contrast to flight, gliding has evolved independently many times (more than a dozen times among extant vertebrates); however these groups have not radiated nearly as much as have groups of flying animals. Worldwide, the distribution of gliding animals is uneven, as most inhabit rain forests in Southeast Asia. (Despite seemingly suitable rain forest habitats, few gliders are found in India or New Guinea and none in Madagascar.) Additionally, a variety of gliding vertebrates are found in Africa, a family of hylids (flying frogs) lives in South America and several species of gliding squirrels are found in the forests of northern Asia and North America. Various factors produce these disparities. In the forests of Southeast Asia, the dominant canopy trees (usually dipterocarps) are taller than the canopy trees of the other forests. Forest structure and distance between trees are influential in the development of gliding within varying species. A higher start provides a competitive advantage of further glides and farther travel. Gliding predators may more efficiently search for prey. The lower abundance of insect and small vertebrate prey for carnivorous animals (such as lizards) in Asian forests may be a factor. In Australia, many mammals (and all mammalian gliders) possess, to some extent, prehensile tails. Globally, smaller gliding species tend to have feather-like tails and larger species have fur covered round bushy tails, but smaller animals tend to rely on parachuting rather than developing gliding membranes. The gliding membranes, patagium, are classified in the 4 groups of propatagium, digipatagium, plagiopatagium and uropatagium. These membranes consist of two tightly bounded layers of skin connected by muscles and connective tissue between the fore and hind limbs. Powered flight evolution Powered flight has evolved unambiguously only four times—birds, bats, pterosaurs, and insects (though see above for possible independent acquisitions within bird and bat groups). In contrast to gliding, which has evolved more frequently but typically gives rise to only a handful of species, all three extant groups of powered flyers have a huge number of species, suggesting that flight is a very successful strategy once evolved. Bats, after rodents, have the most species of any mammalian order, about 20% of all mammalian species. Birds have the most species of any class of terrestrial vertebrates. Finally, insects (most of which fly at some point in their life cycle) have more species than all other animal groups combined. The evolution of flight is one of the most striking and demanding in animal evolution, and has attracted the attention of many prominent scientists and generated many theories. Additionally, because flying animals tend to be small and have a low mass (both of which increase the surface-area-to-mass ratio), they tend to fossilize infrequently and poorly compared to the larger, heavier-boned terrestrial species they share habitat with. Fossils of flying animals tend to be confined to exceptional fossil deposits formed under highly specific circumstances, resulting in a generally poor fossil record, and a particular lack of transitional forms. Furthermore, as fossils do not preserve behavior or muscle, it can be difficult to discriminate between a poor flyer and a good glider. Insects were the first to evolve flight, approximately 350 million years ago. The developmental origin of the insect wing remains in dispute, as does the purpose prior to true flight. One suggestion is that wings initially evolved from tracheal gill structures and were used to catch the wind for small insects that live on the surface of the water, while another is that they evolved from paranotal lobes or leg structures and gradually progressed from parachuting, to gliding, to flight for originally arboreal insects. Pterosaurs were the next to evolve flight, approximately 228 million years ago. These reptiles were close relatives of the dinosaurs, and reached enormous sizes, with some of the last forms being the largest flying animals ever to inhabit the Earth, having wingspans of over 9.1 m (30 ft). However, they spanned a large range of sizes, down to a 250 mm (10 in) wingspan in Nemicolopterus. Birds have an extensive fossil record, along with many forms documenting both their evolution from small theropod dinosaurs and the numerous bird-like forms of theropod which did not survive the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous. Indeed, Archaeopteryx is arguably the most famous transitional fossil in the world, both due to its mix of reptilian and avian anatomy and the luck of being discovered only two years after Darwin's publication of On the Origin of Species. However, the ecology of this transition is considerably more contentious, with various scientists supporting either a "trees down" origin (in which an arboreal ancestor evolved gliding, then flight) or a "ground up" origin (in which a fast-running terrestrial ancestor used wings for a speed boost and to help catch prey). Bats are the most recent to evolve (about 60 million years ago), most likely from a fluttering ancestor, though their poor fossil record has hindered more detailed study. Only a few animals are known to have specialised in soaring: the larger of the extinct pterosaurs, and some large birds. Powered flight is very energetically expensive for large animals, but for soaring their size is an advantage, as it allows them a low wing loading, that is a large wing area relative to their weight, which maximizes lift. Soaring is very energetically efficient. Biomechanics Gliding and parachuting During a free-fall with no aerodynamic forces, the object accelerates due to gravity, resulting in increasing velocity as the object descends. During parachuting, animals use the aerodynamic forces on their body to counteract the force or gravity. Any object moving through air experiences a drag force that is proportion to surface area and to velocity squared, and this force will partially counter the force of gravity, slowing the animal's descent to a safer speed. If this drag is oriented at an angle to the vertical, the animal's trajectory will gradually become more horizontal, and it will cover horizontal as well as vertical distance. Smaller adjustments can allow turning or other maneuvers. This can allow a parachuting animal to move from a high location on one tree to a lower location on another tree nearby. Specifically in gliding mammals, there are 3 types of gliding paths respectively being S glide, J glide, and "straight-shaped" glides where species either gain altitude post launch then descend, rapidly decrease height before gliding, and maintaining a constant angled descent. During gliding, lift plays an increased role. Like drag, lift is proportional to velocity squared. Gliding animals will typically leap or drop from high locations such as trees, just as in parachuting, and as gravitational acceleration increases their speed, the aerodynamic forces also increase. Because the animal can utilize lift and drag to generate greater aerodynamic force, it can glide at a shallower angle than parachuting animals, allowing it to cover greater horizontal distance in the same loss of altitude, and reach trees further away. Successful flights for gliding animals are achieved through 5 steps: preparation, launch, glide, braking, and landing. Gliding species are better able to control themselves mid-air, with the tail acting as a rudder, making it capable to pull off banking movements or U-turns during flight. During landing, arboreal mammals will extend their fore and hind limbs in front of itself to brace for landing and to trap air in order to maximize air resistance and lower impact speed. Powered flight Unlike most air vehicles, in which the objects that generate lift (wings) and thrust (engine or propeller) are separate and the wings remain fixed, flying animals use their wings to generate both lift and thrust by moving them relative to the body. This has made the flight of organisms considerably harder to understand than that of vehicles, as it involves varying speeds, angles, orientations, areas, and flow patterns over the wings. A bird or bat flying through the air at a constant speed moves its wings up and down (usually with some fore-aft movement as well). Because the animal is in motion, there is some airflow relative to its body which, combined with the velocity of its wings, generates a faster airflow moving over the wing. This will generate lift force vector pointing forwards and upwards, and a drag force vector pointing rearwards and upwards. The upwards components of these counteract gravity, keeping the body in the air, while the forward component provides thrust to counteract both the drag from the wing and from the body as a whole. Pterosaur flight likely worked in a similar manner, though no living pterosaurs remain for study. Insect flight is considerably different, due to their small size, rigid wings, and other anatomical differences. Turbulence and vortices play a much larger role in insect flight, making it even more complex and difficult to study than the flight of vertebrates. There are two basic aerodynamic models of insect flight. Most insects use a method that creates a spiralling leading edge vortex. Some very small insects use the fling-and-clap or Weis-Fogh mechanism in which the wings clap together above the insect's body and then fling apart. As they fling open, the air gets sucked in and creates a vortex over each wing. This bound vortex then moves across the wing and, in the clap, acts as the starting vortex for the other wing. Circulation and lift are increased, at the price of wear and tear on the wings. Limits and extremes Flying and soaring Largest. The largest known flying animal was formerly thought to be Pteranodon, a pterosaur with a wingspan of up to . However, the more recently discovered azhdarchid pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus is much larger, with estimates of the wingspan ranging from . Some other recently discovered azhdarchid pterosaur species, such as Hatzegopteryx, may have also wingspans of a similar size or even slightly larger. Although it is widely thought that Quetzalcoatlus reached the size limit of a flying animal, the same was once said of Pteranodon. The heaviest living flying animals are the kori bustard and the great bustard with males reaching . The wandering albatross has the greatest wingspan of any living flying animal at . Among living animals which fly over land, the Andean condor and the marabou stork have the largest wingspan at . Studies have shown that it is physically possible for flying animals to reach wingspans, but there is no firm evidence that any flying animal, not even the azhdarchid pterosaurs, got that large. Smallest. There is no minimum size for getting airborne. Indeed, there are many bacteria floating in the atmosphere that constitute part of the aeroplankton. However, to move about under one's own power and not be overly affected by the wind requires a certain amount of size. The smallest flying vertebrates are the bee hummingbird and the bumblebee bat, both of which may weigh less than . They are thought to represent the lower size limit for endotherm flight. The smallest flying invertebrate is a fairyfly wasp species, Kikiki huna, at (150 μm). Fastest. The fastest of all known flying animals is the peregrine falcon, which when diving travels at or faster. The fastest animal in flapping horizontal flight may be the Mexican free-tailed bat, said to attain about based on ground speed by an aircraft tracking device; that measurement does not separate any contribution from wind speed, so the observations could be caused by strong tailwinds. Slowest. Most flying animals need to travel forward to stay aloft. However, some creatures can stay in the same spot, known as hovering, either by rapidly flapping the wings, as do hummingbirds, hoverflies, dragonflies, and some others, or carefully using thermals, as do some birds of prey. The slowest flying non-hovering bird recorded is the American woodcock, at . Highest flying. There are records of a Rüppell's vulture Gyps rueppelli, a large vulture, being sucked into a jet engine above Côte d'Ivoire in West Africa. The animal that flies highest most regularly is the bar-headed goose Anser indicus, which migrates directly over the Himalayas between its nesting grounds in Tibet and its winter quarters in India. They are sometimes seen flying well above the peak of Mount Everest at . Gliding and parachuting Most efficient glider. This can be taken as the animal that moves most horizontal distance per metre fallen. Flying squirrels are known to glide up to , but have measured glide ratio of about 2. Flying fish have been observed to glide for hundreds of metres on the drafts on the edge of waves with only their initial leap from the water to provide height, but may be obtaining additional lift from wave motion. On the other hand, albatrosses have measured lift–drag ratios of 20, and thus fall just 1 meter for every 20 in still air. Most maneuverable glider. Many gliding animals have some ability to turn, but which is the most maneuverable is difficult to assess. Even paradise tree snakes, Chinese gliding frogs, and gliding ants have been observed as having considerable capacity to turn in the air. Flying animals Extant Insects Pterygota: The first of all animals to evolve flight, they are also the only invertebrates that have evolved flight. As they comprise almost all insects, the species are too numerous to list here. Insect flight is an active research field. Birds Birds (flying, soaring) – Most of the approximately 10,000 living species can fly (flightless birds are the exception). Bird flight is one of the most studied forms of aerial locomotion in animals. See List of soaring birds for birds that can soar as well as fly. Mammals Bats. There are approximately 1,240 bat species, representing about 20% of all classified mammal species. Most bats are nocturnal and many feed on insects while flying at night, using echolocation to home in on their prey. Extinct Pterosaurs Pterosaurs were the first flying vertebrates, and are generally agreed to have been sophisticated flyers. They had large wings formed by a patagium stretching from the torso to a dramatically lengthened fourth finger. There were hundreds of species, most of which are thought to have been intermittent flappers, and many soarers. The largest known flying animals are pterosaurs. Non-avian dinosaurs Theropods (gliding and flying). There were several species of theropod dinosaur thought to be capable of gliding or flying, that are not classified as birds (though they are closely related). Some species (Microraptor gui, Microraptor zhaoianus, and Changyuraptor) have been found that were fully feathered on all four limbs, giving them four 'wings' that they are believed to have used for gliding or flying. A recent study indicates that flight may have been acquired independently in various different lineages though it may have only evolved in theropods of the Avialae. Gliding animals Extant Insects Gliding bristletails. Directed aerial gliding descent is found in some tropical arboreal bristletails, an ancestrally wingless sister taxa to the winged insects. The bristletails median caudal filament is important for the glide ratio and gliding control Gliding ants. The flightless workers of these insects have secondarily gained some capacity to move through the air. Gliding has evolved independently in a number of arboreal ant species from the groups Cephalotini, Pseudomyrmecinae, and Formicinae (mostly Camponotus). All arboreal dolichoderines and non-cephalotine myrmicines except Daceton armigerum do not glide. Living in the rainforest canopy like many other gliders, gliding ants use their gliding to return to the trunk of the tree they live on should they fall or be knocked off a branch. Gliding was first discovered for Cephalotes atreus in the Peruvian rainforest. Cephalotes atreus can make 180 degree turns, and locate the trunk using visual cues, succeeding in landing 80% of the time. Unique among gliding animals, Cephalotini and Pseudomyrmecinae ants glide abdomen first, the Forminicae however glide in the more conventional head first manner. Gliding immature insects. The wingless immature stages of some insect species that have wings as adults may also show a capacity to glide. These include some species of cockroach, mantis, katydid, stick insect and true bug. Spiders Ballooning spiders (parachuting). The young of some species of spiders travel through the air by using silk draglines to catch the wind, as may some smaller species of adult spider, such as the money spider family. This behavior is commonly known as "ballooning". Ballooning spiders make up part of the aeroplankton. Gliding spiders. Some species of arboreal spider of the genus Selenops can glide back to the trunk of a tree should they fall. Skydiving spiders discovered in South America Molluscs Flying squid. Several oceanic squids of the family Ommastrephidae, such as the Pacific flying squid, will leap out of the water to escape predators, an adaptation similar to that of flying fish. Smaller squids will fly in shoals, and have been observed to cover distances as long as . Small fins towards the back of the mantle do not produce much lift, but do help stabilize the motion of flight. They exit the water by expelling water out of their funnel, indeed some squid have been observed to continue jetting water while airborne providing thrust even after leaving the water. This may make flying squid the only animals with jet-propelled aerial locomotion. The neon flying squid has been observed to glide for distances over , at speeds of up to . Fish Flying fish. There are over 50 species of flying fish belonging to the family Exocoetidae. They are mostly marine fishes of small to medium size. The largest flying fish can reach lengths of but most species measure less than in length. They can be divided into two-winged varieties and four-winged varieties. Before the fish leaves the water it increases its speed to around 30 body lengths per second and as it breaks the surface and is freed from the drag of the water it can be traveling at around . The glides are usually up to in length, but some have been observed soaring for hundreds of metres using the updraft on the leading edges of waves. The fish can also make a series of glides, each time dipping the tail into the water to produce forward thrust. The longest recorded series of glides, with the fish only periodically dipping its tail in the water, was for 45 seconds (Video here). It has been suggested that the genus Exocoetus is on an evolutionary borderline between flight and gliding. It flaps its enlarged pectoral fins when airborne, but still seems only to glide, as there is no hint of a power stroke. It has been found that some flying fish can glide as effectively as some flying birds. live bearers Halfbeaks. A group related to the Exocoetidae, one or two hemirhamphid species possess enlarged pectoral fins and show true gliding flight rather than simple leaps. Marshall (1965) reports that Euleptorhamphus viridis can cover in two separate hops. Trinidadian guppies have been observed exhibiting a gliding response to escape predator's Freshwater butterflyfish (possibly gliding). Pantodon buchholzi has the ability to jump and possibly glide a short distance. It can move through the air several times the length of its body. While it does this, the fish flaps its large pectoral fins, giving it its common name. However, it is debated whether the freshwater butterfly fish can truly glide, Saidel et al. (2004) argue that it cannot. Freshwater hatchetfish. In the wild, they have been observed jumping out of the water and gliding (although reports of them achieving powered flight has been brought up many times). Amphibians Gliding has evolved independently in two families of tree frogs, the Old World Rhacophoridae and the New World Hylidae. Within each lineage there are a range of gliding abilities from non-gliding, to parachuting, to full gliding. Rhacophoridae flying frogs. A number of the Rhacophoridae, such as Wallace's flying frog (Rhacophorus nigropalmatus), have adaptations for gliding, the main feature being enlarged toe membranes. For example, the Malayan flying frog Rhacophorus prominanus glides using the membranes between the toes of its limbs, and small membranes located at the heel, the base of the leg, and the forearm. Some of the frogs are quite accomplished gliders, for example, the Chinese flying frog Rhacophorus dennysi can maneuver in the air, making two kinds of turn, either rolling into the turn (a banked turn) or yawing into the turn (a crabbed turn). Hylidae flying frogs. The other frog family that contains gliders. Reptiles Several lizards and snakes are capable of gliding: Draco lizards. There are 28 species of lizard of the genus Draco, found in Sri Lanka, India, and Southeast Asia. They live in trees, feeding on tree ants, but nest on the forest floor. They can glide for up to and over this distance they lose only in height. Unusually, their patagium (gliding membrane) is supported on elongated ribs rather than the more common situation among gliding vertebrates of having the patagium attached to the limbs. When extended, the ribs form a semicircle on either side the lizard's body and can be folded to the body like a folding fan. Gliding lacertids. There are two species of gliding lacertid, of the genus Holaspis, found in Africa. They have fringed toes and tail sides and can flatten their bodies for gliding or parachuting. Ptychozoon flying geckos. There are six species of gliding gecko, of the genus Ptychozoon, from Southeast Asia. These lizards have small flaps of skin along their limbs, torso, tail, and head that catch the air and enable them to glide. Lupersaurus flying geckos. A possible sister-taxon to Ptychozoon which has similar flaps and folds and also glides. Thecadactylus flying geckos. At least some species of Thecadactylus, such as T. rapicauda, are known to glide. Cosymbotus flying gecko. Similar adaptations to Ptychozoon are found in the two species of the gecko genus Cosymbotus. Chrysopelea snakes. Five species of snake from Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and India. The paradise tree snake of southern Thailand, Malaysia, Borneo, Philippines, and Sulawesi is the most capable glider of those snakes studied. It glides by stretching out its body sideways and opening its ribs so the belly is concave, and by making lateral slithering movements. It can remarkably glide up to and make 90 degree turns. Mammals Bats are the only freely flying mammals. A few other mammals can glide or parachute; the best known are flying squirrels and flying lemurs. Flying squirrels (subfamily Petauristinae). There are more than 40 living species divided between 14 genera of flying squirrel. Flying squirrels are found in Asia (most species), North America (genus Glaucomys) and Europe (Siberian flying squirrel). They inhabit tropical, temperate, and Subarctic environments, with the Glaucomys preferring boreal and montane coniferous forests, specifically landing on red spruce (Picea rubens) trees as landing sites; they are known to rapidly climb trees, but take some time to locate a good landing spot. They tend to be nocturnal and are highly sensitive to light and noise. When a flying squirrel wishes to cross to a tree that is further away than the distance possible by jumping, it extends the cartilage spur on its elbow or wrist. This opens out the flap of furry skin (the patagium) that stretches from its wrist to its ankle. It glides spread-eagle and with its tail fluffed out like a parachute, and grips the tree with its claws when it lands. Flying squirrels have been reported to glide over . Anomalures or scaly-tailed flying squirrels (family Anomaluridae). These brightly coloured African rodents are not squirrels but have evolved to a resemble flying squirrels by convergent evolution. There are seven species, divided in three genera. All but one species have gliding membranes between their front and hind legs. The genus Idiurus contains two particularly small species known as flying mice, but similarly they are not true mice. Colugos or "flying lemurs" (order Dermoptera). There are two species of colugo. Despite their common name, colugos are not lemurs; true lemurs are primates. Molecular evidence suggests that colugos are a sister group to primates; however, some mammalogists suggest they are a sister group to bats. Found in Southeast Asia, the colugo is probably the mammal most adapted for gliding, with a patagium that is as large as geometrically possible. They can glide as far as with minimal loss of height. They have the most developed propatagium out of any gliding mammal with a mean launch velocity of approximately 3.7 m/s; the Mayan Colugo has been known to initiate glides without jumping. Sifaka, a type of lemur, and possibly some other primates (possible limited gliding or parachuting). A number of primates have been suggested to have adaptations that allow limited gliding or parachuting: sifakas, indris, galagos and saki monkeys. Most notably, the sifaka, a type of lemur, has thick hairs on its forearms that have been argued to provide drag, and a small membrane under its arms that has been suggested to provide lift by having aerofoil properties. Flying phalangers or wrist-winged gliders (subfamily Petaurinae). Possums found in Australia, and New Guinea. The gliding membranes are hardly noticeable until they jump. On jumping, the animal extends all four legs and stretches the loose folds of skin. The subfamily contains seven species. Of the six species in the genus Petaurus, the sugar glider and the Biak glider are the most common species. The lone species in the genus Gymnobelideus, Leadbeater's possum has only a vestigial gliding membrane. Greater glider (Petauroides volans). The only species of the genus Petauroides of the family Pseudocheiridae. This marsupial is found in Australia, and was originally classed with the flying phalangers, but is now recognised as separate. Its flying membrane only extends to the elbow, rather than to the wrist as in Petaurinae. It has elongated limbs compared to its non-gliding relatives. Feather-tailed possums (family Acrobatidae). This family of marsupials contains two genera, each with one species. The feathertail glider (Acrobates pygmaeus), found in Australia is the size of a very small mouse and is the smallest mammalian glider. The feathertail possum (Distoechurus pennatus) is found in New Guinea, but does not glide. Both species have a stiff-haired feather-like tail. Extinct Reptiles Extinct reptiles similar to Draco. There are a number of unrelated extinct lizard-like reptiles with similar "wings" to the Draco lizards. These include the Late Permian Weigeltisauridae, the Triassic Kuehneosauridae and Mecistotrachelos, and the Cretaceous lizard Xianglong. The largest of these, Kuehneosaurus, has a wingspan of , and was estimated to be able to glide about . Sharovipterygidae. These strange reptiles from the Upper Triassic of Kyrgyzstan and Poland unusually had a membrane on their elongated hind limbs, extending their otherwise normal, flying-squirrel-like patagia significantly. The forelimbs are in contrast much smaller. Hypuronector. This bizarre drepanosaur displays limb proportions, particularly the elongated forelimbs, that are consistent with a flying or gliding animal with patagia. Non-avian dinosaurs Scansoriopterygidae is unique among dinosaurs for the development of membranous wings, unlike the feathered airfoils of other theropods. Much like modern anomalures it developed a bony rod to help support the wing, albeit on the wrist and not the elbow. Fish Thoracopteridae is a lineage of Triassic flying fish-like Perleidiformes, having converted their pectoral and pelvic fins into broad wings very similar to those of their modern counterparts. The Ladinian genus Potanichthys is the oldest member of this clade, suggesting that these fish began exploring aerial niches soon after the Permian-Triassic extinction event. Mammals Volaticotherium antiquum. A gliding eutriconodont, long considered the earliest gliding mammal until the discovery of contemporary gliding haramiyidans. It lived around 164 million years ago and used a fur-covered skin membrane to glide through the air. The closely related Argentoconodon is also thought to have been able to glide, based on postcranial similarities; it lived around 165 million years ago, during the Middle-Late Jurassic of what is now China The haramiyidans Vilevolodon, Xianshou, Maiopatagium and Arboroharamiya known from the Middle-Late Jurassic of China had extensive patagia, highly convergent with those of colugos. A gliding metatherian (possibly a marsupial) is known from the Paleocene of Itaboraí, Brazil. A gliding rodent belonging to the extinct family Eomyidae, Eomys quercyi is known from the late Oligocene of Germany. See also Animal locomotion Flying mythological creatures Insect thermoregulation Organisms at high altitude References Further reading The Pterosaurs: From Deep Time by David Unwin External links Canopy Locomotion from Mongabay online magazine Learn the Secrets of Flight from Vertebrate Flight Exhibit at UCMP Canopy life Insect flight, photographs of flying insects – Rolf Nagels Map of Life - "Gliding mammals" – University of Cambridge Ethology Evolution of animals Natural history

4014675

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen%20SP2

Volkswagen SP2

The Volkswagen SP2 is a sports car that was developed by Volkswagen do Brasil and built from July 1972 until December 1975. It is based on the chassis of the Brazilian market Volkswagen Type 3. "SP" is said to be an initialism of São Paulo, where the car was built, or of "Sports Prototype". In its issue of 20 June 1973, German technology magazine Hobby called the SP2 the "most beautiful Volkswagen in the world." History Beginning in August 1952, as part of efforts to spur development of an indigenous automobile industry, Brazil began enacting a series of progressively more restrictive laws that effectively closed their market to imports. The domestic manufacturers were usually divisions of larger multinational firms, and offered little in the way of sportscars, leaving local independent carmakers to fill the gap. Brazilian sportscars before the SP2 From 1962 to 1966, the local division of Willys-Overland Motors produced a version of the Alpine A108 called the Willys Interlagos. In 1963, Italian immigrant Genaro "Rino" Malzoni unveiled his DKW GT Malzoni. In 1964, Malzoni became one of the founders of Sociedade de Automóveis Lumimari Ltda, dedicated to building increasingly refined versions of his namesake car. In 1966, the company changed its name to Puma Veículos e Motores Ltda, and unveiled their debut model, the Puma GT. While the earliest Puma GTs were powered by three cylinder, two-stroke DKW engines, Malzoni redesigned the car to use Volkswagen components when DKW announced their withdrawal from the Brazilian market. Puma went on to become Brazil's most well-known sportscar builder. From 1964 to 1966, Brazilian truck builder Brasinca built the 4200 GT, with an all-steel body and power from an inline six-cylinder Chevrolet engine. In 1966, Fábrica Nacional de Motores (FNM) released the FNM Onça, a two-door coupé based on the mechanicals of the Alfa Romeo 2000 sedan designed and built by Malzoni and his company Lumimari. The car had a GRP body styled by designer Anísio Campos that resembled the 1964½–1966 Ford Mustang. Few were built. In 1968 the Adamo first appeared on a motorshow stand. Various models were built over the course of several years, with production tapering off until finally ending in 1990. Also in 1968 the Volkswagen-based Lorena GT was launched. Offered as a kit or assembled, only 9 bodies were completed. The sportiest cars in Volkswagen do Brasil's lineup in the late 1960s and early 1970s were the aging, soon-to-be-retired, Volkswagen Karmann Ghia Type 14, and its Brazilian-market stable-mate, the Karmann Ghia TC. Rudolf Leiding Rudolf Wilhelm Karl Leiding started his career with Volkswagen (VW) as a production engineer in Wolfsburg in 1945. He was later made manager of the VW plant in northern Hesse. From 1965 until 1968 he was managing director of the Auto Union plant in Ingolstadt. On 1 March 1968, Leiding took over management of Volkswagen do Brasil in São Bernardo do Campo. "Projeto X" It is said that Leiding became convinced that Volkswagen needed to develop a car like the SP2 when a director of the company building the Puma suggested that VW, lacking a new sportscar, feature a Puma on their stand at the 1969 Brazilian motor show. In 1970, Leiding launched "Projeto X" (Project X), with the goal of developing a sportscar able to liven up Volkswagen's staid image in Brazil. Leiding himself produced some of the earliest sketches of what became the SP2. Wanting the car to appeal to female buyers, he sought out his wife Helga's input on the design. Some consider Helga to have been the seventh member of the SP2's development team. Designers Márcio Lima Piancastelli, José Vicente Novita Martins, and Jorge Yamashita Oba were assigned to the project. Dr. Paulo Iványi was the first lead engineer on the car, later replaced by Wilhelm Schmiemann. The first prototype was handcrafted by Giuseppe Accasto, who had originally been sent to Brazil from Italy by Carrozzeria Fissore to handle projects for DKW-Vemag. The resulting model study was the first Volkswagen with the "shark face" nose style, also called the "Leiding face", that appeared later on models like the German 412 and Brazilian Brasília. The study was presented at the Feira da Indústria Alemã (German industrial fair) in São Paulo, Aréa do Parvilhão da Bienal do Parque do Ibirapuera on 24 March 1971. Leiding returned to Germany to become head of Volkswagen's worldwide operations before the SP2 went into production. Assembly Two different companies and three facilities were involved in the development and production of the SP2, including: Volkswagen do Brasil, Factory 2 in São Paulo. Design, engineering, and development of the VW SP. Production-related vehicle testing on the local test track. Volkswagen do Brasil, Anchieta factory in São Bernardo do Campo Production of all sheet metal parts. Production of chassis, engines, transmissions, and axles on a dedicated production line. Painting of the body shells welded at Karmann-Ghia for quality reasons. Final inspection and delivery of the sports coupés for sale by Karmann-Ghia do Brasil. Karmann-Ghia do Brasil in São Bernardo do Campo. Hand-assembly of the bodyshells from sheet metal supplied by Volkswagen on a production line shared with the Karmann Ghia TC. Mounting the bodies painted at Volkswagen on the floor assemblies completed at Volkswagen, and completion of the vehicles. Sales and production Volkswagen's numeric designation for the SP2 is Type 149. The first SP2 chassis made had serial number BL-000101, and was manufactured on 23 June 1972. Both the SP1 and SP2 were officially launched on 26 June 1972. The SP2 cost 29,700 Brazilian cruzeiros, almost as much two Beetles, called the Fusca in Brazil. Due to the car's modest engine output, a contemporary joke says that "SP" actually stood for "Sem Potência," Portuguese for "without power". Specifically, the SP2 lagged in comparison to its main domestic competitor, the Puma, which, although using a similar engine, was much lighter due to its GRP body. Volkswagen do Brasil made plans to export the SP2 to the United States, but these fell through, in part due to the car's headlamps being too low to meet US safety standards. Despite being praised by critics for its looks, sales of the SP2 were slow. The last SP2 chassis made had serial number BL-010307, and was manufactured on 16 December 1975. In total, 10,205 cars were built. 681 were exported, 155 of which went to Nigeria. A limited number were also exported to other countries in Latin America, the Caribbean, and the Middle East. The price of a well-preserved example today is considerably higher than other VW models of its age. The car is now a sought-after collector's item. Features Body and chassis The production SP2 is based on the chassis of the Brazilian VW Type 3 Variant. This is a steel backbone chassis with attached floor pans. The SP2's bodywork is also steel. The overall shape is that of a long-nosed, two door hatchback coupé. It was the lowest car built in Brazil to that date. The SP has two trunks; a space under the front hood, and a compartment in the rear, accessible via a large hatch. The body includes a "collision belt" that consists of the front and rear bumpers and bands of collision-resistant material down each side capped with rubber. The original design of the SP2 included energy-absorbing bumpers mounted on spring-steel "claws", a feature that was not implemented on the production cars. The headlamps in the SP2 are quartz-halogen units. Powertrain Powering the SP2 is a "BL" code four-cylinder Volkswagen air-cooled engine displacing 1.7 L. This version of VW's boxer four is called the "suitcase" or "pancake" engine, and has its cooling fan on the end of the crankshaft, reducing engine height. It makes 65 (DIN) hp and gives the SP2 a top speed of . The SP2 takes 17.4 seconds to accelerate to . The transaxle is a fully synchronized four-speed manual with reverse. It has the same gear ratios as the Brazilian Type 3, but a higher final drive ratio (lower numerically) to compensate for its smaller diameter wheels. Running gear The suspension fitted to the early Brazilian Type 3 chassis underpinning the SP2 differed in some significant ways from its German counterpart, and has been said to more closely resemble that of VW's EA97 concept car. The SP2's front suspension comprises upper and lower trailing arms and stabilizer bar, but in a departure from the German Type 3, the SP2's Brazilian Variant system retains the laminated transverse torsion leaf system of the Fusca, instead of the tubular torsion bars used on the German Type 3. The rear suspension is a swing axle system with transverse torsion bars, trailing arms, and a "Z bar" transverse auxiliary spring, rather than the independent rear suspension (IRS) and semi-trailing arms found on the German Type 3. Brakes are discs in front, and drums in back. The braking system uses a dual-circuit hydraulic system. Interior trim The SP2's instrumentation includes a large tachometer and a speedometer with odometer directly ahead of the driver. To the right are a fuel gauge, oil temperature gauge, ammeter and a clock. The interior of the SP2 features a center console, map lights for driver and passenger, and 3-point non-retracting seatbelts, the first Brazilian car to include that safety feature. The seats feature adjustable headrests and backrests, and both seats and door panels could be ordered upholstered in leather. The floor behind the seats is carpeted, and includes hold-down straps for luggage. SP1 Alongside the SP2, a less powerful, more sparsely equipped version was offered, named the SP1. Fitted with a 1.6 L "BV" code boxer engine producing , it has a top speed of . The SP1 was discontinued in July 1974 after only 84 units were built. The interior of the SP1 is more spartan than that of the SP2, with simpler seats, no leather option, and without the center console, reading lights, passenger handle, or oil temperature gauge and clock offered in the SP2. The SP1 also makes do with sealed beam headlamps rather than the quartz-halogen units on the SP2. Technical data Legacy It has been suggested that the SP2 influenced the design of the Philippine DMG-VW Toro. The SP2 is also generally believed to have been the conceptual predecessor of Volkswagen's EA425 project, which was eventually launched as the Porsche 924. A 1973 example repainted by Volkswagen do Brasil from Astral Blue metallic to Lotus White is part of the collection of the Volkswagen AutoMuseum Foundation in Wolfsburg, and may be seen in the AutoMuseum Volkswagen. The fortieth anniversary of the launch of the SP2 was held on December 10 and 11, 2011, in Barra Bonita. Its fiftieth anniversary was held on 26 June 2022 at the Haras Tuiuti race track in São Paulo. Proposed successors Volkswagen SP3 Volkswagen do Brasil did two design studies of possible SP2 successors. One of VW's SP3 prototypes kept the same chassis and general mechanical layout of the SP2, but replaced the air-cooled engine with a rear-mounted Passat TS engine. This water-cooled 1.6 L in-line four-cylinder engine, with a compression ratio of 7.5:1 and dual carburetors, developed 85 SAE horsepower. Testing of this SP3 progressed to the point that Volkswagen planned to unveil it at the Motor Show in November 1976, but the plan was cancelled before it was shown. VW's other concept was for a car that followed the outward appearance of the SP2 closely, but was to be built on a front-wheel drive (FWD) Volkswagen unibody platform and use a water-cooled engine. Volkswagen designer Luiz Alberto Veiga designed a new car based on the Golf platform. It progressed to the stage where quarter scale models were produced, but did not go further due to disappointing sales of the similar Scirocco in Europe. Dacon SP3 The task of creating a successor to the SP2 was taken up by vehicle manufacturer Dacon S.A. in São Paulo. Dacon based its SP3 on the floor pan of the SP2, and borrowed VW's idea of using a water-cooled inline engine. Externally, the Dacon SP3 differed from the SP2 by having smooth sides without the red, wraparound side trim and black rubber protection, and by its 6J×13 rims from the VW Passat. The SP2's characteristic air intakes gave way to discrete slots on the rear side windows, and a wide black grille sat above the front bumper. The 1.8 L engine produced 100 SAE hp and remained in the rear; along with the car's air conditioning compressor, while a new radiator was mounted in the front. The interior featured leather-trimmed Porsche seats (Dacon was also a Porsche dealer until imports were banned). The transmission, suspension and brakes were the same as the SP2, but parts were adapted and reinforced to handle the new engine's greater power. The prototype reached a top speed of and was manufactured at Karmann-Ghia do Brasil. When production of the VW SP2 ended in February 1976, this also cut off the supply of chassis for Dacon's SP3 conversions. Converting a VW SP2 to a Dacon SP3 cost 20% more than a brand-new Puma GTE, and the high price severely limited demand. Rosa concept In 2008, designer Marcelo Rosa presented a design concept for a revived SP2 that could have been based on the contemporary Scirocco. FEI College/FAAP College concept In the late 2010s, a group of mechanical engineering students at Fundação Educacional Inaciana (Educational Foundation of Ignatius, or FEI College) decided to base their major project on a re-imagined SP2. The students' professor of vehicular dynamics and suspension, Ricardo Bock, was also teaching a course on automobile design at Fundação Armando Alvares Penteado (Armando Alvares Penteado Foundation, or FAAP College), and he decided to bring the two groups together on the project. The result was a design with a tubular steel chassis, unequal-length A-arm suspension at all four corners, and a mid-mounted 2.0 L turbocharged Volkswagen EA113 TFSI engine producing at 6400 rpm and of torque at 3500 rpm. Ropond concept In October 2020, Brazilian designer Diogo Ropond produced a plan for another SP2 successor. This low-slung concept was conceptually based on the Volkswagen ID. series battery electric vehicle platform. Gallery References Further reading External links SP2 Cars of Brazil Rear-engined vehicles Cars powered by boxer engines Rear-wheel-drive vehicles Sports cars Cars introduced in 1972 Coupés

4014781

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy%20Lennon

Andy Lennon

Andy Lennon (September 1, 1914 - November 24, 2007) is most notably associated with his work in advanced model aircraft design. Background Lennon was involved in aviation since the age of 15, when he went for a short ride in a Curtiss Robin. He soon joined the Montreal Flying Club and began flying D.H. Gypsy Moths and early two-place Aeronca cabin monoplanes. He was educated in Canada at Edward VII School, Strathcona Academy, Montreal Technical School, McGill University and the University of Western Ontario, (London, Ontario). Involvement in Manufacturing Lennon entered the Canadian aircraft manufacturing industry and later moved to general manufacturing as an industrial engineer. Throughout his career, he continued to study aeronautics, particularly aircraft design, aviation texts, NACA and NASA reports and aviation periodicals. He tested many aeronautics theories by designing, building and flying nearly 25 experimental R/C models-miniatures of potential light aircraft. One model, the Seagull III was a flying boat with wide aerobatic capabilities. Lennon was a licensed pilot in the United States and Canada. Contributions in Literature Lennon was a contributing editor to Model Airplane News, Model Aviation, Model Builder, RC Modeler, Fly RC and RC Models and Electronics. He wrote several books: "Basics of R/C Model Aircraft Design", "R/C Model Airplane Design" and "Canard: A Revolution in Flight." His last book was published in 1996, has been reprinted twice since. Andy's authority in aerodynamics and related studies are well acknowledged by leaders in the aviation industry. His book "Canard: A Revolution in Flight" had the foreword written by Burt Rutan, a fitting authority in Canard design. For his last book "Basics of R/C Model Aircraft Design", Bob Kress, who designed the F-14, among other designs, wrote the introduction. Model Design Development Lennon, since 1957, has designed and published a wide range of model aircraft in various publications. These designs each represented features specific to that particular plane. The current list of his published designs is as follows, in order of publication: Model Airplane News Oct. 1957: Flamingo Flying Boat Sept. 1980: Elseven - Sport (pronounced EL-Seven) Jan. 1981: Canada Goose Canard March/April 1983: Crane STOL July 1984: Gull Sport Oct. 1992: Sea Hawk - Float & Land Plane Sept. 1993: Swift - Sport Nov. 1994: Dove - Glo Powered Glider Jan. 1996: Wild Goose - 3 Surface Model Aug. 1996: Crow STOL May 2000: Robin STOL Model Aviation, USA Jan. 1987: Sparrow Hawk - Sport Oct. 1987: Sea Loon - Twin Boom Flying Boat Model Builder, USA Oct. 1989: Swan - Canard June 1991: Osprey - Float & Land Plane R.C. Modeler, USA Jan. 1989: Snowy Owl Sport Oct. 1992: Seagull III - Flying Boat Radio Control Models & Electronics, UK Feb. 1998: Wasp - Tandem Wing Biplane Although all designs are dear to Andy, he has noted that [the] "Robin and the Seagull III, are both my favourites."Lennon's last design was the Robin. (officially) Unsurprisingly, the majority of Mr. Lennon's unpublished designs are preserved in the hands of Ken Charron, principal designer who Andy collaborated with in the development and release of the "Robin" kit — the only known design of Andy Lennon's to be produced in [kit] form. References 1914 births Model aircraft 2007 deaths McGill University alumni

4014799

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedwetting%20alarm

Bedwetting alarm

A bedwetting alarm is a behavioral treatment for nocturnal enuresis. History The enuresis alarm methodology originated from French and German physicians in the first decade of the 20th century. Meinhard von Pfaundler, a German pediatrician made the discovery accidentally, with the original intention to create an alarm device that would notify nursing staff when a child had bed wetting and needed to be changed, showing the device to have a significant therapeutic advantages after a certain time of use. Despite early success, the treatment was not developed until the 1930s by two independent groups of psychologists: Orval Mowrer and Willie Mae Mowrer (1938) and John Morgan and Frances Witmer (1939). Mowrer used a modified Pfaundler alarm device with 30 children (ages 3–13 years) showing empirical success of the bell and pad method as a treatment for nocturnal enuresis, with the maximum time required to accomplish the treatment not exceeding two months. Treatment process The individual places the sensor (usually located in briefs or underwear) and turns the alarm device on (there are various types of alarms) before going to sleep. The enuresis alarm is triggered when a sensor in the sheets or night clothes becomes wet with urine, setting off an auditory signal with the intention of causing the individual to wake, cease voiding, and arise to void. Parents are advised to wake their child when the alarm is activated—otherwise, children are prone to turn it off and go back to sleep. It is highly suggested that during treatment the alarm should be worn every night. The treatment effect and response are not immediate and treatment should be continued for 2–3 months or until the child is dry for 14 consecutive nights (whichever comes first). There may be cultural differences in its acceptability, as it may be highly disruptive for the household and may require a significant commitment of time and effort. The family must be motivated and adhere to this therapy if it is to be successful so they should be preemptively apprised of likely difficulties, but assured the first few weeks are the most troublesome. If necessary, doctors should monitor the child's progress early to address any problems and facilitate adherence. Conditioning The enuresis alarm utilizes both classical and operant conditioning to provide a means of causing the sleeping individual to be regularly awakened immediately after the onset of urination so they can void in the toilet and prevent bed wetting. Classical conditioning The classical conditioning paradigm components for the bell and pad method are the following: The unconditioned stimulus (US) is the awakening stimulus or the alarm sound, the unconditioned response (UR) is the awakening response and sphincter contraction, the neutral stimulus (NS) is the feeling produced by bladder distention (feeling of having a full bladder), the conditioned stimulus (CS) is the feeling produced by bladder distention, and the conditioned response (CR) is the awakening response and sphincter contraction. Initially the individual experiences the alarm sounding (activated by urination) (US) eliciting the awakening response and sphincter contraction (UR) to wake up, stop urinating, and travel to the bathroom. After continued pairing of the alarm sound (US) with the feeling of a full bladder (NS), the previous NS of feeling a full bladder becomes the CS and elicits the waking response (CR) of waking up to go use the bathroom and urinate. Operant conditioning In the operant conditioning paradigm the alarm sound serves as a noxious stimuli added to the environment, effectively implementing a positive punishment procedure whenever the individual activates the alarm by urinating. This eventually causes an avoidance response from the individual, maintain the behavior through negative reinforcement by avoiding the alarm sound altogether. In the future the individual wakes up to urinate and avoids wetting the bed. Conditioning theory dissonance Most researchers of the enuresis alarm credit the treatment effect to the classical conditioning paradigm as was explained in the original research by Mowrer. However, some researchers have noted an important difference between conditioning treatment and the usual classical conditioning treatment. In typical classical conditioning, when the unconditioned stimulus is withdrawn, the conditioned response gradually weakens with repeated application of the conditioned stimulus. In successful cases of the enuresis alarm conditioning treatment, no extinction occurs following the withdrawal of the alarm stimulus (US). This suggests that the conditioning treatment may follow the operant avoidance conditioning rather than the classical conditioning pattern. In addition, a strictly classical conditioning explanation fails to incorporate that social positive reinforcement may be introduced to the individuals environment from family members from signs of improvement taking into account social learning. However, it is theorized that classical and operant conditioning both contribute to the effectiveness of the treatment. Sensors A urine sensor is a necessary part of any bedwetting alarm. A basic urine sensor consists of two electricity conductors separated by moisture absorbing insulating material. A low DC electric voltage, provided by batteries, is applied across these conductors. This low voltage is usually about 3 volts, so as not to be dangerous to the user. When this insulating material (frequently cotton cloth as in common briefs) absorbs urine, it allows electricity to pass through it and between the conductors, resulting in a small electric current in the conductors. The conductors are attached to an alarm device, which triggers an alarm when it senses this current. Most sensors and alarms are engineered based on this concept. Note that unless the urine reaches the sensor mechanism and adequately wets the briefs (or insulator between the conductors), the urine may not be sensed and the alarm will not activate. Sensors are usually classified in terms of their attachment mechanisms to the briefs or other urine absorbing medium. The major sensor attachment categories are mechanical clips, sticky tape or pads for flat surface sensors, magnetic attachment, and wiring sewed into special briefs. Stainless steel clips are most often used and are easily attached and detached to the briefs at the point of urination. Flat surface sensors require sticky tape or pads to be attached to the briefs. The magnetic sensors are magnetically attached to the briefs. Magnetic sensors and wired briefs are typically used for wireless alarms. Another consideration is how the sensor (through its cable, if applicable) is attached to its alarm or transmitter in the case of wired alarms or wireless alarms. Some wireless alarms are truly wireless, with the transmitter being part of the sensor and completely self-contained. For wired alarms, the sensor's wire (or cable) runs from the sensor (located at the point of urination) underneath the user's pajama shirt to wherever the alarm is located on the body (frequently on the collar of the pajama shirt, so that it is close to the ear). The attachment mechanism to the alarm, through which the electric current flows to the alarm, is important. If it is easily detached (unintentionally comes out from the alarm during use) the alarm may not be triggered. Most connectors are plastic telephone jacks which are very unlikely to be detached unintentionally (RJ-11, RJ-12, 616E, etc.). Types of alarms Wearable alarms A wearable alarm is a design in which the child or patient wears the moisture sensor in or on their underwear or pajamas. This type of sensor will detect moisture almost immediately. The sensor is attached to the alarm unit with an electricity conducting wire or cable that can be worn under the shirt. Many wearable alarms vibrate as well as sound to wake deep sleepers. Wireless alarms A wireless bedwetting alarm is one in which the sensor and the alarm unit communicate by a means other than a wire. The transmitter, which senses the moisture, is directly attached to the child's underwear. The signal is transmitted wirelessly to a unit that is across the room from the child or an alarm unit in the child's room. Once the alarm unit is activated, it is necessary to get out of bed to turn it off. New wireless alarms add the convenience of also sounding an alarm in the caregiver's room, allowing both patient and caregiver to sleep in the comfort and privacy of their own beds and rooms. Multiple alarms in the house can further increase convenience. Remote controls can facilitate using the wireless bedwetting alarm system, and be especially convenient for the parent or caregiver. Pad-type alarms Bell-and pad alarms do not attach to the child in any way. The moisture sensor is in the form of a pad or mat that the child sleeps on top of. The pad detects moisture after urine has leaked onto it. The alarm unit is connected with a cord and usually sits on the bedside stand. This alarm requires a larger amount of urine before the sensor can detect moisture. The person must be on the pad for it to sense moisture. Factors of treatment success Successful outcome of enuresis alarm treatment is associated with optimal motivation of the child and family, higher frequency of dry nights, and the absence of adverse environmental factors and psychiatric disorders. Reduced efficacy of the treatment is associated with lack of concern shown by the individual, lack of supervision, inconsistent use, family stress, abnormal scores on behavioral checklists, psychiatric disorders in the individual, failure to awaken in response to the alarm, unsatisfactory housing conditions, and more than one wetting episode per night. References Urologic procedures Sleep disorders de:Klingelhose

4014894

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boblbee

Boblbee

Boblbee (also expressed as BOBLBE·E when used on their products; , ) is a corporation that began in 1997 as a think tank for research and development of sports and recreational equipment. This led to the design and manufacture of hardshell and softshell backpacks. Their hardshell backpacks are best known for their impact reduction capabilities (between 86% – 93% depending on the model), unusual design, and accompanying accessory range. They have received two Good Design Awards. In 2015, the company became part of the Point 65 Sweden, and their product range was re-launched under the new brand name. Their flagship store & corporate headquarters is located in Stockholm, Sweden. History The creator of the Boblbee packs, industrial designer Jonas Blanking, has a background in the automotive and sports industries having worked with such companies as Alfa Romeo, Volvo, Porsche and sports-gear maker Salomon. As an outdoorsman, he had trouble with conventional backpack designs that left expensive electronics or paperwork vulnerable to damage in the event of an accident or inclement weather. He set out to design a new type of backpack, unlike those considered suitable for sports such as hiking and biking, that would have to be rigid, protective, and provide adequate volume. Blanking looked to the air cargo industry for the first iteration of the backpack, which led him to employ the use of aluminium and ABS plastics. Prototypes were developed in 1996. The first prototype featured a concept in which the rigid outer shell could be incorporated in such a way that the outside surface area is as useful as the internal volume. Fasteners located all over the pack let the wearer attach a skateboard or snowboard with simple straps that can be taken off with ease. Later, accessories were made to fit around the sides and the crevasse situated at the bottom of the pack for lumbar support. The concept was finalized in April 1998, leading to the birth of the Boblbee monocoque hardshell backpack, now known as the Megalopolis. Boblbee then went on to release several more hardshell & softshell designs, all with varying features for transporting sports equipment, camera gear, laptops & more. In July 2014 the company became part of Point 65 Sweden and moved its HQ from Malmo to Solna. In spring 2015 the complete range of products was relaunched under the new brand name 'Point 65'. Currently the backpacks are sold worldwide, through the official website or various authorised resellers. Megalopolis The Megalopolis was the first backpack released by Boblbee. It uses a design that reminds some of a toboggan or even a jetpack. The futuristic hardshell plastic form of the pack the Megalopolis (and the identical but smaller Peoples Delite) have appeared as accessories in movies such as Charlie's Angels, Hitch, Jason X, The Fast And The Furious, The Italian Job and Bicentennial Man. The original Megalopolis came in two versions, the Executive and Sport models. The difference between the two was the color selections - the Sport version has in-mold primary colors, whereas the Executive has been painted and lacquered in a myriad of colors. The Executive has a partition of the interior, where the Sport has a removable laptop sleeve instead of an actual laptop compartment. The Megalopolis Series was renamed the Boblbee GTO Series (20L & 25L packs) after the company became Point 65 Sweden. In 2016 the design was updated again and the GTO has been changed to the GTX series (today's current version). Target audience The Boblbee backpacks are built to withstand high impacts, protecting both the spine of the wearer and the contents of the pack. Motorcycle riders, skiers/snowboarders, mountain bikers or rock climbers are ideally suited to the extra security provided back protector and rigid outer shell. The packs are also widely used in urban situations, popular with cyclists, couriers, DJ's, business people & travellers to keep laptops or camera equipment protected while on-the-go. Popularity has been achieved particularly in Japan where a big portion of Boblbee items are sold. Boblbee Japan has a website separate from the main site which features products exclusive to that region. References Sporting goods manufacturers of Sweden

4015076

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Scouting%20Service%20Project

U.S. Scouting Service Project

The U.S. Scouting Service Project (USSSP) is one of the largest online collections of Scouting resource and reference materials. Founded in 1998, USSSP is organized as a non-profit corporation and is maintained by volunteer Scouters. While the Project supports the programs of the Boy Scouts of America and the World Organization of the Scout Movement, neither organization contributes financially or provides direction to the organization. Background The USSSP was the idea of Chris Marsey who brought together one of the largest repositories of Scouting Clip-Art to the world Scouting community in 1996. Soon thereafter, Dave Tracewell and Gary Hendra added their large electronic clip-art collections to the collection. The USSSP continued to grow, adding Scouters from around the country with specialized talents who contributed many hours of time and resources to the project. As of 2010, most of the board members were Boy Scouts or Girl Scouts in their youth and have obtained their programs' highest youth honors. All of the board members have served at the local Council level as unit leaders, commissioners and committee chairs and collectively have more than 400 years of service. Many of the board members have served as part of a summer camp staff for two or more summers; three have taught courses at the Philmont Training Center. Two of the board members serve local Councils as Professional Scouters; another board member served for several years as a Paraprofessional Executive. Board members are Wood Badge trained and many have been honored with the BSA's Silver Beaver Award for distinguished service to one or several local Councils. Web site sections The USSSP website as several areas of resources, being mostly a combination of file servers and sites with links to other sites. ScoutCamp.org - a database of all of the Scout Camps in the US with user comments. ScoutSite Search - a massive database of every scouting website, linked to councils with interactive sorting abilities. Clipart - a collection of scanned images, clipart and other files Macscouter - a collection of scouting resources, including ceremonies, planning guides, etc. Netcommish - a set of resources specifically designed to support commissioners. Scoutmaster.org - a collection of useful links for Scoutmasters and Scout leaders. Cubmaster.org - a complete set of resources and links for Cub Scout leaders. Jambo.org - information about the National Scout Jamboree. WorldScouting.org - Links to international scouting sites. In addition, other member sites (for instance, several branches of Mike Walton's Tree ; Mike Kauffmann's Merit Badges.org ; and Don deYoung's Cub Scouting website) are elements of this "largest community of reference and resource materials geared to the American Boy Scouting programs found on the Internet's World Wide Web." Discussion groups and lists The USSSP hosts some 11 electronic mail distribution discussion groups, ranging in topics from programming (Cub Scouting, Venturing) to program support (Philmont, Jamborees, and Commissioners). There is also a USSSP discussion group called "Embers" which offer reflection, support and inspiration to volunteers and parents. Board of directors The USSSP operates under a national board of directors. The current officers are: Gary Hendra, President Mike Bowman, Vice President - Web Development Mike Walton, Vice President - Communications Paul Wolf, Secretary Kyna Hendra, Treasurer Board Members Hal Daume Jon Eidson Ed Henderson Mike Kauffmann Dave Lyons The board conducts business virtually using various electronic methods, to include video teleconferencing, voice conference calls via Skype, and electronic mail. Notes References External links Associations related to the Boy Scouts of America

4015130

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeastern%20University%20School%20of%20Law

Northeastern University School of Law

The Northeastern University School of Law (NUSL) is the law school of Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts. Founded as an evening program to meet the needs of its local community, NUSL is nationally recognized for its cooperative legal education and public interest law programs. History Northeastern University School of Law was founded by the Boston Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) in 1898 as the first evening law program in the city. At the time, only two law schools were in the Boston area and the time-honored practice of reading law in the office of an established lawyer was losing its effectiveness. An advisory committee, consisting of James Barr Ames, dean of the Harvard Law School; Samuel Bennett, dean of the Boston University School of Law; and Massachusetts Judge James R. Dunbar, was formed to assist with the formation of the evening law program. The program was incorporated as an LL.B.-granting law school, the Evening School of Law of Boston YMCA, in 1904. Additional campuses of YMCA Law School were opened in Worcester, Massachusetts by 1917, in Springfield, Massachusetts by 1919, and Providence, Rhode Island by 1921. The Worcester and Providence branches were closed by 1942, but the Springfield branch eventually became the Western New England University School of Law. In its early days, the school "saw itself as the working man's alternative to the elite schools" and "boasted of being 'An Evening Law School with Day School Standards,'" using the case method of teaching, according to legal historian Robert Stevens. The school was renamed Northeastern University School of Law in 1922 and began admitting women that year. NUSL was accredited by the University of the State of New York in 1943 and became a member of the Association of American Law Schools in 1945. It was accredited by the American Bar Association in 1969. In April 1953, Northeastern President Carl Ell announced that the law school would close. He cited the number of other law schools that had sprung up elsewhere in the city. Meanwhile, enrollment at Northeastern law school had plummeted, from 1,328 students in 1937-38 to 196 students in that year. The school's building and library on Mt. Vernon Street in Beacon Hill was eventually sold. Alumni - who composed one-fourth of Massachusetts's Superior Court judges as well as many District Court judges - worked to reestablish the law school in 1966, based upon the university's signature cooperative, or co-op, education model. Thomas J. O'Toole, a Harvard Law graduate, was selected as the school's dean in 1967. In 1970, Gryzmish Hall on Huntington Avenue was dedicated, which would later become part the Asa S. Knowles Center for Law. Despite the school's working-class origins, rigorous new admissions policies resulted in a small student body of 125 students who nearly all came from financially well-off families and upper-echelon undergraduate colleges. Still, half of those admitted as first-year students were women. Over the ensuing decades, students worked in co-ops all over North America, lead by a contingent in Alaska. A number of graduates practicing law as varied as Native American land claims in rural Maine; assisting migrant farm laborers in east Texas; at the Moscow, Russia office of Baker & McKenzie; the United Nations High Commission for Refugees in New Delhi; and countless legal services offices. In 1968, O'Toole, explaining the school's dedication to public interest law, told a Boston Globe reporter that "law schools are still teaching lawyers as if they were all going out to be corporation lawyers on Wall Street...(but) the big demand for lawyers today is in the field of public affairs in government, and in dealing with basic human problems, and no law school today seems to be training lawyers for those jobs." Campus The NUSL complex is located on Boston's Huntington Avenue and includes three adjacent buildings: Knowles Center, which houses offices and the Law Library; Cargill Hall, home to most faculty and some administrative offices as well as small seminar rooms and lecture halls; and Dockser Hall, which includes a moot courtroom, classrooms, seminar rooms, offices and lounge areas and space for the law school's clinical program. Academics NUSL offers a Juris Doctor (JD) program for full-time, on-campus students as well as a FlexJD program for part-time students online and on-campus that began in the fall of 2021. The law school also offers on-campus and online Master of Laws (LLM) programs for lawyers seeking to expand their legal knowledge. In addition, the school offers programs for non-lawyers, including a Master of Science (MS) in Media Advocacy and online programs leading to graduate certificates in health law, intellectual property law, business law and human resources law, plus a data privacy fundamentals program. NUSL integrates full-time employment into its traditional JD curriculum, allowing students to graduate in three years - the same amount of time as peers at other law schools. Following the first year of study, students alternate between classroom and co-op professional experience until they graduate with three, full-time employment experiences. Instead of grades, students receive written evaluations from their professors and co-op employers. Northeastern has been named as one of the top public interest law schools in the nation. Many students participate in the school's clinics and institutes, such as the Civil Rights and Restorative Justice Project. In addition, all students are required to complete a year-long social justice project during their first year. Northeastern is #1 for "Practical Training," according to The National Jurist. The Princeton Review's "The Best 172 Law Schools" ranks Northeastern #2 among all the law schools for both providing the "best environment" for minority students and for having the "most liberal" students. Costs Tuition for a full-time Northeastern student is $56,940 per year. The total cost of attendance (indicating the cost of tuition, fees and living expenses) at Northeastern law school for the 2021–2022 academic year is $82,736. Student organizations and journals Northeastern University School of Law has many student-run organizations and activities, including affinity groups and shared interest groups such as Entertainment and Sports Law Society (ESLS), Human Rights Caucus (HRC) and Phi Alpha Delta International, a co-ed fraternity. NUSL is home to two scholarly legal journals. Northeastern University Law Review The Northeastern University Law Review is a law review founded in 2008 that publishes a broad array of legal scholarship primarily from law professors, judges, attorneys and law students. Staffed and edited by law students, it is published twice a year. Staff members are selected largely based on their writing abilities, tests and first-year grades. The law review also publishes content through its online publications: Extra Legal and the Online Forum. Journal of Legal Education NUSL is co-editor of the Journal of Legal Education, a quarterly publication of the Association of American Law Schools. The Journal publishes articles on legal theory, legal scholarship and legal education, among other topics. It claims a readership of more than 10,000 law instructors. Research centers, institutes and clinical programs Center for Health Policy and Law Center for Law, Information and Creativity (CLIC) Center for Public Interest Advocacy and Collaboration (CPIAC) Civil Rights and Restorative Justice Project Community Business Clinic Criminal Justice Task Force Domestic Violence Institute Health in Justice Action Lab Immigrant Justice Clinic Initiative for Energy Justice IP CO-LAB NuLawLab Poverty Law and Practice Clinic Prisoners' Rights Clinic Program on Human Rights and the Global Economy Program on the Corporation, Law and Global Society Public Health Advocacy Institute Public Health Legal Clinic Notable alumni Charlotte Hunter Arley, lawyer in Reno, Nevada Petticoats Trial Janet Bond Arterton, Judge, United States District Court for the District of Connecticut Mary Bonauto, Civil Rights Project Director, Gay & Lesbian Advocates & Defenders; lead counsel in Goodridge v. Department of Public Health; MacArthur "Genius" Margot Botsford, Justice, Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court (retired) Timothy Mark Burgess, Judge, United States District Court for the District of Alaska Marie-Therese Connolly, Elder Rights Lawyer, MacArthur "Genius" William "Mo" Cowan, US Senator (retired); Vice President, Litigation and Legal Policy, General Electric Harold Donohue, (deceased) Member, US House of Representatives Martín Espada, poet, recipient of 2018 Ruth Lilly Poetry Prize Dana Fabe, Justice, Alaska Supreme Court (retired) Thomas A. Flaherty, (deceased) Member, US House of Representatives Peter Franchot, Comptroller of Maryland Kumiki Gibson, Former Chief Counsel to Vice President Al Gore Maggie Hassan, United States Senator for New Hampshire Maura Healey, Governor and Attorney General (2015-2023), Commonwealth of Massachusetts Courtney Hunt, Best Picture Academy Award-nominated film director/screenwriter in 2009 for Frozen River Candace Kovacic-Fleischer, gender equality expert, Professor emerita, Washington College of Law, American University Landya McCafferty, US District Court Judge for the District of New Hampshire Rishi Reddi, short story writer, Best American Short Stories Emily Gray Rice, Former US Attorney for New Hampshire Rashida Richardson, director of policy research at the AI Now Institute Delissa A. Ridgway, Judge, US Court of International Trade Victoria A. Roberts, Judge, United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan Rachael Rollins, United States Attorney for the District of Massachusetts and District Attorney, Suffolk County (2019-2022) Chase Strangio, ACLU Staff Attorney, LGBT & HIV Project, and transgender rights activist Urvashi Vaid, Author, Irresistible Revolution: Confronting Race, Class and the Assumptions of LGBT Politics (2012) and Virtual Equality: The Mainstreaming of Lesbian and Gay Liberation (1996); CEO, The Vaid Group Stephen Morse Wheeler, justice of the New Hampshire Supreme Court Leslie Winner, North Carolina Former State Senator Leocadia Zak, President, Agnes Scott College References External links Northeastern University School of Law Northeastern University School of Law Law schools in Massachusetts Universities and colleges established in 1898 1898 establishments in Massachusetts

4015141

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge-transfer%20amplifier

Charge-transfer amplifier

The charge-transfer amplifier (CTA) is an electronic amplifier circuit. Also known as transconveyance amplifiers, CTAs amplify electronic signals by dynamically conveying charge between capacitive nodes in proportion to the size of a differential input voltage. By appropriately selecting the relative node capacitances, voltage amplification occurs by the charge-voltage relationship of capacitors. CTAs are clocked, or sampling, amplifiers. They consume zero static power and can be designed to consume (theoretically) arbitrarily low dynamic power, proportional to the size of input signals being sampled. CMOS technology is most commonly used for implementation. CTAs were introduced in memory circuits in the 1970s, and more recently have been applied in multi-bit analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). They are also used in dynamic voltage comparator circuits. See also Comparator Mixed-signal integrated circuit Charge amplifier References Electronic amplifiers

4015155

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.%20Lee%20Moffitt%20Cancer%20Center%20%26%20Research%20Institute

H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute

Houston Lee Moffitt Cancer Center & Research Institute is a nonprofit cancer treatment and research center located in Tampa, Florida. Established in 1981 by the Florida Legislature, the hospital opened in October 1986 on the University of South Florida's campus. Moffitt is one of two National Cancer Institute-designated Comprehensive Cancer Centers based in Florida. In 2021, U.S. News & World Report ranked Moffitt Cancer Center as a top 30 cancer hospital in the United States. History Funding for construction of the initial $70 million facility came primarily from the state of Florida's cigarette tax, while the momentum to create the center came from a cadre of legislators, physicians, educators, and business leaders who envisioned a new dimension of cancer care and research in Florida. In late 1978, H. Lee Moffitt, a Florida state representative, recognized the need for a comprehensive cancer center within the state after several friends died from cancer. An excellent negotiator, Moffitt put his plan into motion by first proposing the idea to Hollis Boren, then dean of the University of South Florida College of Medicine. Over lunch at the Tampa Club, Moffitt proposed his idea. By dessert, Boren has signed on. "Out of that discussion came plans for a plug-shaped, multilevel cancer research teaching hospital to be built a short walk away from the USF clinics," The Tampa Times reported on February 5, 1979. Moffitt and Boren had gathered information about the need for a comprehensive cancer center, the article said, and the need was great. Moffitt sought community support and convinced the State Legislature to fund the facility. During the center's planning phase, consultants associated with NCI-designated Cancer Centers were retained to ensure that the finished facility would be as technologically advanced and as efficiently designed as possible. Groundbreaking ceremonies took place in January 1983. The center was incorporated in the spring of 1984 and was named for Houston Lee Moffitt, then Speaker of the State House of Representatives. The building was dedicated in October 1986 and admitted its first patients that same month. In 1990, the acquisition of the Research Center building across from the Cancer Center enhanced the recruitment of scientists, clinicians, and support staff, and expanded Moffitt's vision beyond the original structure. The Moffitt Research Center became the focal point for basic and translational cancer research, with the overriding goal to produce discoveries that could be translated quickly from the bench to the patient's bedside. The Florida Legislature allocated $12 million for renovation and equipment for this structure, and the Moffitt Research Center became fully operational in 1995. In 1999, of basic research lab space was added to the Moffitt Research Center at a cost of $11 million to house the growing need for additional scientists. In 2022 the Florida Legislature approved more than $706 million for a new H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute campus in Pasco County. $600 million in state funding will be distributed in yearly in $20 million yearly increments for each of the next 30 years. Organization On June 10, 1998, in a ceremonial signing at Moffitt, Florida governor Lawton Chiles approved a legislative initiative to fund construction of the Moffitt Tower Project, which opened in April 2003, adding more than of new space. This expansion includes the Vincent A. Stabile Research Building, eponymously named in recognition of the largest private donation ever made to the Cancer Center. The new construction also includes an expansion of the Moffitt Clinic. In addition to new research laboratories, which nearly double the cancer center's research capabilities, the new facilities include a digital imaging center, and a new infusion center. In 1991, John Ruckdeschel, assumed the position of center director, president and CEO. Under Ruckdeschel's leadership, Moffitt became a National Cancer Institute (NCI) Comprehensive Cancer Center. In 2017, the NCI renewed Moffitt's Cancer Center Support Grant for another five years. Currently, Moffitt receives more than $50 million annually in peer-reviewed grant monies. In 2002, Ruckdeschel stepped down, and William Dalton, became Moffitt's third president, CEO and center director. In 2008, the University of Florida and Shands at UF formed a partnership with Moffitt to develop programs in cancer care, research and prevention. In 2009, the University of South Florida and Moffitt were awarded $6 million in federal grant money to create the Center for Equal Health, a five-year partnership focused on addressing issues of cancer health disparities. Scientific programs include molecular oncology;, drug discovery; immunology; experimental therapeutics; computational biology of cancer; health outcomes; and behavior and risk assessment, detection and intervention. It also serves as the site for the Bill and Beverly Young National Functional Genomics Center, funded by the U.S. Department of Defense. Moffitt Cancer Center is affiliated with the University of South Florida Morsani College of Medicine and provides education to medical students and residency training as well. On June 24, 2011, Moffitt Cancer Center opened the first blood and marrow transplant (BMT) clinic in Puerto Rico. On July 1, 2011, Moffitt Cancer Center opened a new 50,000-square-foot satellite facility at International Plaza. The building replaced Moffitt's former outpatient center at Tampa General Hospital. In July 2012, William Dalton, became the CEO of M2Gen and Moffitt's new Personalized Medicine Institute. Alan List, who previously served as Moffitt's executive vice president/physician-in-chief and president of the Moffitt Medical Group, succeeded Dalton as CEO and president. Thomas Sellers assumed the role of center director. In February 2013, Moffitt began construction of a $74.2 million outpatient facility on the cancer center's 30-acre property on N McKinley Drive, about a mile from Moffitt's main campus. In November 2015, Moffitt opens the McKinley Outpatient Center. The six-story, 207,000-square-foot facility at 10920 N McKinley Drive is located about a mile from the main campus. Services on the site include the skin and breast cancer clinics, four operating rooms, an imaging suite, research labs, space for blood draws and a Publix pharmacy. In July 2017, Moffitt and Memorial Healthcare announce a partnership to establish a comprehensive blood and marrow transplant cellular therapy program for South Florida residents. The alliance brings the renowned cancer center's access to research, clinical trials, and comprehensive treatment to leukemia, lymphoma and multiple myeloma patients. In August 2020, Moffitt named Patrick Hwu, a tumor immunologist with 33 years of oncology experience, its new president and CEO. Research and Treatment Through clinical trials, Jeffrey Weber, director of the Donald A. Adam Comprehensive Melanoma Research Center at Moffitt, and researchers at Moffitt Cancer Center discovered two monotherapy drugs – Mekinist (trametinib) and Tafinlar (dabrafenib) – can be safely combined to overcome or delay treatment resistance for a large percentage of melanoma patients with a specific gene mutation. Approved by the FDA in January 2014, Mekinist in combination with Tafinlar is one of the biggest advancements in melanoma treatment in the past 30 years. In August 2011, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the drug vemurafenib (Zelboraf) for metastatic melanoma patients who test positive for a specific gene mutation. Moffitt Cancer Center conducted a registration trial using the drug manufactured by Genentech, a member of the Roche Group. Anna Giuliano, director of Moffitt's Center for Infection Research in Cancer, led two studies on human papillomavirus (HPV) infection in men. Her work strengthened the Food & Drug Administration (FDA) recommendation for boys and men to receive HPV vaccinations and provided useful data for the development of realistic cost-effectiveness models for male HPV vaccination internationally. In September 2014, a new cancer immunotherapy for melanoma patients called Keytruda became the first anti-PD-1 (programmed death receptor-1) therapy approved in the United States. Jeffrey Weber, director of the Donald A. Adam Comprehensive Melanoma Research Center of Excellence at Moffitt, was one of the lead investigators of the clinical trial which led to the drug receiving breakthrough status from the FDA. In January 2016, researchers at Moffitt teamed up with the state of Florida in a study to see if making fruits and vegetables available to children who otherwise may not have them readily available can decrease their risk of cancer. In October 2017, the Food and Drug Administration announced the approval of Yescarta™, a revolutionary new immunotherapy for adult patients with diffuse large B cell lymphoma, a form of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Yescarta is a Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T cell therapy, also known as CAR-T. Moffitt Cancer Center's Frederick Locke, is the co-lead investigator of the pivotal ZUMA-1 clinical trial that tested the new therapy, which is manufactured by Kite, a Gilead company. Notable patients Kirstie Alley (1951-2022), American actress, Scientologist Casey DeSantis (1980 - ), Television Show Host and First Lady of Florida Keylla Hernandéz (1973-2018), Puerto Rican television reporter Locations Moffit Cancer Center is located on the campus of the University of South Florida in north Tampa. The center includes the hospital, Muriel Rothman Building (clinic), Vincent A. Stabile Research Building and the Moffitt Research Center. Moffitt at International Plaza is a 50,000-square-foot full service outpatient facility near Tampa International Airport. The facility includes physician office visits, infusion services, radiation and radiology. Moffitt Cancer Center Prevention Research, Fowler Campus, located in north Tampa, is a facility that practices research for prevention and early detection of cancer. The Richard M. Schulze Family Foundation Outpatient Center at McKinley Campus, 10920 N. McKinley Drive, includes the breast and skin cancer clinics, infusion center, research labs and four surgery suites. Moffitt Malignant Hematology & Cellular Therapy at Memorial Healthcare System, 801 N. Flamingo Road, Pembroke Pines, FL, provides a comprehensive Blood and Marrow Transplant Cellular Therapy Program for South Florida residents. Moffitt Cancer Center at Wesley Chapel, 2590 Healing Way, Wesley Chapel, FL, is a 28,000-square-foot outpatient facility bringing access to Moffitt expertise and nationally-ranked cancer care to Pasco County. Moffitt McKinley Hospital, 10901 N. McKinley Drive, Tampa, FL, is an inpatient surgical hospital located on Moffitt's McKinley Campus. The 10-story, 500,000-square-foot facility provides patients with the latest innovations in surgical techniques and inpatient care. Moffitt Cancer Center at Port Tampa Bay, 651 Channelside Drive, Tampa, FL, is a community outreach and education center near downtown Tampa. Recognition From 1999 to 2019, Moffitt has been ranked one of "America's Best Hospitals" for cancer by U.S. News & World Report. In 2014, Becker's Hospital Review includes Moffitt in the 100 Accountable Care Organizations to Know. In 2015, Moffitt earned a Magnet designation for nursing excellence, granted by the American Nurses Credentialing Center (ANCC), the credentialing body of the American Nurses Association. In 2015, Becker's Hospital Review recognizes Moffitt's president and CEO Dr. Alan List in its "100 Physician Leaders of Hospitals and Health Systems." Moffitt Cancer Center was named 2017 Nonprofit of the Year by the Tampa Bay Business Journal. Moffitt was also recognized as the category winner in the Health & Human Services category. In 2018, Moffitt was named LGBTQ Healthcare Equality Leader by the Human Rights Campaign Foundation. The cancer center was also named one of Working Mother Magazine's 100 Best Companies for 10th time. In 2023, Moffitt was ranked No. 10 in the nation and the top-ranked cancer hospital in Florida and the Southeast in Newsweek’s 2023 list of “America’s Best Cancer Hospitals.” See also University of South Florida University of South Florida College of Medicine References External links Moffitt Cancer Center, Corporate Site Hospital buildings completed in 1986 Hospitals in Florida Cancer organizations based in the United States University of Florida University of South Florida Medical research institutes in Florida Cancer hospitals 1986 establishments in Florida NCI-designated cancer centers

4015164

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franconia%20College

Franconia College

Franconia College was a small experimental liberal arts college in Franconia, New Hampshire, United States. It opened in 1963 in Dow Academy and the site of the Forest Hills Hotel on Agassiz Road, and closed in 1978, after years of declining enrollment and increasing financial difficulties. A small, eclectic faculty provided a diverse education. Areas of studies included the fine arts, architecture, performing arts, languages, law, and business. History Franconia College opened in the former Dow Academy buildings as a two-year college in 1963 with nine founding staff members; the school began granting four-year degrees in 1965. The school was accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges. 1960s The school first gained national attention in 1968 when William Loeb, publisher of the Manchester Union Leader, vilified the students for behavior that included unmarried persons of the opposite sex sleeping together. The headline "Bare Debauchery at Franconia College: Sex, Liquor, Drugs Rampant on Campus" made the front page of the newspaper the same day a larger, main headline announced the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. While the article was believed to be exaggerated, nine students were arrested in a marijuana raid that spring, and a cascade of changes happened at the school. College president Richard Ruopp resigned at the demand of the board of trustees in April, then the board let two teachers' contracts lapse against a faculty committee recommendation to rehire them. The teachers and staff responded in July with mass resignations, leaving the college with half the number of staff it had at the beginning of the 1967–68 year. At the time, the school was running $100,000 per year in debt and the school's mortgage was threatened with foreclosure. In an attempt to ease its financial straits, the school made its grounds available as a weekend ski lodge the following winter. 1970s Franconia College again gained national attention in 1970, when 23-year-old Leon Botstein became the youngest college president in the country. After securing $800,000 in federal grants, Botstein oversaw new construction including three small dormitories and a student union. In 1976, the college appeared on a segment of ABC Evening News with president Ira Goldenberg, economics professor George Wheeler and two students discussing the experiences and responsibility learned at Franconia. Honorary degrees were conferred on Muhammad Ali and Kenneth Clark in 1977. Franconia College closed due to bankruptcy in January 1978. According to former dean of students and director of housing and counseling services Rich Colfer, every student who contacted counseling services during the closure was placed at another college. After Franconia College closed, the School of Human Services program moved to New Hampshire College (now Southern New Hampshire University). The program currently resides at Springfield College. Campus Situated north of the White Mountain National Forest, the college provided easy access for students to the outdoor sporting activities for which the North Country is most famous. Several students lived in their own tents and tepees in the nearby woods. The college initially used the former Dow Academy buildings. The trustees of Franconia College purchased the former Forest Hills Hotel property in 1960. The hotel had been in operation since its construction in 1882 and had been donated to the University of New Hampshire in 1956. Other buildings in town were used as classrooms and dorms. In June 1978, the campus was offered for sale at auction but failed to sell at that time. The main hotel building was torn down in 1985, and the former college president's house, known as "The Lodge" when built in 1892, opened as a bed and breakfast called The Inn At Forest Hills in 1993. The forested areas of the hotel property were subdivided into building lots. In the village, the Dow Academy buildings turned into condominiums and Dow Field into a town recreational area. In November 2019, the state's Division of Historical Resources installed New Hampshire Historical Marker No. 263 along NH Route 142 in Franconia at the site of the college. Students Enrollment 1963: 75 1965: 200 1968: 325 1970: 250 1972: 400 1978: 185 Faculty The nine founding staff members included Richard R. Ruopp, later president of the college, Robert Greenway, Peter Elbow, and Nicholas Howe. Notable faculty included Eliot Coleman, who taught Spanish, and Nancy L. Walker, a widely published and award-winning creative nonfictionist. After the closure of Franconia, Walker became Professor of English and Director of Composition at Missouri State University in Springfield. The influential poet Robert Grenier taught at the college in the early 1970s. Other notable faculty included Mike Wallace, Peter Linebaugh, and Jerome Corsi in history, David Kettler in political science, and Michael Dorris in anthropology. Extracurricular activities The physics department sponsored a student UFO Study Group. In 1975, three student members contacted and interviewed Betty Hill. Curriculum Part of Franconia College's oeuvre (body of work) was alternative education classes that were the object of study in developing new ways to teach that gave more individualized instruction and more varied opportunities. There were no required courses, no formal academic departments, and no grades. Degrees were granted after students demonstrated competence in their fields to a faculty committee. In 1975, a group of students from the University of Pittsburgh Alternative Curriculum program toured several New England schools that were offering new and progressive programs, including Franconia College. Several students were invited to come back for a special summer session that included classes for "Sugar Maple Woodlot Management" and "Auto Mechanics". Teachers with local professional experience offered hands-on education and experience with tools of the trade and actual work experience, such as the basics of auto tune-ups, as well as learning how to evaluate a woodlot for the healthiest growth of the trees. Students learned how to safely work on cars and use a chain saw to thin the sugar maple woodlots, as well as learning how to tap a tree and how to protect oneself from the notorious black flies. One of the students reports that she was able to use the skills and experience learned in the auto mechanics class to hire on as a Journeyman marine machinist repairing diesel engines onboard Navy ships in Alameda, California. In 1975, that same year, the college was denied a US$560,000 federal grant to support an experimental cooperative project with a local school district that met with opposition by both Governor Meldrim Thomson, Jr. and the Manchester Union Leader. Notable alumni Ron Androla, poet Mark Beyer, artist Henry Corra, filmmaker Tim Costello (1945–2009), labor and anti-globalization advocate and author Lenny Feinberg, documentary film maker Jamaica Kincaid, novelist Aurora Levins Morales, writer, historian and activist Andy Statman, musician Steven "Steinski" Stein, musician Marc Steiner, radio talk show host and founder, Center for Emerging Media Bill Talen, actor and activist AKA Reverend Billy Jeff Zinn, actor, director, author References External links Franconia College Pages WBUR: Franconia College: Attempt At Utopia, Or Unwelcome Counterculture Outpost? Educational institutions disestablished in 1978 Defunct private universities and colleges in New Hampshire Universities and colleges established in 1963 Buildings and structures in Grafton County, New Hampshire 1963 establishments in New Hampshire Franconia, New Hampshire

4015299

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominal%20Pipe%20Size

Nominal Pipe Size

Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) is a North American set of standard sizes for pipes used for high or low pressures and temperatures. "Nominal" refers to pipe in non-specific terms and identifies the diameter of the hole with a non-dimensional number (for example – 2-inch nominal steel pipe" consists of many varieties of steel pipe with the only criterion being a outside diameter). Specific pipe is identified by pipe diameter and another non-dimensional number for wall thickness referred to as the Schedule (Sched. or Sch., for example – "2-inch diameter pipe, Schedule 40"). NPS is often incorrectly called National Pipe Size, due to confusion with the American standard for pipe threads, "national pipe straight", which also abbreviates as "NPS". The European and international designation equivalent to NPS is DN (diamètre nominal/nominal diameter/Nennweite), in which sizes are measured in millimetres, see ISO 6708. The term NB (nominal bore) is also frequently used interchangeably with DN. In March 1927 the American Standards Association authorized a committee to standardize the dimensions of wrought steel and wrought iron pipe and tubing. At that time only a small selection of wall thicknesses were in use: standard weight (STD), extra-strong (XS), and double extra-strong (XXS), based on the iron pipe size (IPS) system of the day. However these three sizes did not fit all applications. Also, in 1939, it was hoped that the designations of STD, XS, and XXS would be phased out by schedule numbers, however those original terms are still in common use today (although sometimes referred to as standard, extra-heavy (XH), and double extra-heavy (XXH), respectively). Since the original schedules were created, there have been many revisions and additions to the tables of pipe sizes based on industry use and on standards from API, ASTM, and others. Stainless steel pipes, which were coming into more common use in the mid 20th century, permitted the use of thinner pipe walls with much less risk of failure due to corrosion. By 1949 thinner schedules 5S and 10S, which were based on the pressure requirements modified to the nearest BWG number, had been created, and other "S" sizes followed later. Due to their thin walls, the smaller "S" sizes can not be threaded together according to ASME code, but must be fusion welded, brazed, roll grooved, or joined with press fittings. Application Based on the NPS and schedule of a pipe, the pipe outside diameter (OD) and wall thickness can be obtained from reference tables such as those below, which are based on ASME standards B36.10M and B36.19M. For example, NPS 14 Sch 40 has an OD of and a wall thickness of . However, the NPS and OD values are not always equal, which can create confusion. For NPS to 12, the NPS and OD values are different. For example, the OD of an NPS 12 pipe is actually . To find the actual OD for each NPS value, refer to the tables below. (Note that for tubing, the size indicates actual dimensions, not nominal.) For NPS 14 and up, the NPS and OD values are equal. In other words, an NPS 14 pipe is actually OD. The reason for the discrepancy for NPS to 12 inches is that these NPS values were originally set to give the same inside diameter (ID) based on wall thicknesses standard at the time. However, as the set of available wall thicknesses evolved, the ID changed and NPS became only indirectly related to ID and OD. For a given NPS, the OD stays fixed and the wall thickness increases with schedule. For a given schedule, the OD increases with NPS while the wall thickness stays constant or increases. Using equations and rules in ASME B31.3 Process Piping, it can be shown that pressure rating decreases with increasing NPS and constant schedule. Some specifications use pipe schedules called standard wall (STD), extra strong (XS), and double extra strong (XXS), although these actually belong to an older system called iron pipe size (IPS). The IPS number is the same as the NPS number. STD is identical to SCH 40S, and 40S is identical to 40 for NPS to NPS 10, inclusive. XS is identical to SCH 80S, and 80S is identical to 80 for NPS to NPS 8, inclusive. XXS wall is thicker than schedule 160 from NPS  in to NPS 6 in inclusive, and schedule 160 is thicker than XXS wall for NPS 8 in and larger. Blockage or ball test When a pipe is welded or bent the most common method to inspect blockages, misalignment, ovality, and weld bead dimensional conformity is to pass a round ball through the pipe coil or circuit. If the inner pipe dimension is to be measured then the weld bead should be subtracted, if welding is applicable. Typically, the clearance tolerance for the ball must not exceed . Allowable ovality of any pipe is measured on the inside dimension of the pipe, normally 5% to 10% ovality can be accepted. If no other test is conducted to verify ovality, or blockages, this test must be seen as a standard requirement. A flow test can not be used in lieu of a blockage or ball test. See pipe dimensional table, Specification ASME B36.10M or B36.19M for pipe dimensions per schedule. Stainless steel pipe is most often available in standard weight sizes (noted by the S designation; for example, NPS Sch 10S). However stainless steel pipe can also be available in other schedules. Both polyvinyl chloride pipe (PVC) and chlorinated polyvinyl chloride pipe (CPVC) are made in NPS sizes. NPS tables for selected sizes NPS to NPS DN does not exactly correspond to a size in millimeters, because ISO 6708 defines it as being a dimensionless specification only indirectly related to a diameter. The ISO 6708 sizes provide a metric name for existing inch sizes, resulting in a 1:1 correlation between NPS and DN sizes. ISO 6708 does not include values for "DN 6" or "DN 8", however ASME B36.10M list the "DN 6" and "DN 8" . Also, the European Standard EN 12 516-1 (Industrial valves - Shell design strength - Part 1: Tabulation method for steel valve shells) specifies the dimensions "DN 6" and "DN 8", respectively their equivalents NPS "and NPS ". Tolerance: The tolerance on pipe OD is + (0.0156) inch (), − (0.0312) inch (). As per ASME B36.10M -2018 Pipe wall thickness are rounded to nearest , while converting wall thickness from inch to millimetre. NPS 4 to NPS 9 NPS 10 to NPS 24 NPS 26 to NPS 36 Additional sizes (NPS) See also British standard pipe thread sizes Copper tubing sizes Pipe thread sizes National pipe thread sizes Pipe (fluid conveyance) Pipe sizes Standard dimension ratio Notes References Bibliography External links Notes on Pipe—PVC Pipe weights and max PSI Quick calculator to determine standard pipe dimensions For Carbon Steel and Stainless Steel pipes as per ANSI. (Requires Membership) Piping Mechanical standards Customary units of measurement in the United States

4015343

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Baptist%20College

American Baptist College

American Baptist College (previously American Baptist Theological Seminary) is a private, Baptist college in Nashville, Tennessee, affiliated with the National Baptist Convention, USA. Founded in 1924, its predecessor in black Baptist education was Roger Williams University, a Nashville college begun in the late-19th century and closed in the early 20th century (its campus is now occupied by Peabody College of Vanderbilt University). Upon full accreditation by the American Association of Bible Colleges, ABTS dropped use of the term "Theological Seminary" and renamed itself American Baptist College. The college has an 82% acceptance rate. In Fall 2019, 77% of students were retained after the first year of attendance. History The idea of a seminary for the training of Black Baptist ministers grew out of conversation between National Baptist leaders and O.L. Hailey about the possibility of establishing a seminary for the education of its ministers, in 1913. In a resolution presented by Edgar Young Mullins and adopted by the Southern Baptist Convention in that same year, the convention pledged its cooperation and appointed a similar committee. The committees of the two conventions met together and the following year recommended to their respective bodies that the college be established in Memphis, Tennessee. It was later decided to establish the College in Nashville. The present site of 53 acres was purchased with the help of the National Baptists in 1921, and a plan calling for the management of the seminary by a holding board and a governing board representative of the two conventions was adopted. The first building, Griggs Hall, was erected in 1923 and housed dormitory rooms, dining hall, library, and classrooms. American Baptist College formally opened its doors for the training of Christian workers under the name of the American Baptist Theological Seminary on September 14, 1924. "The seminary opened Oct. 1, 1924, with an enrollment of 28 men and 2 women. The first faculty consisted of William T. Amiger, J.H. Garnett, and 0. L. Hailey. Sutton E. Griggs was elected the first president." In 1937, the Southern Baptist Convention agreed to share 50/50 with the National Baptist Convention, USA Inc. in the operation of the College. The unprecedented cooperation between the National Baptist Convention, USA Inc. and the Southern Baptist Convention created a unique educational opportunity for African American clergy to gain higher biblical and theological education for over five decades. Due to this partnership, the Southern Baptist Convention helped prepare students and a broad spectrum of church leaders who were ready to meet the challenges of the Civil Rights Movement led by Martin Luther King Jr. Providing scholarships and fiscal support of the operations of American Baptist College, the Southern Baptist Convention made a significant contribution to the education of men and women for Christian service in the world. In order to support the future growth and flourishing of the College, the Southern Baptist Convention continued in that partnership until a joint decision to turn over the assets to the Board of Trustees of American Baptist College in 1996. The College has educated Civil Rights champions, national leaders and Christian ministers. The school's history during the 1960s and 1970s was filled with civil rights champions, national leaders and Christian ministers. Students from American Baptist College, such as Julius Scruggs, Bernard Lafayette, James Bevel, William Barbee and John Lewis served on the front line of the Nashville sit-ins for justice and change. Under the tutelage of then Professor J.F. Grimmett, Kelly Miller Smith, and C.T. Vivian, many students sat down at local lunch counters, dramatically altering the quality of life for African Americans living in the South. They sat, marched, and persevered through arrests and beatings before they were victorious in pursuit of justice and human rights. The campus itself was a popular command post for organizing and training students for social justice causes throughout the city at the time. A number of students from that period have gone on to become major names in civil rights history and American politics (e.g., Congressman John Lewis, Bernard Lafayette, Julius Scruggs). At the time, members of the Nashville Student Movement referred to the college as the "Holy Hill". In 1971, the school became accredited and its official name was changed to American Baptist College. The college was originally formed as a joint educational partnership between the Southern Baptist Convention and the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. The Southern Baptist Convention withdrew its one of the founding fathers of the College. At its annual meeting in 1993, the National Baptist Convention appointed a committee to investigate support of the college in 1995. The college continues to serve as the primary theological training center for the NBC, USA Inc. Civil Rights movement Nashville was the "University of Nonviolence...the movement's research laboratory...here the nonviolent sit-in was first methodically theorized, practiced, and tested... An extraordinary number of [Civil Rights] Movement leaders got their start in Nashville... Their organizational energy was felt throughout the South for the next decade." Author Townsend Davis lists graduates of this "University of Nonviolence": James Bevel, Bernard Lafayette, John Lewis, C.T. Vivian (American Baptist Theological Seminary students); Diane Nash and Marion Berry (Fisk University students). He also notes the leadership of Kelly Miller Smith (pastor, First Baptist Capitol Hill and professor at ABTS). In the recent "rolling history lesson" on the 1961 Freedom Rides [January 27–28, 2007], American Baptist College was represented by Bernard Lafayette, John Lewis, C.T. Vivian and four current students as well as one of our faculty members. James Lawson spoke often during this journey of the impact of the Nashville movement on the national movement, from 1959 until now, and of the importance of American Baptist. A number of people have tried to figure out why so many of the national civil rights leaders came from American Baptist College, a small four year historically black college in North Nashville. Noting that American Baptist was seldom even mentioned, David Halberstam, author of The Children explains: "It was a place without pretense, without class lines...But at a time when the black church was becoming the driving force of a larger social revolution taking place in the United States, American Baptist had become a magnet for many of the most talented and passionate young blacks in the country. For young blacks in small towns in the South, dreaming of doing something for their own people, did not in those days dream of going to Harvard or Yale or Stanford Law, they dreamt of going into the Baptist ministry. Therefore the talent and the passion and the innate human strength of the students at American Baptist had nothing to do with the seeming simplicity and relative poverty of the school. It was a place filled with political ferment and passion. Its faculty was gifted and its students, many of them diamonds in the rough, were hungry to learn." Historic district The American Baptist Theological Seminary Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in June 2013. The listing recognized the institution's significance for African American ethnic heritage, education, and religion, as well as its role in the Civil Rights movement of the mid-twentieth century. Contributing elements in the historic district include the historic plan and landscape of the campus at 1800 Baptist World Center Drive in Nashville, as well as three historic buildings: Griggs Hall (built in 1924), the J.B. Lawrence Administration Building (built in 1947), and the T.L. Holcomb Library (built in 1954). College facilities T.L. Holcomb and Susie McClure Library The mission of the T.L. Holcomb and Susie McClure Library is to support the academic objectives, programs, and curriculum of American Baptist College by providing appropriate resources and services. The T.L. Holcomb and Susie McClure Library serves both the entire student body and its surrounding community. The T.L. Holcomb and Susie McClure library is a three-floor facility located in the center of campus. The library provides research and study areas, houses the ABC Chapel and a computer lab. The library collection contains more than 14,000+ volumes, over 200 periodicals, and a rare collection of Bibles in over 300 different languages. The collected writings of Mohandas "Mahatma" Gandhi can be found in the library's reading room. The library has also received donations from the private collections of Renita J. Weems, Harmon Wray, and Professor Janet Wolf. These donated books cover a variety of topics including ethics, politics, social justice, theology, and Christian leadership. The T.L. Holcomb and Susie McClure Library is a member of Project Athena. This membership enables the library to share resources with other libraries. The library staff also offers one-on-one reference assistance as well as the classroom instruction in research skills and the use of specific electronic databases. T.L. Holcomb Chapel Chapel services are required and held weekly in the T.L. Holcomb Chapel. Every service involves students, staff, and faculty with occasional guest preachers, alumni, and scholars in residence. Chapel services are mandatory and held weekly on Tuesday from 5:30 pm to 6:30 pm. Vesper service is held weekly on Friday beginning at 6:45 pm (attendance not required). J. H. Flakes and J. B. Lawrence Administration Building The administration building was completed in 1946 and is named in honor of J.B. Lawrence, a former Secretary of the Southern Baptist Home Mission Board. In 2011, J. H. Flakes' name was added to the administration building in honor of his work and ministry on behalf of the college. This building houses administrative offices and classrooms. Griggs Hall Griggs Hall was the first building constructed on the campus in 1923. It was named to honor the legacy of the Griggs family: Sutton E. Griggs was the first president of American Baptist Theological Seminary (ABTS) and his father, A.R. Griggs, served as the secretary of the National Baptist Education Board. In 1948, a fifty-foot addition to the structure was completed. The school's first cafeteria was originally housed in the basement of the hall, along with modest laundry facilities. Currently, this building is undergoing renovation. Baptist World Center Dedicated in 1989, the Baptist World Center was constructed as the official international headquarters for the National Baptist Convention USA, Inc. It is the very first building of its kind erected by the convention. The Baptist World Center is located on the south edge of the campus, on the original site of the former National Baptist Missionary Training center. It houses administrative offices of the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. and is used by American Baptist College for classroom space, events, workshops, and the campus dining hall. The sanctuary is large enough to accommodate the Annual Mid-Winter Board Meeting of the National Baptist Convention USA, Inc., as well as annual lectures and major conferences and convocations of the college. John R. Lewis and Julius R. Scruggs Leadership Development Center The Lewis-Scruggs building was opened in 2005 and named in honor of two ABC alumni, Congressman John R. Lewis (D-GA) and Julius R. Scruggs, ABC Board Member and Vice President at Large, National Baptist Convention, USA, Incorporated. The Leadership Center is located behind the T.L. Holcomb Library and Susie McClure Library Alumni Hall Alumni Hall is a single-story structure that was named in honor of the College's alumni. The hall, located near student apartments on the north edge of campus, is used to house the department of Campus Operations. Student activities American Baptist College has a variety of organizations, committees, and activities. Garnett-Nabrit Lectures The Garnett-Nabrit Lectures (GNL) is an annual event held each spring to honor the legacy of the former Dean, J.H. Garnett and J.M. Nabrit, fourth President of the college. The lecture series, initiated in 1958, grew out of the annual Ministers and Missionary Conference that began in 1937. American Baptist College hosts this annual event on campus at the World Baptist Center. Religious scholars and preachers are selected to address issues relevant for service and leadership. The lecture series provides a forum for church leaders, as well as students, to listen to, interact with, and be inspired by noted scholars, pastors, and laypersons. The Garnett-Nabrit Lectures is the premier lecture series of the year held at American Baptist College. During the lecture series, alumni return to campus to take part in the tradition of academic enrichment. This time of homecoming allows former students to interconnect with current and prospective students providing a lasting heritage for American Baptist College. Attendance is highly recommended for all enrolled students. Founders Day Representatives of the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. and the Southern Baptist Convention founded the American Baptist Theological Seminary, now known as the American Baptist College, on May 6, 1924. The College observes this day annually with a special service commemorating the event. Generally, special pre-Founders Day activities are sponsored on campus throughout the week and a Founders Day Memorial Service for the community of American Baptist College including the Alumni Association. Discovery Week Discovery Week at American Baptist College is a campus wide engagement with the Nashville at large community and beyond and path seekers who desire vocational guidance for relevant spirituality, biblical studies, and theological education. ABC Day American Baptist College seeks to develop leaders who aspire to become prophetic in their preaching and teaching ministry. Therefore, ABC Day allows for the college to partner up with churches in various cities to provide opportunities for students to go and preach and represent the college as future leaders and preachers. ABC Day is often held in the Spring semester each academic year. Student Government Association (SGA) All students at American Baptist College carrying six hours or more are members of the Student Government Association (SGA). It is the purpose of SGA to promote the welfare of the student body and to maintain high standards of conduct for all students. Each spring the students elect a student council that supervises the student body. The president of the council serves as a liaison between the students and the administration. The SGA sponsors most of the campus-wide social events that are open to all students. These events include parties, game nights, banquets, and annual picnics. SGA Officers includes: President, Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, Senior Class Representative, Junior Class Representative, Sophomore Class Representative, and Freshman Class Representative. A student must have a grade point average (GPA) of at least 2.5 to run for office and once elected must maintain a 2.5 GPA. Elections are held during the Spring semester of each school year. Baptist Student Union The Baptist Student Union (BSU) is a student ran organization that provides a venue for students to grow and fellowship with each other as they participate in the liturgy through: preaching, lecturing, and worship called Vesper. Vesper services are held every Friday at 7 pm. The Baptist Student Union of the National Baptist Convention USA, Inc was actually founded on the ABTS campus. Greek Organizations Greek-letter organizations encourage high standards of scholarship, promote programs for cultural and social growth, and stress the spirit of Inter-Greek fellowship. They operate under charters granted by the college and their respective national bodies. Students are encouraged to see Student Services for complete list of sanctioned campus charters. Membership is open to male and female students above first-year classification. Students must meet the academic standards prescribed by the college (i.e., a cumulative average of 2.5 or better), as well as academic or other standards set by the several national bodies. Honors Day Honors day is held during the spring semester each school year for the purpose of recognizing distinctive achievement on the part of individual students. Constitution Day In compliance with the U.S. Education Department, Constitution Day is recognized as a National holiday at American Baptist College. Constitution Day shall be observed each year on September 17 in commemoration of the September 17, 1787, signing of the United States Constitution. If September 17 occurs on a non-school day, Constitution Day shall be conducted on the preceding Friday. Notable alumni LeRoy Bailey Jr., clergy, Senior Pastor of The First Cathedral James Bevel, civil rights leader R. E. Cooper, Sr., Baptist pastor and civil rights leader Cleavant Derricks, pastor, choir director, songwriter Leroy Gilbert, Chaplain of the United States Coast Guard Bernard Lafayette, civil rights activist, leader in the 1960s Civil Rights Movement and organizer; named first director of the Peace Education Program at Gustavus Adolphus College, St. Peter, Minnesota; recognized as one of the leading exponents of nonviolent direct action in the world and Distinguished Scholar-in-Residence at the Candler School of Theology at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia. John Lewis, Georgia Congressman and leader of the Civil Rights Movement C.T. Vivian, author, minister, activist; served in Jesse Jackson's presidential campaign as the national deputy director for clergy References External links Official website Baptist universities and colleges in the United States Baptist Christianity in Tennessee University and college buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee Bible colleges in the United States Universities and colleges established in 1924 Evangelical seminaries and theological colleges Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Tennessee Universities and colleges in Nashville, Tennessee Seminaries and theological colleges in Tennessee National Register of Historic Places in Nashville, Tennessee 1924 establishments in Tennessee

4015440

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marguerite%20Barankitse

Marguerite Barankitse

Marguerite (Maggie) Barankitse (born in 1957 in Ruyigi, Ruyigi province, Burundi) is a Burundian humanitarian activist who works to improve the welfare of children and challenge ethnic discrimination in Burundi. After rescuing 25 children from a massacre, she was forced to witness the conflicts between the Hutu and Tutsi in her country in 1993. She established Maison Shalom, a shelter that provided access to healthcare, education, and culture to over 20,000 orphan children in need. Because she protested against a third term for President Pierre Nkurunziza, she lives in exile. During the 26 years that it operated in Burundi, Maison Shalom grew into a large network of schools, hospitals, and healthcare services across the country. Its purpose was to improve the lives of Burundi's children, through integrated and sustainable development with the ultimate aim of fostering lasting peace in the country. However, in 2015 Barankitse was forced to flee her country, and Maison Shalom plunged into a political crisis. Far from surrendering, Barankitse shifted her focus and decided to dedicate all of her energy to helping more than 90,000 Burundian refugees in Rwanda. In 2017, she opened the Community Center Oasis of Peace in Kigali to help schoolchildren, offer psychological and social support to torture and rape victims, and implement sustainable development activities in areas such as health, education, vocational training, culture, and income-generation. She stated that her vision is to instill dignity in refugees to keep their dreams alive: "Evil never has the last word – Love always wins." Barabkitse has received numerous awards, including the Juan Maria Bandres Prize for Asylum Rights, and the French Government's Human Rights Prize (both 1998), the World Children's Prize (2003), the Four Freedoms Award (Freedom From Want), the Voices of Courage Award of the Women's Commission for Women and Refugee Children (both 2004), the Nansen Refugee Award (2005), the Opus Prize (2008), the UNESCO Prize (both 2008), the Prize for Conflict Prevention (2011), and the Aurora Prize for Awakening Humanity (2016). Biography Marguerite "Maggie" Barankitse was born in 1957 in Ruyigi, East-Burundi, one of the poorest regions of the country. Of Tutsi heritage, she was a teacher at a local secondary school but was fired because of her protests against discrimination between the Hutu and Tutsi in the field. She then went to work as a secretary for the Catholic bishop in Ruyigi. Despite mounting tensions, Barankitse put her dream of ethnic harmony into practice by adopting seven children: four Hutus and three Tutsis. As violence escalated between the two tribes following the assassination of the first democratically elected president of Burundi, a group of armed Tutsis descended on Ruyigi on October 23, 1993, to kill the Hutu families who were hiding in the Bishop's manor. Barankitse had managed to hide many of the children but was caught by the fighters. They beat and humiliated her and forced her to watch the killing of 72 Hutus, but she refused to tell them where the children were hidden. Ultimately, she was spared only because of her Tutsi heritage. After the ordeal, Barankitse gathered her adopted children and the surviving orphans and hid them in a nearby school. As more and more children sought shelter with her, she decided to create a small nongovernmental organisation: Maison Shalom, the House of Peace. Her house was open to children of all ethnic origins: Tutsi, Hutu, and Twa. She calls them "My Hutsitwa children", and they call her Oma (or "grandmother" in German). In the following years, Maison Shalom in Ruyigi was one of the few places in Burundi where Hutus and Tutsis cohabited in harmony. Since the events of 1993, over 20,000 children and youth have benefited from Maison Shalom. Before the current crisis in Burundi, the organisation employed more than 270 people, including nurses, psychologists, and educators who implemented special projects for the children. In April 2016, Barankitse spoke out against the third term of President Pierre Nkurunziza and joined the youth demonstrations denouncing him. As a result, she was obliged to hide for a month in an embassy in Bujumbura. Eventually, she had to flee; the government had her name on a death list. Barankitse found herself a refugee. Maison Shalom in Burundi In the autumn of 1993, after the assassination of Melchior Ndadaye, the first democratically elected president of Burundi (a Hutu), the Burundian civil war began with massacres taking place throughout the country. In the province of Ruyigi, disaster struck on 24 October. To exact vengeance for the killing of members of their ethnic group, the Tutsi hunted the town's Hutus, who were hiding in diocese buildings. Barankitse, a Tutsi, was also there, and she tried to reason with the group of Tutsi to not to use violence. However, her efforts were in vain: They decided to tie her to a chair and forced her to watch the killing of 72 of her friends. A few hours after the massacre, the children of the victims started to come out of their hiding places. That day, Barankitse says, she realized that her mission would be to fight the violence ravaging her country by giving those children, and the 20,000 who would follow, an alternative to hate. Amid the prevailing disaster, the news spread rapidly about the "crazy woman of Ruyigi" who dared to take in all of the orphans who came to her, never refusing anyone. Twa, Hutu, Tutsi: Barankitse made no distinction. Barankitse initially gathered the 25 orphaned children of the Ruyigi massacre. With the help of European and Burundian friends, she organized a network that provided care for a growing number of children. In May 1994, the Roman Catholic bishop of Ruyigi, Bishop Joseph Nduhirubusa agreed to transform a former school into a children's shelter called 'Maison Shalom'. It was named so named by the children, in memory of a song heard on the radio at the time, and because the word "peace" in Kirundi had been instrumentalized and defiled by the slaughterers on both sides of the conflict. Maison Shalom's focus was predominantly children, including child soldiers, orphans, mutilated children, and minors in prison. However, its services were available to the entire community, having an impact not only on the lives of orphans but also the entire region that could access to its services. Maison Shalom's activities soon also expanded to other cities such as Butezi and Gizuru, where Barankitse opened other children's shelters. Over the years, what was merely a shelter seeking to protect orphans from both sides after the civil war, grew into an entire village, and included a bank, a crèche, the REMA Hospital, a hotel, a shop, a resource centre for learning sewing and computing, a mechanic training school, a swimming pool, and even a cinema. Many of the activities were income-generating initiatives run by the youth themselves, such as the guesthouse, the cinema, the car workshop, and the like. When they became independent, the young people supported by Maison Shalom received a small house and a plot of land. In 2004 an estimated 20,000 children had benefited from Barankitse's help, either directly or indirectly. By 2015, over 300 houses for children and youth aged between 4 and 20 had been built. The NGO also helped internally displaced persons and returning Burundian refugees to reintegrate in Ruyigi and to find their missing relatives. Barankitse was also on the frontline in the battle against HIV/AIDS, setting up counselling projects to promote HIV/AIDS prevention. She and her staff cared for over 100 HIV-infected children who had been abandoned or orphaned. Barankitse also started an initiative to help imprisoned youth. Some children were born in prison, and she worked to find them a better life, through education and a home outside prison. Her team continued to promote agriculture and established a microfinance project to enable the parents to develop small businesses. In 2015, however, everything fell apart. The Burundian government started suppressing protests against President Nkurunziza. Thousands of Burundians started fleeing to Rwanda, Uganda, Tanzania or the DRC. Barankitse protested, cared for the wounded young, and fed those who were in prison. But in June 2015, Barankitse was herself forced to flee. In Burundi, there is a price on her head. Maison Shalom Rwanda and the Community Center Oasis of Peace Barankitse refused to spend her days in Europe comfortably and decided to dedicate her energy to help more than 90,000 Burundian refugees in Rwanda. She started with her expertise: education. She fought for education for children and university students in refugee camps. She put 126 children in preschool, 160 in secondary school, and obtained 353 scholarships for university-level refugee students to join Rwandan universities, and 10 scholarships for the best students to study in universities abroad. In May 2017, Barankitse opened the Community Center Oasis of Peace for schoolchildren, offer psychological and social support to victims of torture and rape, and to implement activities of sustainable development in areas such as health, education, vocational training, culture, and income-generation. The Center offers a variety of courses including in English language, culinary arts, tailoring, embroidery, and painting. It also has a restaurant and is cyber-equipped with computers with internet connections for research and basic computer training. Approximately 200 people come every day to the Centre and benefit from the various services offered by Maison Shalom. Maison Shalom seeks to help refugees and especially young people in exile to live in dignity, to use the period of exile for empowerment and forgiveness for those who forced them to flee their homeland. Mahama Elite Center at Mahama Refugee Camp and Since 2015, more than 430,000 Burundians have been forced to flee and to seek refuge in neighbouring countries such as Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda. Among them, more than 90,000 are in Rwanda, of which 58,000 live in Mahama Refugee Camp. This camp is considered to be a model case of refugee management in the East African Region. To support the refugees living there, Maison Shalom opened the Mahama Elite Center on 22 June 2018. This training center was poised to offer vocational training and employment to Burundian refugees in the camp. The project will enable young people to improve their living conditions but also to strengthen their entrepreneurship skills. Awards and honours The scope of her action, as well as the fact that she protects all children without consideration of their origin, Tutsi or Hutu, brought Maggy praise from all corners of the world: 1998 : Prize of human rights, awarded by French government. – Liberté – Égalité – Fraternité 2000 : North-South Prize from the Council of Europe 2000 : courage trophy awarded by the monthly Africa International. 2003 : World's Children's Prize for the Rights of the Child 2004 : Voices of Courage Award of the Women's Commission for Women and Refugee Children 2004 : Nansen Refugee Award 2008 : Opus Prize 2008 : UNESCO Prize In June 2009, Grand Duchess Maria Teresa of Luxembourg, UNICEF Eminent Advocate for Children, visited Maison Shalom during a tour of Burundi. In October 2011, the Grand Duchess welcomed Marguerite Barankitse to Luxembourg to open a photographic exhibition in support of Maison Shalom. On November 24, 2011, Barankitse received the Prize for Conflict Prevention from the hands of Kofi Annan. The Conflict Prevention Prize is awarded every year by the Fondation Chirac, launched in 2008 by former French president Jacques Chirac. In 2011 Barankitse received the journalistic prize Golden Doves for Peace issued by the Italian Research Institute Archivio Disarmo. On April 24, 2016, Marguerite was awarded the $1.1 million Aurora Prize for Awakening Humanity, an award given to humanitarians in memory of the Armenian genocide. Honorary degrees 2017 Degree of Doctor of Laws (honoris causa) of Rhodes University, Eastern Cape, South Africa 2013 Emory University, Honorary Doctor's Degree, Atlanta, Georgia, USA 2013 Duke University, Honorary Doctor's Degree, Durham, North Carolina, USA, alongside Melinda Gates 2012 Université de Lille, France, Honorary Doctor's Degree 2011 Doctor Honoris Causa, Université Catholique de Lille, France 2004 Doctor Honoris Causa from the University of Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium Books about Maggy and Maison Shalom La haine n'aura pas le dernier mot, in French by Christel Martin, Editions Michel Albin 2005 Madre di diecimila figli, Edition Piemme Bestseller 2010, translated into Italian from the French, La haine n'aura pas le dernier mot by Christel Martin Hummingbird, Why Am I Here? Maggy's Children, by Judith Debetencourt Hoskins, in English, 2012 References External links Official Web-site of Maison Shalom (in French) Video on Marguerite Barankitse's action, Fondation Chirac's website Community Center Oasis of Peace Barankitse and the Aurora Prize Barankitse and the Opus Prize Burundian human rights activists Burundian women activists Living people 1957 births People from Ruyigi Province African women in war People of the Burundian Civil War Women in 21st-century warfare Recipients of the Four Freedoms Award Nansen Refugee Award laureates

4015443

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wescam

Wescam

L3Harris Wescam, stylized as L3Harris WESCAM, is a Canadian company specializing in the production of gyro-stabilized, EO-IR imaging systems. Wescam Inc. is a subsidiary of L3Harris Technologies. The name has become synonymous with cameras of the type although several organizations around the world manufacture similar systems. Wescam is based in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. History In 1959, the military division of Westinghouse Canada developed a stabilized camera mount for the Canadian Defense Research Establishment. The product was named WESSCAM - Westinghouse Steered Stabilized Camera Mount. In 1974, WESSCAM inventor Nox Leavitt purchased the lab equipment and patents from Westinghouse and founded Istec Limited, Isolation Stabilization Technologies. The company had 17 employees and generated approximately $1 million in revenue. It experienced substantial expansion through internal growth and strategic acquisitions. This brought complementary technologies into the company and broadened its intellectual capability and market share. In 1994, Istec changed its name to Wescam and in 1995 Wescam went public on the Toronto Stock Exchange. In 2002, L3 Technologies acquired Wescam. As part of L3 Technologies, Wescam has expanded its presence in the U.S., and increased its base of products and service offerings to customers. In June 2019, L3 Wescam became L3Harris Wescam when their parent company – L3 Technologies – had a "merger of equals" with Harris Corporation. In November 2021, Wescam moved its headquarters to a new production facility in Hamilton, Ontario. Products Wescam's primary product line is the MX-Series, which consists of MX-series turret families—the MX-8, MX-10, MX-15, MX-20 and MX-25. These are all controlled by the US ITAR They are currently used by defence, homeland security, and law enforcement agencies as well as in televised sporting events, such as NASCAR. These products are typically mounted on fixed-wing, rotor-wing, UAV and Aerostat airborne platforms and also on numerous armoured vehicles, and marine-based platforms. MX-10 Introduced in 2009, the MX-10 is Wescam's newest imaging system. Its fully integrated weight is . It has a diameter and stands tall. This small size and low weight reduce the weight and clearance requirements for installation on manned and unmanned airborne platforms. The MX-10 can incorporate several different types of sensors (up to six), including high-definition daylight and infrared sensors. Wescam has been in the process of creating variations of the MX-10 for use in a wider range of applications. The MX-10GS (GS: Ground System) has been adapted for mounting on a ground vehicle where it can sit atop a mast or tower for a higher point of view, whether the vehicle is moving or stationary. The MX-10MS (MS:Marinized System) has also been created, and Zyvex Technologies has operated it on the Piranha Unmanned Surface Vessel (USV). WESCAM's MX 10 is a compact Multi-Sensor, Multi-Spectral imaging system for surveillance missions from light aircraft. The Wescam MX-10 thermal imaging system houses two cameras. A color camera used primarily during the day can read an object the size of a license plate from more than 750 feet away. The second camera, an infrared thermal imager, can be used during the day and at night. Infrared technology permits the flight crew to see objects that may otherwise go undetected at night. The MX-10 system costs more than 400.000 US Dollars. MX-15 The MX-15 is Wescam's most popular family of imaging systems. This turret can weigh up to with a diameter of and a height of . The MX-15 Family includes the MX-15, the MX-15HDi (High-Definition variant), the MX-15D (Designator variant) and the MX-15GS (Ground System variant). These imaging systems are usually installed on manned fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft. The price for a single set is above $1 million US Dollars. MX-20 Of the MX-Series, the MX-20 is the largest imaging system, weighing in at up to . It has a diameter of and a height of . This larger system is typically installed on large, fixed-wing aircraft, such as the P-3 Orion, Bayraktar Akıncı and Aerostats. This turret is used for long-range surveillance, as it can identify and engage subjects from over 20 km away. MX-Series key attributes Simplified Installation/Integration: These products do not require external or support electronics, thus simplifying installation and reducing weight and space requirements. Wescam has also implemented common operator interfaces and Line Replaceable Units (LRUs) to maintain interchangeability between turret models and platforms within a fleet. Long-Range Optimization: MX-Series imaging systems use custom-designed, large-aperture lenses to for high magnification, state-of-the-art sensors for high resolution, and a missile-grade, solid-state Inertial Measurement Unit for "rock-solid" stabilization. On-Board Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU): While similar products often require a mounting intercase for the IMU to stabilize the camera, the MX-Series has an integrated IMU, which in turn reduces payload requirements. The IMU allows the system to have a precise, jitter-free lock on any geographic position and a very high target location accuracy, despite aircraft manoeuvres and noise in the aircraft's GPS/INS system. When connected to a GPS antenna, the onboard IMU enables the turret to point to any geographic location supplied by a third party moving map system. Compatibility with third-party systems: The MX-Series turrets are able to downlink to third-party communications systems in order to provide a clear visual of the situation in real time. This compatibility allows a wide range of installations, spanning even complex, multi-operational systems. Continuous improvement: Wescam invests heavily in research and development in order to incorporate ultramodern technology into the MX-Series. Some contracts also involve a spiral growth path, allowing Wescam to modify the turret over time in order to fit to customers' evolving requirements. Customers Wescam serves militaries and agencies around the world. Below is a short list of some of its customers. Air Attack, France Australian Federal Police Turkey Canadian Department of National Defence Catalunya Police Chilean Navy French Gendarmerie Icelandic Coast Guard Italian Air Force Italian Army Italian Carabinieri Italian Coast Guard Italian Finance Guard Italian Navy Italian State Police Lithuanian Air Force Luxembourg Police OHB-System, Germany Portuguese Air Force Royal Netherlands Air Force Royal Norwegian Air Force Spanish Fisheries Spanish UME National Police Air Service (NPAS) Swedish Coast Guard Trafico Spain UK Maritime & Coast Guard UK Ministry of Defence US Air Force US Army US Customs & Border Patrol US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) US Navy References External links Official website Defence companies of Canada Infrared imaging

4015641

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khachatur%20Abovian

Khachatur Abovian

Khachatur Abovian (; (disappeared)) was an Armenian polymath, educator, scientist, philosopher, writer, poet and an advocate of modernization. He mysteriously vanished in 1848 and was eventually presumed dead. Reputed as the father of modern Armenian literature, he is best remembered for his novel Wounds of Armenia. Written in 1841 and published posthumously in 1858, it was the first novel published in the Modern Armenian language, based on the Yerevan dialect instead of Classical Armenian. Abovian was far ahead of his time and virtually none of his works were published during his lifetime. Only after the establishment of the Armenian SSR was Abovian accorded recognition and stature. Abovian is regarded as one of the foremost figures not just in Armenian literature, but Armenian history at large. Abovian's influence on Western Armenian literature was not as strong as it was on Eastern Armenian, particularly in its formative years. Early life and career Abovian was born in 1809 in the village of Kanaker, then part of Qajar Iran, and now a district of Yerevan, Armenia. Abovian's family were descendants of the Beglaryan family in Gulistan, one of five Armenian families who ruled around the current day region of Nagorno-Karabakh. The Abovian family held the position of (a hereditary lordship) in Kanaker; Abovian's uncle was the last of Kanaker. His aunt was the wife of Sahak Aghamalian, the last of Yerevan at the time of the Russian annexation in 1828. His social origins and descent imbued him at an early age with a sense of responsibility to his people. He was born six years after his parents, Avetik and Takuhi, married. He had a brother, Karapet, who died at the age of three. At age 10, Abovian was taken by his father to Echmiadzin to study for the priesthood. He dropped out after five years and moved to Tiflis in 1822 to study Armenian studies and languages at the Nersisyan School under the guidance of Harutiun Alamdarian. Abovian graduated in 1826 and began preparing to move to Venice to further his education. However, the outbreak of the Russo-Persian War (1826–28) curtailed his plans. For the following three years he taught briefly at Sanahin and then worked for Catholicos Yeprem of Armenia as his clerk and translator. While working for the Catholicos, the twenty-year-old Abovian met many notable foreigners, including the diplomat and playwright Alexander Griboyedov, who was stuck in Echmiadzin en route to Tabriz in September 1828. Griboyedov's weekly became the first paper to publish an article on Abovian. Conquest of Ararat The turning point in Abovian's life was the arrival of Friedrich Parrot in Armenia in September 1829, a professor of physics from the University of Dorpat in Livonia (in present-day Tartu, Estonia). Parrot traveled to Armenia to climb Mount Ararat to conduct geological studies and required a local guide and a translator for the expedition. The Catholicos assigned Abovian to these tasks. With Abovian's assistance, Parrot became the first explorer in modern times to reach the summit of Mount Ararat. The project received full approval from the emperor Nicholas I, who provided the expedition with a military escort. Abovian and Parrot crossed the Arax River into the district of Surmali and headed to the Armenian village of Akhuri situated on the northern slope of Ararat above sea level. Following the advice of Harutiun Alamdarian of Tiflis, they set up base camp at the Monastery of St. Hakob some higher, at an elevation of . Abovian was one of the last travelers to visit Akhuri and the monastery before a disastrous earthquake completely buried both in May 1840. Their first attempt to climb the mountain, using the northeast slope, failed as a result of lack of warm clothing. Six days later, on the advice of Stepan Khojiants, the village chief of Akhuri, the ascent was attempted from the northwest side. After reaching an elevation of , they turned back because they did not reach the summit before sundown. They reached the summit on their third attempt at 3:15 p.m. on 9 October 1829. Abovian dug a hole in the ice and erected a wooden cross facing north. Abovian picked up a chunk of ice from the summit and carried it down with him in a bottle, considering the water holy. On 8 November, Parrot and Abovian climbed up Lesser Ararat. Years later, in 1845, the German mineralogist Otto Wilhelm Hermann von Abich climbed Ararat with Abovian. Abovian's third and last ascent of Ararat was with the Englishman Henry Danby Seymour in 1846. The Dorpat years Impressed with Abovian's thirst for knowledge, Parrot arranged for a Russian state scholarship for Abovian to study at the University of Dorpat in 1830. He entered the university directly without additional preparation and studied in the Faculty of Philosophy of the Philological-Historical Department from 3 September 1830 to 18 January 1836. The years in Dorpat (present-day Tartu, Estonia) were very fruitful for Abovian who studied social and natural sciences, European literature and philosophy, and mastered German, Russian, French and Latin. At this time Abovian fell under the influence of German Romanticism. In addition, Abovian established numerous contacts with European intellectuals of the time. At the university he became friends with the sons of Nikolay Karamzin who studied with him. In 1834 Abovian visited his cousin Maria (daughter of Sahak Aghamalian) in Saint Petersburg, then married to the Georgian prince Alexander. Prior to graduation, Abovian learned that his mother Takuhi had died. Return to Armenia In 1836 he returned home anxious to embark on a mission of enlightenment. Abovian's efforts were thwarted as he faced a growing and hostile reaction from the Armenian clergy as well as Tsarist officials, largely stemming from his opposition to dogmatism and formalism in the school system. Abovian was appointed as the supervisor of the Tiflis uyezd school and married a German woman named Emilia Looze (died 1870) in 1839. In 1840 he was approached by English traveller Anne Lister, who was visiting Tiflis with her partner Ann Walker. She hoped that Abovian would guide her on another expedition to Mount Ararat which ultimately did not occur. He was dismissed from the school in 1843 and was transferred to the subdivisional uyezd school in Yerevan where he encountered apathy and antagonism from his colleagues and the clergy. In the summer of the same year, Abovian was visited by two German travellers. A Bavarian professor, Moritz Wagner, from the University of Munich, arrived in May and toured the Lake Sevan region with Abovian and thereafter corresponded with him on a regular basis. In July Abovian also accompanied Wagner on the first recorded ascent of Mount Aragats in Armenia. In August, Abovian escorted the German Baron August von Haxthausen around the province. They visited the Abovian family home in Kanaker and attended a service at the Blue Mosque. They also visited a Yazidi encampment where they met the chief Timur Aga and exchanged pleasantries with a rider from Count Paskevich's guard. He became a trusted friend of the Yazidi community in Armenia, and when the chief returned with lavish gifts from a banquet in Tiflis organised by the viceroy of the Caucasus Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov in 1844, he organised a tribal feast and Abovian was invited to attend. In 1845 he applied for a position at the Catholicate of Echmiadzin but was not accepted. The following year, he became a contributor to Vorontsov's weekly newspaper, , for which Abovian wrote three articles. Disappearance On 14 April 1848, Abovian left his home for an early morning walk, and was never seen again; his disappearance remains unresolved. His wife Emilia did not report him missing for a month. Their children, Vardan (1840–1896) and Zarmandukht (later known as Adelaide; 1843–1909), were ages eight and five, respectively, at the time of the disappearance. Numerous theories have been proposed attempting to explain his disappearance: that he committed suicide, was murdered by his Persian or Turkish enemies, or arrested and exiled to Siberia by the Special Corps of Gendarmes, among others. Given his love for his children and their young age, the theory that Abovian committed suicide is generally disregarded. Writer Axel Bakunts put forward the theory that Abovian was in Western Europe engulfed in the Revolutions of 1848. Writings Abovian wrote novels, stories, descriptions, plays, scientific and artistic compositions, verses and fables. He was the first Armenian writer to compose literature for children. Wounds of Armenia The historical novel Wounds of Armenia (written in 1841, first published in 1858) was the first Armenian secular novel dedicated to the fate of the Armenian people and its struggle for liberation in the period of Russo-Persian war of 1826–1828. The novel dealt with the suffering of Armenians under Persian occupation. The basic concept of the novel was the assertion of feelings of national merit, patriotism and hatred of oppressors. These themes had a profound influence over wide layers of Armenian society. The hero, Aghasi, personifies the freedom-loving national spirit and its will to fight against the foreign conquerors. "Give away your life, but never give away your native lands" is his motto. The story begins with an abduction of an Armenian girl by a band of thugs sent by the Persian sardar that triggers an uprising led by Aghasi. Abovian saw in strengthening of the friendship of Russian and Armenian peoples a guarantee of the national, political and cultural revival of his native lands. However, when Abovian wrote the novel he was already disillusioned with Tsarist policies in Armenia, particularly with the implementation of (Statute) in 1836 which greatly reduced the political power of the Armenian Catholicos and the abolishment of the Armenian Oblast in 1840. In the novel, elements of romanticism and realism are interlaced while the narration is supplanted by lyrical retreats. Other works Abovian's poetry was filled with satire best expressed in The Wine Jug, in which he criticised Russian bureaucracy. Leisure Entertainment was adapted by Abovian from notes he took in public gatherings. The work is a collection of fables in verse that chastise vice, injustice and moral degeneration. He wrote scientific and artistic non-fiction works such as the Discovery of America and Book of Stories. Abovian translated to the Armenian language the works of Homer, Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Nikolay Karamzin, I. A. Krylov and others. He continued promoting secular and comprehensive (mental, moral, working, physical) training, school accessibility, free education for the indigent and equal education of boys and girls. Pedagogical compositions of Abovian include the book for reading Introduction to Education (1838), a textbook of Russian grammar and an Armenian-language novel History of Tigran, or a Moral Manual for Armenian Children (printed in 1941). He was the first Armenian to study scientific ethnography: the way of life and customs of the peasants of the native settlements around Kanaker, inhabitants of Yerevan, and gathered and studied Armenian and Kurdish folklore. Legacy Abovian's life is well remembered in Armenia. During the years in which Armenia was under Soviet rule, his pro-Russia stance was emphasized. Abovian was influenced by the progressive pedagogical views of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. Ara Baliozian wrote: Schools, streets, boulevards and parks were named after him. The village of Elar, located northeast of Yerevan, was named after him in 1961. Two years later, as the village's population grew larger, Abovyan was accorded with city status. His home in Kanaker was turned into a house-museum in 1939, and many of his original writings are preserved there. The work Abovian accomplished in the field of education was remembered. Yerevan's State Pedagogical Institute was named after him. On 28 February 1964, a medal was named in his honour () which was awarded to schoolteachers who showed exceptional abilities in teaching and education. Portrait Abovian's portrait is one of the most exceptional exhibits of the Museum of Literature and Arts after Charents. It is an oil painting with a size of by . In 1938 Abovian's grandsons brought it to the museum. When Abovian's son Vardan returned to the Caucasus, he found the painting in a badly deteriorated condition. But by Vardan's request Armenian painter Gevorg Bashinjagyan restored the portrait. He cut worn-out edges, glued it to a hard paper and then filled the cracks with corresponding colours. The painter of the portrait was Ludwig von Maydell, from Dorpat University. He painted it in the fall of 1830, when Abovian was only 20 or 21 years old. This portrait is the only painting of Abovian made during his lifetime. Statues Two prominent statues of Abovian stand in Yerevan. The concept of the first statue dates back to 1908 when a number of Armenian intellectuals in Russian Armenia decided to commemorate the 60th anniversary of Abovian's disappearance and raise funds for a statue. These included Alexander Shirvanzade, Hovhannes Tumanyan and Gevorg Bashinjagyan. By 1910 they had collected enough funds to order the statue. It was designed by M. Grigoryan and sculpted by Andreas Ter-Manukyan in Paris between 1910 and 1913. The statue is high and made of bronze on a granite pedestal. As a result of a misunderstanding the statue was only delivered to Yerevan in 1925 and first erected on Abovian Street by the site of the Moscow Cinema in 1933 and then moved to the children's park on the banks of the Hrazdan River. In 1964, it found its permanent home by the Abovian house-museum in Kanaker. The second statue of Abovian in Yerevan was erected in Abovian square in 1950. The high bronze statue was designed by Gevorg Tamanian (son of Alexander Tamanian) and sculpted by Suren Stepanyan. Film Between 1948 and 1984, five documentary films were produced in the Armenian SSR about the life and work of Abovian. In 2011, the documentary film Journey to Ararat on Parrot and Abovian's expedition to Mount Ararat was produced in Estonia by filmmaker Riho Västrik. It was screened at the Golden Apricot International Film Festival in Yerevan in 2013. See also List of people who disappeared Selected bibliography Prose Novels Wounds of Armenia, or Lamentation of the Patriot (Tiflis 1858) History of Tigran, or a Moral Manual for Armenian Children (1941) Non-fiction Introduction to Education (Tiflis 1838) Collection of Algebra Exercises (1868) New Theoretical and Practical Russian Grammar for Armenians (1839) Other Unpublished Works (Tiflis 1904) Unpublished Letters (Vienna 1929) Stories The Turkish Girl (Yerevan 1941) Poetry The Wine Jug (Tiflis 1912) Folk Songs (Yerevan 1939) Poems (Yerevan 1941) Poetry for Children (Yerevan 1941) Fables Leisure Entertainment (Tiflis 1864, includes the play Feodora) Fables (Yerevan 1941) Notes References Further reading Hakobyan P., S. Dulyan et al. "Abovyan, Khachatur", "Abovyan (city)", "Medal after Abovyan", "Abovyan House-Museum" in the Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia. vol. i. Yerevan, Armenian SSR: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1974, pp. 32–35, 38. External links Khachatur Abovian's biography at AV Production Khachatur Abovian House-Museum 1809 births 1840s missing person cases 1848 deaths 19th-century Armenian writers Place of death unknown Armenian people from the Russian Empire Persian Armenians Armenian activists Writers from Yerevan Armenian male writers Nersisian School alumni Mount Ararat Year of death unknown

4015679

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peirce%27s%20criterion

Peirce's criterion

In robust statistics, Peirce's criterion is a rule for eliminating outliers from data sets, which was devised by Benjamin Peirce. Outliers removed by Peirce's criterion The problem of outliers In data sets containing real-numbered measurements, the suspected outliers are the measured values that appear to lie outside the cluster of most of the other data values. The outliers would greatly change the estimate of location if the arithmetic average were to be used as a summary statistic of location. The problem is that the arithmetic mean is very sensitive to the inclusion of any outliers; in statistical terminology, the arithmetic mean is not robust. In the presence of outliers, the statistician has two options. First, the statistician may remove the suspected outliers from the data set and then use the arithmetic mean to estimate the location parameter. Second, the statistician may use a robust statistic, such as the median statistic. Peirce's criterion is a statistical procedure for eliminating outliers. Uses of Peirce's criterion The statistician and historian of statistics Stephen M. Stigler wrote the following about Benjamin Peirce: "In 1852 he published the first significance test designed to tell an investigator whether an outlier should be rejected (Peirce 1852, 1878). The test, based on a likelihood ratio type of argument, had the distinction of producing an international debate on the wisdom of such actions (Anscombe, 1960, Rider, 1933, Stigler, 1973a)." Peirce's criterion is derived from a statistical analysis of the Gaussian distribution. Unlike some other criteria for removing outliers, Peirce's method can be applied to identify two or more outliers. "It is proposed to determine in a series of observations the limit of error, beyond which all observations involving so great an error may be rejected, provided there are as many as such observations. The principle upon which it is proposed to solve this problem is, that the proposed observations should be rejected when the probability of the system of errors obtained by retaining them is less than that of the system of errors obtained by their rejection multiplied by the probability of making so many, and no more, abnormal observations." Hawkins provides a formula for the criterion. Peirce's criterion was used for decades at the United States Coast Survey. "From 1852 to 1867 he served as the director of the longitude determinations of the U. S. Coast Survey and from 1867 to 1874 as superintendent of the Survey. During these years his test was consistently employed by all the clerks of this, the most active and mathematically inclined statistical organization of the era." Peirce's criterion was discussed in William Chauvenet's book. Applications An application for Peirce's criterion is removing poor data points from observation pairs in order to perform a regression between the two observations (e.g., a linear regression). Peirce's criterion does not depend on observation data (only characteristics of the observation data), therefore making it a highly repeatable process that can be calculated independently of other processes. This feature makes Peirce's criterion for identifying outliers ideal in computer applications because it can be written as a call function. Previous attempts In 1855, B. A. Gould attempted to make Peirce's criterion easier to apply by creating tables of values representing values from Peirce's equations. A disconnect still exists between Gould's algorithm and the practical application of Peirce's criterion. In 2003, S. M. Ross (University of New Haven) re-presented Gould's algorithm (now called "Peirce's method") with a new example data set and work-through of the algorithm. This methodology still relies on using look-up tables, which have been updated in this work (Peirce's criterion table). In 2008, an attempt to write a pseudo-code was made by a Danish geologist K. Thomsen. While this code provided some framework for Gould's algorithm, users were unsuccessful in calculating values reported by either Peirce or Gould. In 2012, C. Dardis released the R package "Peirce" with various methodologies (Peirce's criterion and the Chauvenet method) with comparisons of outlier removals. Dardis and fellow contributor Simon Muller successfully implemented Thomsen's pseudo-code into a function called "findx". The code is presented in the R implementation section below. References for the R package are available online as well as an unpublished review of the R package results. In 2013, a re-examination of Gould's algorithm and the utilisation of advanced Python programming modules (i.e., numpy and scipy) has made it possible to calculate the squared-error threshold values for identifying outliers. Python implementation In order to use Peirce's criterion, one must first understand the input and return values. Regression analysis (or the fitting of curves to data) results in residual errors (or the difference between the fitted curve and the observation points). Therefore, each observation point has a residual error associated with a fitted curve. By taking the square (i.e., residual error raised to the power of two), residual errors are expressed as positive values. If the squared error is too large (i.e., due to a poor observation) it can cause problems with the regression parameters (e.g., slope and intercept for a linear curve) retrieved from the curve fitting. It was Peirce's idea to statistically identify what constituted an error as "too large" and therefore being identified as an "outlier" which could be removed from the observations to improve the fit between the observations and a curve. K. Thomsen identified that three parameters were needed to perform the calculation: the number of observation pairs (N), the number of outliers to be removed (n), and the number of regression parameters (e.g., coefficients) used in the curve-fitting to get the residuals (m). The end result of this process is to calculate a threshold value (of squared error) whereby observations with a squared error smaller than this threshold should be kept and observations with a squared error larger than this value should be removed (i.e., as an outlier). Because Peirce's criterion does not take observations, fitting parameters, or residual errors as an input, the output must be re-associated with the data. Taking the average of all the squared errors (i.e., the mean-squared error) and multiplying it by the threshold squared error (i.e., the output of this function) will result in the data-specific threshold value used to identify outliers. The following Python code returns x-squared values for a given (first column) and (top row) in Table 1 (m = 1) and Table 2 (m = 2) of Gould 1855. Due to the Newton-method of iteration, look-up tables, such as N versus log Q (Table III in Gould, 1855) and x versus log R (Table III in Peirce, 1852 and Table IV in Gould, 1855) are no longer necessary. Python code #!/usr/bin/env python3 import numpy import scipy.special def peirce_dev(N: int, n: int, m: int) -> float: """Peirce's criterion Returns the squared threshold error deviation for outlier identification using Peirce's criterion based on Gould's methodology. Arguments: - int, total number of observations (N) - int, number of outliers to be removed (n) - int, number of model unknowns (m) Returns: float, squared error threshold (x2) """ # Assign floats to input variables: N = float(N) n = float(n) m = float(m) # Check number of observations: if N > 1: # Calculate Q (Nth root of Gould's equation B): Q = (n ** (n / N) * (N - n) ** ((N - n) / N)) / N # # Initialize R values (as floats) r_new = 1.0 r_old = 0.0 # <- Necessary to prompt while loop # # Start iteration to converge on R: while abs(r_new - r_old) > (N * 2.0e-16): # Calculate Lamda # (1/(N-n)th root of Gould's equation A'): ldiv = r_new ** n if ldiv == 0: ldiv = 1.0e-6 Lamda = ((Q ** N) / (ldiv)) ** (1.0 / (N - n)) # Calculate x-squared (Gould's equation C): x2 = 1.0 + (N - m - n) / n * (1.0 - Lamda ** 2.0) # If x2 goes negative, return 0: if x2 < 0: x2 = 0.0 r_old = r_new else: # Use x-squared to update R (Gould's equation D): r_old = r_new r_new = numpy.exp((x2 - 1) / 2.0) * scipy.special.erfc( numpy.sqrt(x2) / numpy.sqrt(2.0) ) else: x2 = 0.0 return x2 Java code import org.apache.commons.math3.special.Erf; public class PierceCriterion { /** * Peirce's criterion * <p> * Returns the squared threshold error deviation for outlier identification * using Peirce's criterion based on Gould's methodology. * <p> * Arguments: * - int, total number of observations (N) * - int, number of outliers to be removed (n) * - int, number of model unknowns (m) * Returns: * float, squared error threshold (x2) **/ public static final double peirce_dev(double N, double n, double m) { // Check number of observations: double x2 = 0.0; if (N > 1) { // Calculate Q (Nth root of Gould 's equation B): double Q = (Math.pow(n, (n / N)) * Math.pow((N - n), ((N - n) / N))) / N; // Initialize R values(as floats) double r_new = 1.0; double r_old = 0.0; // <-Necessary to prompt while loop // Start iteration to converge on R: while (Math.abs(r_new - r_old) > (N * 2.0e-16)) { // Calculate Lamda // (1 / (N - n) th root of Gould 's equation A'): double ldiv = Math.pow(r_new, n); if (ldiv == 0) { ldiv = 1.0e-6; } double Lamda = Math.pow((Math.pow(Q, N) / (ldiv)), (1.0 / (N - n))); // Calculate x -squared(Gould 's equation C): x2 = 1.0 + (N - m - n) / n * (1.0 - Math.pow(Lamda, 2.0)); // If x2 goes negative, return 0: if (x2 < 0) { x2 = 0.0; r_old = r_new; } else { // Use x -squared to update R(Gould 's equation D): r_old = r_new; r_new = Math.exp((x2 - 1) / 2.0) * Erf.erfc(Math.sqrt(x2) / Math.sqrt(2.0)); } } } else { x2 = 0.0; } return x2; } } R implementation Thomsen's code has been successfully written into the following function call, "findx" by C. Dardis and S. Muller in 2012 which returns the maximum error deviation, . To complement the Python code presented in the previous section, the R equivalent of "peirce_dev" is also presented here which returns the squared maximum error deviation, . These two functions return equivalent values by either squaring the returned value from the "findx" function or by taking the square-root of the value returned by the "peirce_dev" function. Differences occur with error handling. For example, the "findx" function returns NaNs for invalid data while "peirce_dev" returns 0 (which allows for computations to continue without additional NA value handling). Also, the "findx" function does not support any error handling when the number of potential outliers increases towards the number of observations (throws missing value error and NaN warning). Just as with the Python version, the squared-error (i.e., ) returned by the "peirce_dev" function must be multiplied by the mean-squared error of the model fit to get the squared-delta value (i.e., Δ2). Use Δ2 to compare the squared-error values of the model fit. Any observation pairs with a squared-error greater than Δ2 are considered outliers and can be removed from the model. An iterator should be written to test increasing values of n until the number of outliers identified (comparing Δ2 to model-fit squared-errors) is less than those assumed (i.e., Peirce's n). R code findx <- function(N, k, m) { # method by K. Thomsen (2008) # written by C. Dardis and S. Muller (2012) # Available online: https://r-forge.r-project.org/R/?group_id=1473 # # Variable definitions: # N :: number of observations # k :: number of potential outliers to be removed # m :: number of unknown quantities # # Requires the complementary error function, erfc: erfc <- function(x) 2 * pnorm(x * sqrt(2), lower.tail = FALSE) # x <- 1 if ((N - m - k) <= 0) { return(NaN) print(NaN) } else { x <- min(x, sqrt((N - m)/k) - 1e-10) # # Log of Gould's equation B: LnQN <- k * log(k) + (N - k) * log(N - k) - N * log(N) # # Gould's equation D: R1 <- exp((x^2 - 1)/2) * erfc(x/sqrt(2)) # # Gould's equation A' solved for R w/ Lambda substitution: R2 <- exp( (LnQN - 0.5 * (N - k) * log((N-m-k*x^2)/(N-m-k)) )/k ) # # Equate the two R equations: R1d <- x * R1 - sqrt(2/pi/exp(1)) R2d <- x * (N - k)/(N - m - k * x^2) * R2 # # Update x: oldx <- x x <- oldx - (R1 - R2)/(R1d - R2d) # # Loop until convergence: while (abs(x - oldx) >= N * 2e-16) { R1 <- exp((x^2 - 1)/2) * erfc(x/sqrt(2)) R2 <- exp( (LnQN - 0.5 * (N - k) * log((N-m-k*x^2)/(N-m-k)) )/k ) R1d <- x * R1 - sqrt(2/pi/exp(1)) R2d <- x * (N - k)/(N - m - k * x^2) * R2 oldx <- x x <- oldx - (R1 - R2)/(R1d - R2d) } } return(x) } peirce_dev <- function(N, n, m) { # N :: total number of observations # n :: number of outliers to be removed # m :: number of model unknowns (e.g., regression parameters) # # Check number of observations: if (N > 1) { # Calculate Q (Nth root of Gould's equation B): Q = (n^(n/N) * (N-n)^((N-n)/N))/N # # Initialize R values: Rnew = 1.0 Rold = 0.0 # <- Necessary to prompt while loop # while (abs(Rnew-Rold) > (N*2.0e-16)) { # Calculate Lamda (1/(N-n)th root of Gould's equation A'): ldiv = Rnew^n if (ldiv == 0) { ldiv = 1.0e-6 } Lamda = ((Q^N)/(ldiv))^(1.0/(N-n)) # # Calculate x-squared (Gould's equation C): x2 = 1.0 + (N-m-n)/n * (1.0-Lamda^2.0) # # If x2 goes negative, set equal to zero: if (x2 < 0) { x2 = 0 Rold = Rnew } else { # # Use x-squared to update R (Gould's equation D): # NOTE: error function (erfc) is replaced with pnorm (Rbasic): # source: # http://stat.ethz.ch/R-manual/R-patched/library/stats/html/Normal.html Rold = Rnew Rnew = exp((x2-1)/2.0)*(2*pnorm(sqrt(x2)/sqrt(2)*sqrt(2), lower=FALSE)) } } } else { x2 = 0 } x2 } Notes References Peirce, Benjamin, "Criterion for the Rejection of Doubtful Observations", Astronomical Journal II 45 (1852) and Errata to the original paper. . NOAA PDF Eprint (goes to Report p. 200, PDF's p. 215). U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Annual Reports links for years 1837–1965. Ross, Stephen, "Peirce's Criterion for the Elimination of Suspect Experimental Data", J. Engr. Technology, vol. 20 no.2, Fall, 2003. Hawkins, D.M. (1980). Identification of outliers. Chapman and Hall, London. Chauvenet, W. (1876) A Manual of Spherical and Practical Astronomy. J.B.Lippincott, Philadelphia. (reprints of various editions: Dover, 1960; Peter Smith Pub, 2000, ; Adamant Media Corporation (2 Volumes), 2001, , ; BiblioBazaar, 2009, ) Statistical outliers Articles with example R code Articles with example Python (programming language) code

4015733

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost%20Dutchman%20Mine%20%28video%20game%29

Lost Dutchman Mine (video game)

Lost Dutchman Mine is a non-linear adventure video game which puts the player in the role of a gold miner, circa 1860 A.D. The game was the biggest success for its publisher, Magnetic Images. The player was free to roam around the desert and town at will, constrained only by the need to make sure he had enough food to eat and a safe place to sleep. Earning money could be accomplished in a variety of ways, including panning for gold in a river, mining for gold in a cave or capturing a wanted bandit. Food could be purchased or caught from a river if the player had previously acquired fishing gear. The game became well known for its breezy, free-flowing nature. The game was also notable for not having a single environment for the player to operate in; the location of mines and rivers, and the details of characters a player could meet were different, each time the game was played. Reception Abandonware website Abandonias Ted Striker reviewed Lost Dutchman Mine with: "There are different modes that the game will put you in, which are equally basic and so fun (something basic is something fun). The game runs on real-time and you need to do what you would need to do in a real expedition: get well equipped, be sure to check your supplies often and don't panic once you encounter danger. After all, isn't it, this very feature, that makes a game addictive in the first place ?" See also Lost Dutchman's Gold Mine (American historical site) Al Emmo and the Lost Dutchman's Mine (2006 game) References External links Lost Dutchman Mine at Amiga Hall Of Light Lost Dutchman Mine at Atari Legend 1989 video games Adventure games Amiga games Atari ST games DOS games Video games developed in the United States Video games set in the United States Western (genre) video games

4015846

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baton%20twirling

Baton twirling

Baton twirling is a sport that combines dance and color guard to create coordinated routines. It requires a "baton" which is metal rod, typically just slightly larger than one's dominant arm. The sport can be seen in national and international competitions including the USA Junior Olympics. Description Twirling combines dance, agility, coordination, and flexibility while manipulating a single or multiple batons. It is a sport that is played worldwide. A performance is typically accompanied by musical tunes. There are various types of baton twirlers. Majorettes twirl in a group for a high school or college with its marching band. A twirler may perform as part of a group that marches in a parade or front of an audience. Competitive twirlers may compete solo or as part of a group. Twirlers start learning the skills as early as age 2, but usually in grade school, although some begin as late as high school. Baton twirling requires specific knowledge of manipulating the baton and where to hold the baton. The baton can be described as a rod, usually a lightweight metal such as aluminum, with weighted, resilient ends, typically rubber stoppers. The baton's rubber ends attach to the rod and can be replaced. On one end, there is a large tip called the ball. On the other end, there is a small tip called the tip. The baton must be balanced at its center point. The rod can be one of several thicknesses. Thicker, heavier rods are said to be better for rolling, while thinner ones are better for finger rolls.The rubber ends can have different designs or weights depending on the manufacturer. Common types are the star, tulip, and simple round tips. The length of the baton from tip to tip should be one inch longer than the distance from the user's armpit to the tip of the user's middle finger. The baton is manipulated from three positions, depending on the trick: from the ball, one hand from the tip, and mostly from the center of the baton. The baton rod is wrapped with tape for decoration or added grip, using tape specially employed for that purpose. The tape can be anything from electrical tape to tennis tape. In addition to twirling baton(s), twirlers are known for manipulating multiple pieces of equipment, including fire baton(s), machetes, fire machetes, hoop batons, streamers, flag batons, swing batons, rifle, lighted batons, double flag baton, glow batons and sabers. All equipment used by twirlers of the NBTA, USTA, and WBTF is show-quality equipment engineered to be easily manipulated in a twirling routine. Therefore, the rifle, saber, and machetes are not real weapons but props created specifically for twirling. However, fire batons are, in fact, real flaming batons. The twirler will soak the ends of the fire batons overnight in a flammable substance, commonly kerosene, tiki oil, or gasoline. After the ends are soaked, the twirler must shake off any excess liquid. Finally, the ends of the baton can be set on fire using a lighter. After the twirler has finished performing, the flames can be put out by tossing the baton very fast or placing it in a fire blanket. Baton twirling requires skillful coordination and great control of the human body. Additionally, it requires great flexibility to execute baton, dance, and gymnastics elements properly. The foundation of baton twirling is the thumb toss. This trick is accomplished from the middle of the baton. The baton is held in one hand at the waist. The baton is rolled over the thumb, and a slight hand movement lifts it. The thumb toss can be increased in difficulty with one or more spins done under the toss, cartwheels, front walkovers, illusions, or many more tricks. The baton can be tossed from either hand, but proficiency in both hands is preferable. For example, the baton can be caught blind behind the head, at the side, under a kick, under one or both legs, or in an illusion. Other tosses include the open hand toss and flat spin toss. The sport of baton twirling has many tricks common to all twirlers. The elbow roll is a common trick. Continuous elbow rolls go over one elbow, dip the second elbow, dip at the back, and over the first elbow again. This process can keep going as long as the baton stays in motion. Other common tricks include fishtails, open throats, open neck rolls, mouth rolls, and more. The routines have a predictable pattern of organization, despite a unique organization of tricks based on ability. Typically, the twirler has an initial routine constructed in each type of routine as they are ready. That routine is changed over and over during their career. For example, in Basic March, the twirler places one hand on their left hip and cradles the baton in the other. Next, the twirler lifts the leg into a chair height, bends the leg, and lowers the foot back to the ground to the beat of "Stars and Stripes". Strut is an expansion of the Basic March. It also counts the hitting of the foot off the ground based on the beat of "Stars and Stripes", but other dance moves w/ the coordinated baton are incorporated into its X pattern. Solo routines need specific music or beat to follow. Instead, the twirler attempts to constantly improve the routine with greater consistent speed, complicated tricks, and improved bodywork. The routine has specific sections from the vertical, horizontal, finger, and roll sections. It can include a walk up and back with poses, but the walk can be a Tour Jete, leaps, skip, Step ball changes, or a simple march. Modeling is completed in a T pattern with slow, graceful spins/turns. Depending on contest rules, the routine can be done in a short/party/long dress or costume. Modeling can also include an interview, depending on the contest. Other routines can consist of two batons, three batons, flag batons, show routines, or hoops. Pageants are a large part of competitive baton twirling. Basic Skills pageants are the introductory level where the contestant performs Basic March, Modeling, and Solo. Beginner and Intermediate pageants include Modeling/Interview, Strut, and Solo. Advanced pageants have Modeling/Interview, Show twirl, and solo. Baton twirlers perform at football games, basketball games, competitions, parades, and other events where entertainment is needed. It is commonly known that after a twirling season has come to an end, each twirling company/studio will host a recital to showcase the talents obtained over the season. Competitive solo twirlers in the United States compete through several organizations. These organizations include the United States Twirling Association, Twirling Unlimited, Twirltacular, National Baton Twirling Association, and more. Each of these organizations has its own rules. The United States Twirling Association (USTA) offers only competitive routines unique to this association. Moreover, these routines include L military marching, 32-count presentation, rhythm twirl, freestyle, and show twirl. Twirling Unlimited, TU, has restrictions on the number of turns and continuous elbow rolls in developmental levels, but they allow gymnastics moves. TU separates the age groups as 0–6, 7–8, 9–11, 12–14, and 15+. The 0–6 and 7–8 age groups are combined for certain events. National Baton Twirling Association, NBTA, does not have developmental restrictions but does not permit gymnastics. NBTA age groups are 0–4, 0–6, 7–9, 10–12, 13–15, and 16+. NBTA nations are called America's Youth on Parade, held for 50 years. AYOP has been held at Notre Dame's Joyce Center for 46 years. The event allows the soloists and groups to qualify for the world competition. AYOP is a week-long event with a mixture of open events and pageants, which the twirler has to qualify for at Miss Majorette state/regional events. Both organizations' solo events are divided into Novice, Beginner, Intermediate, Advanced, and Elite levels. Advancement is based on a set number of wins. History Baton twirling started in Western Europe and Asia. The sport came to North America when Major Reuben Webster Millsaps created baton twirling when he established Millsaps College in Mississippi after the US Civil War. While many member countries have their national organizations, at the world level, three governing bodies are recognized: the World Baton Twirling Federation (WBTF), the World Twirling Association (WTA), and The Global Alliance of National Baton Twirling & Majorette Associations (NBTA). The WBTF and NBTA host World Championships and International Cup (WBTF), while the WTA continues to honor the sport's origins with additional events that WBTF does not include. The WTA was founded in 1960, by champion baton twirler Victor Faber. Founded in 1977, current member countries of the WBTF include Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Catalonia (Spain), Croatia, England, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Philippines, Scotland, Seychelles, Slovenia, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. Current member countries of the NBTA include Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Czech Republic, England, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Ireland, Italy, Norway, Romania, Russia, Scotland, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Ukraine, and the United States. Under consideration are: Australia, Estonia, Japan, Slovenia, and South Africa. Competitive baton twirling Competitive baton twirling is classified by two factors, skill, and age. The NBTA, USTA, TU, and WBTF separate twirlers by their skill levels, which range from novice, beginner, intermediate, to advanced; advancement to the next skill level is determined through the number of first-place wins that the twirler has accomplished against other twirlers. Wins obtained with no competitors in said division typically do not count toward advancement. Next, the twirlers are classified by their age through a standard scale that is as follows: 0-6 7-9 10-12 13-15 16-21 22+. This classification scale ensures that the competition between twirlers in each division is fair. When competing, a twirler's attire will typically be a leotard or a skater dress that is embellished with sequins, rhinestones, fringe, and other ornate designs. Twirlers are judged on their attire during competition, especially in events such as best in costume, so it is important that they wear a costume that fits properly and looks good during competition. Footwear ranges from instep cougars, and jazz shoes, to majorette boots. Typically, instep cougars are seen on both the competition floor and during practice. Jazz shoes are primarily used during competition, as the soft bottoms can easily be torn during practice. It is common to see the heels of jazz shoes covered in rhinestones. Majorette boots can be seen during competition; however, high school and college majorettes typically wear these on the football field and during other performances. One of the most competitive titles in the twirling field, Miss Majorette, is a title that is given to the top baton twirlers of each state. As mentioned earlier, twirlers will be classified based on their skill and age, which allows for a Miss Majorette title in each rank. When competing for this title, twirlers will begin by competing in T or Circle T Modelling, Interview, Solo, and X- Strut. After a twirler has been named Miss Majorette of their state, they will advance to compete for the title of Miss Majorette of America in their division. Every year, the ESPN Wide World of Sports hosts Twirlmania international championship competition at Walt Disney World. Competition is available for soloists, teams, high schools, colleges, and recreational groups of any age or gender. Some countries that have participated in the past include the U.S., Japan, Russia, Australia, and England. Competing ranges from baton twirling to pompom and dance. Competitors also get to march in a Disney parade as well as participate in a fun, family-oriented weekend. Awards range from trophies to plush stuffed animals to cash (up to $4,000) and gifts by sponsors. Some categories include Dance Line Team, Collegiate Team, Pom Pom Team, Drill Team, Basic & Military, and Miss Twirl Mania Pageant, to name a few. The World Championships have the following events: Freestyle Senior Women & Men Junior Women and Men Event accompanied by a compulsory/short programme event strut solo dancetwirl pairs trios show choir Single baton, 2 batons, 3 batons Teams, pairs, trios, and show choirs can be co-ed. For several years, the powerhouse countries (France, Italy, Japan, and the United States) have dominated the world championships. In order to promote more events and other smaller countries' ability to have international champions, the International Cup was introduced. Athletes are categorized into B-level athletes, A-level athletes, and elite. The powerhouse countries don't take B-level athletes to give the smaller countries an opportunity to have international champions. Because every country doesn't have dancetwirl as an event, and because of the variety within the freestyle event, the artistic twirl was introduced to replace freestyle and dancetwirl at the International Cup. Since 2005, the two competitions have been run concurrently over a week. In 2009, the competitions began running separately, with the International Cup falling on uneven years and the World Championships on even years. New events such as Freestyle and Pairs across different age levels and divisions were added to the International Cup. The following cities have previously hosted the competitions: Solo one baton to music, novice beginner intermediate advanced (levels) 0-6 7-9 10-12 13-15 16+ Two batons to music, novice beginner intermediate advanced 0-6 7-9 10-12 13-15 16+ Showtwirl multiple batons with a prop and music novice beginner intermediate advanced 0-6 7-9 10-12 13-15 16+ Basic march novice beginner intermediate advanced 0-6 7-9 10-12 13-15 16+ Military march novice beginner intermediate advanced 0-6 7-9 10-12 13-15 16+ Modeling novice beginner intermediate advanced 0-6 7-9 10-12 13-15 16+ Events and age divisions and levels may vary due to baton association. International Cup Special Athlete's Award In 1998, the WBTF introduced the Special Athlete's Award of Recognition for athletes that competed at 10+ World Championships. Not all are Champions. References External links World Baton Twirling Federation Confédération Européenne de Twirling Bâton United States Baton Twirling Association National Baton Twirling Association https://wfnbta.com/ Individual sports Circus skills Twirling Cheerleading Articles containing video clips

4015872

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuckoo%20hashing

Cuckoo hashing

Cuckoo hashing is a scheme in computer programming for resolving hash collisions of values of hash functions in a table, with worst-case constant lookup time. The name derives from the behavior of some species of cuckoo, where the cuckoo chick pushes the other eggs or young out of the nest when it hatches in a variation of the behavior referred to as brood parasitism; analogously, inserting a new key into a cuckoo hashing table may push an older key to a different location in the table. History Cuckoo hashing was first described by Rasmus Pagh and Flemming Friche Rodler in a 2001 conference paper. The paper was awarded the European Symposium on Algorithms Test-of-Time award in 2020. Operations Cuckoo hashing is a form of open addressing in which each non-empty cell of a hash table contains a key or key–value pair. A hash function is used to determine the location for each key, and its presence in the table (or the value associated with it) can be found by examining that cell of the table. However, open addressing suffers from collisions, which happens when more than one key is mapped to the same cell. The basic idea of cuckoo hashing is to resolve collisions by using two hash functions instead of only one. This provides two possible locations in the hash table for each key. In one of the commonly used variants of the algorithm, the hash table is split into two smaller tables of equal size, and each hash function provides an index into one of these two tables. It is also possible for both hash functions to provide indexes into a single table. Lookup Cuckoo hashing uses two hash tables, and . Assuming is the length of each table, the hash functions for the two tables is defined as, and where be the key and be the set whose keys are stored in of or of . The lookup operation is as follows: The logical or () denotes that, the value of the key is found in either or , which is in worst case. Deletion Deletion is performed in since there isn't involvement of probing—not considering the cost of shrinking operation if table is too sparse. Insertion Insertion of a new item, the first step involves examining if the slot of the table is occupied; if it is not, the item is inserted at that cell. However, if the slot is occupied, the preoccupied item gets removed—let it be —and is inserted at . The removed item is inserted into the table by following the same procedure; the process continues until an empty position is found to insert the key. To avoid the possible infinite iteration in the process loop, a is specified such that if the iterations exceeds the fixed threshold, the hash tables—both and —are rehashed with newer hash functions and the insertion procedure repeats. Following is a pseudocode for insertion: On lines 10 and 15, the "cuckoo approach" of kicking other keys—which was preoccupied at —takes place until every key has its own "nest" i.e. the item is inserted into a spot on either one of the two tables; the notation expresses the process of swapping. Theory Insertions succeed in expected constant time, even considering the possibility of having to rebuild the table, as long as the number of keys is kept below half of the capacity of the hash table, i.e., the load factor is below 50%. One method of proving this uses the theory of random graphs: one may form an undirected graph called the "cuckoo graph" that has a vertex for each hash table location, and an edge for each hashed value, with the endpoints of the edge being the two possible locations of the value. Then, the greedy insertion algorithm for adding a set of values to a cuckoo hash table succeeds if and only if the cuckoo graph for this set of values is a pseudoforest, a graph with at most one cycle in each of its connected components. Any vertex-induced subgraph with more edges than vertices corresponds to a set of keys for which there are an insufficient number of slots in the hash table. When the hash function is chosen randomly, the cuckoo graph is a random graph in the Erdős–Rényi model. With high probability, for load factor less than 1/2 (corresponding to a random graph in which the ratio of the number of edges to the number of vertices is bounded below 1/2), the graph is a pseudoforest and the cuckoo hashing algorithm succeeds in placing all keys. The same theory also proves that the expected size of a connected component of the cuckoo graph is small, ensuring that each insertion takes constant expected time. However, also with high probability, a load factor greater than 1/2 will lead to a giant component with two or more cycles, causing the data structure to fail and need to be resized. Since a theoretical random hash function requires too much space for practical usage, an important theoretical question is which practical hash functions suffice for Cuckoo hashing. One approach is to use k-independent hashing. In 2009 it was shown that -independence suffices, and at least 6-independence is needed. Another approach is to use Tabulation hashing, which is not 6-independent, but was shown in 2012 to have other properties sufficient for Cuckoo hashing. A third approach from 2014 is to slightly modify the cuckoo hashtable with a so-called stash, which makes it possible to use nothing more than 2-independent hash functions. Practice In practice, cuckoo hashing is about 20–30% slower than linear probing, which is the fastest of the common approaches. The reason is that cuckoo hashing often causes two cache misses per search, to check the two locations where a key might be stored, while linear probing usually causes only one cache miss per search. However, because of its worst case guarantees on search time, cuckoo hashing can still be valuable when real-time response rates are required. One advantage of cuckoo hashing is its link-list free property, which fits GPU processing well. Example The following hash functions are given: The following two tables show the insertion of some example elements. Each column corresponds to the state of the two hash tables over time. The possible insertion locations for each new value are highlighted. Cycle If you now attempt to insert the element 6, then you get into a cycle, and fail. In the last row of the table we find the same initial situation as at the beginning again. Variations Several variations of cuckoo hashing have been studied, primarily with the aim of improving its space usage by increasing the load factor that it can tolerate to a number greater than the 50% threshold of the basic algorithm. Some of these methods can also be used to reduce the failure rate of cuckoo hashing, causing rebuilds of the data structure to be much less frequent. Generalizations of cuckoo hashing that use more than two alternative hash functions can be expected to utilize a larger part of the capacity of the hash table efficiently while sacrificing some lookup and insertion speed. Using just three hash functions increases the load to 91%. Another generalization of cuckoo hashing, called blocked cuckoo hashing consists in using more than one key per bucket. Using just 2 keys per bucket permits a load factor above 80%. Another variation of cuckoo hashing that has been studied is cuckoo hashing with a stash. The stash, in this data structure, is an array of a constant number of keys, used to store keys that cannot successfully be inserted into the main hash table of the structure. This modification reduces the failure rate of cuckoo hashing to an inverse-polynomial function with an exponent that can be made arbitrarily large by increasing the stash size. However, larger stashes also mean slower searches for keys that are not present or are in the stash. A stash can be used in combination with more than two hash functions or with blocked cuckoo hashing to achieve both high load factors and small failure rates. The analysis of cuckoo hashing with a stash extends to practical hash functions, not just to the random hash function model commonly used in theoretical analysis of hashing. Some people recommend a simplified generalization of cuckoo hashing called skewed-associative cache in some CPU caches. Another variation of a cuckoo hash table, called a cuckoo filter, replaces the stored keys of a cuckoo hash table with much shorter fingerprints, computed by applying another hash function to the keys. In order to allow these fingerprints to be moved around within the cuckoo filter, without knowing the keys that they came from, the two locations of each fingerprint may be computed from each other by a bitwise exclusive or operation with the fingerprint, or with a hash of the fingerprint. This data structure forms an approximate set membership data structure with much the same properties as a Bloom filter: it can store the members of a set of keys, and test whether a query key is a member, with some chance of false positives (queries that are incorrectly reported as being part of the set) but no false negatives. However, it improves on a Bloom filter in multiple respects: its memory usage is smaller by a constant factor, it has better locality of reference, and (unlike Bloom filters) it allows for fast deletion of set elements with no additional storage penalty. Comparison with related structures A study by Zukowski et al. has shown that cuckoo hashing is much faster than chained hashing for small, cache-resident hash tables on modern processors. Kenneth Ross has shown bucketized versions of cuckoo hashing (variants that use buckets that contain more than one key) to be faster than conventional methods also for large hash tables, when space utilization is high. The performance of the bucketized cuckoo hash table was investigated further by Askitis, with its performance compared against alternative hashing schemes. A survey by Mitzenmacher presents open problems related to cuckoo hashing as of 2009. Applications Cuckoo Hashing is used in TikTok's recommendation system to solve the problem of "embedding table collisions", which can result in reduced model quality. The TikTok recommendation system "Monolith" takes advantage cuckoo hashing's collision resolution to prevent different concepts from being mapped to the same vectors. See also Perfect hashing Double hashing Quadratic probing Hopscotch hashing References External links A cool and practical alternative to traditional hash tables, U. Erlingsson, M. Manasse, F. Mcsherry, 2006. Cuckoo Hashing for Undergraduates, 2006, R. Pagh, 2006. Cuckoo Hashing, Theory and Practice (Part 1, Part 2 and Part 3), Michael Mitzenmacher, 2007. Algorithmic Improvements for Fast Concurrent Cuckoo Hashing, X. Li, D. Andersen, M. Kaminsky, M. Freedman. EuroSys 2014. Examples Concurrent high-performance Cuckoo hashtable written in C++ Cuckoo hash map written in C++ Static cuckoo hashtable generator for C/C++ Cuckoo hash table written in Haskell Cuckoo hashing for Go Search algorithms Hashing pl:Tablica mieszająca#Haszowanie kuku.C5.82cze

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation%20Z

Generation Z

Generation Z (often shortened to Gen Z), colloquially known as zoomers, is the demographic cohort succeeding Millennials and preceding Generation Alpha. Researchers and popular media use the mid-to-late 1990s as starting birth years and the early 2010s as ending birth years. Most members of Generation Z are children of Generation X or younger Baby Boomers. As the first social generation to have grown up with access to the Internet and portable digital technology from a young age, members of Generation Z, even if not necessarily digitally literate, have been dubbed "digital natives". Moreover, the negative effects of screen time are most pronounced in adolescents, as compared to younger children. Compared to previous generations, members of Generation Z tend to live more slowly than their predecessors when they were their age; have lower rates of teenage pregnancies; and consume alcohol (but not necessarily other psychoactive drugs) less often. Generation Z teenagers are more concerned than older generations with academic performance and job prospects, and are better at delaying gratification than their counterparts from the 1960s, despite concerns to the contrary. Sexting among adolescents has grown in prevalence; the consequences of this remain poorly understood. Additionally, youth subcultures have been quieter though they have not disappeared. Globally, there is evidence that the average age of pubertal onset among girls has decreased considerably compared to the 20th century, with implications for their welfare and their future. Additionally, the prevalence of allergies among adolescents and young adults in Generation Z is greater than the general population; there is greater awareness and diagnosis of mental health conditions, and sleep deprivation is more frequently reported. In many countries, Gen Z youth are more likely to be diagnosed with intellectual disabilities and psychiatric disorders than older generations. Around the world, members of Generation Z are spending more time on electronic devices and less time reading books than before, with implications for their attention spans, vocabulary, academic performance, and future economic contributions. In Asia, educators in the 2000s and 2010s typically sought out and nourished top students; in Western Europe and the United States, the emphasis was on poor performers. Furthermore, East Asian and Singaporean students consistently earned the top spots in international standardized tests in the 2010s. Etymology and nomenclature The name Generation Z is a reference to the fact that it is the second generation after Generation X, continuing the alphabetical sequence from Generation Y (Millennials). Other proposed names for the generation included iGeneration, The Homeland Generation, Net Gen, Digital Natives, Neo-Digital Natives, Pluralist Generation, Internet Generation, Centennials, and Post-Millennials. Psychology professor and author Jean Twenge used the term iGeneration (or iGen for short), originally intending to use it as the title of her 2006 book about Millennials, Generation Me, before being overruled by her publisher, Atria Publishing Group. At that time, there were iPods and iMac computers but no iPhones or iPads. Twenge later used the term for her 2017 book iGen. The name has also been asserted to have been created by demographer Cheryl Russell in 2009. In 2014, author Neil Howe coined the term Homeland Generation as a continuation of the Strauss–Howe generational theory with William Strauss. The term Homeland refers to being the first generation to enter childhood after protective surveillance state measures, like the Department of Homeland Security, were put into effect following the September 11 attacks. The Pew Research Center surveyed the various names for this cohort on Google Trends in 2019 and found that in the U.S., the term Generation Z was overwhelmingly the most popular, from then on calling it Gen Z in their research. The Merriam-Webster and Oxford dictionaries both have official entries for Generation Z. In Japan, the cohort is described as neo-digital natives, a step beyond the previous cohort described as digital natives. Digital natives primarily communicate by text or voice, while neo-digital natives use video, video-telephony, and movies. This emphasizes the shift from PC to mobile and text to video among the neo-digital population. Zoomer is an informal term used to refer to members of Generation Z. It combines the shorthand boomer, referring to baby boomers, with the "Z" from Generation Z. Zoomer in its current incarnation skyrocketed in popularity in 2018, when it was used in a 4chan internet meme mocking Gen Z adolescents via a Wojak caricature dubbed a "Zoomer". Merriam-Webster's records suggest the use of the term zoomer in the sense of Generation Z dates back at least as far as 2016. It was added to the Merriam-Webster dictionary in October 2021 and to Dictionary.com in January 2020. Prior to this, zoomer was occasionally used to describe particularly active baby boomers. Date and age range Researchers and popular media loosely use the mid-to-late 1990s as starting birth years and the early 2010s as ending birth years for defining Generation Z. The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines Generation Z as "the generation of people born in the late 1990s and early 2000s." The Collins Dictionary define Generation Z as "members of the generation of people born between the mid-1990s and mid-2010s. The Oxford Dictionaries define Generation Z as "the group of people who were born between the late 1990s and the early 2010s, who are regarded as being very familiar with the internet." The Pew Research Center has defined 1997 as the starting birth year for Generation Z, basing this on "different formative experiences", such as new technological and socioeconomic developments, as well as growing up in a world after the September 11 attacks. Pew has not specified an endpoint for Generation Z, but used 2012 as a tentative endpoint for their 2019 report. Numerous news outlets use a starting birth year of 1997, often citing Pew Research Center. Various think tanks and analytics companies also have set a 1997 start date, as do various management and consulting firms. In a 2022 report, the U.S. Census designates Generation Z as "the youngest generation with adult members (born 1997 to 2013)." Statistics Canada used 1997 to 2012, citing Pew Research Center, in a 2022 publication analyzing their 2021 census. Other news outlets have used 1995 as the starting birth year of Generation Z. Psychologist Jean Twenge defines Generation Z as the "iGeneration" with range of those born between 1995 and 2012. as do various management and consulting firms. The Australian Bureau of Statistics use 1996 to 2010 to define Generation Z in a 2021 Census report. Similarly, various management and consulting firms have used 1996 as a starting date for Generation Z. Individuals born in the Millennial and Generation Z cusp years have been sometimes identified as a "microgeneration" with characteristics of both generations. The most common name given for these cuspers is Zillennials. Arts and culture Happiness and personal values The Economist has described Generation Z as a more educated, well-behaved, stressed and depressed generation in comparison to previous generations. In 2016, the Varkey Foundation and Populus conducted an international study examining the attitudes of over 20,000 people aged 15 to 21 in twenty countries: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States. They found that Gen Z youth were happy overall with the states of affairs in their personal lives (59%). The most unhappy young people were from South Korea (29%) and Japan (28%) while the happiest hailed from Indonesia (90%) and Nigeria (78%). In order to determine the overall 'happiness score' for each country, researchers subtracted the percentage of people who said they were unhappy from that of those who said they were happy. The most important sources of happiness were being physically and mentally healthy (94%), having a good relationship with one's family (92%), and one's friends (91%). In general, respondents who were younger and male tended to be happier. Religious faith came in last at 44%. Nevertheless, religion was a major source of happiness for Gen Z youth from Indonesia (93%), Nigeria (86%), Turkey (71%), China, and Brazil (both 70%). The top reasons for anxiety and stress were money (51%) and school (46%); social media and having access to basic resources (such as food and water) finished the list, both at 10%. Concerns over food and water were most serious in China (19%), India (16%), and Indonesia (16%); young Indians were also more likely than average to report stress due to social media (19%). According to the aforementioned study by the Varkey Foundation, the most important personal values to these people were helping their families and themselves get ahead in life (both 27%), followed by honesty (26%). Looking beyond their local communities came last at 6%. Familial values were especially strong in South America (34%) while individualism and the entrepreneurial spirit proved popular in Africa (37%). People who influenced youths the most were parents (89%), friends (79%), and teachers (70%). Celebrities (30%) and politicians (17%) came last. In general, young men were more likely to be influenced by athletes and politicians than young women, who preferred books and fictional characters. Celebrity culture was especially influential in China (60%) and Nigeria (71%) and particularly irrelevant in Argentina and Turkey (both 19%). For young people, the most important factors for their current or future careers were the possibility of honing their skills (24%), and income (23%) while the most unimportant factors were fame (3%) and whether or not the organization they worked for made a positive impact on the world (13%). The most important factors for young people when thinking about their futures were their families (47%) and their health (21%); the welfare of the world at large (4%) and their local communities (1%) bottomed the list. Common culture During the 2000s and especially the 2010s, youth subcultures that were as influential as what existed during the late 20th century became scarcer and quieter, at least in real life though not necessarily on the Internet, and more ridden with irony and self-consciousness due to the awareness of incessant peer surveillance. In Germany, for instance, youth appears more interested in a more mainstream lifestyle with goals such as finishing school, owning a home in the suburbs, maintaining friendships and family relationships, and stable employment, rather than popular culture, glamor, or consumerism. Boundaries between the different youth subcultures appear to have been blurred, and nostalgic sentiments have risen. Although an aesthetic dubbed 'cottagecore' in 2018 has been around for many years, it has become a subculture of Generation Z, especially on various social media networks in the wake of the mass lockdowns imposed to combat the spread of COVID-19. It is a form of escapism and aspirational nostalgia. Cottagecore became even more popular thanks to the commercial success of the 2020 album Folklore by singer and songwriter Taylor Swift. Nostalgia culture among Generation Z even extends to the usage of automobiles; in some countries, such as Indonesia, there are social media communities surrounding the purchasing used cars from earlier decades. A survey conducted by OnePoll in 2018 found that while museums and heritage sites remained popular among Britons between the ages of 18 and 30, 19% did not visit one in the previous year. There was a big gender gap in attitudes, with 16% of female respondents and 26% of male respondents saying they never visited museums. Generation Z preferred staying home and watching television or browsing social media networks to visiting museums or galleries. The researchers also found that cheaper tickets, more interactive exhibitions, a greater variety of events, more food and beverage options, more convenient opening hours, and greater online presence could attract the attention of more young people. On the other hand, vintage fashion is growing in popularity among Millennial and Generation Z consumers. A 2019 report by Childwise found that children between the ages of five and sixteen in the U.K. spent an average of three hours each day online. Around 70% watched Netflix in the past week and only 10% watched their favorite programs on television. Among those who watched on-demand shows, 58% did so on a mobile phone, 51% on a television set, 40% via a tablet, 35% on a gaming console, and 27% on a laptop. About one out of four came from families with voice-command computer assistants such as Alexa. YouTube and Snapchat are the most popular gateways for music and video discovery. Childwise also found that certain television series aired between the 1990s and early 2000s, such as Friends, proved popular among young people of the 2010s. Figures from Nielsen and Magna Global revealed that the viewership of children's cable television channels such as Disney Channel, Cartoon Network, and Nickelodeon continued their steady decline from the early 2010s, with little to no alleviating effects due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced many parents and their children to stay at home. On the other hand, streaming services saw healthy growth. Disney Channel in particular lost a third of their viewers in 2020, leading to closures in Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Southeast Asia. During the first two decades of the 21st century, writing and reading fan fiction and creating fandoms of fictional works became a prevalent activity worldwide. Demographic data from various depositories revealed that those who read and wrote fan fiction were overwhelmingly young, in their teens and twenties, and female. For example, an analysis published in 2019 by data scientists Cecilia Aragon and Katie Davis of the site FanFiction.Net showed that some 60 billion words of contents were added during the previous 20 years by 10 million English-speaking people whose median age was 15 years. Fan fiction writers base their work on various internationally popular cultural phenomena such as K-pop, anime, video games, Disney films, Star Trek, Harry Potter, Twilight, furry fandom, Doctor Who, Star Wars, and My Little Pony, known as 'canon', as well as other things they considered important to their lives, like natural disasters. Much of fan fiction concerns the romantic pairing of fictional characters of interest, or 'shipping'. Aragon and Davis argued that writing fan fiction stories could help young people combat social isolation and hone their writing skills outside of school in an environment of like-minded people where they can receive (anonymous) constructive feedback, what they call 'distributed mentoring'. Informatics specialist Rebecca Black added that fan fiction writing could also be a useful resource for English-language learners. Indeed, the analysis of Aragon and Davis showed that for every 650 reviews a fan fiction writer receives, their vocabulary improved by one year of age, though this may not generalize to older cohorts. On the other hand, children browsing fan fiction contents might be exposed to cyberbullying, crude comments, and other inappropriate materials. Generation Z has a plethora of options when it comes to music consumption, allowing for a highly personalized experience. According to digital media company Sweety High's 2018 Gen Z Music Consumption & Spending Report, Spotify ranked first for music listening among Gen Z females, terrestrial radio ranked second, while YouTube was reported to be the preferred platform for music discovery. In mid-2023, Spotify reported growth above expectation in the number of subscribers among Generation Z. Additional research showed that within the past few decades, popular music has gotten slower; that majorities of listeners young and old preferred older songs rather than keeping up with new ones; that the language of popular songs was becoming more negative psychologically; and that lyrics were becoming simpler and more repetitive, approaching one-word sheets, something measurable by observing how efficiently lossless compression algorithms (such as the LZ algorithm) handled them. Sad music is quite popular among adolescents, though it can dampen their moods, especially among girls. A 2020 survey conducted by The Center for Generational Kinetics, on 1000 members of Generation Z and 1000 Millennials, suggests that Generation Z still would like to travel, despite the COVID-19 pandemic and the recession it induced. However, Generation Z is more likely to look carefully for package deals that would bring them the most value for their money, as many of them are already saving money for buying a house and for retirement, and they prefer more physically active trips. Mobile-friendly websites and social-media engagements are both important. In South Korea, people below the age of 40 are increasingly interested in relocating from the cities, especially Seoul, to the countryside and working on the farm. Working in a conglomerate like Samsung or Hyundai no longer appeals to young people, many of whom prefer to avoid becoming a workaholic or are pessimistic about their ability to be as successful as their fathers. They take advantage of the Internet to market and sell their fresh produce. In the United Kingdom, teenagers now prefer to get their news from social-media networks such as Instagram and TikTok and the video-sharing site YouTube rather than more traditional media, such as radio or television. Reading habits In New Zealand, child development psychologist Tom Nicholson noted a marked decline in vocabulary usage and reading among schoolchildren, many of whom are reluctant to use the dictionary. According to a 2008 survey by the National Education Monitoring Project, about one in five four-year and eight-year pupils read books as a hobby, a ten-percent drop from 2000. In the United Kingdom, a survey of 2,000 parents and children from 2013 by Nielsen Book found that 36% of children read books for pleasure on a daily basis, 60% on a weekly basis, and 72% were read to by their parents at least once per week. Among British children, the most popular leisure activities were watching television (36%), reading (32%), social networking (20%), watching YouTube videos (17%), and playing games on mobile phones (16%). Between 2012 and 2013, children reported spending more time with video games, YouTube, and texting but less time reading (down eight percent). Among children between the ages of 11 and 17, the share of non-readers grew from 13% to 27% between 2012 and 2013, those who read once to thrice a month (occasional readers) dropped from 45% to 38%, those who read for no more than an average of 15 minutes per week (light readers) rose from 23% to 27%, those who read between 15 and 45 minutes per week (medium readers) declined from 23% to 17%, and those who read at least 45 minutes a week (heavy readers) grew slightly from 15% to 16%. A survey by the National Literacy Trust from 2019 showed that only 26% of people below the age of 18 spent at least some time each day reading, the lowest level since records began in 2005. Interest in reading for pleasure declined with age, with five- to eight-year-olds being twice as likely to say they enjoyed reading compared to fourteen- to sixteen-year-olds. There was a significant gender gap in voluntary reading, with only 47% of boys compared to 60% of girls said they read for pleasure. One in three children reported having trouble finding something interesting to read. The aforementioned Nielsen Book survey found that the share of British households with at least one electronic tablet rose from 24% to 50% between 2012 and 2013. According to a 2020 Childwise report based on interviews with 2,200 British children between the ages of five and sixteen, young people today are highly dependent on their mobile phones. Most now get their first device at the age of seven. By the age of eleven, having a cell phone became almost universal. Among those aged seven to sixteen, the average time spent on the phone each day is three and a third hours. 57% said they went to bed with their phones beside them and 44% told the interviewers they felt "uncomfortable" in the absence of their phones. Due to the nature of this technology—cell phones are personal and private devices—it can be difficult for parents to monitor their children's activities and shield them from inappropriate content. According to the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), fourth graders in 2016 were markedly less enthusiastic about reading than their predecessors in 2001 in 13 out of 20 countries and territories surveyed while their parents were even less keen on reading than they were. Demographics Although many countries have aging populations and declining birth rates, Generation Z is currently the largest generation on Earth. Bloomberg's analysis of United Nations data predicted that, in 2019, members of Generation Z accounted for 2.47 billion (32%) of the 7.7 billion inhabitants of Earth, surpassing the Millennial population of 2.43 billion. The generational cutoff of Generation Z and Millennials for this analysis was placed at 2000 to 2001. Africa Generation Z currently comprises the majority of the population of Africa. In 2017, 60% of the 1.2 billion people living in Africa fell below the age of 25. In 2019, 46% of the South African population, or 27.5 million people, are members of Generation Z. Statistical projections from the United Nations in 2019 suggest that, in 2020, the people of Niger had a median age of 15.2, Mali 16.3, Chad 16.6, Somalia, Uganda, and Angola all 16.7, the Democratic Republic of the Congo 17.0, Burundi 17.3, Mozambique and Zambia both 17.6. This means that more than half of their populations were born in the first two decades of the 21st century. These are the world's youngest countries by median age. Asia According to a 2022 McKinsey & Company insight, Generation Z will account for a quarter of the population of the Asia-Pacific region by 2025, and possess a global spending power of approximately US$140bn by 2030. As a result of cultural ideals, government policy, and modern medicine, there have been severe gender population imbalances in China and India. According to the United Nations, in 2018, there were 112 Chinese males for every hundred females ages 15 to 29; in India, there were 111 males for every hundred females in that age group. China had a total of 34 million excess males and India 37 million, more than the entire population of Malaysia. Together, China and India had a combined 50 million excess males under the age of 20. Such a discrepancy fuels loneliness epidemics, human trafficking (from elsewhere in Asia, such as Cambodia and Vietnam), and prostitution, among other societal problems. Europe Out of the approximately 66.8 million people of the UK in 2019, there were approximately 12.6 million people (18.8%) in Generation Z, if defined as those born from 1997 to 2012. Generation Z is the most diverse generation in the European Union in regards to national origin. In Europe generally, 13.9% of those ages 14 and younger in 2019 (which includes older Generation Alpha) were born in another EU Member State, and 6.6% were born outside the EU. In Luxembourg, 20.5% were born in another country, largely within the EU (6.6% outside the EU compared to 13.9% in another member state); in Ireland, 12.0% were born in another country; in Sweden, 9.4% were born in another country, largely outside the EU (7.8% outside the EU compared to 1.6% in another member state). In Finland, 4.5% of people aged 14 and younger were born abroad and 10.6% had a foreign-background in 2021. However, Gen Z from eastern Europe is much more homogenous: in Croatia, only 0.7% of those aged 14 and younger were foreign-born; in the Czech Republic, 1.1% aged 14 and younger were foreign-born. Higher portions of those ages 15 to 29 in 2019 (which includes younger Millennials) were foreign born in Europe. Luxembourg had the highest share of young people (41.9%) born in a foreign country. More than 20% of this age group were foreign-born in Cyprus, Malta, Austria and Sweden. The highest shares of non-EU born young adults were found in Sweden, Spain and Luxemburg. Like with those under age 14, countries in eastern Europe generally have much smaller populations of foreign-born young adults. Poland, Lithuania, Slovakia, Bulgaria and Latvia had the lowest shares of foreign-born young people, at 1.4 to 2.5% of the total age group. North America Data from Statistics Canada published in 2017 showed that Generation Z comprised 17.6% of the Canadian population.A report by demographer William Frey of the Brookings Institution stated that in the United States, the Millennials are a bridge between the largely white pre-Millennials (Generation X and their predecessors) and the more diverse post-Millennials (Generation Z and their successors). Frey's analysis of U.S. Census data suggests that as of 2019, 50.9% of Generation Z is white, 13.8% is black, 25.0% Hispanic, and 5.3% Asian. 29% of Generation Z are children of immigrants or immigrants themselves, compared to 23% of Millennials when they were at the same age. Members of Generation Z are slightly less likely to be foreign-born than Millennials; the fact that more American Latinos were born in the U.S. rather than abroad plays a role in making the first wave of Generation Z appear better educated than their predecessors. However, researchers warn that this trend could be altered by changing immigration patterns and the younger members of Generation Z choosing alternate educational paths. As a demographic cohort, Generation Z is smaller than the Baby Boomers and their children, the Millennials. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Generation Z makes up about one quarter of the U.S. population, as of 2015. There was an 'echo boom' in the 2000s, which certainly increased the absolute number of future young adults, but did not significantly change the relative sizes of this cohort compared to their parents. According to a 2022 Gallup survey, 20.8%, or about one in five, members of Gen Z identify as LGBTQ+. Economic trends Consumption As consumers, members of Generation Z are typically reliant to the Internet to research their options and to place orders. They tend to be skeptical and will shun firms whose actions and values are contradictory. Their purchases are heavily influenced by trends promoted by "influencers" on social media, as well as the fear of missing out (FOMO) and peer pressure. The need to be "trendy" is a prime motivator. In the West, while majorities might signal their support for certain ideals such as "environmental consciousness" to pollsters, actual purchases do not reflect their stated views, as can be seen from their high demand for cheap but not durable clothing ("fast fashion"), or preference for rapid delivery. Despite their socially progressive views, large numbers are still willing to purchase these items when human rights abuses in the developing countries that produce them are brought up. However, young Western consumers of this cohort are less likely to pay a premium for what they want compared to their counterparts from emerging economies. In the United Kingdom, Generation Z's general avoidance of alcohol and tobacco has noticeably reduced government revenue in the form of the 'sin tax'. Employment According to the International Labor Organization (ILA), the COVID-19 pandemic has amplified youth unemployment, but unevenly. By 2022, youth unemployment stood at 12.7% in Africa, 20.5% in Latin America, and 8.3% in North America. In the early 2020s, Chinese youths find themselves struggling with job hunting. University education offers little help. In fact, due to the mismatch between education and the job market, those with no university qualifications are less likely to be unemployed. By June 2023, China's unemployment rate for people aged 16 to 24 was about one fifth. In Germany, some public officials are recommending shorter work weeks at the same salary levels in spite of the struggling German economy. The situation is similar in other European countries. In the United States, the youth unemployment rate (16-24) was 7.5% in May 2023, the lowest in 70 years. American high-school graduates could join the job market right away, with employers offering them generous bonuses, high wages, and apprenticeship programs in order to offset the ongoing labor shortage. Education Since the mid-20th century, enrollment rates in primary schools has increased significantly in developing countries. In 2019, the OECD completed a study showing that while education spending was up 15% over the previous decade, academic performance had stagnated. The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study organization showed that the highest-scoring students in mathematics came from Singapore, Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan, and Japan. In science, the highest-scoring jurisdictions were South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Russia, and Hong Kong. Different nations and territories approach the question of how to nurture gifted students differently. During the 2000s and 2010s, whereas the Middle East and East Asia (especially China, Hong Kong, and South Korea) and Singapore actively sought them out and steered them towards top programs, Europe and the United States had in mind the goal of inclusion and chose to focus on helping struggling students. In 2010, for example, China unveiled a decade-long National Talent Development Plan to identify able students and guide them into STEM fields and careers in high demand; that same year, England dismantled its National Academy for Gifted and Talented Youth and redirected the funds to help low-scoring students get admitted to elite universities. Developmental cognitive psychologist David Geary observed that Western educators remained "resistant" to the possibility that even the most talented of schoolchildren needed encouragement and support and tended to concentrate on low performers. In addition, even though it is commonly believed that past a certain IQ benchmark (typically 120), practice becomes much more important than cognitive abilities in mastering new knowledge, recently published research papers based on longitudinal studies, such as the Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY) and the Duke University Talent Identification Program, suggest otherwise. Since the early 2000s, the number of students from emerging economies going abroad for higher education has risen markedly. This was a golden age of growth for many Western universities admitting international students. In the late 2010s, around five million students traveled abroad each year for higher education, with the developed world being the most popular destinations and China the biggest source of international students. In 2019, the United States was the most popular destination for international students, with 30% of its international student body coming from mainland China, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Japan. Among children of the Chinese ruling class ("princelings"), attending elite institutions in the United States was commonplace and seen as a status symbol. However, deteriorating Sino-American relations and the COVID-19 pandemic reduced the number of Chinese students enrolling in many American colleges and universities, marking the end of a golden age for higher education in the United States. (Also see the higher-education bubble in the United States.) China's expansion of higher education was done not for political rather than economic reasons. As a result, by 2023, as many as one in five Chinese graduates struggled to find gainful employment. By 2023, a number of countries, including Finland and the Netherlands, have decided to ban the use of mobile phones in the classroom to help their students concentrate better. Health issues Mental Data from the British National Health Service (NHS) showed that between 1999 and 2017, the number of children below the age of 16 experiencing at least one mental disorder increased from 11.4% to 13.6%. The researcher interviewed older adolescents (aged 17–19) for the first time in 2017 and found that girls were two-thirds more likely than younger girls and twice more likely than boys from the same age group to have a mental disorder. In England, hospitalizations for self-harm doubled among teenage girls between 1997 and 2018, but there was no parallel development among boys. While the number of children receiving medical attention for mental health problems has clearly gone up, this is not necessarily an epidemic as the number of self-reports went up even faster possibly due to the diminution of stigma. Furthermore, doctors are more likely than before to diagnose a case of self-harm when previously they only treated the physical injuries. A 2020 meta-analysis found that the most common psychiatric disorders among adolescents were ADHD, anxiety disorders, behavioral disorders, and depression, consistent with a previous one from 2015. A 2021 UNICEF report stated that 13% of ten- to nineteen-year-olds around the world had a diagnosed mental health disorder whilst suicide was the fourth most common cause of death among fifteen- to nineteen-year-olds. It commented that "disruption to routines, education, recreation, as well as concern for family income, health and increase in stress and anxiety, [caused by the COVID-19 pandemic] is leaving many children and young people feeling afraid, angry and concerned for their future." It also noted that the pandemic had widely disrupted mental health services. Anxiety over climate change has compounded the problem. Though males remain more likely than females to commit suicide, the prevalence of suicide among teenage girls has risen significantly during the 2010s in many countries. Whether or not this can be attributed to the use of smartphones and social media networks remains debated, however. Sleep deprivation Sleep deprivation is on the rise among contemporary youths, due to a combination of poor sleep hygiene (having one's sleep disrupted by noise, light, and electronic devices), caffeine intake, beds that are too warm, a mismatch between biologically preferred sleep schedules at around puberty and social demands, insomnia, growing homework load, and having too many extracurricular activities. Consequences of sleep deprivation include low mood, worse emotional regulation, anxiety, depression, increased likelihood of self-harm, suicidal ideation, and impaired cognitive functioning. In addition, teenagers and young adults who prefer to stay up late tend to have high levels of anxiety, impulsivity, alcohol intake, and tobacco smoking. A study by Glasgow University found that the number of schoolchildren in Scotland reporting sleep difficulties increased from 23% in 2014 to 30% in 2018. 37% of teenagers were deemed to have low mood (33% males and 41% females), and 14% were at risk of depression (11% males and 17% females). Older girls faced high pressure from schoolwork, friendships, family, career preparation, maintaining a good body image and good health. In Canada, teenagers sleep on average between 6.5 and 7.5 hours each night, much less than what the Canadian Paediatric Society recommends, 10 hours. According to the Canadian Mental Health Association, only one out of five children who needed mental health services received it. In Ontario, for instance, the number of teenagers getting medical treatment for self-harm doubled in 2019 compared to ten years prior. The number of suicides has also gone up. Various factors that increased youth anxiety and depression include over-parenting, perfectionism (especially with regards to schoolwork), social isolation, social-media use, financial problems, housing worries, and concern over some global issues such as climate change. Cognitive abilities A 2010 meta-analysis by an international team of mental health experts found that the worldwide prevalence of intellectual disability (ID) was around one percent. But the share of individuals with such a condition in low- to middle-income countries were up to twice as high as their wealthier counterparts because they lacked the sources needed to tackle the problem, such as preventing children from being born with ID due to hereditary conditions with antenatal genetic screening, poor child and maternal care facilities, and inadequate nutrition, leading to, for instance, iodine deficiency. The researchers also found that ID was more common among children and adolescents than adults. A 2020 literature review and meta-analysis confirmed that the incidence of ID was indeed more common than estimates from the early 2000s. In 2013, a team of neuroscientists from the University College London published a paper on how neurodevelopmental disorders can affect a child's educational outcome. They found that up to 10% of the human population have specific learning disabilities or about two to three children in a (Western) classroom. Such conditions include dyscalculia, dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and autism spectrum disorder. They are caused by abnormal brain development due to complicated environmental and genetic factors. A child may have multiple learning disorders at the same time. For example, among children with ADHD, 33-45% also have dyslexia and 11% have dyscalculia. Normal or high levels of intelligence offer no protection. Each child has a unique cognitive and genetic profile and would benefit from a flexible education system. A 2017 study from the Dominican Republic suggests that students from all sectors of the educational system utilize the Internet for academic purposes, yet those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds tend to rank the lowest in terms of reading comprehension skills. A 2020 report by psychologist John Protzko analyzed over 30 studies and found that children have become better at delaying gratification over the previous 50 years, corresponding to an average increase of 0.18 standard deviations per decade on the IQ scale. This is contrary to the opinion of the majority of the 260 cognitive experts polled (84%), who thought this ability was deteriorating. Researchers test this ability using the Marshmallow Test. Children are offered treats: if they are willing to wait, they get two; if not, they only get one. The ability to delay gratification is associated with positive life outcomes, such as better academic performance, lower rates of substance use, and healthier body weights. Possible reasons for improvements in the delaying gratification include higher standards of living, better-educated parents, improved nutrition, higher preschool attendance rates, more test awareness, and environmental or genetic changes. This development does not mean that children from the early 20th century were worse at delaying gratification and those from the late 21st will be better at it, however. Moreover, some other cognitive abilities, such as simple reaction time, color acuity, working memory, the complexity of vocabulary usage, and three-dimensional visuospatial reasoning have shown signs of secular decline. In a 2018 paper, cognitive scientists James R. Flynn and Michael Shayer argued that the observed gains in IQ during the 20th century—commonly known as the Flynn effect—had either stagnated or reversed, as can be seen from a combination of IQ and Piagetian tests. In the Nordic nations, there was a clear decline in general intelligence starting in the 1990s, an average of 6.85 IQ points if projected over 30 years. In Australia and France, the data remained ambiguous; more research was needed. In the United Kingdom, young children experienced a decline in the ability to perceive weight and heaviness, with heavy losses among top scorers. In German-speaking countries, young people saw a fall in spatial reasoning ability but an increase in verbal reasoning skills. In the Netherlands, preschoolers and perhaps schoolchildren stagnated (but seniors gained) in cognitive skills. What this means is that people were gradually moving away from abstraction to concrete thought. On the other hand, the United States continued its historic march towards higher IQ, a rate of 0.38 per decade, at least up until 2014. South Korea saw its IQ scores growing at twice the average U.S. rate. The secular decline of cognitive abilities observed in many developed countries might be caused by diminishing marginal returns due to industrialization and to intellectually stimulating environments for preschoolers, the cultural shifts that led to frequent use of electronic devices, the fall in cognitively demanding tasks in the job market in contrast to the 20th century, and possibly dysgenic fertility. Physical A 2015 study found that the frequency of nearsightedness has doubled in the United Kingdom within the last 50 years. Ophthalmologist Steve Schallhorn, chairman of the Optical Express International Medical Advisory Board, noted that research has pointed to a link between the regular use of handheld electronic devices and eyestrain. The American Optometric Association sounded the alarm in a similar vein. According to a spokeswoman, digital eyestrain, or computer vision syndrome, is "rampant, especially as we move toward smaller devices and the prominence of devices increase in our everyday lives." Symptoms include dry and irritated eyes, fatigue, eye strain, blurry vision, difficulty focusing, headaches. However, the syndrome does not cause vision loss or any other permanent damage. To alleviate or prevent eyestrain, the Vision Council recommends that people limit screen time, take frequent breaks, adjust the screen brightness, change the background from bright colors to gray, increase text sizes, and blinking more often. Parents should not only limit their children's screen time but should also lead by example. While food allergies have been observed by doctors since ancient times and virtually all foods can be allergens, research by the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota found they are becoming increasingly common since the early 2000s. Today, one in twelve American children has a food allergy, with peanut allergy being the most prevalent type. Reasons for this remain poorly understood. Nut allergies in general have quadrupled and shellfish allergies have increased 40% between 2004 and 2019. In all, about 36% of American children have some kind of allergy. By comparison, this number among the Amish in Indiana is 7%. Allergies have also risen ominously in other Western countries. In the United Kingdom, for example, the number of children hospitalized for allergic reactions increased by a factor of five between 1990 and the late 2010s, as did the number of British children allergic to peanuts. In general, the better developed the country, the higher the rates of allergies. Reasons for this remain poorly understood. One possible explanation, supported by the U.S. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, is that parents keep their children "too clean for their own good". They recommend exposing newborn babies to a variety of potentially allergenic foods, such as peanut butter before they reach the age of six months. According to this "hygiene hypothesis", such exposures give the infant's immune system some exercise, making it less likely to overreact. Evidence for this includes the fact that children living on a farm are consistently less likely to be allergic than their counterparts who are raised in the city, and that children born in a developed country to parents who immigrated from developing nations are more likely to be allergic than their parents are. A research article published in 2019 in the journal The Lancet reported that the number of South Africans aged 15 to 19 being treated for HIV increased by a factor of ten between 2010 and 2019. This is partly due to improved detection and treatment programs. However, less than 50% of the people diagnosed with HIV went onto receive antiviral medication due to social stigma, concerns about clinical confidentiality, and domestic responsibilities. While the annual number of deaths worldwide due to HIV/AIDS has declined from its peak in the early 2000s, experts warned that this venereal disease could rebound if the world's booming adolescent population is left unprotected. Data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics reveal that 46% of Australians aged 18 to 24, about a million people, were overweight in 2017 and 2018. That number was 39% in 2014 and 2015. Obese individuals face higher risks of type II diabetes, heart disease, osteoarthritis, and stroke. The Australian Medical Associated and Obesity Coalition have urged the federal government to levy a tax on sugary drinks, to require health ratings, and to regulate the advertisement of fast foods. In all, the number of Australian adults who are overweight or obese rose from 63% in 2014–15 to 67% in 2017–18. Puberty In Europe and the United States, the average age of the onset of puberty among girls was around 13 in the early 21st century, down from about 16 a hundred years earlier. Early puberty is associated with a variety of mental health issues, such as anxiety and depression (as people at this age tend to strongly desire conformity with their peers), early sexual activity, substance use, tobacco smoking, eating disorders, and disruptive behavioral disorders. Girls who mature early also face higher risks of sexual harassment. Moreover, in some cultures, pubertal onset remains a marker of readiness for marriage, for, in their point of view, a girl who shows signs of puberty might engage in sexual intercourse or risks being assaulted, and marrying her off is how she might be 'protected'. To compound matters, factors known for prompting mental health problems are themselves linked to early pubertal onset; these are early childhood stress, absent fathers, domestic conflict, and low socioeconomic status. Possible causes of early puberty could be positive, namely improved nutrition, or negative, such as obesity and stress. Other triggers include genetic factors, high body-mass index (BMI), exposure to endocrine-disrupting substances that remain in use, such as Bisphenol A (found in some plastics) and dichlorobenzene (used in mothballs and air deodorants), and to banned but persistent chemicals, such as dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), and perhaps a combination thereof (the 'cocktail effect'). A 2019 meta-analysis and review of the research literature from all inhabited continents found that between 1977 and 2013, the age of pubertal onset among girls has fallen by an average of almost three months per decade, but with significant regional variations, ranging from 10.1 to 13.2 years in Africa to 8.8 to 10.3 years in the United States. This investigation relies on measurements of thelarche (initiation of breast tissue development) using the Tanner scale rather than self-reported menarche (first menstruation) and MRI brain scans for signs of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis being reactivated. Furthermore, there is evidence that sexual maturity and psychosocial maturity no longer coincide; 21st-century youth appears to be reaching the former before the latter. Neither adolescents nor societies are prepared for this mismatch. Political views and participation In the West, Generation Z's politics are largely similar to those of millennials. In tandem with more members of Generation Z being able to vote in elections during the late 2010s and early 2020s, the youth vote has increased. In the United States, Generation Z appears thus far to hold similar sociopolitical views to the millennials in that they tend to be more left-wing than preceding generations. Polling on immigration receives mixed responses from Generation Z. Among developed democracies, young people's faith in the institutions, including their own government, has declined compared to that of previous generations. An early political movement primarily driven by Generation Z was School Strike for Climate in the late 2010s. The movement involved millions of young people around the world, inspired by the activities of Swedish activist Greta Thunberg, protesting for greater action on climate change. Around the world, large numbers of people from this cohort feel angry, anxious, guilty, helpless, and sad about climate change and are dissatisfied with how their governments have responded so far. Members of Generation Z who are active in politics are more likely than their elders to avoid buying from or working for companies that do not share their sociopolitical views, and they take full advantage of the Internet as activists. Religious tendencies In the West, Generation Z is the least religious generation in history. More members of Generation Z describe themselves as nonbelievers than any previous generation and reject religious affiliation, though many of them still describe themselves as spiritual. In the United States, Generation Z has twice as many self-identified atheists as prior generations. The 2016 British Social Attitudes Survey found that 71% of people between the ages of 18 and 24 had no religion, compared to 62% the year before. A 2018 ComRes survey found that slightly more than one in two of those aged 18 to 24 reported a positive experience with Christians and Christianity. Two-thirds of the same age group have never attended church; among the remaining third, 20% went a few times a year, and 2% multiple times per week. 12% of respondents aged 18 to 24 agreed with the claim that Christians were a bad influence on society, compared to just over half who disagreed. For comparison, 14% of those aged 25 to 34 agreed. In all, 51% of Britons disagreed with the same while 10% agreed. According to British Office for National Statistics (ONS), people under the age of 40 in England and Wales are more likely to consider themselves irreligious rather than Christian. Risky behaviors Adolescent pregnancy Gen Z American adolescents had lower levels of alcohol use and sexual intercourse than other generations in early adulthood. More broadly, adolescent pregnancy was in decline during the early 21st century all across the industrialized world, due to the widespread availability of contraception and the growing avoidance of sexual intercourse among teenagers. In New Zealand, the pregnancy rate for females aged 15 to 19 dropped from 33 per 1,000 in 2008 to 16 in 2016. Highly urbanized regions had adolescent pregnancy rates well below the national average whereas Māori communities had much higher than average rates. In Australia, it was 15 per 1,000 in 2015. Alcoholism and substance use 2020 data from the U.K. Office for National Statistics (ONS) showed on a per-capita basis, members of Generation Z binged on alcohol 20% less often than Millennials. However, 9.9% of people aged 16 to 24 consumed at least one drug in the past month, usually cannabis, or more than twice the share of the population between the ages of 16 and 59. "Cannabis has now taken over from the opiates in terms of the most people in treatment for addiction," psychopharmacologist Val Curran of the University College London (UCL) told The Telegraph. Moreover, the quality and affordability of various addictive drugs have improved in recent years, making them an appealing alternative to alcoholic beverages for many young people, who now have the ability to arrange a meeting with a deal via social media. Addiction psychiatrist Adam Winstock of UCL found using his Global Drug Survey that young people rated cocaine more highly than alcohol on the basis of value for money, 4.8 compared to 4.7 out of 10. As of 2019, cannabis was legal for both medical and recreational use in Uruguay, Canada, and 33 states in the US. In the United States, Generation Z is the first to be born into a time when the legalization of marijuana at the federal level is being seriously considered. While adolescents (people aged 12 to 17) in the late 2010s were more likely to avoid both alcohol and marijuana compared to their predecessors from 20 years before, college-aged youths are more likely than their elders to consume marijuana. Marijuana use in Western democracies was three times the global average, as of 2012, and in the U.S., the typical age of first use is 16. This is despite the fact that marijuana use is linked to some risks for young people, such as in the impairment of cognitive abilities and school performance, though a causality has not been established in this case. Youth crime During the 2010s, when most of Generation Z experienced some or all of their adolescence, reductions in youth crime were seen in some Western countries. A report looking at statistics from 2018 to 2019 noted that the numbers of young people aged ten to seventeen in England and Wales being cautioned or sentenced for criminal activity had fallen by 83% over the previous decade, while those entering the youth justice system for the first time had fallen by 85%. In 2006, 3,000 youths in England and Wales were detained for criminal activity; ten years later, that number fell below 1,000. In Europe, teenagers were less likely to fight than before. Research from Australia suggested that crime rates among adolescents had consistently declined between 2010 and 2019. In a 2014 report, Statistics Canada stated that police-reported crimes committed by persons between the ages of 12 and 17 had been falling steadily since 2006 as part of a larger trend of decline from a peak in 1991. Between 2000 and 2014, youth crimes plummeted 42%, above the drop for overall crime of 34%. In fact, between the late 2000s and mid-2010s, the fall was especially rapid. This was primarily driven by a 51% drop in theft of items worth no more than CAN$5,000 and burglary. The most common types of crime committed by Canadian adolescents were theft and violence. At school, the most frequent offenses were possession of cannabis, common assault, and uttering threats. Overall, although they made up only 7% of the population, adolescents stood accused of 13% of all crimes in Canada. In addition, mid- to late-teens were more likely to be accused of crimes than any other age group in the country. Family and social life Upbringing Sociologists Judith Treas and Giulia M. Dotti Sani analyzed the diaries of 122,271 parents (68,532 mothers and 53,739 fathers) aged 18 to 65 in households with at least one child below the age of 13 from 1965 to 2012 in eleven Western countries—Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, Spain, Italy, France, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Norway, and Slovenia—and discovered that in general, parents had been spending more and more time with their children. In 1965, a mother spent on average 54 minutes, nearly an hour, on childcare activities each day whereas one from 2012 spent almost twice as much, at 104 minutes, almost two hours. Among fathers, the amount of time spent on childcare roughly quadrupled, from 16 minutes in 1965 to 59 in 2012. Parents of all education levels were represented, though those with higher education typically spent much more time with their children, especially university-educated mothers. France was the only exception. French mothers were spending less time with their children whereas fathers were spending more time. This overall trend reflected the dominant ideology of "intensive parenting" – the idea that the time parents spend with children is crucial for their development in various areas and the fact that fathers developed more egalitarian views with regards to gender roles over time and became more likely to want to play an active role in their children's lives. In the United Kingdom, there was a widespread belief in the early 21st century that rising parental, societal and state concern for the safety of children was leaving them increasingly mollycoddled and slowing the pace they took on responsibilities. The same period saw a rise in child-rearing's position in the public discourse with parenting manuals and reality TV programs focused on family life, such as Supernanny, providing specific guidelines for how children should be cared for and disciplined. According to Statistics Canada, the number of households with both grandparents and grandchildren remained rare but grew in the early 21st century. In 2011, five percent of Canadian children below the age of ten lived with a grandparent, up from 3.3% in the previous decade. This is in part because Canadian parents in the early 21st century couldn't (or believe they couldn't) afford childcare and often find themselves having to work long hours or irregular shifts. Meanwhile, many grandparents struggled to keep up with their highly active grandchildren on a regular basis due to their age. Because Millennials and members of Generation X tend to have fewer children than their parents the Baby Boomers, each child typically receives more attention from his or her grandparents and parents compared to previous generations. Friendships and socialization According to the OECD PISA surveys, 15-year-olds in 2015 had a tougher time making friends at school than ten years prior. European teenagers were becoming more and more like their Japanese and South Korean counterparts in social isolation. This might be due to intrusive parenting, heavy use of electronic devices, and concerns over academic performance and job prospects. A study of social interaction among American teenagers found that the amount of time young people spent with their friends had been trending downwards since the 1970s but fallen into especially sharp decline after 2010. The percentage of students in the 12th grade (typically 17 to 18 years old) who said they met with their friends almost every day fell from 52% in 1976 to 28% in 2017. The percentage of that age group who said they often felt lonely (which had fallen during the early 2000s) increased from 26% in 2012 to 39% in 2017 whilst the percentage who often felt left out increased from 30% to 38% over the same period. Statistics for slightly younger teenagers suggested that parties had become significantly less common since the 1980s. Romance and marriage According to a 2014 report from UNICEF, some 250 million females were forced into marriage before the age of 15, especially in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Problems faced by child brides include loss of educational opportunity, less access to medical care, higher childbirth mortality rates, depression, and suicidal ideation. In Australia, it was reported in 2017 that growing numbers of older teenage boys and young men were avoiding romantic relationships altogether, citing concerns over the traumatic experiences of older male family members, including false accusations of sexual misconduct or loss of assets and money after a divorce. This social trend—Men Going Their Own Way (MGTOW)—is an outgrowth of the men's rights movement, but one that emphasizes detachment from women as a way to deal with the issues men face. "Both sexes have different challenges; we've lost sight of that. We're stuck in a gender war and it's harming our children," psychologist Meredith Fuller told News.com.au. In China, young people nowadays are much more likely to deem marriage and children sources of stress rather than fulfillment, going against the Central Government's attempts to increase the birth rate. Women born between the mid-1990s to about 2010 are less interested in getting married than men their own age. As a result of the one-child policy, young Chinese women have become more educated and financially independent than ever before, and this has led to a shift in public attitudes towards career-oriented women. The "lying flat" movement, popular among Chinese youths, also extends to the domain of marriage and child-rearing. According to a 2021 survey by the Communist Youth League, 44% of young urban women and 25% of urban young men said they were not planning on getting married. When asked why, majorities said they had trouble finding the right person, cited the high costs of marriage, or told the pollsters they simply did not believe in marriage. Children and parenthood In line with a fall in adolescent pregnancy in the developed world, which is discussed in more detail elsewhere in this article, there has also been a reduction in the percentage of the youngest adults with children. The Office for National Statistics has reported that the number of babies being born in the United Kingdom to 18 year old mothers had fallen by 58% from 2000 to 2016 and the amount being born to 18 year old fathers had fallen by 41% over the same period. Pew Research reports that in 2016, 88% of American women aged 18 to 21 were childless as opposed to 80% of Generation X and 79% of millennial female youth at a similar age. A 2020 survey conducted by PensionBee in the United Kingdom found that about 10% of non-parents aged 18 to 23 were considering not having children in order to be able to retire earlier. Those in the arts and those in the income bracket £25,001 to £55,000 were most likely to say no to having children. Over half of Chinese youths aged 18 to 26 said they were uninterested in having children because of the high cost of child-rearing, according to a 2021 poll by the Communist Youth League. Food choices The food choices made by Generation Z reflect the generation's concerns about climate, sustainability, and animal welfare. A study by catering firm Aramark found 79% of members of the generation would go meatless one to two times a week. The generation is considered the most interested in plant-based and vegan food choices, which they see as equal to other food types. As Generation Z's purchasing power grows, so does the amount of vegan and vegetarian food they eat. Generation Z sees dining out with friends and sharing small plates of food as exciting and interesting. According to 2022 Ernst & Young data, plant-based meat, cultured meat, and fermented meat are forecast to grow to 40% of the market by volume by 2040 in the United States. Plant-based meat is widely available in supermarkets and restaurants, but cultured and fermented meats (which are made without slaughtering animals) are not commercially available but are now being developed by companies. Use of information and communications technologies (ICT) Use of ICT in general Generation Z is one of the first cohorts to have Internet technology readily available at a young age. With the Web 2.0 revolution that occurred throughout the mid-late 2000s and 2010s, they have been exposed to an unprecedented amount of technology in their upbringing, with the use of mobile devices growing exponentially over time. Anthony Turner characterizes Generation Z as having a "digital bond to the Internet", and argues that it may help youth to escape from emotional and mental struggles they face offline. According to U.S. consultants Sparks and Honey in 2014, 41% of Generation Z spend more than three hours per day using computers for purposes other than schoolwork, compared with 22% in 2004. In 2015, an estimated 150,000 apps, 10% of apps in Apple's App Store, were educational and aimed at children up to college level, though opinions are mixed as to whether the net result will be deeper involvement in learning and more individualized instruction, or impairment through greater technology dependence and a lack of self-regulation that may hinder child development. Parents who raise Gen Z children fear the overuse of the Internet, and dislike the ease of access to inappropriate information and images, as well as social networking sites where minors can gain access to people worldwide. Gen Z children, inversely, feel annoyed with their parents and complain about parents being overly controlling when it comes to their Internet usage. A 2015 study by Microsoft found that 77% of respondents aged 18 to 24 said yes to the statement, "When nothing is occupying my attention, the first thing I do is reach for my phone," compared to just 10% for those aged 65 and over. In a TEDxHouston talk, Jason Dorsey of the Center for Generational Kinetics stressed the notable differences in the way that Millennials and Generation Z consume technology, with 18% of Generation Z feeling that it is okay for a 13-year-old to have a smartphone, compared with just 4% for the previous generation. An online newspaper about texting, SMS and MMS writes that teens own cellphones without necessarily needing them; that receiving a phone is considered a rite of passage in some countries, allowing the owner to be further connected with their peers, and it is now a social norm to have one at an early age. An article from the Pew Research Center stated that "nearly three-quarters of teens have or have access to a smartphone and 30% have a basic phone, while just 12% of teens 13 to 15 say they have no cell phone of any type". These numbers are only on the rise and the fact that the majority own a cell phone has become one of this generation's defining characteristics. Consequently, "24% of teens go online 'almost constantly'." A survey of students from 79 countries by the OECD found that the amount of time spent using an electronic device has increased, from under two hours per weekday in 2012 to close to three in 2019, at the expense of extracurricular reading. Psychologists have observed that sexting, the transmission of sexually explicit content via electronic devices, has seen noticeable growth among contemporary adolescents. Older teenagers are more likely to participate in sexting. Besides some cultural and social factors such as the desire for acceptance and popularity among peers, the falling age at which a child receives a smartphone may contribute to the growth in this activity. However, while it is clear that sexting has an emotional impact on adolescents, it is still not clear how it precisely affects them. Some consider it a high-risk behavior because of the ease of dissemination to third parties leading to reputational damage and the link to various psychological conditions including depression and even suicidal ideation. Others defend youths' freedom of expression over the Internet. There is some evidence that at least in the short run, sexting brings positive feelings of liveliness or satisfaction. However, girls are more likely than boys to be receiving insults, social rejections, or reputational damage as a result of sexting. Digital literacy Despite being labeled as digital natives, the 2018 International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS), conducted on 42,000 eighth-graders (or equivalents) from 14 countries and education systems, found that only two percent of these people were sufficiently proficient with information devices to justify that description, and only 19% could work independently with computers to gather information and to manage their work. ICILS assesses students on two main categories: Computer and Information Literacy (CIL), and Computational Thinking (CT). For CIL, there are four levels, one to four, with Level 4 being the highest. Although at least 80% of students from most countries tested reached Level 1, only two percent on average reached Level 4. Countries or education systems whose students scored near or above the international average of 496 in CIL were, in increasing order, France, North Rhine-Westphalia, Portugal, Germany, the United States, Finland, South Korea, Moscow, and Denmark. CT is divided into four levels, the Upper, Middle, and Lower Regions. International averages for the proportions of students reaching each of these were 18%, 50%, and 32%, respectively. Countries or education systems whose students scored near or above the international average of 500 were, in increasing order, the United States, France, Finland, Denmark, and South Korea. In general, female eighth-graders outperformed their male counterparts in CIL by an international average of 18 points but were narrowly outclassed by their male counterparts in CT. (Narrow gaps made estimates of averages have higher coefficients of variation.) In the United States, where the computer-based tests were administered by the National Center for Education Statistics, 72% of eighth-graders said they searched for information on the Internet at least once a week or every school day, and 65% reported they were autodidactic information finders on the Internet. By the early 2020s, many members of Generation Z enter the workforce without some basic IT skills, though they can learn more quickly than older workers. Pornography viewing A 2020 report by the British Board of Film Classification (BBFC)—available only by request due to the presence of graphic materials—suggests that parents are either in denial or are completely oblivious to the prevalence of pornography viewership by adolescents, with three quarters telling researchers they do not believe their children consumed such materials. Meanwhile, teenagers are increasingly turning to pornography as a source of information on sexuality, especially what to do during a sexual encounter, as teachers tend to focus on contraception. Over half of the teenagers interviewed told researchers they had viewed pornography, though the actual number is likely higher due to the sensitivity of this topic. While parents generally believe adolescents who view pornography for pleasure tend to be boys, surveys and interviews reveal that this behavior is also common among girls. Most teenagers encounter pornography on a dedicated website for it, but an increasing number watch it on social media platforms such as Snapchat and WhatsApp. Many told researchers they felt anxious about their body image and the expectations of their potential sexual partners as a result of viewing, and their concerns over violent behavior. About one-third of the U.K. population watches these films, according to industry estimates. This report came as part of an ill-fated attempt by the U.K. government to introduce age verification to pornographic websites. Use of social media networks The use of social media has become integrated into the daily lives of most Gen Zers with access to mobile technology, who use it primarily to keep in contact with friends and family. As a result, mobile technology has caused online relationship development to become a new generational norm. Gen Z uses social media and other sites to strengthen bonds with friends and to develop new ones. They interact with people who they otherwise would not have met in the real world, becoming a tool for identity creation. The negative side to mobile devices for Generation Z, according to Twenge, is they are less "face to face", and thus feel more lonely and left out. Speed and reliability are important factors in members of Generation Z's choice of social networking platform. This need for quick communication is presented in popular Generation Z apps like Vine and the prevalent use of emojis. In addition to connecting to other people, they use social media to keep themselves up-to-date with the news, unlike older generations, whom prefer newspapers and television. Nevertheless, even though people aged 18 to 24 are heavily reliant upon social media networks, they have very little trust in them. Focus group testing found that while teens may be annoyed by many aspects of Facebook, they continue to use it because participation is important in terms of socializing with friends and peers. Twitter and Instagram are seen to be gaining popularity among members of Generation Z, with 24% (and growing) of teens with access to the Internet having Twitter accounts. This is, in part, due to parents not typically using these social networking sites. Snapchat is also seen to have gained attraction in Generation Z because videos, pictures, and messages send much faster on it than in regular messaging. TikTok has gained increasing popularity among Gen Z users, surpassing Instagram in 2021. As of 2022, TikTok has around 689 million active users, 43% of whom are from Gen Z. Based on current growth figures, it is predicted that by the end of 2023, TikTok audience will grow by 1.5 billion active users, 70% of whom will be from Generation Z. As of 2023, so popular is TikTok among people under the age of 30 in Europe and North America that they typically ignore their own governments' concerns over issues of user privacy and national security. A study by Gabrielle Borca, et al found that teenagers in 2012 were more likely to share different types of information than teenagers in 2006. However, they will take steps to protect information that they do not want being shared, and are more likely to "follow" others on social media than "share". A survey of U.S. teenagers from advertising agency J. Walter Thomson likewise found that the majority of teenagers are concerned about how their posting will be perceived by people or their friends. 72% of respondents said they were using social media on a daily basis, and 82% said they thought carefully about what they post on social media. Moreover, 43% said they had regrets about previous posts. A 2019 Childwise survey of 2,000 British children aged five to sixteen found that the popularity of Facebook halved compared to the previous year. Children of the older age group, fifteen to sixteen, reported signs of online fatigue, with about three of ten saying they wanted to spend less time on the Internet. Surveys show that 90% of teens 13–17 have used social media, 75% have at least one social media account, 51% say they go on at least one social media daily, 66% have their own devices with internet, and teens are online for almost 9 hours a day. Effects of screen time In his 2017 book Irresistible, professor of marketing Adam Alter explained that not only are children addicted to electronic gadgets, but their addiction jeopardizes their ability to read non-verbal social cues. A 2019 meta-analysis of thousands of studies from almost two dozen countries suggests that while as a whole, there is no association between screen time and academic performance, when the relation between individual screen-time activity and academic performance is examined, negative associations are found. Watching television is negatively correlated with overall school grades, language fluency, and mathematical ability while playing video games was negatively associated with overall school grades only. According to previous research, screen activities not only take away the time that could be spent on homework, physical activities, verbal communication, and sleep (the time-displacement hypothesis) but also diminish mental activities (the passivity hypothesis). Furthermore, excessive television viewing is known for harming the ability to pay attention as well as other cognitive functions; it also causes behavioral disorders, such as having unhealthy diets, which could damage academic performance. Excessive video gaming, on the other hand, is known for impairing social skills and mental health, and as such could also damage academic performance. However, depending on the nature of the game, playing it could be beneficial for the child; for instance, the child could be motivated to learn the language of the game in order to play it better. Among adolescents, excessive Internet surfing is well known for being negatively associated with school grades, though previous research does not distinguish between the various devices used. Nevertheless, one study indicates that Internet access, if used for schoolwork, is positively associated with school grades but if used for leisure, is negatively associated with it. Overall, the effects of screen time are stronger among adolescents than children. Research conducted in 2017 reports that the social media usage patterns of this generation may be associated with loneliness, anxiety, and fragility and that girls may be more affected than boys by social media. According to 2018 CDC reports, girls are disproportionately affected by the negative aspects of social media than boys. Researchers at the University of Essex analyzed data from 10,000 families, from 2010 to 2015, assessing their mental health utilizing two perspectives: Happiness and Well-being throughout social, familial, and educational perspectives. Within each family, they examined children who had grown from 10 to 15 during these years. At age 10, 10% of female subjects reported social media use, while this was only true for 7% of the male subjects. By age 15, this variation jumped to 53% for girls, and 41% for boys. This percentage influx may explain why more girls reported experiencing cyberbullying, decreased self-esteem, and emotional instability more than their male counterparts. Other researchers hypothesize that girls are more affected by social media usage because of how they use it. In a study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2015, researchers discovered that while 78% of girls reported making a friend through social media, only 52% of boys could say the same. However, boys are not explicitly less affected by this statistic. They also found that 57% of boys claimed to make friends through video gaming, while this was only true for 13% of girls. Another Pew Research Center survey conducted in April 2015, reported that women are more likely to use Pinterest, Facebook, and Instagram than men, which are visual-heavy sites. In counterpoint, men were more likely to utilize online forums, e-chat groups, and Reddit than women. Cyberbullying, an act of bullying using technology, is more common now than among Millennials, the previous generation. It is more common among girls, 22% compared to 10% for boys. This results in young girls feeling more vulnerable to being excluded and undermined. According to a 2020 report by the British Board of Film Classification, "many young people felt that the way they viewed their overall body image was more likely the result of the kinds of body images they saw on Instagram." See also 9X Generation (Vietnam) Boomerang Generation Cusper Generation K, a demographic cohort defined by Noreena Hertz Generation Z in the United States Post-90s and Little emperor syndrome (China) Strawberry generation (Taiwan) Thumb tribe Notes References Further reading External links The Downside of Diversity. Michael Jonas. The New York Times. August 5, 2007. The Next America: Modern Family. Pew Research Center. April 30, 2014. (Video, 2:16) Meet Generation Z: Forget Everything You Learned About Millennials – 2014 presentation by Sparks and Honey Is a University Degree a Waste of Money? CBC News: The National. March 1, 2017. (Video, 14:39) A Generation Z Exploration. (Web version) Rubin Postaer and Associates (RPA). 2018. We asked teenagers what adults are missing about technology. This was the best response. Taylor Fang. MIT Technology Review. December 21, 2019. The Amish use tech differently than you think. We should emulate them. Jeff Smith. The Washington Post. February 17, 2020. Generation Z 20th century 21st century 1990s neologisms

4016353

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marienberg

Marienberg

Marienberg is a town in Germany. It was the district capital of the Mittlerer Erzgebirgskreis (Central Ore Mountains district) in the southern part of Saxony, and since August 2008 it has been part of the new district of Erzgebirgskreis. As of 2020, the town had 16,716 inhabitants. Location and design The town is situated on a plateau north of the Ore Mountains ridge, at an elevation between 460 and 891 metres above sea level. It is approximately 31 kilometres south of Chemnitz, to which it is connected via the Flöha Valley Railway. The historical town centre follows a rectangular plan, imitating Italian renaissance. The centre is the market square, a square of 1.7 hectares in area. Marienberg and Pobershau were merged into the administrative unit (Verwaltungsgemeinschaft) of Marienberg, Pobershau has been incorporated into Marienberg with effect from 1 January 2012. Town districts Marienberg's districts are: Marienberg Ansprung Gebirge Gelobtland Grundau Kühnhaide Lauta Lauterbach Niederlauterstein Pobershau Reitzenhain Rittersberg Rübenau Satzung Sorgau Zöblitz History Villages of Gebirge, Gelobtland and Hüttengrund The first documented evidence relating to Marienberg is a mention of the village of Wüstenschletta as Sletyn in 1323. But by 1481 it was being referred as wüste Schlette ("abandoned Schlette"). The owner of the eponymous glassworks in 1486 was Barthol Preußler. On 17 July 1519, silver was first discovered as the entrance to the Hüttengrund by Clemens Schiffel and, on 11 May 1520, the first ore mine (Fundgrube), St. Fabian Sebastian, was leased to Schiffel. The town was founded on 27 April 1521 by Henry the Pious, Duke of Saxony. The town plan was designed by Ulrich Rülein von Calw. Marienberg was granted town rights in 1523 and was given its own mining office (Bergamt) in 1525. A grammar school (Lateinschule) was first mentioned in 1530. The village of Wüstenschletta was subordinated to the jurisdiction of the town in 1533. With the Protestant Reformation reaching the town in 1536/37, Marienberg became an independent parish. Mining reached its peak in 1540. From 1541 to 1566, the town walls were erected. In 1555, there were more than a thousand pits in the Marienberg mining area. The Late Gothic hall church of St. Mary's was built from 1558 to 1564. On 31 August 1610, the town suffered in a devastating fire in which almost all its 550 houses were destroyed. Following the end of silver mining, the extraction of copper and tin began in 1612. In 1696 troops were first quartered in the town, and from 1753 to 1858, it was a garrison town for the cavalry. Around 1755, Gelobtland (literally: "Promised Land") was mentioned for the first time in the records ("... in the Gelobten Land ..."). In the wake of a fever (Faulfieber) epidemic, an orphanage was founded in 1772, which was expanded into a school (Freischule) in 1805. To improve the food situation of the mining employees a miner's grain store (Bergmagazin) was built from 1806 to 1809 on the recommendation of mining director Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich von Trebra. In 1810, a school was built in the village of Gebirge. In 1813 Marienberg became a staging post for the allied armies facing Napoleon. In 1821, the village of Gelobtland was created as a settlement for forest workers. In 1835, the dilapidated town wall was taken down, with the exception of the Zschopau Gate (Zschopauer Tor) and the Red Tower (Roter Turm). In 1842, Marienberg became the seat of the church parish. In 1847, the mining office was closed; that same year a kindergarten was opened in the presence of Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel. From 1858 to 1873 Marienberg served as a garrison town for the infantry. The volunteer fire service was founded in 1862. From 1873 to 1920, there was an NCO school and preschool in Marienberg; in 1874 work on the construction of the barracks was begun. In the same year construction started on a gas works and the installation of gas lanterns. In 1875 Marienberg was given a connection to the railway network with the construction of the Flöha Valley Railway with stations in Marienberg itself, Gebirge, and Gelobtland. In 1882, volunteer fire services were established in Gelobtland and Gebirge. In 1889 the town hospital opened. A water works was built in 1891/1892 and the Central School (Zentralschule, now the gymnasium) was inaugurated in 1893. In 1899 the Rudolf shaft mine closed and, with that, the last mine was gone. In 1910, a power station was built and, in 1913, Marienberg connected to the main electricity supply. In 1914, the church, the Red Tower and the Zschopau Gate were placed under protection by a local by-law. In 1917, work began on the building of the district court. At Gallows Hill (Galgenberg) in 1927 a ski jump was opened. A junior high school and Progymnasium was founded in 1918 and was housed until 1940 within the barracks. With the construction of twelve semi-detached houses from 1933 to 1937, the district of Moosheide was formed. Between 1924 and 1937, the Marienberg Triangle Race (Marienberger Dreieckrennen) took place ten times. The 17 km route ran from Marienberg, via the Heinzebank and Wolkenstein and back to Marienberg. At that time it was the fastest motorcycle road racing circuit in Germany and has hosted rounds of the German motorcycle road championship. Towards the end of World War II, 154 concentration camp prisoners from the subcamp of Wille in Tröglitz/Rehmsdorf were murdered during a death march by members of the SS. They had escaped from transport trains at Gelobtland and Reitzenhain stations during enemy strafing attacks between 15 and 17 April 1945 into the surrounding forests, but were recaptured. From 1874 to 1939, Marienberg was the seat of the eponymous Amtshauptmannschaft which became the county of Marienberg in 1939. The latter was absorbed into the county of Mittlerer Erzgebirgskreis in 1994 and, in 2008, the county of Erzgebirgskreis at which point the town lost its status as the county town. Since 2013, there are no more scheduled passenger trains to Marienberg,<ref>Freie Presse Online: Fahrplanwechsel bei der Bahn: Marienberg rollt aufs Abstellgleis, retrieved 02 July 2015</ref> while the section of the railway line to Reitzenhain was already closed in 1998. From 1994 to 2012, several surrounding municipalities were merged with Marienberg. These were in chronological order Lauta (1 January 1994), Niederlauterstein (1 January 1996), Lauterbach (1 January 1998), Hirtstein (1 January 2003), Pobershau (1 January 2012), and the town of Zöblitz (31 December 2012). Culture and sights The historic old town (Altstadt) of Marienberg and the mining country near Lauta is the UNESCO World Heritage Site as a part of the Ore Mountain Mining Region (Montanregion Erzgebirge). Structures St. Mary's – a Late Gothic hall church Town hall built in the Renaissance style Red Tower (Roter Turm) – the last of originally 4 corner towers in the town wall Zschopau Gate (Zschopauer Tor) – last of originally 5 town gates Old Mining Store (Bergmagazin) – built 1806-1809 Rectangular town plan with a square market place (the Marktplatz) Saxon post milestone (Kursächsische Postmeilensäule) from the Zschopau Gate; part of the coat of arms of a Saxon post milestone from the Annaberg Gate in the museum, electoral Saxon full milestone from the High Bridge (Hohe Brücke) as a monument at the Bergmagazin, parts of a Saxon half-milestone walled into the archway of Haus Reiter and two quarter-milestones on the original post road near Reitzenhain and, as the Wettin Oak monument (Wettin Eiche), on Eisenstraße in the Marienberg Forest (Marienberger Forst) Royal Saxon milestones as sentinel stones from the Wolkenstein Gate on Wolkensteiner Straße and converted in 1900 to kilometre stones at the old Freiberg Gate and at the Lauterbach junction on the B 171 federal road. Museums Museum of the Saxon-Bohemian Ore Mountains (Museum sächsisch-böhmisches Erzgebirge) in the BergmagazinMemorials Memorial site created in 1952 at Marienberg-Gelobtland station in memory of the murdered concentration camp prisoners Memorial plaque for 23 French and 34 Soviet prisoners of the Flöha subcamp of Flossenbürg concentration camp, who were also murdered by the SS in spring 1945 Memorial site created in 1950 on the B 174 in a wood near Reitzenhain for 218 prisoners executed by SS guards Gravesite dug in 1945 at the cemetery for Italian military internees Memorial plaque on the staircase of the town hall to the social democrat resistance fighter, Walter Mehnert, who was murdered on 18 October 1943 in the gaol at Brandenburg-Görden (not in Moabit as stated on the plaque) Major events 26 to 29 July 2001: German Christian Endeavour (Entschieden für Christus) conference (Christian youth conference) 1 to 3 September 2006: 15th Day of Saxony in Marienberg Culinary specialities Lauterbacher Tropfen Climate Economy and infrastructure Marienberg is developing its tourism offer; one aspect of that being the Silver Road which runs through the town. A German armoured infantry unit, the Panzergrenadierbataillon 371, is based in the Bundeswehr barracks called Erzgebirgskaserne. The barracks lies on the edge of the old town. In 1996 the unit was given the honorary title the "Marienberg Rifles" (Marienberger Jäger'') by the town council. Transport The Flöha Valley Railway, opened in 1875 and now operated by the DB Erzgebirgsbahn, provided a connection to Chemnitz (via Pockau-Lengefeld and Flöha) until 2013. The section between Pockau-Lengefeld and Marienberg is still in use for freight trains, the section between Marienberg and Reitzenhain was closed in 1998 and has been lifted in 2013. It is to be converted into a cycling and hiking path. The B 174 federal highway from Chemnitz runs through the town towards Reitzenhain (border of Czech Republic), and crosses B 171 from Wolkenstein to Dippoldiswalde near Hüttengrund. The Reitzenhain Pass is the lowest pass in the Ore Mountains and was therefore one of the most important communication links between central Germany and Bohemia in the Middle Ages. State roads connect Marienberg with Annaberg-Buchholz, Pockau, and Lengefeld. The construction of the ring road, planned for many years, which routes the B 174 east of Marienberg, was started in 2005. It was opened on 29 November 2007 in the presence of Federal Transport Minister, Wolfgang Tiefensee. Public transport is provided by VMS with scheduled cross-country buses to Annaberg-Buchholz, Brand-Erbisdorf, Chemnitz, Freiberg, Niederschmiedeberg, Olbernhau, Wolkenstein, and Zschopau as well as local buses connecting the various parts of the town. Media MEF (Mittel-Erzgebirgs-Fernsehen), a TV station, has been operating since 1989 and aims to provide a broadcasting platform for the community of the county of Mittlerer Erzgebirgkreis. Twin towns – sister cities Marienberg is twinned with: Bad Marienberg, Germany Dorog, Hungary Lingen, Germany Most, Czech Republic Gallery References External links City and tourist information Official website Populated places established in 1521 Towns in the Ore Mountains Erzgebirgskreis 1521 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire

4016398

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant%20taxonomy

Plant taxonomy

Plant taxonomy is the science that finds, identifies, describes, classifies, and names plants. It is one of the main branches of taxonomy (the science that finds, describes, classifies, and names living things). Plant taxonomy is closely allied to plant systematics, and there is no sharp boundary between the two. In practice, "plant systematics" involves relationships between plants and their evolution, especially at the higher levels, whereas "plant taxonomy" deals with the actual handling of plant specimens. The precise relationship between taxonomy and systematics, however, has changed along with the goals and methods employed. Plant taxonomy is well known for being turbulent, and traditionally not having any close agreement on circumscription and placement of taxa. See the list of systems of plant taxonomy. Background Classification systems serve the purpose of grouping organisms by characteristics common to each group. Plants are distinguished from animals by various traits: they have cell walls made of cellulose, polyploidy, and they exhibit sedentary growth. Where animals have to eat organic molecules, plants are able to change energy from light into organic energy by the process of photosynthesis. The basic unit of classification is species, a group able to breed amongst themselves and bearing mutual resemblance, a broader classification is the genus. Several genera make up a family, and several families an order. History of classification The botanical term "angiosperm", from Greek words ( 'bottle, vessel') and ( 'seed'), was coined in the form "Angiospermae" by Paul Hermann in 1690 but he used this term to refer to a group of plants which form only a subset of what today are known as angiosperms. Hermannn's Angiospermae including only flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, distinguished from his Gymnospermae, which were flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic fruits, the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked. The terms Angiospermae and Gymnospermae were used by Carl Linnaeus with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his class Didynamia. The terms angiosperms and gymnosperm fundamentally changed in meaning in 1827 when Robert Brown established the existence of truly naked ovules in the Cycadeae and Coniferae. The term gymnosperm was from then on applied to seed plants with naked ovules, and the term angiosperm to seed plants with enclosed ovules. However, for many years after Brown's discovery, the primary division of the seed plants was seen as between monocots and dicots, with gymnosperms as a small subset of the dicots. In 1851, Hofmeister discovered the changes occurring in the embryo-sac of flowering plants, and determined the correct relationships of these to the Cryptogamia. This fixed the position of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than Gymnosperms, including the classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is used today. In most taxonomies, the flowering plants are treated as a coherent group. The most popular descriptive name has been Angiospermae, with Anthophyta (lit. 'flower-plants') a second choice (both unranked). The Wettstein system and Engler system treated them as a subdivision (Angiospermae). The Reveal system also treated them as a subdivision (Magnoliophytina), but later split it to Magnoliopsida, Liliopsida, and Rosopsida. The Takhtajan system and Cronquist system treat them as a division (Magnoliophyta). The Dahlgren system and Thorne system (1992) treat them as a class (Magnoliopsida). The APG system of 1998, and the later 2003 and 2009 revisions, treat the flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as a subclass (Magnoliidae). The internal classification of this group has undergone considerable revision. The Cronquist system, proposed by Arthur Cronquist in 1968 and published in its full form in 1981, is still widely used but is no longer believed to accurately reflect phylogeny. A consensus about how the flowering plants should be arranged has recently begun to emerge through the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG), which published an influential reclassification of the angiosperms in 1998. Updates incorporating more recent research were published as the APG II system in 2003, the APG III system in 2009, and the APG IV system in 2016. Traditionally, the flowering plants are divided into two groups, Dicotyledoneae or Magnoliopsida Monocotyledoneae or Liliopsida to which the Cronquist system ascribes the classes Magnoliopsida (from "Magnoliaceae") and Liliopsida (from "Liliaceae"). Other descriptive names allowed by Article 16 of the ICBN include Dicotyledones or Dicotyledoneae, and Monocotyledones or Monocotyledoneae, which have a long history of use. In plain English, their members may be called "dicotyledons" ("dicots") and "monocotyledons" ("monocots"). The Latin behind these names refers the observation that the dicots most often have two cotyledons, or embryonic leaves, within each seed. The monocots usually have only one, but the rule is not absolute either way. From a broad diagnostic point of view, the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly handy, nor a reliable character. Recent studies, as by the APG, show that the monocots form a monophyletic group (a clade) but that the dicots are paraphyletic. Nevertheless, the majority of dicot species fall into a clade, the eudicots or tricolpates, and most of the remaining fall into another major clade, the magnoliids, containing about 9,000 species. The rest include a paraphyletic grouping of early branching taxa known collectively as the basal angiosperms, plus the families Ceratophyllaceae and Chloranthaceae. Plantae, the Plant Kingdom The plant kingdom is divided according to the following: Identification, classification and description of plants Three goals of plant taxonomy are the identification, classification and description of plants. The distinction between these three goals is important and often overlooked. Plant identification is a determination of the identity of an unknown plant by comparison with previously collected specimens or with the aid of books or identification manuals. The process of identification connects the specimen with a published name. Once a plant specimen has been identified, its name and properties are known. Plant classification is the placing of known plants into groups or categories to show some relationship. Scientific classification follows a system of rules that standardizes the results, and groups successive categories into a hierarchy. For example, the family to which the lilies belong is classified as follows: Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Liliopsida Order: Liliales Family: Liliaceae The classification of plants results in an organized system for the naming and cataloging of future specimens, and ideally reflects scientific ideas about inter-relationships between plants. The set of rules and recommendations for formal botanical nomenclature, including plants, is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants abbreviated as ICN. Plant description is a formal description of a newly discovered species, usually in the form of a scientific paper using ICN guidelines. The names of these plants are then registered on the International Plant Names Index along with all other validly published names. Classification systems These include; APG system (angiosperm phylogeny group) APG II system (angiosperm phylogeny group II) APG III system (angiosperm phylogeny group III) APG IV system (angiosperm phylogeny group IV) Bessey system (a system of plant taxonomy) Cronquist system (taxonomic classification of flowering plants) Melchior system Online databases Ecocrop EPPO Code GRIN See Category: Online botany databases See also American Society of Plant Taxonomists Biophysical environment Botanical nomenclature Citrus taxonomy Environmental protection Herbarium History of plant systematics International Association for Plant Taxonomy Taxonomy of cultivated plants References Sources External links Plant systematics Tracking Plant Taxonomy Updates discussion group on Facebook

4016427

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajdhani%20College

Rajdhani College

Rajdhani College is a constituent college of the University of Delhi. It was established in 1964 by the Delhi Administration under the name of Government College. The college acquired its new name when the Delhi Administration vested its governance in an autonomous governing body. Rajdhani College is an South Campus College. The college is situated on Mahatma Gandhi Marg (Ring Road), near Rajouri Garden and Raja Garden in west Delhi. Its new building was constructed around 1976–77. The college complex has all facilities such as seminar room, auditorium, library, laboratories, playgrounds for cricket, football, hockey, and volleyball etc. It is a co-educational institution. Departments Chemistry Industrial Chemistry Commerce Computer Science Economics English Hindi History Life Science Linguistics Mathematics Physical Education Physics and Electronics Political Science Sanskrit Courses Offered Under Graduation Level B.Com. (Hons.) B.A. (Hons.) English B.A. (Hons.) Hindi B.A. (Hons.) Sanskrit B.A. (Hons.) History B.A. (Hons.) Political Science B.A. (Hons.) Economics BSc (Hons.) Chemistry BSc (APS) Industrial Chemistry BSc (Hons.) Physics BSc (Hons.) Mathematics BSc (Hons.) Electronics B.A. Program BSc Program in Physical Sciences with major in computer science BSc Program in Physical Sciences with major in electronics BSc Program in Physical Sciences with major in chemistry BSc Program in Applied Physical Sciences Post Graduation Level At Post Graduate level, Rajdhani College offers courses in English Hindi History Commerce Notable people Notable alumni Ashish Nehra, Cricketer, India National Cricket Team Devendra Sharma, Cricket Umpire Aakash Chopra, Cricketer – Duleep Trophy, Ranji Trophy, Indian National Cricket Team,Youtuber, analyst and cricket commentator. Dibang, Anchor at NDTV, STAR News, ABP News Balbir Punj, Member of Parliament Mala Ram Gangwal, Member of Legislative Assembly, Delhi Notable faculty Ram Babu Gupta, (Cricket Umpire – International) Rama Kant Shukla, Sanskrit poet Accessibility Metro Stations ESI - Basaidarapur metro station on Pink Line (Delhi Metro) Rajouri Garden metro station and Ramesh Nagar metro station on Blue Line (Delhi Metro) Bus Stops Rajdhani College (on ring road) Raja garden (on Najafgarh road) ESI hospital Basaidarapur (on ring road) Rajouri Garden market (on ring road) Railways Delhi Cantonment railway station Shakur Basti railway station New Delhi railway station Hazrat Nizamuddin railway station Delhi Junction railway station Anand Vihar Terminal railway station Air Indira Gandhi International Airport See also Education in Delhi List of colleges under Delhi University List of alumni of the University of Delhi Educational Institutions in Delhi Delhi University Community Radio DUSU References Universities and colleges in Delhi 1964 establishments in Delhi Educational institutions established in 1964

4016536

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa%20Barbarorum

Europa Barbarorum

Europa Barbarorum (), or EB, is a modification of the PC game Rome: Total War (RTW) based on the desire to provide Rome: Total War players with a more historically accurate game experience. The basic gameplay mechanics of the original game remain the same. The player controls an empire with the goal of conquering as much territory as possible and eliminating rival factions, which are controlled by the computer, or AI. The main campaign is split between two gameplay modes: a turn-based strategy map for moving whole armies and managing the empire, and a real-time battle map for fighting battles on the ground between two or more armies. The two game modes are linked, with success or failure in one game mode influencing the chances of success or failure in the other. Although set in a similar historical period and geographical area to the unmodified game (covering a timespan of 272 BC to 14 AD, compared to the original game's 270 BC to 14 AD), Europa Barbarorum is a total conversion modification as it replaces all the aspects of the original Rome: Total War game that can be replaced, such as unit models, statistics and the musical score. The modification has received favourable reviews in a number of computer gaming magazines. PC Gamer magazine ranks Europa Barbarorum as the best mod for any of the seven Total War games released for the PC at that time. Gameplay In the original Rome: Total War, the player took control of an empire, or "faction", of classical Europe, North Africa or the Middle East, with the aim of expanding their faction's territory and eliminating rival empires through military conquest and city-building. Europa Barbarorum retains this basic gameplay mechanic and sets itself in a similar time period and geographical area to the original game. However, as a total conversion the mod replaces the particular factions, military units, buildings, and other elements present in the original game, and adds a new soundtrack and several brand-new gameplay mechanics not present in the original, such as the installation of puppet rulers. The modification's development team's stated aim in making the changes that they have to Rome: Total War is to make the player's experience of the ancient world more historically accurate. For this reason, numerous parameters of the game at the start of the campaign in 272 BC, such as generals' names, the diplomatic relations between factions, and the particular understanding of the outside world that each faction has, have been set to correspond to the actual political situation in that year. Also for reasons of historical verisimilitude, factions, provinces on the campaign map and factions' family members have been given vernacular names in Europa Barbarorum, rather than having Latinized or Anglicized ones, as in Rome: Total War. So, for instance, the original game's Armenia faction is known as Hayasdan in Europa Barbarorum, and Germania as the Sweboz. Instead of having to play one's first campaign as a Roman faction and only subsequently unlock playable campaigns as non-Romans by defeating them in the Roman campaign, all twenty of Europa Barbarorums playable factions can be accessed by the player from the start. Furthermore, the one unplayable and three playable Roman factions of the original have been combined into a single playable faction in Europa Barbarorum, the Romani. Dissatisfied with the homogeneity of the factions of the original Rome: Total War, the Europa Barbarorum development team has sought to differentiate the playing experiences of the game's different factions. So, for example, Rome: Total Wars trait-acquisition system, where the player's faction's family members acquire certain characteristics and talents which make them more or less adept at certain tasks such as city management or military leadership, has been made more faction-specific in Europa Barbarorum, with Hellenic characters' traits, for instance, being based on Theophrastos' Characters and Aristotle's teachings on the Golden Mean, and Romans' traits being partially based on the moral tales of Valerius Maximus. There are sometimes additional requirements for a family member to be able to gain a new trait: in order for them to compete in one of the Panhellenic Games, for instance, the player must ensure that they are stationed in the appropriate city on the campaign map in the year that the competition is scheduled to take place. One reviewer has commented that Europa Barbarorums expansions upon the original Rome: Total Wars trait system have served to add a role-playing element to the game. Campaign As in the original Rome: Total War, Europa Barbarorums strategic campaign sees the player take control of a particular faction and then compete for territory and resources against all the other factions, which are controlled by the game's artificial intelligence. The player is presented with a map of Europe, North Africa and the Near East in which territory is divided into 200 provinces, each of which contains a province capital, which will at any given point be controlled either by the player's faction, a rival playable faction, or the non-playable Eleutheroi faction, which represents the world's minor kingdoms, regional powers and rebel states. If a faction should at any point find itself not in control of any provinces, it is eliminated from the game. Gameplay is turn-based, each turn representing the passage of three months on the campaign map (unlike the six months of the original Rome: Total War) and alternating between the player managing their empire and the artificial intelligence making all the other factions' moves. A key game mechanic of the campaign map is the annexation of territory, which is done province-by-province, either by successfully besieging the province capital, or by acquiring it from another faction through diplomacy. Once a faction has acquired a province, they may construct buildings in the province capital that either enable the recruitment of certain military units or grant various bonuses to the city, such as greater resilience during a siege or a decreased likelihood of the province rebelling. Provided the city contains the appropriate buildings, the player may recruit military units in the city at the same time as undertaking construction projects. The aim of the game is to acquire a specified number of provinces and/or eliminate specified rival factions (in Europa Barbarorum particular victory conditions differ for each faction), whilst avoiding being eliminated by the other factions. The campaign map itself of Europa Barbarorum covers a wider geographical area than that of Rome: Total War, expanding into areas such as the Arabian Peninsula, India, Central Asia, and Scandinavia. Relief, province boundaries, snow boundaries, vegetation types, coastlines and areas prone to natural disaster in 272 BC have all been researched and implemented into the campaign map. The Nile–Red Sea canal linking the Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea has been added to the map, as have the great trade routes of the ancient world, such as the Amber and Silk Roads, which can be captured and exploited by the player or by the artificial intelligence. The selection of factions present in the original Rome: Total War has been overhauled in Europa Barbarorum. The original game's Gaul faction has been replaced with two new factions, the Aedui and the Arverni. The Scythia faction has been replaced by the Sauromatae, and the Greek Cities faction (which included various city-states) has been replaced by the Koinon Hellenon (), a faction which represents the Chremonidean League of Athens, Sparta and Rhodes. Entirely new factions include Baktria, a Central Asian Hellenic empire, and Epeiros, a western Greek faction famous for producing Pyrrhos of Epiros. On the other hand, the Numidia faction of Rome: Total War was removed entirely. The way in which factions enhance the provinces they own through the construction of new buildings in their province capitals has changed in Europa Barbarorum. The process of assimilating a newly conquered province into one's empire has become more differentiated in the modification than it was in the original game through the introduction of so-called "government buildings" and military–industrial complexes. Government buildings represent different degrees of central State intervention in a province, and range from a homeland government, which can only be built in a faction's traditional ethnic homeland and represents the highest possible degree of central State control, to an allied state government, which makes the province in question semi-autonomous and installs a puppet ruler to govern it on the controlling faction's behalf. The choice of government building in a province affects what other buildings can be constructed there: the greater the degree of autonomy granted to a province, the greater the shift in the make-up of the pool of buildings available for construction from the controlling faction's own buildings to native buildings; that is, buildings which are more closely associated with the faction that would make its traditional home in the province in question, rather than the one currently occupying it. Nomadic, desert- and steppe-dwelling factions have their own government buildings, which some say has helped differentiate between Europa Barbarorums factions and make the differences between Europa Barbarorum and the original Rome: Total War more than just cosmetic. These government buildings also affect unit recruitment options in a province, through the mod's introduction of military–industrial complex ("MIC") buildings. The original Rome: Total Wars system of constructing and subsequently upgrading different types of building in order to recruit different types of soldier (stables for horses, ranges for archers, and so on) has been replaced in Europa Barbarorum by the "factional MIC", which enables the recruitment of all the province-controlling faction's units, and the "regional MIC", which enables the recruitment of native types of soldier. How far the two types of complexes can be upgraded depends on the government of the province: the greater the autonomy of the province, the more the native MIC may be upgraded, and the less the factional MIC may be upgraded; and vice versa. In addition to buildings that can be constructed by the player, Europa Barbarorum also introduces a number of unique buildings or "wonders", which can either be man-made structures or features of the landscape, and which provide unique bonuses to the province. Warfare If, during their turn on the campaign map, the player should engage one of their armies in combat with another faction's army, or if their troops should be engaged by another faction during the AI's turn, the player then has the option of fighting a real-time battle or siege. In this gameplay mode, the player directs the troops they had brought with them on the campaign map to the engagement, ordering them to manoeuvre and attack the enemy's troops on a three-dimensional battlefield. Troops can either be killed outright on the battlefield or made to rout and flee the field if their morale falls below a certain threshold. Reviewers have noted of Rome: Total War that, during a battle, troop numbers do not outweigh all other considerations; other factors such as individual unit types' strengths and soldiers' morale and fatigue at the point of fighting are also taken into account. A battle is won when one side kills or routs the entire enemy army; a siege may be won by the attacking side through either dispatching the opposing forces or gaining control of the besieged city's central plaza for a certain number of minutes, and by the defending side either by killing the attackers or by destroying their siege equipment before they have managed to breach the city's defences. The make-up of the game's units is one of the areas in which the most change can be seen going from the original game to the mod. Reviewers have commented that the differences between Europa Barbarorum and its parent game are "immediate" and "striking" and that the modification is different from its parent game "in look and in play". Another reviewer described the mod as having a more "gritty, realistic look" than the original Rome: Total War. All the units that were present in the original game have been removed and replaced in Europa Barbarorum. Specific examples include the removal of several units that the Europa Barbarorum team considered to be historically doubtful or only marginally used in warfare, such as Arcani, incendiary pigs and Celtic head-hurlers from the original Rome: Total War. Nor was the modding team happy with the way more conventional forces were portrayed in the original game, for instance calling Rome: Total Wars Egyptian soldiers "Mummy Returns Egyptians" and hence creating a new unit roster for the Egyptian faction in the game (named Egypt in the original Rome: Total War and the Ptolemaioi in Europa Barbarorum), in order to better correspond with the Ptolemaic period of history. The mod also features new custom battle formations in order to encourage more realistic behaviour from the AI. Audio Europa Barbarorum features its own soundtrack, distinct from that of Rome: Total War. Some of its tracks were composed especially by Morgan Casey and Nick Wylie; others are examples of authentic music, the Celtic factions' tracks, for example, having been recorded by early music ensemble Prehistoric Music Ireland. Europa Barbarorum also includes its own "voicemod", an attempt by the developers to replace the English cries of Rome: Total Wars soldiers with ones in their native languages, which include classical Latin, Celtic, and ancient Greek. Development The Europa Barbarorum project began in January 2004, eight months before Rome: Total Wars release, when the Europa Barbarorum development team who were following the game's development became concerned that its "barbarian" factions such as the Gauls were being portrayed inaccurately. The Europa Barbarorum team felt that such factions' representations in Rome: Total War conformed more to a Hollywood stereotype than to historical fact, and wished to see a more realistic portrayal of such factions in the game. The modding team tried to convince the Creative Assembly (CA), the developers of Rome: Total War, to alter their depiction of the period in line with the team's research, but the developers failed to take them up on their offer. Having exhausted this avenue for change, the Europa Barbarorum members then resolved to modify the game themselves upon its release. Release Europa Barbarorum was first released to the public as an open beta in December 2005. After several more minor releases throughout 2006, which mostly fixed bugs and made small adjustments to the modification, the next major release of Europa Barbarorum was version 0.80 in December 2006. Its changes included the addition of the Sabaean faction, new music, and the inclusion of a new military–industrial complex system. There were three more 0.8-series releases during the first half of 2007, which primarily made minor adjustments to the modification and fixed bugs. In total, over 135,000 downloads of the 0.80–0.81 versions were tracked. The next major release was version 1.0, which was released in October 2007 and included new units, new government options for the Pahlava and Hayasdan factions, the addition of a new type of wall to the battle map and new music from prehistoric music group Prehistoric Music Ireland. The 1.0 version was downloaded over 90,000 times in the six months following its release. This was followed by version 1.1, which was released in April 2008 and included new battle map landscapes, new units, the addition of the Pahlavi voicemod and the inclusion of an introduction video for the Saka Rauka faction. The current release is version 1.2, which contains the addition of the Punic voicemod and bug fixes; the development team had previously stated that future releases of Europa Barbarorum for the Rome: Total War engine will not include any major gameplay changes. Europa Barbarorum has seen some significant changes to its campaign over the course of its development. The Yuezhi faction, included in early releases of the modification, was subsequently dropped. Earlier releases of Europa Barbarorum also featured player alerts representing the major stages of the breakup of the Seleukid faction, if that collapse occurred in the game. However, such features became impossible to implement after the SPQR faction of the original game, used in Europa Barbarorum for scripting purposes, was removed from the mod in exchange for the kingdom of Saba. Following the main modification's release, a number of customisations of Europa Barbarorum have been created, such as porting it to run using the Rome: Total War: Barbarian Invasion executable, or Feral Interactive's Mac OS X version of Rome: Total War. There had been plans to release a version of the mod for the PC game Europa Universalis: Rome, but no Europa Barbarorum mod has yet been released for the strategy title. Europa Barbarorum II The Europa Barbarorum development team also developed a new version of the modification for the Medieval II: Total War: Kingdoms engine, which was named Europa Barbarorum II. The modification was designed to take advantage of the improved graphics of Medieval II: Total War and of its engine's additional features, such as the possibility of different soldiers within the same unit to have different appearances, as opposed to the "clones" criticised by some reviewers of Rome: Total War. Europa Barbarorum II includes new government, unit recruitment and trait systems, and new playable factions such as the kingdom of Gandhara, which has its own Sanskrit voicemod. An initial version of Europa Barbarorum II v2.0 was released on 25 August 2014, with a second version (v2.01) released on 12 September 2014. On 21 December 2015, a third version (2.1b) was released and provided a number of improvements, such as an improved campaign AI/battle AI, remodelled battle map settlements, battle map vegetation, and new units with military reforms for various factions. Version 2.2b, which was released on 4 June 2016, contained the same new improvements. Reception Europa Barbarorum was featured and reviewed in a number of video game magazines. It has been reviewed in PC Gamer UK twice, in March 2005 and February 2008. The 2008 review was overwhelmingly positive, saying that "EB feels like a whole new Total War game", and going on to praise the modification's "stunning" scope and the "striking" extent of the differences between it and Rome: Total War. The review was somewhat critical of the modification's graphical user interfaces which "[occasionally]" had a "home-made" feel to them, as well as its lack of accessibility and steep learning curve, although it adds that the second point is not a large problem as the modification is largely a "master's challenge for accomplished Rome players". The review finished on a positive note, summing Europa Barbarorum up as a "superior game". In 2010, the same magazine's website named Europa Barbarorum the best mod of any Total War game. A number of non-English language magazines have also reviewed Europa Barbarorum. The Italian PC Gaming magazine Giochi per il mio computer reviewed the modification in April 2005 and March 2008. The 2005 review reported that the modification, whose development team included two historians, was to replace the "economic system, [soldiers'] equipment and the provinces" of Rome: Total War; the latter review praised the mod for having "altered and deepened" the gameplay of the original title, and wrote that Europa Barbarorum was the best substitute for a Rome 2: Total War game prior to the actual release of such a title. Dutch magazine , reviewing the mod in March 2008, also wrote that the mod was "perhaps the best candidate for the title Rome: Total War II" "until the official announcement" and went on to note that the list of changes that the modification had made to the original game almost constituted "a history book of its own". The German magazine GameStar wrote in April 2007 that the Europa Barbarorum team had "banned all historical mistakes from the game"; in January 2011, another German publication, PC Games, also noted the mod's historical accuracy, singling out its "more realistic, more [challenging]" battles for praise, although it did note that the mod was squarely aimed at experienced Rome: Total War players. Reviewing version 0.74 of the mod in November 2006, Romanian publication LeveL concurred that the mod was aimed at experienced players, adding that the modified version of the game put greater demands on the player's computer than the original Rome: Total War, requiring 512 MB of RAM, up from the original's 256. Despite this, the reviewer praised the mod's complexity, the "painstaking detail" that went into making the units and the mod's soundtrack. Europa Barbarorum has also received several online reviews. The modification received a review early into its development process on gaming website HeavenGames, which said that it was an "ambitious" project and praised its commitment to historical accuracy, even stating that the Europa Barbarorum development team was going to use satellite imagery and climate change statistics to accurately portray the world as it was in 272 BC. Later, in 2008, the modification has been reviewed on Boomtown, which praised the modification's "incredibly well-researched and -devised" unit stats system, as well as its "legion of historians". The modification has sometimes been mentioned as a recommended complement to Rome: Total War in reviews of the original title – for instance, by Norwegian gaming website Gamereactor in 2007. In addition, Europa Barbarorum was singled out for praise by the Creative Assembly themselves in 2011, when they called the mod "breathtaking" in an official statement. See also Rome: Total Realism References External links Official Rome: Total War Website Official Europa Barbarorum Website 2005 video games MacOS games Real-time tactics video games Video games set in antiquity Video games set in Greece Total War (video game series) Turn-based strategy video games Video game mods Windows games Multiplayer and single-player video games

4016559

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flaming%20Gorge%20Dam

Flaming Gorge Dam

Flaming Gorge Dam is a concrete thin-arch dam on the Green River, a major tributary of the Colorado River, in northern Utah in the United States. Flaming Gorge Dam forms the Flaming Gorge Reservoir, which extends into southern Wyoming, submerging four distinct gorges of the Green River. The dam is a major component of the Colorado River Storage Project, which stores and distributes upper Colorado River Basin water. The dam takes its name from a nearby section of the Green River canyon, named by John Wesley Powell in 1869. It was built by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation between 1958 and 1964. The dam is high and long, and its reservoir has a capacity of more than , or about twice the annual flow of the upper Green. Operated to provide long-term storage for downstream water-rights commitments, the dam is also a major source of hydroelectricity and is the main flood-control facility for the Green River system. The dam and reservoir have fragmented the upper Green River, blocking fish migration and significantly impacting many native species. Water released from the dam is generally cold and clear, as compared to the river's naturally warm and silty flow, further changing the local riverine ecology. However, the cold water from Flaming Gorge has transformed about of the Green into a "Blue Ribbon Trout Fishery". The Flaming Gorge Reservoir, largely situated in Flaming Gorge National Recreation Area, is also considered one of Utah and Wyoming's greatest fisheries. History and location Contrary to its namesake, Flaming Gorge, the dam actually lies in steep, rapid-strewn Red Canyon in northeastern Utah, close to where the Green River cuts through the Uinta Mountains. The canyon, for which the dam is named, is buried under the reservoir almost upstream. Red Canyon is the narrowest and deepest of the four on the Green in the area (Horseshoe, Kingfisher, Red and Flaming Gorge), which made it the best site for the building of a dam. Flaming Gorge, on the other hand, was named by John Wesley Powell on his 1869 expedition down the Green and Colorado rivers for the "brilliant, flaming red of its rocks [when the sun shone upon them]." Flaming Gorge Dam is one of six that make up the Colorado River Storage Project (CRSP), a massive system of reservoirs created in the upper Colorado River Basin by the Bureau of Reclamation from the 1950s to the 1970s. The project itself was the indirect result of a system of agreements signed by the seven U.S. states and two Mexican provinces in the early 20th century dividing the flow of the Colorado River among them. Among the terms stated in the 1922 Colorado River Compact reserved for the Upper Basin states of Wyoming, Colorado, Utah and New Mexico and an equal amount for the Lower Basin states of Arizona, Nevada and California. Due to the Colorado's high year-to-year variations in flow, the upper basin could not fulfill the lower basin's allotments in dry years, and much water was wasted during wet years because of the lack of a means to impound it. Well before the CRSP's inception in 1956, the Bureau had begun to look for suitable reservoir sites along the upper Colorado and tributaries such as the Green, San Juan and Gunnison Rivers. One of the earlier proposals was called Echo Park Dam, at the confluence of the Green and Yampa Rivers within the Dinosaur National Monument in northwestern Colorado. The Sierra Club, led by David Brower, rallied against the proposal in the media and later in the courts. When the Bureau backed down from the Echo Park proposal, it was seen as one of the environmentalism movement's early victories – but it came with a compromise. A dam would still be built on the Green River, just upstream near a brilliant red-rock canyon called Flaming Gorge. A common misconception is that the building of the controversial Glen Canyon Dam was part of this "compromise for Echo Park", but in reality the Bureau had always planned to build a dam at Glen Canyon regardless of the outcome of the Echo Park debate. Apart from impounding the Green River, Flaming Gorge Dam also carries U.S. Route 191 over the river. Climate Construction The building of Flaming Gorge Dam started just a few months after the CRSP was approved in Congress, when President Dwight D. Eisenhower pressed a button on his desk in the White House and set off the first blast in Red Canyon. Site preparations and geologic inspections continued as Dutch John, the company town that provided housing for the workers, was completed just northeast of the dam site by 1958. More than 3000 people would inhabit Dutch John at the peak of construction. The main contract for dam construction was awarded to Arch Dam Constructors, a conglomerate of Peter Kiewit Sons, Morrison-Knudsen Company, Mid-Valley Utility Constructors Inc. and Coker Construction Company. Actual construction at the dam site did not begin until late 1958 when work began on the diversion tunnel that would send the Green River around the dam site in order to clear it. By April 1959, excavation of the diversion tunnel had been completed, and the concrete lining was finished on August 17. Work on a pair of earthen cofferdams above and below the dam site commenced when the tunnel was ready, and the river was channeled around the dam site on November 19 with the completion of the upper cofferdam. Keyway (foundation) excavations for the dam on the right abutment and construction of the spillway inlet works in the left abutment were begun in September, and all preliminary canyon wall structures were completed by early 1960. The lower cofferdam was finished in February, allowing workers to pump water from the space between the two barriers. The silt and sediment that comprised the riverbed had to be removed in order to reach a solid rock where foundations could be drilled; this was completed in August 1960, allowing work on the main dam foundations to begin. Flaming Gorge was built in block-shaped stages of concrete called "forms". The first concrete for the powerhouse was placed on September 8, and construction of the main dam wall began ten days later. In order to accelerate hardening of the concrete, cold water was pumped through metal tubing, or "coils", embedded in the structure. Concrete placement continued until November 15, 1962, when workers topped out the dam. By the end of 1962, both the river outlet works and the spillway tunnel were completed, and the diversion tunnel was closed, allowing water to begin rising behind the dam. The dam's hydroelectric generators were installed by mid–August 1963 and the first unit went into operation on September 27 at the press of a switch by President John F. Kennedy. The dam was officially dedicated by Lady Bird Johnson on August 17 of the following year. Dimensions and operations Dam and reservoir The Flaming Gorge Dam stands high above its foundations and above the Green River. It measures long along its crest, with a maximum base thickness of , while its crest thickness is . The dam contains about of concrete. The reservoir first reached its maximum elevation of in August 1974, with a maximum surface area of . The conservation storage capacity is , of which is active capacity, useful for release and power generation. During floods the reservoir can go about higher, for a total of , spreading over . Power plant The dam's hydroelectric power plant is located at its base. It consists of three 50,650 kilowatt generators, powered by three Francis design turbines of . The total nameplate generating capacity of the Flaming Gorge Dam is 151,950 kilowatts. Three diameter penstocks feed water to the power plant. The Bureau of Reclamation operates the power plant, and the Western Area Power Administration markets the power generated by the dam. The original 1963 capacity of the powerplant was 108,000 kilowatts, or 36,000 kilowatts per generator. The generators were uprated to their present capacity between August 1990 and April 1992. The power plant originally operated on a peaking basis which caused large daily fluctuations in river flow, with sharp peaks in the daytime and extremely low flows at night. In 1992, the release patterns from the dam were placed under legal constraints due to a biological opinion to protect endangered fish species. In 2006 the release patterns were further modified under an "Action Alternative" designed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in order to mimic natural flows. The power plant now releases water based on the natural seasonal hydrograph of the Green River before damming. In addition, water flows must be maintained above at all times. On August 11, 1977, the Unit 2 turbine jammed after one of the sealing rings on the penstock failed. This event led to the seal rings on all three penstocks being replaced. These seal rings also failed, and were replaced again. However, no major structural damage to the dam occurred. Spillways The spillway consists of a long tunnel that runs through the left abutment of the dam. Two gates at the tunnel entrance will pass up to of floodwater. At its upstream end the tunnel is in diameter, and at the discharge point is in diameter. The dam's outlet works consist of two diameter steel pipes through the dam. The discharge capacity of the outlet works is . Due to the large storage capacity of the reservoir, the tunnel spillway is rarely used, except for high water years such as 1983–84. As originally built, the spillway suffered cavitation damage caused by the high velocity of water rushing over the concrete lining. The installation of an aeration slot in the spillway in the mid-1980s remediated these problems. Environmental impacts By halting floods and artificially increasing low flows, Flaming Gorge Dam has changed the characteristics of the Green River tremendously, especially above its confluence with the Yampa River: "The deafening roar of the spring flood through the Canyon of Lodore in Dinosaur National Monument is subdued to the point that the sound no longer conveys a sense of the power that created this very place." River regulation has led to the growth of riparian zones along the Green River where they would not have developed naturally because of the erosive effects of floods. The reduction in flow changes has also caused a decline in amphibian habitat along the river. The dam traps the river's high sediment loads, which has been detrimental to many native fish stocks. The cold and clear water releases have caused loss of sandbars, bank erosion, and as a result crucial habitat of four species of native fish in parts of the Green River have been lost. On August 28, 2008, the Bureau of Reclamation prepared an EIS (Environmental Impact Statement) on the operation of the dam to meet the river flow required by Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act. The four native fishes affected are the razorback sucker, Colorado pikeminnow, humpback chub, and bonytail chub. The cold water, however, has allowed the proliferation of introduced trout populations. About of the Green River below the dam is designated as a "Blue Ribbon Trout Fishery", below which the water tends to be warmer and more suitable for native species. In addition, Flaming Gorge Reservoir has become "nationally known for the spectacular fishing available in the reservoir's cool clear water which is ideal for growing large trout". Proposed water diversion In the early 21st century, the Colorado River system has come under stress due to a severe drought. Colorado's fast-growing Front Range Urban Corridor, which is not situated in the Colorado River basin but receives water from it via diversions across the Rocky Mountains, is projected to run out of water in as little as 20 years if no new supplies are developed. One contentious proposal to augment the water supply is via a pipeline from Flaming Gorge Reservoir to southeastern Wyoming and thence to eastern Colorado. The $9 billion diversion would provide about of new water per year for the Front Range. Although eastern Colorado is lower in elevation than Flaming Gorge Reservoir, the water would have to be pumped over the Rocky Mountains, making the project a net power consumer. The proposal has caused significant disputes over water rights with about 87 percent of Wyoming residents polled opposing the project. Both the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers have denied permits for the project's construction. See also Blue Mesa Dam Dams in the Colorado River system List of reservoirs and dams in the United States List of the tallest dams in the United States Navajo Dam References Further reading Reisner, Marc (1986). Cadillac Desert. Viking. Webb, Roy (2012). Lost Canyons of the Green River: The Story Before Flaming Gorge Dam. External links United States Bureau of Reclamation−USBR.gov: Flaming Gorge Dam Environmental Impact Statement Dams in Utah Dams in the Green River (Colorado River tributary) basin Arch dams Colorado River Storage Project Buildings and structures in Daggett County, Utah Hydroelectric power plants in Utah United States Bureau of Reclamation dams Ashley National Forest Dams completed in 1964 Energy infrastructure completed in 1964 1964 in Utah Landmarks in Utah

4016615

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASFMA%20Award

ASFMA Award

The Australian Science Fiction Media Awards (ASFMA Awards) were awards given annually for achievement in non-literary media and media appreciation within Australian science fiction. They were awarded at the Australian National Science Fiction Media Convention, from 1984 to 1997. The award was formally dissolved and incorporated into the Ditmar Awards at the Business Meeting of the Australian National Science Fiction Convention, Spawncon II in Melbourne in 1999, with the formal merger of the Australian "Media Natcon" and the Natcon. Results 1983: Conquest '83, 24–25 September 1983 Brisbane It was decided to give ASFMA awards at the annual Media Natcon, starting in 1984. 1984: Medtrek 2, March 10–11, 1984, The Shore Inn Sydney Best Australian Media Fanzine Chronicles Best Australian Media Fanwriter Sue Bursztynski Best Australian Media Fanartist Sue Campbell 1985: Con Amore, June 8–10, 1985, Brisbane Parkroyal Brisbane Best Australian Media Fanzine Chronicles Best Australian Media Fanwriter Sue Bursztynski Best Australian Media Fanartist Lynn Hendricks 1986 Galactic Tours Convention, March 7–10, 1986, Townhouse Melbourne Best Australian Media Fanzine Chronicles Best Australian Media Fanwriter Sue Bursztynski Best Australian Media Fanartist Robert Jan Best Amateur Audio-Visual Sale of 23rd Century 1987: Eccentricon, July 3–6, 1987, Hawkesbury Agricultural College N.S.W.(NSW) Best Australian Media Fanzine Chronicles Best Australian Media Fanwriter Sue Clarke Best Australian Media Fanartist Robert Jan Best Amateur Audio-Visual Perfect Botch 1988: Zencon II, October 14–16, 1988, Carlton Social Club Melbourne Best Australian Media Fanzine A for Andromeda Australian Playbeing Chronicles Newspeak Spock Timeloop Best Australian Media Fanwriter Edwina Harvey Gail Neville Mark Try Karen Herkes Alan Stewart Best Australian Media Fanartist Gail Adams David Kenyon Phil Wlodarczyk Ian Gunn Mark Try 1989 Conspire, March 17–19, 1989, The Rex Hotel Canberra Best Writer Nikki White Best Artist Gail Adams Best Fanzine Spock Best Audio-visual No Award 1990: Huttcon '90, November 23–25, 1990, The Diplomat Motel Melbourne Best Australian Media Fanzine Starwalking Newsletter Enarrare, edited by Ellen Parry, Annie Hamilton, Marie Letters & Christine Poulson Spock Psychodaleks Captain's Log Best Australian Media Fanwriter Ana Dorfstad Edwina Harvey Moira Dahlberg Jan McNally Sue Isle Best Australian Media Fanartist Marianne Plumridge Wendy Purcell Bruce Mitchell Ian Gunn Phil Wlodarczyk 1991 Vampiricon, October 11–13, 1991, Melbourne Townhouse Best Writer Alan Stewart Best Artist Ian Gunn Best Fanzine Spock Wendy Purcell Best Media Newszine Ethel the Aardvark edited by Alan Stewart Best Audio-visual Danny Heap Huttcon `90 Opening Ceremony 1992 HongCon, June 6–8, 1992, Hotel Adelaide, S.A. Best Fiction Zine Steve & Martin's Excellent Fanzine Steven Scholz & Martin Reilly Best Australian Media Newszine 3 way tie for award Just Alice Adam Jenkins Captain's Log Gail Adams Ethel the Aardvark Alan Stewart Best Australian Media Fanwriter Martin Reilly Best Australian Media Fanartist Steven Scholz Best Amateur Audio-Visual James Bond etc George Ivanoff 1993 DefCon, June 4–7, 1993, Hotel St George Wellington New Zealand Best Australian Media Newszine Ethel the Aardvark edited by Alan Stewart & Paul Ewins Best Australian Media fanwriter Hazel Naird (Remaining categories not voted on due to inadequate nominations.) 1994 Constantinople, April 1–4, Southern Cross Melbourne Best Fan Writer James (Jocko) Allen Paul Ewins Terry Frost Jan MacNally Martin Reilly Katharine Shade Best Fan Artist Ian Gunn Darren Reid Steve Scholtz Kerri Valkova Phil Wlodarczyk Best Newsletter Awaken Blacklight Ethel the Aardvark Get Stuffed Thyme Best Fan Fiction Zine Black Light Nekros Spock Steve and Martin's Excellent Fanzine Yukkies Best Amateur Audiovisual Production Concave Opening Ceremony Russell Devlin Beky's Brain Phone Answering Message Danny Heap Star Wars Tribute @ Jedi 10th Darren Maxwell Starwalking Video, Karen Ogden Starwalking II Closing Ceremony The Bastards (Danny Heap & Paul Ewins) 1995 Basicon, October 21, Melbourne University Best Fan Writer Chris Ballis Paul Ewins Ian Gunn Karen Pender-Gunn Best Fan Artist Ian Gunn Tracy Hamilton Darren Reid Catherine Scholz Steve Scholz Kerri Valkova Best News Zine Coztume, Edited by Gail Adams Ethel The Aardvark, Edited by Paul Ewins Pink, Edited by Karen Pender-Gunn Severed Head, Edited by B.J.Stevens The Communicator, Edited by Derek Screen Thyme, Edited by Alan Stewart Best Fiction Zine Bobby & Mike #1, Edited by Peter & Jimmy Reilly Spock, Edited by Katherine Shade Strange Matter, Edited by Sian O'Neale The Mentor, Edited by Ron Clarke Best Audio Visual Constantinople Closing Ceremony (Performance) by George Ivanoff & Ian GunnConstantinople Masquerade Video (Video Compilation) by Carol TilleyConstantinople Opening Ceremony (Video/Performance) by George Ivanoff & Ian Gunn Constantinople Party Animation (Computer Animation) by Kerri Valkova 1996: The Festival of the Imagination, April 4–8, Kings Hotel Perth Best Fan Fiction Zine Ethel the Aardvark, edited by Paul Ewins Best Fan Newsletter Thyme, edited by Alan Stewart Best Media Fan Writer Ian Gunn Best Media Artist Ian Gunn Best Amateur Audio/Visual Production The Dalek Tapes (Albert Q.) 1997 Basicon 2, 27–28 September 1997 YWCA Cato Conference Centre, Elizabeth St, Melbourne Best Australian Fan Fiction ZineAlliance edited by Cavell Gleeson & Jeremy SadlerBabyloney 5 written & illustrated by Peter Reilly Best Australian Fan Newsletter The Communicator, edited by Derek ScreenFrontier, edited by Katharine MaxwellOscillation Overthruster, edited by Sue Ann Barber Thyme, edited by Alan Stewart Best Australian Media Fan Writer Sue Ann Barber Paul Ewins Ian GunnGeorge IvanoffKaren Pender-Gunn Margaret Walsh Best Australian Media Fan Artist Ian Gunn Tracy Hamilton Steve ScholzKerri ValkovaPhil Wlodarczyk Best Australian Amateur Audio/Visual Production Enterprise Web Site David Barker (https://web.archive.org/web/19980428161222/http://aba.net.au/people/susien/enterprise/)Star Trek 30th Anniversary Tribute Video (screened at Multiverse II) Danny Heap''' Zero G (3RRR radio program) Robert Jan See also Ditmar Award Ditmar Award results Australian science fiction awards

4016667

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murders%20of%20Rachel%20and%20Lillian%20Entwistle

Murders of Rachel and Lillian Entwistle

Neil Entwistle (born 18 September 1978) is an English man convicted of murdering his American wife, Rachel, and their infant daughter, Lillian, on 20 January 2006, in Hopkinton, Massachusetts, United States. He was sentenced to life imprisonment without parole and is incarcerated at Old Colony Correctional Center in Bridgewater, Massachusetts. Background Neil Entwistle was born near Nottingham and attended the University of York, receiving a master's degree in electronic engineering. He grew up in Worksop with his parents, Clifford and Yvonne, and his younger brother Russell. Entwistle's home was working class; his father was a coal miner and his mother was a cook at a school canteen. While at university, Entwistle met Rachel Souza, an American who was studying abroad. They married on 23 August 2003, in Plymouth. The couple moved to Worcestershire, where their daughter Lillian was born on 9 April 2005. Entwistle worked in computing and his wife as a teacher of English, Drama and Theatre Studies at St. Augustine's Catholic High School in Redditch. After migrating to the US, the couple stayed with Rachel's mother and stepfather, Joseph and Priscilla Matterazzo, in Carver, Massachusetts, before finding a house of their own in Hopkinton, located 26 miles (42 kilometers) west of Boston. Murders The bodies of 27-year-old Rachel and 9-month-old Lillian were found on 22 January 2006 in the master bedroom of the family's rented home, where they had been living for ten days. Autopsy results showed that Rachel died of a gunshot wound to the head and Lillian of a gunshot wound to the torso. The bullet that passed through Lillian also pierced Rachel's left breast. The bullets were so small that the one in Rachel's head went undetected until the autopsy. Hours after the deaths of his wife and daughter, Entwistle purchased a one-way ticket to London at about 5:00 a.m. (EST) on 21 January and boarded a British Airways flight that departed Boston at 8:15 a.m. His speedy departure from the crime scene was not the only reason he raised suspicion: Entwistle's DNA was found on the handle of the same .22 handgun owned by his father-in-law, Joseph Matterazzo, that he told authorities he had only used once, months earlier, while practising at Matterazzo's shooting club. DNA matching that of his wife was found on the gun's muzzle. A set of keys to Materazzo's house were found in the car Entwistle left at Boston's Logan International Airport. A search of Entwistle's computer revealed that days before the murders, he had viewed a website that described "how to kill people" and searched for escort services. Contrary to outward appearances, Entwistle had been unemployed since September 2005 and was indebted at the time of the murders. Though he claimed an income of $10,000 per month from an "offshore account" set up by his previous employer in the UK, Entwistle had no such income or account. He was also more than $30,000 in credit card debt and was under investigation by eBay for numerous fraudulent transactions. Authorities suspected a financial motivation for the murders. Investigation and evidence On the evening of 21 January, the day after the murders are believed to have been committed, police officers visited the Entwistles' home after Rachel's friend reported her missing. Though the police conducted a cursory inspection of the house, they failed to notice Rachel's and Lillian's bodies, obscured under a pile of bedding in the master bedroom. A second and more thorough search the following evening discovered their bodies. On 23 January, a Massachusetts State Police trooper called Entwistle at his parents' home in Worksop. The call lasted two hours and was recorded. Entwistle told the trooper that, on the morning of the murders, he had left his Hopkinton home at around 9:00 a.m. (EST) to run an errand and that his wife and daughter had both been alive and well, in the bed in the couple's master bedroom. He claimed that when he returned, at around 11:00 a.m., he found both had been shot dead, and had no idea who had killed them. Entwistle covered their bodies with a blanket and did not alert authorities. Entwistle claimed that he was so distraught upon seeing the corpses of his wife and daughter that he decided to kill himself. However, because he was unable to bring himself to end his life with a knife, he drove the family car to the Materazzos' house to get a .22LR caliber revolver. Finding the house locked, he told police that he decided to fly home to England to see his parents. Police subsequently named Entwistle as a person of interest in the investigation, and later issued an international arrest warrant. On 9 February 2006, Entwistle was arrested on a London Underground train at Royal Oak station following a detailed search of his parents' house. After an initial request that he not be sent back to the US, he later agreed to be extradited. Middlesex County district attorney Martha Coakley (who had successfully prosecuted British au pair Louise Woodward in 1997) told a press conference after Entwistle's arrest: Arrest and events prior to trial Rachel and Lillian were buried in Evergreen Cemetery in Kingston, Massachusetts, with the surname Souza on their graves. They were buried in a single coffin. Lillian's birth and death certificates were edited to read "father unknown". On 8 February 2006, a week after their funerals, Entwistle was arrested by the extradition unit of London's Metropolitan Police Service at Royal Oak station. He eventually waived his right to contest the extradition order and was returned to the US on 15 February where he was arraigned at Framingham District Court and ordered to be held without bail at Middlesex County jail in Cambridge. On 28 March, Entwistle was indicted on two counts of murder, the illegal possession of a firearm, and the illegal possession of ammunition. He pleaded not guilty. In December 2006, nearly a year after the murders, officers at the Middlesex County jail found letters from Entwistle to his parents and his legal team which indicated he was depressed and might be contemplating suicide. As a result, he was transferred to Bridgewater State Hospital for mental evaluation before being returned to Middlesex County. Forensic psychiatrist Christopher Cordess believed Asperger syndrome explained Entwistle's behavior, and Dr. David Holmes concurred. After numerous delays, the Middlesex superior court began juror selection in June 2008. There were concerns that, due to the high-profile nature of the case, Entwistle would not receive a fair trial. Some media reported that potential jurors were indicating that they had already formed significant views on his guilt. Trial and conviction Entwistle's trial for double murder began on 2 June 2008 in Woburn, Massachusetts. His legal team, led by Elliot Weinstein, unsuccessfully fought proposals by the prosecution to use DNA evidence. He also unsuccessfully fought to suppress other evidence found in the family home, due to the lack of a warrant. Entwistle called no witnesses, nor did he testify in his own defense. Entwistle was found guilty of all charges on 25 June 2008 and sentenced to life imprisonment without the possibility of parole, the mandatory sentence for first degree murder in the state of Massachusetts. Judge Diane Kottmyer made it clear that this was a whole life sentence, subject only to a governor's pardon or successful appeal. Kottmyer imposed two life sentences on the murder charges and ten years of probation on the firearms and ammunition charges, all to run concurrently, and the condition that he never profit from the sale of his story. Entwistle was first incarcerated at the Souza-Baranowski Correctional Center. In August 2008, he was tricked into shaving his head in an attempt to secure the protection of a white supremacist prison gang. Instead of giving him protection, the gang had reportedly said: "It's a nice gesture on your part but we're gonna kill you." Entwistle was put into protective custody (i.e., Administrative Segregation or "AdSeg") as a result, and in December, he was transferred to Old Colony Correctional Center, a medium security prison in Bridgewater. The Department of Corrections confirmed that Entwistle's transfer was for his own safety, and that the threats against his life were quite serious. Aftermath and appeals Entwistle's conviction was automatically appealed to the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court. He arranged for a new lawyer to represent him in his appeal, since his original lawyer, Weinstein, was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer and dropped the case to focus on recovery. On appeal, Entwistle argued that the searches of the family home were carried out without warrants and the evidence seized as a result should have been suppressed during the trial. The appeal was rejected in August 2012. The U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear the case in January 2013. Entwistle has thus exhausted all of his appeals. In October 2008, Entwistle's parents filed a complaint of harassment with the UK Press Complaints Commission (PCC) against their local newspaper, the Worksop Guardian; the complaint was rejected. His parents continue to insist that their son is innocent of the murders, that Rachel was the true killer and that he will eventually be cleared and released from prison. Entwistle's mother said after the trial: "The evidence points to Rachel murdering our grandchild and then committing suicide". Media In 2008, a book titled Heartless: The True Story of Neil Entwistle and the Cold Blooded Murder of His Wife and Child, was released by author Michele R. McPhee. In December 2012, the British broadcaster Channel Five aired an Entwistle documentary entitled The Man Who Didn't Cry. See also Crime in Massachusetts List of familicides in the United States Sharpe family murders Charles Stuart (murderer) Murder of Laci Peterson Watts family homicides Federico murder case References External links Neil Entwistle Murder Trial, a site maintained by the MetroWest Daily News covering the Entwistle case Neil Entwistle Trial Resources 2006 in Massachusetts 2006 murders in the United States January 2006 crimes in the United States Crimes in Massachusetts Familicides History of Middlesex County, Massachusetts Hopkinton, Massachusetts Incidents of violence against women Violence against women in Massachusetts Deaths by firearm in Massachusetts Deaths by person in Massachusetts Female murder victims

4016710

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20project%20management

Software project management

Software project management is the process of planning and leading software projects. It is a sub-discipline of project management in which software projects are planned, implemented, monitored and controlled. History In the 1970s and 1980s, the software industry grew very quickly, as computer companies quickly recognized the relatively low cost of software production compared to hardware production and circuitry. To manage new development efforts, companies applied the established project management methods, but project schedules slipped during test runs, especially when confusion occurred in the gray zone between the user specifications and the delivered software. To be able to avoid these problems, software project management methods focused on matching user requirements to delivered products, in a method known now as the waterfall model. As the industry has matured, analysis of software project management failures has shown that the following are the most common causes: Insufficient end-user involvement Poor communication among customers, developers, users and project managers Unrealistic or unarticulated project goals Inaccurate estimates of needed resources Badly defined or incomplete system requirements and specifications Poor reporting of the project's status Poorly managed risks Use of immature technology Inability to handle the project's complexity Sloppy development practices Stakeholder politics (e.g. absence of executive support, or politics between the customer and end-users) Commercial pressures The first five items in the list above show the difficulties articulating the needs of the client in such a way that proper resources can deliver the proper project goals. Specific software project management tools are useful and often necessary, but the true art in software project management is applying the correct method and then using tools to support the method. Without a method, tools are worthless. Since the 1960s, several proprietary software project management methods have been developed by software manufacturers for their own use, while computer consulting firms have also developed similar methods for their clients. Today software project management methods are still evolving, but the current trend leads away from the waterfall model to a more cyclic project delivery model that imitates a software development process. Software development process A software development process is concerned primarily with the production aspect of software development, as opposed to the technical aspect, such as software tools. These processes exist primarily for supporting the management of software development, and are generally skewed toward addressing business concerns. Many software development processes can be run in a similar way to general project management processes. Examples are: Interpersonal communication and conflict management and resolution. Active, frequent and honest communication is the most important factor in increasing the likelihood of project success and mitigating problematic projects. The development team should seek end-user involvement and encourage user input in the development process. Not having users involved can lead to misinterpretation of requirements, insensitivity to changing customer needs, and unrealistic expectations on the part of the client. Software developers, users, project managers, customers and project sponsors need to communicate regularly and frequently. The information gained from these discussions allows the project team to analyze the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) and to act on that information to benefit from opportunities and to minimize threats. Even bad news may be good if it is communicated relatively early, because problems can be mitigated if they are not discovered too late. For example, casual conversation with users, team members, and other stakeholders may often surface potential problems sooner than formal meetings. All communications need to be intellectually honest and authentic, and regular, frequent, high quality criticism of development work is necessary, as long as it is provided in a calm, respectful, constructive, non-accusatory, non-angry fashion. Frequent casual communications between developers and end-users, and between project managers and clients, are necessary to keep the project relevant, useful and effective for the end-users, and within the bounds of what can be completed. Effective interpersonal communication and conflict management and resolution are the key to software project management. No methodology or process improvement strategy can overcome serious problems in communication or mismanagement of interpersonal conflict. Moreover, outcomes associated with such methodologies and process improvement strategies are enhanced with better communication. The communication must focus on whether the team understands the project charter and whether the team is making progress towards that goal. End-users, software developers and project managers must frequently ask the elementary, simple questions that help identify problems before they fester into near-disasters. While end-user participation, effective communication and teamwork are not sufficient, they are necessary to ensure a good outcome, and their absence will almost surely lead to a bad outcome. Risk management is the process of measuring or assessing risk and then developing strategies to manage the risk. In general, the strategies employed include transferring the risk to another party, avoiding the risk, reducing the negative effect of the risk, and accepting some or all of the consequences of a particular risk. Risk management in software project management begins with the business case for starting the project, which includes a cost-benefit analysis as well as a list of fallback options for project failure, called a contingency plan. A subset of risk management is Opportunity Management, which means the same thing, except that the potential risk outcome will have a positive, rather than a negative impact. Though theoretically handled in the same way, using the term "opportunity" rather than the somewhat negative term "risk" helps to keep a team focused on possible positive outcomes of any given risk register in their projects, such as spin-off projects, windfalls, and free extra resources. Requirements management is the process of identifying, eliciting, documenting, analyzing, tracing, prioritizing and agreeing on requirements and then controlling change and communicating to relevant stakeholders. New or altered computer system Requirements management, which includes Requirements analysis, is an important part of the software engineering process; whereby business analysts or software developers identify the needs or requirements of a client; having identified these requirements they are then in a position to design a solution. Change management is the process of identifying, documenting, analyzing, prioritizing and agreeing on changes to scope (project management) and then controlling changes and communicating to relevant stakeholders. Change impact analysis of new or altered scope, which includes Requirements analysis at the change level, is an important part of the software engineering process; whereby business analysts or software developers identify the altered needs or requirements of a client; having identified these requirements they are then in a position to re-design or modify a solution. Theoretically, each change can impact the timeline and budget of a software project, and therefore by definition must include risk-benefit analysis before approval. Software configuration management is the process of identifying, and documenting the scope itself, which is the software product underway, including all sub-products and changes and enabling communication of these to relevant stakeholders. In general, the processes employed include version control, naming convention (programming), and software archival agreements. Release management is the process of identifying, documenting, prioritizing and agreeing on releases of software and then controlling the release schedule and communicating to relevant stakeholders. Most software projects have access to three software environments to which software can be released; Development, Test, and Production. In very large projects, where distributed teams need to integrate their work before releasing to users, there will often be more environments for testing, called unit testing, system testing, or integration testing, before release to User acceptance testing (UAT). A subset of release management that is gaining attention is Data Management, as obviously the users can only test based on data that they know, and "real" data is only in the software environment called "production". In order to test their work, programmers must therefore also often create "dummy data" or "data stubs". Traditionally, older versions of a production system were once used for this purpose, but as companies rely more and more on outside contributors for software development, company data may not be released to development teams. In complex environments, datasets may be created that are then migrated across test environments according to a test release schedule, much like the overall software release schedule. Maintenance and update is the process where Requirements and customer needs are always involving. They will undoubtedly find bugs, may request new features and ask for different functionality and more updates. So, all of these requests need to check and fulfill the customer's requirements and satisfaction. Project planning, execution, monitoring and control The purpose of project planning is to identify the scope of the project, estimate the work involved, and create a project schedule. Project planning begins with requirements that define the software to be developed. The project plan is then developed to describe the tasks that will lead to completion. The project execution is the process of completing the tasks defined in the project plan. The purpose of project monitoring and control is to keep the team and management up to date on the project's progress. If the project deviates from the plan, then the project manager can take action to correct the problem. Project monitoring and control involves status meetings to gather status from the team. When changes need to be made, change control is used to keep the products up to date. Issue In computing, the term "issue" is a unit of work to accomplish an improvement in a system. An issue could be a bug, a requested feature, task, missing documentation, and so forth. For example, OpenOffice.org used to call their modified version of Bugzilla IssueZilla. , they call their system Issue Tracker. Severity levels Issues are often categorized in terms of severity levels. Different companies have different definitions of severities, but some of the most common ones are: High The bug or issue affects a crucial part of a system, and must be fixed in order for it to resume normal operation. Medium The bug or issue affects a minor part of a system, but has some impact on its operation. This severity level is assigned when a non-central requirement of a system is affected. Low / Fixed The bug or issue affects a minor part of a system, and has very little impact on its operation. This severity level is assigned when a non-central requirement of a system (and with lower importance) is affected. Trivial (cosmetic, aesthetic) The system works correctly, but the appearance does not match the expected one. For example: wrong colors, too much or too little spacing between contents, incorrect font sizes, typos, etc. This is the lowest severity issue. Issue management In some implementations of software development processes, issues are investigated by quality assurance analysts a system is verified for correctness, and then assigned back to a member of the development team to resolve the identified issue. They can also be identified by system users during the User Acceptance Testing (UAT) phase. Issues can be recorded and communicated using Issue or Defect Tracking Systems. In the absence of a formal Issue or Defect Tracking system, it is commonplace to simply use any form of written communication such as emails or instant messages to communicate the existence of a found issue. Philosophy As a subdiscipline of project management, some regard the management of software development akin to the management of manufacturing, which can be performed by someone with management skills, but no programming skills. John C. Reynolds rebuts this view, and argues that software development is entirely design work, and compares a manager who cannot program to the managing editor of a newspaper who cannot write. References General External links Project failure Project management

4016735

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piasecki%20Aircraft

Piasecki Aircraft

The Piasecki Aircraft Corporation (PiAC) is a manufacturer of aircraft, principally advanced rotorcraft. It was founded by American vertical flight pioneer Frank Piasecki to develop compound helicopters and other advanced rotorcraft after he was ousted from the leadership of his first company, Piasecki Helicopter. History The company's origins dated back to 1936 with the formation of the P-V Engineering Forum in 1940 and it was renamed the Piasecki Helicopter Corporation in 1946. After a falling out with other owners, Frank Piasecki and some of his design team left to form Piasecki Aircraft Corporation in 1955. The Piasecki Aircraft Corporation is based in Essington, Pennsylvania and is run by Frank Piasecki's sons; Frederick Weyerhaeuser Piasecki is chairman and John Weyerhaeuser Piasecki is president and CEO. In 2005, the company was selected by the United States Army as the prime contractor for two Future Combat Systems (FCS) unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) systems The FCS Class III UAV system contract was awarded to the company in late 2006 following a competitive downselect of four competing technologies. As part of that effort, the company flew the world's first autonomous autogyro. The company was the successful bidder when the US Navy’s Naval Air Systems Command awarded a demonstration contract to serve as a testbed to validate the "Vectored Thrust Ducted Propeller" system. Piasecki developed and flight-tested the X-49 experimental compound helicopter, with its first flight in 2007, later completing all Phase 1 requirements. Piasecki bid on the Future Vertical Lift program, but was not chosen when that project moved into its Joint Multi-Role Technology Demonstrator (JMR-TD) phase in 2013. In December 2018, Piasecki announced Air Scout unmanned air system (UAS), it is designed to meet emerging cargo logistics requirements consistent with UAS Classification Group 3. Air Scout is sized at 300lbs, with payload potential of 50-150 lbs. In 2021, the Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center adopted Piasecki's Mobile Multiple Mission Module (M4) as their research asset. M4 was designed to accommodate cargo, patients, troops or a combination of any of these with its rapidly reconfigurable interior. It was planned to be flown using the Aerial Reconfigurable Embedded System (ARES) in 2023. Piasecki is working for the PA-890, an electric powered helicopter with targets for lower operating cost, reduced noise, and zero direct emissions. The airport is featured in the March/April 2021 Vertiflite magazine. Products See also Piasecki Helicopter References Notes Bibliography Trimble, William F. High Frontier: A History of Aeronautics in Pennsylvania. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1982. . External links Piasecki Aircraft Corporation World's First Autonomous Autogyro FCS Entries Helicopter manufacturers of the United States

4016816

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20Principles%20of%20the%20Civil%20Law%20of%20the%20People%27s%20Republic%20of%20China

General Principles of the Civil Law of the People's Republic of China

The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People's Republic of China () is a law in the PRC that was promulgated on April 12, 1986 and came into force on January 1, 1987. It is heavily influenced by the German Civil Code. It is the main source of civil law in the PRC and seeks to provide a uniform framework for interpreting the PRC's civil laws. Unlike most civil law jurisdictions, the PRC didn't not have a comprehensive civil code until 2021, and attempts to create one by the Chinese government have been difficult and controversial. The "General Principles" include both civil rights and liabilities under civil law, and contains 9 chapters and 156 articles. The chapters deal with the following topics: Basic Principles Citizen (Natural Person) Legal Persons Civil Juristic Acts and Agency Civil Rights Civil Liability Limitation of Action Application of Law in Civil Relations with Foreigners Supplementary Provisions See also Civil Code of People's Republic of China, passed on May 28, 2020, effective Jan. 1, 2021. References Laws of China

4016952

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-electron%20valence%20state%20perturbation%20theory

N-electron valence state perturbation theory

In quantum chemistry, n-electron valence state perturbation theory (NEVPT) is a perturbative treatment applicable to multireference CASCI-type wavefunctions. It can be considered as a generalization of the well-known second-order Møller–Plesset perturbation theory to multireference Complete Active Space cases. The theory is directly integrated into many quantum chemistry packages such as MOLCAS, Molpro, DALTON, PySCF and ORCA. The research performed into the development of this theory led to various implementations. The theory here presented refers to the deployment for the Single-State NEVPT, where the perturbative correction is applied to a single electronic state. Research implementations has been also developed for Quasi-Degenerate cases, where a set of electronic states undergo the perturbative correction at the same time, allowing interaction among themselves. The theory development makes use of the quasi-degenerate formalism by Lindgren and the Hamiltonian multipartitioning technique from Zaitsevskii and Malrieu. Theory Let be a zero-order CASCI wavefunction, defined as a linear combination of Slater determinants obtained diagonalizing the true Hamiltonian inside the CASCI space where is the projector inside the CASCI space. It is possible to define perturber wavefunctions in NEVPT as zero-order wavefunctions of the outer space (external to CAS) where electrons are removed from the inactive part (core and virtual orbitals) and added to the valence part (active orbitals). At second order of perturbation . Decomposing the zero-order CASCI wavefunction as an antisymmetrized product of the inactive part and a valence part then the perturber wavefunctions can be written as The pattern of inactive orbitals involved in the procedure can be grouped as a collective index , so to represent the various perturber wavefunctions as , with an enumerator index for the different wavefunctions. The number of these functions is relative to the degree of contraction of the resulting perturbative space. Supposing indexes and referring to core orbitals, and referring to active orbitals and and referring to virtual orbitals, the possible excitation schemes are: two electrons from core orbitals to virtual orbitals (the active space is not enriched nor depleted of electrons, therefore ) one electron from a core orbital to a virtual orbital, and one electron from a core orbital to an active orbital (the active space is enriched with one electron, therefore ) one electron from a core orbital to a virtual orbital, and one electron from an active orbital to a virtual orbital (the active space is depleted with one electron, therefore ) two electrons from core orbitals to active orbitals (active space enriched with two electrons, ) two electrons from active orbitals to virtual orbitals (active space depleted with two electrons, ) These cases always represent situations where interclass electronic excitations happen. Other three excitation schemes involve a single interclass excitation plus an intraclass excitation internal to the active space: one electron from a core orbital to a virtual orbital, and an internal active-active excitation () one electron from a core orbital to an active orbital, and an internal active-active excitation () one electron from an active orbital to a virtual orbital, and an internal active-active excitation () Totally Uncontracted Approach A possible approach is to define the perturber wavefunctions into Hilbert spaces defined by those determinants with given k and l labels. The determinants characterizing these spaces can be written as a partition comprising the same inactive (core + virtual) part and all possible valence (active) parts The full dimensionality of these spaces can be exploited to obtain the definition of the perturbers, by diagonalizing the Hamiltonian inside them This procedure is impractical given its high computational cost: for each space, a diagonalization of the true Hamiltonian must be performed. Computationally, is preferable to improve the theoretical development making use of the modified Dyall's Hamiltonian . This Hamiltonian behaves like the true Hamiltonian inside the CAS space, having the same eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the true Hamiltonian projected onto the CAS space. Also, given the decomposition for the wavefunction defined before, the action of the Dyall's Hamiltonian can be partitioned into stripping out the constant contribution of the inactive part and leaving a subsystem to be solved for the valence part The total energy is the sum of and the energies of the orbitals involved in the definition of the inactive part . This introduces the possibility to perform a single diagonalization of the valence Dyall's Hamiltonian on the CASCI zero-order wavefunction and evaluate the perturber energies using the property depicted above. Strongly Contracted Approach A different choice in the development of the NEVPT approach is to choose a single function for each space , leading to the Strongly Contracted (SC) scheme. A set of perturbative operators are used to produce a single function for each space, defined as the projection inside each space of the application of the Hamiltonian to the contracted zero order wavefunction. In other words, where is the projector onto the subspace. This can be equivalently written as the application of a specific part of the Hamiltonian to the zero-order wavefunction For each space, appropriate operators can be devised. We will not present their definition, as it could result overkilling. Suffice to say that the resulting perturbers are not normalized, and their norm plays an important role in the Strongly Contracted development. To evaluate these norms, the spinless density matrix of rank not higher than three between the functions are needed. An important property of the is that any other function of the space which is orthogonal to do not interact with the zero-order wavefunction through the true Hamiltonian. It is possible to use the functions as a basis set for the expansion of the first-order correction to the wavefunction, and also for the expression of the zero-order Hamiltonian by means of a spectral decomposition where are the normalized . The expression for the first-order correction to the wavefunction is therefore and for the energy is This result still misses a definition of the perturber energies , which can be defined in a computationally advantageous approach by means of the Dyall's Hamiltonian leading to Developing the first term and extracting the inactive part of the Dyall's Hamiltonian it can be obtained with equal to the sum of the orbital energies of the newly occupied virtual orbitals minus the orbital energies of the unoccupied core orbitals. The term that still needs to be evaluated is the bracket involving the commutator. This can be obtained developing each operator and substituting. To obtain the final result it is necessary to evaluate Koopmans matrices and density matrices involving only active indexes. An interesting case is represented by the contribution for the case, which is trivial and can be demonstrated identical to the Møller–Plesset second-order contribution NEVPT2 can therefore be seen as a generalized form of MP2 to multireference wavefunctions. Partially Contracted Approach An alternative approach, named Partially Contracted (PC) is to define the perturber wavefunctions in a subspace of with dimensionality higher than one (like in case of the Strongly Contracted approach). To define this subspace, a set of functions is generated by means of the operators, after decontraction of their formulation. For example, in the case of the operator The Partially Contracted approach makes use of functions and . These functions must be orthonormalized and purged of linear dependencies which may arise. The resulting set spans the space. Once all the spaces have been defined, we can obtain as usual a set of perturbers from the diagonalization of the Hamiltonian (true or Dyall) inside this space As usual, the evaluation of the Partially Contracted perturbative correction by means of the Dyall Hamiltonian involves simply manageable entities for nowadays computers. Although the Strongly Contracted approach makes use of a perturbative space with very low flexibility, in general it provides values in very good agreement with those obtained by the more decontracted space defined for the Partially Contracted approach. This can be probably explained by the fact that the Strongly Contracted perturbers are a good average of the totally decontracted perturbative space. The Partially Contracted evaluation has a very little overhead in computational cost with respect to the Strongly Contracted one, therefore they are normally evaluated together. Properties NEVPT is blessed with many important properties, making the approach very solid and reliable. These properties arise both from the theoretical approach used and on the Dyall's Hamiltonian particular structure: Size consistency: NEVPT is size consistent (strict separable). Briefly, if A and B are two non-interacting systems, the energy of the supersystem A-B is equal to the sum of the energy of A plus the energy of B taken by themselves (). This property is of particular importance to obtain correctly behaving dissociation curves. Absence of intruder states: in perturbation theory, divergencies can occur if the energy of some perturber happens to be nearly equal to the energy of the zero-order wavefunction. This situation, which is due to the presence of an energy difference at the denominator, can be avoided if the energies associated to the perturbers are guaranteed to be never nearly equal to the zero-order energy. NEVPT satisfies this requirement. Invariance under active orbital rotation: The NEVPT results are stable if an intraclass active-active orbital mixing occurs. This arises both from the structure of the Dyall Hamiltonian and the properties of a CASSCF wavefunction. This property has been also extended to the intraclass core-core and virtual-virtual mixing, thanks to the Non Canonical NEVPT approach, allowing to apply a NEVPT evaluation without performing an orbital canonization (which is required, as we saw previously) Spin purity is guaranteed: The resulting wave functions are guaranteed to be spin pure, due to the spin-free formalism. Efficiency: although not a formal theoretical property, computational efficiency is highly important for the evaluation on medium-size molecular systems. The current limit of the NEVPT application is largely dependent on the feasibility of the previous CASSCF evaluation, which scales factorially with respect to the active space size. The NEVPT implementation using the Dyall's Hamiltonian involves the evaluation of Koopmans' matrices and density matrices up to the four-particle density matrix spanning only active orbitals. This is particularly convenient, given the small size of currently used active spaces. Partitioning into additive classes: The perturbative correction to the energy is additive on eight different contributions. Although the evaluation of each contribution has a different computational cost, this fact can be used to improve performance, by parallelizing each contribution to a different processor. See also Electron correlation Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics) Post-Hartree–Fock References Electron states Computational chemistry

4017028

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KV63

KV63

KV63 is a chamber in Egypt's Valley of the Kings pharaonic necropolis. Initially believed to be a royal tomb, it is now believed to have been a storage chamber for the mummification process. It was found in 2005 by a team of archaeologists led by Dr. Otto Schaden. The chamber contained seven wooden coffins and many large storage jars. All coffins have now been opened, and were found to contain only mummification materials, with the jars also containing mummification supplies including salts, linens, and broken pottery. Some clay seal impressions contain text, such as the partial word 'pa-aten,' part of the birth name of Tutankhamun's wife, Ankhesenamun. This inscription, the architectural style of the chamber, and the form of the coffins and jars all point to an Eighteenth Dynasty date, roughly contemporary with Tutankhamun, whose tomb is nearby. KV63 was revisited by Schaden's team again in 2010, along with a TV team. Another 16 storage jars were explored, and a wooden bed with lions' heads, along with pieces of wine jars, were discovered. The team arrived at the theory that the chamber was probably used by Tutankhamun's family embalmers, about 1337–1334 BC. Discovery The vertical shaft of KV63 was re-discovered on 10 March 2005. The discovery that the shaft led to a chamber was announced on 8 February 2006, by the Supreme Council of Antiquities, which credited the find to a team of U.S. archaeologists from the University of Memphis, under the leadership of Dr. Otto Schaden. The chamber—given the name "KV63" in accordance with the sequential numbering convention used in the Valley—was initially thought to be a tomb, the first new one to be revealed there since the discovery of KV62, the tomb of Tutankhamun, by Howard Carter in 1922. KV63 is located in the area between KV10 (Amenmesse) and KV62 (Tutankhamun), in the very centre of the Valley's eastern branch and near the main crossroads of the network of paths traversed by thousands of tourists dayly. The discovery was made as the archaeological team was excavating the remains of 19th dynasty workmen's huts at the entrance to KV10, looking for evidence to clarify the succession of Amenmesse. The area around the huts had accumulated rubble from occasional flooding. Both Theodore M. Davis and Howard Carter had dug in the area in the early twentieth century, but had not removed these particular huts. While exploring a layer of dark rock, the dig came across chips of white stone (these being the last level excavated by Carter). Further exploration revealed a straight edge of cut stone, which turned out to be on the upper lip of a vertical shaft. Unfortunately, the discovery came at the end of the 2004–05 digging season, and further excavations were postponed until the team recommenced its work the following autumn. Description of chamber The overhang on the shaft of KV63 has been compared with and found to be similar to other Eighteenth Dynasty tombs (KV55 and that of Yuya and Thuya), thereby dating the construction to the latter portion of the Eighteenth Dynasty (ca. 14th century BC) of the New Kingdom (16th century to 11th century BC). It is also broadly speculated that all three tombs are the work of the same architect, or at least the same school of architects. The shaft descends some five metres. At the bottom of this pit stands a 1.5 metre tall door made of stone blocks. Behind this door, in which the team originally opened a small window for the 10 February 2006 event, stands the single chamber. No seals were found on the door, and it was initially believed that KV63 was a reburial and had experienced some intrusion in antiquity. The blocking stones in the doorway were not original, suggesting that the doorway had been opened and closed a few times. The original blocking stones were found inside the tomb, giving evidence that someone had re-entered and sealed the tomb in antiquity. The chamber measures some four metres by five and has plain white walls. It contained seven wooden coffins, including one scaled for a child and one for an infant. Two of the adult coffins and the child's coffin feature yellow funerary masks; the others have black funerary masks. It has been suggested that those with yellow faces may have been designed for female occupants. There is extensive termite damage on some coffins and the result was likened by the excavating team to "black paste"; however, at least two coffins were virtually untouched by termites. These termites seem to have come from the workers' huts above the shaft, and therefore probably date from the pharaonic era. There was no evidence of water damage. However, now that the chamber has been opened, the site is at risk of damage from flash floods. The identity of the owners of the coffins is unknown; in any case none contained human remains, all having been used to hold material relating to the embalming process. There is no evidence for the chamber having been sealed more than once and it thus seems that the deposit represents embalming debris from one particular person's mummification. The chamber also held 28 large storage jars, approximately 75 cm tall, made from both pottery and alabaster. The jars weighed around 40 or 43 kg (90–95 pounds), varying slightly in size and weight. Three of them appear to have been broken in antiquity at the rim or lower neck. Most of the jars were discovered with intact lids, but did not bear pharaonic seal impressions. Shortly after their manufacture, the jars were whitewashed while standing in sand, and the bottoms show the original clay. A large ostracon, not identified to have come from one of the storage jars at the time, was discovered and broken during the modern opening of the tomb. According to Dr. Schaden, the method of sealing the storage jars had been deliberate. A mud plug was first inserted, then a seal, and then a large plaster seal. Apparently, it was of importance that it should be done in this precise manner. This supports the idea that there was a reason behind the placing of the artifacts and that the chamber was not merely a dumping ground. There was over 175 kg of natron in the chamber, some inside the coffins and some inside little sacks. The jars and contents are similar to those from KV54, the Tutankhamun embalming cache. Work has been ongoing to remove the coffins and the storage jars to KV10, which has adequate space for a conservation team to conduct a thorough examination and analysis of the coffins and jars in a proper, scientific manner. A pulley system was devised to facilitate the safe removal of the coffins and jars from the shaft. Grass buckets and bubblewrap were used to lift the jars out from the place where they were packed away for 3000 years. The removal of jars began on 2 March 2006 and most jars have been relocated safely along with one large sealed alabaster jar, which contained small pots packed in mud. Twelve of the storage jars have thus far been examined. Contents include natron, wood, seeds, shells, carbon, assorted pottery, small animal bones, papyrus fragments, mud trays, mud seals, and pieces of twine or rope. Egyptologist Salima Ikram is supervising the removal and examination of the contents. On first examination there appeared to be stuffing extruding between the lid and the bottom of the youth coffin labeled 'G'. When the coffin was opened this stuffing was revealed to be five pillows. As textile remnants from ancient Egypt are relatively rare, and pillows extremely so, the materials used for these will be of great interest. On May 26, 2006, a 42 cm. pink gold leaf anthropoid coffinette was discovered inside the youth coffin, under the pillows. The last and only completely sealed coffin was opened on June 28, 2006. The coffin contained no mummy, only artifacts used for mummification or to decorate a body. It looked like it had once been used, as there was an impression of a human body in the bottom of the coffin. It is theorized that this body was moved or destroyed in antiquity. Due to its proximity to the tomb of Tutankhamun and the resemblances between the portraits in the sarcophagi, as well as the style contemporary to the latter part of the 18th Dynasty, there was groundless speculation at the time of the first discovery that the coffins were once used for the bodies of Kiya and/or even Ankhesenamen. However, there is no reason to believe that the coffins were other than that of basic types used for private persons, probably derived from undertakers' stock for use to contain embalming debris. Given the location of the tomb, and the fact that its entrance was sealed by the same flood layer that sealed that of Tutankhamun, it seems most likely that KV63 was the main embalmers' cache for Tutankhamun's burial. In this case, the long-known group of material deriving from his funeral found in KV54 probably represents an 'overflow' of material requiring disposal after KV63 had been sealed. See also KV64 KV65 References External links Theban Mapping Project: KV63 KV63 Expedition website: 'Dig Diary' of Dr. Otto Schaden with KV-63 Clearance and Excavation photos. See KV-63 Publications Page. Question-and-answer session with Roxanne Wilson, staff artist/recorder with the KV-10/KV-63 mission. (28 February 2006) Approximate location of KV63 New Tomb Discovered in the Valley of the Kings (University of Memphis) A Concealed Cachet (sic) in Luxor (Zahi Hawass) Hypothesis over a "yellow-face" mask's coffin's identification U of M-sponsored Find in Egypt Promises More "Wonderful Things" (University of Memphis Press Release) The Amenmesse Project (KV10 expedition webpage) IEAA KV 63 (IEAA) News media Egypt's New Tomb Revealed (an interactive site by Discovery Channel) Pharaonic tomb find stuns Egypt (BBC News, with video footage of tomb) Tomb Found in Egypt's Valley of Kings (ABC news, with pictures) Tomb of mummies found in Egypt's Valley of the Kings (CBC) "Experts in new Egypt tomb discovery." The Scotsman New Tomb Found in Valley of Kings (CBS) Intact tomb found in Egypt's Valley of the Kings (Washington Post) Pharaoh'ld coup for Ulster archaeologist Belfast Telegraph Slackman, Michael. "Tomb Yields Many Mysteries, but no Mummy," New York Times, June 28, 2006 Buildings and structures completed in the 14th century BC Valley of the Kings 2006 archaeological discoveries

4017218

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaykhism

Shaykhism

Shaykhism () is a Shi'a Islamic school founded by Shaykh Ahmad in early 19th-century Qajar Iran. While grounded in traditional Twelver Shiʻi doctrine, Shaykhism diverged from the Usuli school in its interpretation of key ideas such as the nature of the end times and the day of resurrection, the source of jurisprudential authority, and the proper hermeneutic to be employed in interpreting prophecy through the mystical writings of the Twelver Imams. These divergences resulted in controversy and ongoing accusations of heresy from Usulis and Akhbaris. It has been described as a mystical strand of Twelver Shi'a Islam. , there remained a following in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Pakistan. Shaykhí teachings Eschatology The primary force behind Ahmad's teachings is the belief in the occultation of the Twelfth Imam. Believers in this doctrine, hold that the last divine ordained leader, or Imam, lives in occultation and will reappear as the promised Mahdi. Following the Mahdi's appearance, Ahmad teaches that the Imam Hussain ibn Ali will return to re-conquer the world and that the Imam Ali and prophet Muhammad will kill Satan. Al Raj'a (meaning "the return" in English) was heavily emphasized by Ahmad and is more important in Shaykhism than in the Usuli school of Islam. Shaykh Ahmad's perspectives on accepted Islamic doctrines diverged in several areas, most notably on his mystical interpretation of prophesy. The sun, moon and stars of the Qurʼan's eschatological surahs are seen as allegorical, similar to Ismaili doctrine, where common Muslim interpretation is that events involving celestial bodies will happen literally at the Day of Judgment. Hurqalya In an effort to "harmonize reason and religion" and "explain some doctrines of Islam that appear contrary to reason" and the laws of the natural world, Shaykh Ahmad, postulated an intermediary world between the physical and spiritual worlds that he called hurqalya. Everything in the physical world would have counterparts in hurqalya, and events and concepts of Islamic doctrine that did not make sense in the physical world -- heaven, hell, resurrection from the dead, Muhammad's Isra' and Mi'raj, the long life of the Twelfth Imam and the two cities "he is supposed to live" in, Jabulqa and Jabulsa -- all would exist in the realm of hurqalya. Consequently, everyone would have two bodies, one in the natural world and one in hurqalya. It was this concept of hurqalya, "more than anything else" that led to Shaykh Ahmad's conflict with the ulama. Mystical interpretation In other writings, Shaykh Ahmad synthesizes rather dramatic descriptions of the origin of the prophets, the primal word, and other religious themes through allusions and mystical language. Much of this language is oriented around trees, specifically the primal universal tree of Eden, described in Jewish scripture as being two trees. This primal tree is, in some ways, the universal spirit of the prophets themselves:The symbol of the preexistent tree appears elsewhere in Shaykh Ahmad's writings. He says, for instance, that the Prophet and the Imams exist both on the level of unconstrained being or preexistence, wherein they are the Complete Word and the Most Perfect Man, and on the level of constrained being. On this second, limited plane, the cloud of the divine Will subsists and from it emanates the Primal Water that irrigates the barren earth of matter and of elements. Although the divine Will remains unconstrained in essential being, its manifest aspect has now entered into limited being. When God poured down from the clouds of Will on the barren earth, he thereby sent down this water and it mixed with the fallow soil. In the garden of the heaven known as as-Saqurah, the Tree of Eternity arose, and the Holy Spirit or Universal Intellect, the first branch that grew upon it, is the first creation among the worlds. Prominent Scholars Shaykh Ahmad Shaykh Ahmad, at about age forty, began to study in earnest in the Shiʻa centres of religious scholarship such as Karbala and Najaf. He attained sufficient recognition in such circles to be declared a mujtahid, an interpreter of Islamic Law. He contended with Sufi and Neo-Platonist scholars, and attained a positive reputation among their detractors. He declared that all knowledge and sciences were contained (in essential form) within the Qurʼan, and that to excel in the sciences, all knowledge must be gleaned from the Qurʼan. His leadership style and approach to interpretation draw both on traditional and theosophical methods, attempting to harmonize these two streams of Shiʻia thought in unprecedented ways, and emphasizing the validity of intuitive knowledge for religious thought. Rather than relying entirely on Ijtihad, or independent rational justification, Shakyh Ahmad claimed to derive direct guidance from the Imams. Relying entirely on individual justification for religious guidance had, he suggested, led to the introduction into Shiʻa belief of erroneous views of particular scholars. By emphasizing the role of a charismatic leader whose work was suggested to share in the infallibility of the Imams, Shakyh Ahmad suggested that the diversity of rulings promoted by the ulama could be replaced with a singular set of doctrines-this view would later find widespread support in the Ayatollah system of modern Usulism. His views resulted in his denunciation by several learned clerics, and he engaged in many debates before moving on to Persia where he settled for a time in the province of Yazd. It was in Isfahan that most of this was written. Sayyid Kazim Rashti Al-Ahsa'is most prominent student, Kazim Rashti, was given the authority to teach on his behalf in Karbala and became his undisputed successor. Abbas Amanat notes that, in contrast to other religious schools in Iran where students came from families of high-ranking clerics, "the majority of the students in Rashti's circle, with the exception of a few, were alike in their humble origins". Karim Khan Al-Rashti had hundreds of students and several of his leading students claimed to be the true successors to his scholarship. The two main currents of Shaykhism since then came to be known as the Kermani and Tabrizi Schools. Karim Khan Kermani (1809/1810-1870/1871) became the leader of the main Shaykhi group. He became the foremost critic of those that formed a new religion, writing four essays against them. He repudiated some of the more radical teachings of Ahsai and Rashti and moved the Shaykhi school back towards the mainstream Usuli teachings. Karim Khan Kirmani was succeeded by his son Shaykh Muhammad Khan Kirmani (1846–1906), then by Muhammad's brother Shaykh Zaynal 'Abidln Kirmani (1859–1946). Shaykh Zayn al-'Abidin Kirmani was succeeded by Shaykh Abu al-Qasim Ibrahimi (1896–1969), who was succeeded by his son 'Abd al-Rida Khan Ibrahimi who was a leader until his death. Muhammad Baqir Sharif Tabatabae Mirza Muhammad Baqir Sharif Tabatabaei was born in a village named Qehi, in the vicinity of Isfahan, in 1823. His father, Mulla Muhammad Jafar was an admirer of Sheikh Ahmad Ahsaei. After learning the basics from his father, Mirza Muhammad Baqir travelled to Isfahan to continue his education, and resided in Nimavard School where he studied different sciences for several years. Then he met one of the admirers of Haj Muhammad Karim Kermani, (who was also known as “Badr”). Since Kermani was on a pilgrimage to Imam Reza's shrine in Mashhad through Yazd, he travelled to Yazd in the hope of visiting the great man in 1261 Hijri year. Since the path was dangerous, and Kermani had to return to Kerman, Mirza Muhammad Baqir accompanied him to Kerman, and resided in Ibrahimieh School, studying Islamic theology. He soon reached a level where he could teach the lessons of his grand master. After several years, the date of which is not known, Kermani sent him to the city of Naein for preaching and guidance, where he spent some years preaching and proselytizing. Mirza Muhammad Baqir immediately gained the attention and respect of the Sheikhieh members of Naein, Anarak, Jandaq, Biabanak and the surrounding cities. Then he returned to Kerman, Until Kermani left for a pilgrimage to Karbala in 1283 Hijri year. When Kermani arrived in Hamedan, because of the great number of Sheikhieh adherents, and also lack of great leaders after the demise of Mullah Abdulsamad Hamedani, he appointed Mirza Muhammad Baqir as a leader in his absence, and continued his pilgrimage to Karbala. Mirza Muhammad Baqir stayed in Hamedan since his mentor had mandated it. He engaged in preaching, proselytizing and teaching Islamic principles for 32 years. He was a great leader and protector for the Sheikhieh members after the demise of his mentor, until 1315 Hijri. In Eid al-Fitr of 1315, when the riots of Hamedan occurred, he migrated to Jandaq village and stayed there for the rest of his fruitful life, teaching Islamic principles and preaching. Mirza Muhammad Baqir died on the 23rd of Shaʼban 1319 (1901), at the age of 80. After Maqrib and Isha prayer. This great man was buried in the same village, but after two years, his body was moved to Mashhad, to be laid to rest in Imam Reza's shrine, next to his Imam. He has left more than 190 manuscripts and almost 2000 sermons and teachings. Modern Shaykhism The current leader of the Shaykhiya is Zein al-Abedin Ebrahimi from Iran which become the leader of Shaykhiya when the last leader Mr. Ali al-Musawi died in Iraq. Ali al-Musawi was the man who heads a community with followers in Iraq - mainly Basrah and Karbala - Iran and the Persian Gulf. Basrah has a significant Shaykhi minority, and their mosque is one of the largest in the city holding up to 12,000 people. The Shaykhiya were resolutely apolitical and hence were allowed relative freedom under Saddam Hussein. Since the 2003 Invasion of Iraq and subsequent Iraqi Civil War they have been targeted by Iraqi nationalists who accused them of being Saudis on the grounds that Ahmad al-Ahsai was from present-day Saudi Arabia. They responded by creating an armed militia and asking all local political groups to sign a pact allowing them to live in peace. This was done at the al-Zahra conference in April 2006. In a move away from their traditional apolitical stance, a Shaykhi political party stood in the Basra governorate election, 2009; they came third, winning 5% of the votes and 2 out of 35 seats. Reception in other religions Bábís and then Baháʼís see Shaykhism as a spiritual ancestor of their movement, preparing the way for the Báb and eventually Baháʼu'lláh. According to this view, Shaykhism has outlived its eschatological purpose and is no longer relevant. There are many connections between Bábism and Shaykhism. The Báb met with Siyyid Kazim several times and more than half of the 'prominent' converts to the Bábí Faith in its first four years were Shaykhis according to Moojan Momen and Peter Smith. One key similarity between Shaykhism and the Bábí and Baháʼí Faiths is their shared emphasis on a symbolic and allegorical understanding of religious scripture. Further reading Corbin, Henry (1977). Spriritual Body and Celestial Earth: From Mazdean Iran to Shi'ite Iran. Princeton University Press, New Jersey. Related documents on Bahai-library.com Notes References External links Early Shaykhism: Some Bibliographical Notes, Translations and Studies by Stephen Lambden Collected Works of Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsa'i at H-Bahai Discussion Network Al-Abrar; Digital Library of Shaykhia Shaykhism Twelver Shi'ism Ja'fari jurisprudence History of the Bahá'í Faith Shia Islam in Iraq Islam in Iran

4017235

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boutique%20amplifier

Boutique amplifier

Boutique amplifier is a catch-all descriptor for any type of instrument amplifier that is typically hand built with the intention of being much better than the mass-produced variety offered by large companies. In the majority of cases, this is reflected in the price. Sometimes they are clones of older designs, often with minor improvements or alterations in layout or circuit design; sometimes they are new designs altogether. The boutique term are also used among effect pedals, such as the manufacturer Analog Man. History California company Mesa Boogie can lay claim to being perhaps the earliest boutique amp company: their late 1960s Mark series, based on the ubiquitous Fender Princeton "study" amp but "hot-rodded", quickly established a reputation for tone and volume, and was used by, among others, Carlos Santana. Since the advent of the boutique amp age, larger companies have released reissues of their classic designs, touting their faithfulness to the original sound and the labor-intensive building process. Common elements Some common features of boutique amplifiers include point-to-point or turret board construction, heavy-duty chassis, NOS vacuum tubes, and high-end electronic parts and speakers. Notable manufacturers 65amps Bogner Amplification Carr Amplifiers Dumble Amplifiers Friedman Amplification Fryette Amplification Gjika Amplification Matchless Amplifiers Trainwreck Circuits See also Tube sound References Instrument amplifiers

4017322

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADVISE

ADVISE

ADVISE (Analysis, Dissemination, Visualization, Insight, and Semantic Enhancement) is a research and development program within the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Threat and Vulnerability Testing and Assessment (TVTA) portfolio. It is reportedly developing a massive data mining system, which would collect and analyze data on everyone in the United States and perform a "threat analysis" on them. The data can be anything from financial records, phone records, emails, blog entries, website searches, to any other electronic information that can be put into a computer system. This information is then analyzed, and used to monitor social threats such as community-forming, terrorism, political organizing, or crime. ADVISE will possess the ability to store one quadrillion data entities. The exact scope and degree of completion of the program is unclear. ADVISE is in the 2004-2006 Federal DHS Budget as a component of the $47 million TVTA program. The program was officially scrapped in September 2007 after the agency's internal Inspector General found that pilot testing of the system had been performed using data on real people without required privacy safeguards in place. See also Data warehouse Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) ECHELON Information Awareness Office NSA warrantless surveillance controversy TALON (Threat and Local Observation Notice) References External links US plans massive data sweep, February 9, 2006 article by Mark Clayton in the Christian Science Monitor Data Sciences Technology for Homeland Security Information Management and Knowledge Discovery, report of the Department of Homeland Security Workshop on Data Sciences conducted September 22–23, 2004, released in January 2005 by Sandia National Laboratories and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. See pages 7–8. Information to Insight in a Counterterrorism Context, report on ADVISE prepared for the US Department of Energy by Robert Burleson of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory at the University of California Threat & Vulnerability, Testing & Assessment - $47M, page 23 of Fiscal Year 2006 Budget Brief for the Department of Homeland Security Science & Technology Directory, by Parney Albright, March 1, 2005 ADVISE at SourceWatch United States Department of Homeland Security Privacy of telecommunications Mass surveillance

4017346

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafi%20Pitts

Rafi Pitts

Rafi Pitts (, born 1967) is an Iranian film director. Life and career Pitts was born in Mashad, Iran. Rafi spent his childhood in Tehran, where he lived in a basement flat underneath a post-production studio. He came to England (his father is English) in 1981 during the Iran Iraq war. He graduated in 1991 from the Polytechnic of Central London with a BA (Hons) degree in Film and Photography. His first short film, In Exile (1991) was presented the same year at the London International Film Festival. In the 90's Pitts moved to Paris and worked on films by Leos Carax, Jacques Doillon and Jean-Luc Godard. Educated in France and England, Rafi Pitts belongs to the new wave of Iranian cinema, which received numerous prestigious prizes in the international festival circuit. In 1996 he had the opportunity to film in Iran and he was the first film director (in exile) to do so since the Revolution in 1979. His first feature Season Five (1997) was the first Franco-Iranian coproduction since the Revolution. In 2006, he was nominated for Golden Bear award of Berlin Film Festival for his film, It's Winter. His 2010 film The Hunter was nominated for the Golden Bear at the 60th Berlin International Film Festival. His 2016 Film Soy Nero won the best film award at the 12th Bucharest International Film festival, in April 2016 Representative awards and honors Golden Bear, nominated, Berlin Film Festival, 2006. Grand Prix, Paris Film Festival, 2001. Golden Moon of Valencia, Cinema Jove - Valencia International Film Festival, 2001. Golden Wheel, Vesoul Asian Film Festival- France, 2001. OCIC Grand Prix, Amiens International Film Festival, 1997. Special Jury Prize, Mannheim-Heidelberg International Filmfestival, 1997 & 2000. Filmography 2016 Soy Nero 2011 60 Seconds of Solitude in Year Zero 2010 The Hunter (Shekarchi) 2006 It's Winter (Zemestan) 2003 Abel Ferrara: Not Guilty (documentary from the series "Cinema de Notre Temps) 2000 Sanam 1997 Season Five (Fasl-e-Panjom) 2023 Eureka References 1967 births Alumni of the University of Westminster Iranian film directors Living people People from Mashhad Persian-language film directors Iranian people of English descent

4017688

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIMIC

MIMIC

MIMIC, known in capitalized form only, is a former simulation computer language developed 1964 by H. E. Petersen, F. J. Sansom and L. M. Warshawsky of Systems Engineering Group within the Air Force Materiel Command at the Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio, United States. It is an expression-oriented continuous block simulation language, but capable of incorporating blocks of FORTRAN-like algebra. MIMIC is a further development from MIDAS (Modified Integration Digital Analog Simulator), which represented analog computer design. Written completely in FORTRAN but one routine in COMPASS, and ran on Control Data supercomputers, MIMIC is capable of solving much larger simulation models. With MIMIC, ordinary differential equations describing mathematical models in several scientific disciplines as in engineering, physics, chemistry, biology, economics and as well as in social sciences can easily be solved by numerical integration and the results of the analysis are listed or drawn in diagrams. It also enables the analysis of nonlinear dynamic conditions. The MIMIC software package, written as FORTRAN overlay programs, executes input statements of the mathematical model in six consecutive passes. Simulation programs written in MIMIC are compiled rather than interpreted. The core of the simulation package is a variable step numerical integrator of fourth-order Runge-Kutta method. Many useful functions related to electrical circuit elements exist besides some mathematical functions found in most scientific programming languages. There is no need to sort the statements in order of dependencies of the variables, since MIMIC does it internally. Parts of the software organized in overlays are: MIMIN (input)– reads in user simulation program and data, MIMCO (compiler) – compiles the user program and creates an in-core array of instructions, MIMSO (sort)– sorts the instructions array after dependencies of variables, MIMAS (assembler) – converts the BCD instructions into machine-oriented code, MIMEX (execute)– executes the user program by integrating, MIMOUT (output)– puts out the data as a list or diagram of data. Example Problem Consider a predator-prey model from the field of marine biology to determine the dynamics of fish and shark populations. As a simple model, we choose the Lotka–Volterra equation and the constants given in a tutorial. If f(t): Fish population over time (fish) s(t): Shark population over time (sharks) df / dt or : growth rate of fish population (fish/year) ds / dt or : growth rate of shark population (sharks/year) : growth rate of fish in the absence of sharks (1/year) : death rate per encounter of fish with sharks (1/sharks and year). : death rate of sharks in the absence of their prey, fish (1/year) : efficiency of turning predated fish into sharks (sharks/fish) then with initial conditions The problem's constants are given as: = 600 fish = 50 sharks = 0.7 fish/year = 0.007 fish/shark and year = 0.5 shark/year = 0.1 shark/fish tmax = 50 year Code sample Card columns 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 12345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901 ----------------------------------------------------------------------- * A SIMPLE PREDATOR-PREY MODEL FROM MARINE BIOLOGY / (TUTORIAL 2: NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF ODE'S - 19/08/02) / ENVIRONMENTAL FLUID MECHANICS LAB / DEPT OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERİNG / STANFORD UNIVERSITY * * LOTKA–VOLTERRA EQUATION CON(F0,S0,TMAX) CON(ALPHA,BETA,GAMMA,EPS) 1DF = ALPHA*F-BETA*F*S F = INT(1DF,F0) 1DS = EPS*BETA*F*S-GAMMA*S S = INT(1DS,S0) HDR(TIME,FISH,SHARK) OUT(T,F,S) PLO(F,S) FIN(T,TMAX) END <EOR> 600. 50. 50. 0.7 0.007 0.5 0.1 <EOF> References Notes Control Data MIMIC; A Digital Simulation Language, Reference Manual, Publication Number 4461n400, Control Data Corporation, Special Systems Publications, St. Paul, Minnesota (April 1968) MIMIC, An Alternative Programming Language for Industrial Dynamics, N.D. Peterson, Socio-Econ Plan Sci. 6, Pergamon 1972 MIMIC Manual (1969), Computer Center Oregon State University Object-oriented programming languages Numerical programming languages Simulation programming languages Control Data Corporation software Wright-Patterson Air Force Base Programming languages created in 1964 Fortran software

4017731

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdenemandal

Erdenemandal

Erdenenmandal (, ; "Jewel rise") is a small town located 73 miles north of the Arkhangai Aimag capital Tsetserleg, as well as a sum of the province. There is a small central post office (with a phone) and also a small market area. Basic supplies can be purchased at the market area. Diesel and gasoline are available but not on a regular basis. The area may go days or longer without fuel for vehicles. During the harsh Mongolian winters nomads from many miles away may relocate to the outskirts of Erdenemandal, setting up their gers (or yurts) in a manner to protect themselves from wind and snow. Climate Erdenemandal experiences a subarctic climate (Köppen Dwc) with long, dry, very cold winters and short, warm summers. References Populated places in Mongolia Districts of Arkhangai Province

4017793

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nkore%20language

Nkore language

Nkore (also called Nkole, Nyankore, Nyankole, Orunyankore, Orunyankole, Runyankore and Runyankole) is a Bantu language spoken by the Nkore ("Banyankore") of south-western Uganda in the former province of Ankole, as well as in Tanzania, the DR Congo, Rwanda and Burundi. Runyankole is mainly spoken in the Mbarara, Bushenyi, Ntungamo, Kiruhura, Ibanda, Isingiro, Rukungiri, Buhweju, Mitooma, Sheema, Rubirizi and parts of Kitagwenda districts. There is a brief description and teaching guide for this language, written by Charles V. Taylor in the 1950s, and an adequate dictionary in print. Whilst this language is spoken by almost all the Ugandans in the region, most also speak English, especially in the towns. (English is one of Uganda's two official languages, and the language taught in schools.) Nkore is so similar to Kiga (84–94 percent lexical similarity) that some argue they are dialects of the same language, a language called Nkore-Kiga by Taylor. Phonology Runyankore has a five-vowel system: Sounds /i, u/ can be heard as [ɪ, ʊ] when short or lax. Orthography a - [a] b - [b] c - [t͡ʃ] d - [d] e - [e] f - [f] g - [g/d͡ʒ] h - [h] i - [i] k - [k/t͡ʃ] m - [m] n - [n] o - [o] p - [p] r - [r] s - [s] t - [t] u - [u] v - [v] w - [w] y - [j] z - [z] ai - [ai̯] ei - [ɛi̯] gy - [gʲ] ky - [kʲ] mp - [ᵐp] mw - [ᵐw] nd - [ⁿd] ng - [ŋ] ny - [ɲ] oi - [ɔi̯] sh - [ʃ] ts - [t͡s] zh - [ʒ] D and P are only used in the digraphs ND and MP and in loanwords. G and K are [d͡ʒ] and [t͡ʃ] before I, [k] and [g] elsewhere. Basic greetings The greeting Agandi, implying, "How are you?" but literally meaning "other news!", can be replied with Ni marungi, which literally means "good news!". The proper greetings are Oraire ota? or Osiibire ota?, literally translated "How was your night?" and "How was your day?". "Good night" is Oraare gye and "Good day" is Osiibe gye. Here are a few names one might use in a greeting: Madam – Nyabo Sir – Sebo Child – omwana Boy – omwojo Girl – omwishiki Food Matooke or Bananas - Ebitookye Maize Meal or corn bread – Obuhunga’Ensano’ Beans – Ebihimba Meat – Enyama Millet Bread – Oburo Other words and phrases No: Ngaaha (ing-gah-ha) or Apaana (ah-pah-nah) Yes: Yego (yegg-oh) Thank you: Yebare (Ye-ba-re) Thank you very much: Yebare munonga (Ye-ba-re mu-non-ga) You're welcome (literally: Thank you for appreciating): Yebare kusiima (ye-ba-re koo-see-mah) I like/love you: Ninkukunda (nin-koo-coon-dah) or ninkukunda munonga (nin-koo-coon-dah moo-non-gah) My name is : Eizina ryangye niinye __ (ey-zeen-ah riya-gye ni-inye___) or ndi _ (in-dee __) I am from _: Ninduga_ (nin-doog-ah_) It's how much shillings/money? Ni shiringi zingahi? (Knee shi-rin-gee zin-gah-hee) or ni sente zingahi? Good morning. How are you? Oraire ota (orei-rota) Replies: I'm fine Ndaire gye (ndei-re-jeh) or Ndyaho (indi-aho) Good morning. Did you sleep well? Oraire gye? (orei-reh-jeh) Reply: Yes, yourself? Yego, shan’iwe Good afternoon. How are you spending your day? Osiibire ota (o-see-bee-rota) Replies: Nsiibire gye (insi-bi-reje) You are spending your day well? Osiibire gye (Osi birejge) Replies: Yes- Yego (yegg-oh) or nsiibire gye Good afternoon. How has your day been? Waasiiba ota (wasib-wota) Reply: Fine, good, I've spent it well – Naasiiba gye (nasi-baje) Good night: oraregye See also Runyakitara language References a banyankore are bantu speaking group of people from South western Uganda and they speak Runyankore with (ntu) (aba) like akantu, ekintu, omuntu, abantu. Akantu means thing in prural, ekintu means something big, omuntu means a person, abantu means people same as in Zulu language of South Africa Languages of Uganda Nyoro-Ganda languages

4017885

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle%20Acre%20Castle%20and%20town%20walls

Castle Acre Castle and town walls

Castle Acre Castle and town walls are a set of ruined medieval defences built in the village of Castle Acre, Norfolk. The castle was built soon after the Norman Conquest by William de Warenne, the Earl of Surrey, at the intersection of the River Nar and the Peddars Way. William constructed a motte-and-bailey castle during the 1070s, protected by large earthwork ramparts, with a large country house in the centre of the motte. Soon after, a small community of Cluniac monks were given the castle's chapel in the outer bailey; under William, the second earl, the order was given land and estates to establish Castle Acre Priory alongside the castle. A deer park was created nearby for hunting. After civil war broke out in England in 1135, the third earl, also called William, set about improving the defences of the castle. He began to build a tall keep on top of the motte, reinforcing the surrounding earthworks with stone walls. A planned settlement was established alongside the castle, surrounded by its own earthworks and walls, and the Peddars Way was redirected to pass by the castle, town and priory, all important symbols of the de Warennes' power in the region. Hamelin de Warenne acquired the castle through marriage and curtailed the building work on the keep around 1165, but completed the construction of three large stone gatehouses in the castle and town. One of these, the town's bailey gate, still survives intact. The de Warennes continued to hold the castle until 1347, when it was inherited by Richard Fitzalan, the Earl of Arundel. By 1397 the fortifications were in ruins and, despite restoration work by Sir Edward Coke at the start of the 17th century, the decline continued until the 20th century. In 1971, Thomas Coke, the Earl of Leicester, placed the castle into the guardianship of the state. In the 21st century, it is managed by English Heritage and open to visitors. Historic England consider the castle's huge defensive earthworks to be "among the finest surviving in England". History 11th century Castle Acre Castle was built by William de Warenne, the Earl of Surrey, in the manor of Acre during the 1070s. William was a Norman lord who had accompanied William the Conqueror in the conquest of England in 1066; he was rewarded with extensive estates across England. Acre was already an Anglo-Saxon estate centre and at the time of the invasion was owned by a wealthy man called Toki, but he was quickly replaced by Frederick, a Flemish lord and William's brother-in-law. When Frederick died around 1070, William acquired control of the manor, which formed part of his massive land holdings across the region. The castle was strategically located where the River Nar met the Peddars Way, an old Roman road, at the centre of Warenne's other estates in Norfolk, and may have been built on top of Toki's former house. The castle had a motte-and-bailey design: its large outer and inner baileys were protected by earthworks and palisades, and a stone gatehouse was added to the inner bailey shortly afterwards. In the centre of the inner bailey was a grand double-hall built from stone, but this was not fortified and would have been more like a country house than a conventional Norman keep. William gave St Mary's, the former parish church which was now surrounded by the castle's outer bailey, to the Cluniac order of monks, along with of farmland. By 1088 a handful of monks had arrived from Lewes, where William had also founded a Cluniac community, to settle at the castle. William's son, the second Earl William de Warrene, gave the monks a more spacious area of land to the west of the castle, probably in 1090, where they built Castle Acre Priory; the construction took a long time, and the priory was not fully completed until the 1160s. Monastic sites like the priory would have given their founders, and their associated castles, considerable prestige. A deer park was constructed near Castle Acre, with farmed rabbit warrens established around its edges. 12th century Robert Curthose, the Duke of Normandy, invaded England in 1101 with the backing of many of the barons, but was persuaded to halt his campaign and return to Normandy after King Henry I bought him off with a substantial annuity. William de Warrenne had backed the duke during his campaign, however, and now found himself politically exposed. He was exiled and disseised of his English estates, including Castle Acre, until in 1103 the duke was able to persuade Henry to permit William to return and reclaim his lands. After 1135, a civil war known as the Anarchy broke out between the supporters of King Stephen and the Empress Matilda. William supported Stephen, as did his son, the third Earl William de Warenne, when he inherited the earldom in 1138. There was fighting across much of the country, although less so in Norfolk, but William also faced challenges to his preeminence in the region from the growing power of the d'Albinis and de Vere families. In response, William remodelled Castle Acre Castle. Around 1140, the earthworks were raised considerably and the double-hall was first strengthened, and then began to be converted into a very tall, square keep. The timber ramparts of the inner bailey were replaced with a stone wall, and the height of the earthworks around the outer bailey were raised and topped with a stone wall. A fortified, planned settlement was built alongside the castle around this time. The small community was not quite a proper town and was effectively dependent on the castle; such settlements are sometimes called burgus settlements or "castle-gate" towns. The historians Oliver Creighton and Robert Higham suggest the settlement's earthwork defences and stone walls resemble an "enormous outer bailey" of the castle, rather a more conventional set of town walls. The walled settlement would have formed an important symbol of William's lordship. As part of these works, the Peddars Way was redirected. It had previously run straight across the de Warenne estates, but it was now diverted so that travellers coming from the south had to leave the main road, progress west around the priory and the castle fishpond, before reaching the southern end of the walled town and the route to the north. If they intended to enter the castle, they would have needed to enter through the town's western gate, then the castle's gatehouse, before probably passing through a ceremonial sequence of rooms in order to finally meet the lord. The route was designed to highlight the important symbols of the de Warenne lordship of the region and provide a dramatic view of the castle, and may have been a response to the political uncertainties of the Anarchy years. William died in 1148 while taking part in the Second Crusade, leaving the castle and lands to his daughter, Isabel de Warenne, who was then married to King Stephen's son, William of Blois. In 1153, however, Stephen faced a military stalemate in the civil war and agreed that Matilda's son, the future Henry II, should inherit the throne on his death, rather than William of Blois. Henry assumed power the next year and took control of various castles across England, including Castle Acre. Henry then married Isabel to his illegitimate brother, Hamelin de Warenne, in 1164, who acquired the castle along with the other de Warrenne lands. Hamelin changed the plan for the castle: the original ambition for the height of the keep was reduced and the southern half of the building was demolished. It is unclear if even this less ambitious building was ever completed. Hamelin also probably built the two gatehouses in the town, and the western gatehouse in the castle's outer bailey. 13th-14th centuries The castle and settlement continued to be mostly held by the de Warennes until 1347. The castle was frequented by royalty, Henry III visiting the castle at least four times, and Edward I visiting five times. The seventh earl, John de Warenne, married Joan, the niece of Edward II, but the marriage failed and instead he chose to live with his mistress Maud Nereford. This situation led to threats of excommunication. In 1316, John therefore gave Castle Acre to Aymer de Valence, the Earl of Pembroke and England's Ambassador to Rome, probably to encourage him to present a petition to the Pope to annul the marriage the following year. John later reacquired the castle, but he died in 1347 with no legitimate heirs. Richard Fitzalan, the Earl of Arundel, inherited the estate but by 1397 the castle was in ruins. The surrounding settlement remained small and never became a borough, although the priory prospered. 15th-21st centuries After 1537, Thomas Howard, the Duke of Norfolk, leased the ruins of the castle and the adjacent priory, which had been closed during the Dissolution of the Monasteries. His grandson, Thomas Howard, sold the properties to the financier Sir Thomas Gresham in 1558, and in turn they were purchased by first Thomas Cecil, the Earl of Exeter, and then in 1615 to Sir Edward Coke, a prominent lawyer. Edward, who was interested in history and possibly keen to reinforce his own credentials as a new entrant to the English elite, carried out repairs to the castle at a cost of £60. The castle was passed down within Coke's family, who became the earls of Leicester. Over the years the walls were robbed of their stone and the site used for grazing animals; the antiquarian Henry Harrod noted in 1857 that "every house in the neighbourhood has some of the stone-work of the castle...in its walls". With the closure of the priory and the abandonment of the castle, the prosperity of the settlement of Castle Acre also declined. Antiquarian interest in the sites grew from the 18th century onward, and archaeological investigations took place in the 1850s and 1930s, but visitors were mostly more interested in the ruins of the priory than those of the castle. In 1971, Thomas Coke, the fifth Earl of Leicester, placed the castle into the guardianship of the state. Major archaeological excavations were carried out between 1972 and 1983, focusing on the inner bailey. In the 21st century, the castle and the bailey gate are managed by English Heritage and open to visitors. The castle and the settlement defences are protected under UK law as a scheduled ancient monument, and the bailey gate is further protected as a Grade I listed building. Architecture Castle Acre Castle comprises three main earthworks: a motte and inner bailey to the north, an outer bailey to the south, and a barbican to the north-east. The medieval settlement of Castle Acre was linked to the western edge of the castle, and enclosed by its own circuit of earthwork defences and walls. Historic England consider the castle's huge defensive earthworks to be "among the finest surviving in England" The castle's large outer bailey is rectangular in shape, covering , surrounded by earth banks and, on the east and west, deep ditches. Fragments of its 12th-century stone walls survive in places. The main entrance to the castle came from the town through the north-west corner of the outer bailey; this was defended by a stone gatehouse and a portcullis, of which only the foundations now survive. Two other gates from the bailey led north-east into the barbican, and south down to the River Nar. The outer bailey would have contained a hall, kitchen, accommodation and a chapel, although only traces of these can now be seen on the surface. The route into the earthwork barbican was guarded by a gateway and a bridge. The barbican was designed to protect the castle's exposed north-eastern flank and had its own entrance from the eastern side. The inner bailey is reached by a bridge, which was originally made from wood, later rebuilt in stone, before replaced by the current steel version in the 20th century. The inner bailey comprises a roughly circular earthwork, up to high, topped by the remains of a stone curtain wall and protected by ditches, now about deep. The earthworks form a raised motte, although they combine features of a circular ringwork. The ruins of the 12th-century keep and the foundations of the 11th-century house, constructed from chalk rubble, remain visible and are surrounded by much of the rampart wall, made from chalk rubble and flint. The planned settlement of Castle Acre was in size, covering . There are well-preserved ramparts along the west and south side, known as Dyke Hills, the surviving ditch being around wide and deep, and the bank high. The bailey gatehouse was built from flint stone and defended with two drum towers and a portcullis. It survives largely intact, although is roofless. Parts of the settlement's stone wall survive alongside the bailey gatehouse, and along the southern ramparts. See also Castles in Great Britain and Ireland List of castles in England Notes References Bibliography External links English Heritage visitors' page Grade I listed buildings in Norfolk Castles in Norfolk English Heritage sites in Norfolk Scheduled monuments in Norfolk Archaeology of Norfolk

4018015

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dholuo

Dholuo

The Dholuo dialect (pronounced ) or Nilotic Kavirondo, is a dialect of the Luo group of Nilotic languages, spoken by about 4.2 million Luo people of Kenya and Tanzania, who occupy parts of the eastern shore of Lake Victoria and areas to the south. It is also spoken by millions in Uganda, South Sudan, and Ethiopia. It is used for broadcasts on Ramogi TV and KBC (Kenya Broadcasting Corporation, formerly the Voice of Kenya). Dholuo is mutually intelligible with Alur, Acholi and Adhola of Uganda. Dholuo and the aforementioned Uganda languages are all linguistically related to Dholuo of South Sudan and Anuak of Ethiopia due to common ethnic origins of the larger Luo peoples who speak Luo languages. It is estimated that Dholuo has 90% lexical similarity with Leb Alur (Alur), 83% with Leb Achol (Acholi), and 93% with Dhopadhola (Adhola). However, these are often counted as separate languages despite common ethnic origins due to linguistic shift occasioned by geographical movement. Literacy (Of the Luo from South Nyanza) The foundations of the Dholuo written language and today's Dholuo literary tradition, as well as the modernization of the Jaluo people in Kenya, began in 1907 with the arrival of a Canadian-born Seventh-day Adventist missionary Arthur Asa Grandville Carscallen, whose missionary work over a period of about 14 years along the eastern shores of Lake Victoria left a legacy. (This applies only to the Luo of Southern Nyanza, which are to the East of Lake Victoria). This legacy continues today through the Obama family of Kenya and the Seventh-day Adventist Church to which the Obamas and many other Jaluo converted in the early part of the 20th century as residents of the region that Carscallen was sent to proselytize. The Obamas of Kenya are relatives of former US president Barack Obama. From 1906 to 1921, Carscallen was superintendent of the Seventh-day Adventist Church's British East Africa Mission, and was charged with establishing missionary stations in eastern Kenya near Lake Victoria and proselytizing among the local population. These stations would include Gendia, Wire Hill, Rusinga Island, Kanyadoto, Karungu, Kisii (Nyanchwa), and Kamagambo. In 1913, he acquired a small press for the Mission and set up a small printing operation at Gendia in order to publish church materials, but also used it to impact education and literacy in the region. Over a period of about five years administering to largely Jaluo congregations, Carscallen achieved a mastery of the Dholuo language and was credited with being the first to reduce the language to writing, publishing the Elementary grammar of the Nilotic-Kavirondo language (Dhö Lwo), together with some useful phrases, English-Kavirondo and Kavirondo-English vocabulary, and some exercises with key to the same in 1910. Then, just a little more than two years later, the mission translated portions of the New Testament from English to Dholuo, which were later published by the British and Foreign Bible Society. In 2019, Jehovah’s Witnesses released the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures in the Luo language. The bible translation seeks clear, modern expression and it's distributed without charge, both printed and online versions. The grammar textbook Carscallen produced was widely used for many years throughout eastern Kenya, but his authorship of it is largely forgotten. It was later retitled, Dho-Luo for Beginners, and republished in 1936. In addition to the grammar text, Carscallen compiled an extensive dictionary of "Kavirondo" (Dholuo) and English, which is housed at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, UK. Neither of these works has been superseded, only updated, with new revised versions of the linguistic foundation that Carscallen established in 1910. Phonology Vowels Dholuo has two sets of five vowels, distinguished by the feature [±ATR] which is carried primarily on the first formant. While ATR is phonemic in the language, various phonological vowel harmony processes play a major role and can change the ATR of the vowel at output. A current change in certain dialects of Dholuo is that certain pronouns seem to be losing the ATR contrast and instead use [±ATR] in free variance. Consonants In the table of consonants below, orthographic symbols are included between angle brackets following the IPA symbols. Note especially the following: the use of for , common in African orthographies; , are plosives, not fricatives as in Swahili spelling (but phoneme can fricativize intervocalically). Phonological characteristics Dholuo is a tonal language. There is both lexical tone and grammatical tone, e.g. in the formation of passive verbs. It has vowel harmony by ATR status: the vowels in a noncompound word must be either all [+ATR] or all [−ATR]. The ATR-harmony requirement extends to the semivowels , . Vowel length is contrastive. Grammar Dholuo is notable for its complex phonological alternations, which are used, among other things, in distinguishing inalienable possession from alienable. The first example is a case of alienable possession, as the bone is not part of the dog. chogo guok (chok guok) bone dog 'the dog's bone' (which it is eating) The following is however an example of inalienable possession, the bone being part of the cow: chok dhiang' bone (construct state) cow 'a cow bone' Sample phrases References Bibliography Gregersen, E. (1961). Luo: A grammar. Dissertation: Yale University. Stafford, R. L. (1965). An elementary Luo grammar with vocabularies. Nairobi: Oxford University Press. Omondi, Lucia Ndong'a (1982). The major syntactic structures of Dholuo. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer. Tucker, A. N. (ed. by Chet A. Creider) (1994). A grammar of Kenya Luo (Dholuo). 2 vols. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. Okoth Okombo, D. (1997). A Functional Grammar of Dholuo. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. Odaga, Asenath Bole (1997). English-Dholuo dictionary. Lake Publishers & Enterprises, Kisumu. . Odhiambo, Reenish Acieng' and Aagard-Hansen, Jens (1998). Dholuo course book. Nairobi. Capen, Carole Jamieson. 1998. Bilingual Dholuo-English dictionary, Kenya. Tucson (Arizona): self-published. Kurasa ix, 322. [] External links Luo phrases and basics Practical guide for learning Luo A Handbook of the Kavirondo Language (1920) – one of the earliest books on Dholuo Languages of Kenya Luo languages

4018066

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Mazur

Eric Mazur

Eric Mazur (born November 14, 1954) is a physicist and educator at Harvard University, and an entrepreneur in technology start-ups for the educational and technology markets. Mazur's research is in experimental ultrafast optics, condensed matter physics and peer instruction. Born in Amsterdam, Netherlands, he received his undergraduate and graduate degrees from Leiden University. Education Mazur studied physics and astronomy at Leiden University. He passed his "doctoraal examen" (equivalent to a master's degree) in 1977 and continued his graduate studies at the same institution. His PhD thesis investigated the structure of non-equilibrium angular momentum polarizations in polyatomic gases. Career and research Although he intended to go on to a career in industry with Philips N.V. in Eindhoven, he left Europe at the urging of his father, Peter Mazur, to pursue a postdoctoral study with Nobel laureate Nicolaas Bloembergen at Harvard University. After two years as a postdoctoral researcher working with Bloembergen, Mazur was offered a position of assistant professor at Harvard University. In 1987 he was promoted to associate professor and obtained tenure three years later in 1990. Mazur currently holds a chair as Balkanski Professor of Physics and Applied Physics jointly in the Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences and in the Physics Department. He is also the Dean of Applied Physics. Mazur's early work at Harvard focused on the use of short-pulse lasers to carry out spectroscopy of highly vibrationally excited molecules. Mazur and his group have made many pioneering contributions to the field of ultrashort laser pulses and their interactions with matter ("femtosecond material science"). In 1989 his group was one of the first in academia to build a colliding-pulse mode-locked laser, which generated pulses of only 70 femtosecond duration. After early measurements by Mazur's group demonstrated conclusively that solids can undergo a structural phase transition without appreciable heating of the lattice, Mazur's group developed a technique to measure the full dielectric function of highly excited semiconductors. Since then the group's use of this technique and various nonlinear optical probes to study laser-induced structural phase transitions. In parallel to the work on semiconductors, Mazur began studying the interaction of intense femtosecond pulses with transparent materials. By tightly focusing a laser pulse in the bulk of a transparent material nonlinear optical absorption occurs inside the material, leading to extreme high temperatures and material changes at the focus. This femtosecond laser micromachining technique is now widely used for data storage, fabrication of integrated optical components, and microsurgery. In 1998 a serendipitous discovery in Mazur's laboratory led to the development of a new method to form a silicon surface modification, called "black silicon" because of its very low reflectivity. After irradiation by a train of femtosecond laser pulses in the presence of a halogen containing gas, the surface of silicon develops a self-organized microscopic structure of micrometer-sized cones. The resulting material has many remarkable properties, such as an enhanced absorption that extends to the infrared below the band gap of silicon. The material has found commercial applications in a number of photodetectors. Mazur's research continues to focus on ultrashort laser pulse interactions and novel nonlinear optical devices. In collaboration with a group from Zhejiang University in Hangzhou, China, Mazur's group was the first to develop a technique for pulling subwavelength diameter silica optical fibers. These wires guide light in the form of an evanescent wave, permit very sharp bending of the light. Peer instruction In 1991, Mazur began designing an instructional strategy for teaching called peer instruction. In 1997, he published a book called Peer Instruction: A User's Manual which provides details on this strategy. Peer Instruction (PI) has been found to be more beneficial than class-wide discussion or lecture. In fact, according to an article in the March/April 2009 edition of Complexity, over 90% of instructors who have tried PI plan to continue to use it and incorporate it more into teaching. The seating arrangement plays an important role in the outcome of this method. For example, when low-performing students are seated in the front, their chance to do better increases. Meanwhile, the results of high-performing students who are seated in the back are not affected. In addition, when high-performing students are seated in the outer four corners of the classroom, the performance of the class as a whole increases. Entrepreneurship Mazur has founded or co-founded at least two technology start-ups: SiOnyx, which makes infrared sensors, and Learning Catalytics, which in April 2013 he sold to the Pearson educational corporation. Awards and honors Mazur has been widely recognized for his scientific work and leadership. 1988 – Awarded the Presidential Young Investigator Award by President Ronald Reagan. 1989 – Elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society. 1999 – Award for excellence in educational research by the Council of Scientific Society Presidents 2006 – selected as one of 75 most outstanding American physicists by the American Association of Physics Teachers 2008 – Awarded the Esther Hoffman Beller Medal by the Optical Society of America. 2008 - Correspondent of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences 2014 - Minerva Prize for Advancement in Higher Education by Minerva University References External links 1954 births Living people 21st-century American physicists 20th-century Dutch physicists Dutch emigrants to the United States Laser researchers Leiden University alumni Harvard University faculty Scientists from Amsterdam Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Fellows of the American Physical Society Optical physicists

4018241

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid%20Equipping%20Force

Rapid Equipping Force

The Rapid Equipping Force (REF) was a United States Army organization headquartered in Fort Belvoir, Virginia. The organization was charged with quickly providing Army units deployed globally with innovative government off-the-shelf and commercially available solutions that address urgent requirements within 180 days or less. The REF was able to do this through unique authorities and by maintaining a presence near the point of need. REF personnel were positioned in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Kuwait and mobile laboratories are available for quick solutions. Additionally, the REF empowered the Army at a grassroots level, enabling individual soldiers to communicate needs directly through simple request forms. Along with leveraging existing technology to meet urgent needs of Army forces deployed globally, the REF also informed longer-term materiel development for the future force. In October 2020, the Army announced it would dissolve the Asymmetric Warfare Group and the Rapid Equipping Force, by year-end FY2021 (September 30, 2021). Mission The REF provides innovative materiel solutions to meet the urgent requirements of U.S. Army forces employed globally, informs materiel development for the future force, and on order expands to meet operational demands. Functions The REF lines of support fall into four distinct categories: assess, equip, insert, and inform. Its primary function is to equip units with technologies that fill identified capability gaps. The REF provides training on these technologies downrange and at home-stations. It can insert selected future force solutions for operational evaluation in addition to providing new capabilities not readily available in the existing Army inventory. Finally, the REF constantly identifies and assesses emerging technologies and Army practices concerning operational needs affecting force readiness. Organization overview The REF is structured to integrate three distinct functions to provide the Army with a responsive, rapid acquisition organization. First, the REF Director has the unique authority to validate requirements. Second, the REF has acquisition authority and provided by the United States Assistant Secretary of the Army for Acquisition, Logistics, and Technology chartered Project Manager housed within REF's chain of command. Finally, the REF receives funding from a variety of sources, allowing it the flexibility to support Soldiers deployed around the world. These three pillars of authority allow REF to quickly insert solutions into theater in weeks rather than years. REF aims to deliver items into Soldiers’ hands within 90 days, and has even provided a solution in 72 hours after learning of an urgent need. The REF can receive requests for support from any soldier, from a private to the Chief of Staff of the Army. These requests are submitted via a simple document called a "10-Liner" that prompts soldiers to describe the capability gaps they are facing downrange or as they prepare to deploy. From that information, the REF team begins the analysis and procurement process in order to best equip the requesting unit. It is important to note that the REF equips specific units, not the entirety of the Army. If a solution is applicable to a larger portion of the Army, REF works with partner organizations to transition technologies to project managers who can then field the equipment to a larger portion of the Army. History The REF was created in 2002 after U.S. soldiers realized the need for non-standard equipment to meet the demands of new terrain, warfare tactics and their assigned missions. Since then, the REF has met challenges as diverse as enhancing soldier mobility, providing improved surveillance in austere locations, equipping operational energy sources and enhancing communications. The 2004 REF Charter and Implementation Guidance and Coordination memo, signed by Lieutenant General Richard A. Cody, formalized REF's "equip," "insert," "assess" functions. The excerpt below outlines how each line of support would shape REF's mission. "The REF will identify and evaluate emerging technologies, concepts, and surrogates to estimate/approximate threshold capabilities, while simultaneously providing operationally relevant capabilities to our combat forces within a time frame relevant to current operations... It is my intent to insert critical future technologies and capabilities into the current force while continuously shaping the future force and accelerating its evolution. Therefore, I direct expansion of the mission of the REF to encompass two additional critical functions: First, the REF will analyze relevant technologies and capabilities that exist in the Army’s laboratory, developmental systems, other Services and Federal Agencies, and international sources, and when appropriate, bring these capabilities into an operational environment to examine and evaluate the concepts and their effectiveness. If suitable, the REF will assess the potential to accelerate fielding and the contribution such fielding would make to increased combat effectiveness. Second, REF initiatives will serve as the testbed to construct a model for lasting change and improvement of Army business practices and to better streamline Army Acquisition processes. Establish a continuous feedback process to provide lessons learned and best practices identified through the rapid equipping process to the relevant staff and US Army Major Command (MACOMs). The Army Acquisition Executive (AAE), with the support of the REF, will use REF initiatives to develop a process to transfer REF initiatives to a fast-tracked fielding program of selected systems. The Assistant Secretary of the Army, Financial Management and Comptroller, in coordination with the Chief of Legislative Liaison and the REF, will develop a concept and Congressional strategy to support significant Army reprogramming actions and request modifications to laws as necessary to facilitate rapid acquisition when acceleration of future technologies contribute significant combat power to the force in the near term." In January 2014, the REF was deemed critical by the Army and transitioned to the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command. Discontinuation On October 2, 2020, the Department of the Army announced the discontinuation of the REF as the U.S. Army transitions from counter-insurgency operations to a focus on multi-domain operations and large scale combat operations. TRADOC directed the orderly closure of REF facilities, transfer of equipment and property, and transition of military and civilian personnel (to support other army efforts). The REF will complete the transition no later than September 30, 2021. Projects The REF mitigates capability gaps across the spectrum of warfighter function areas and has supported many projects as listed below. PackBot: Remote-Controlled, full sensor package capable tracked vehicle Magnetometer: Commercial off the Shelf (COTS) ultra-sensitive metal detecting wand Wellcam: Complete man-portable video system to search wells Armor Kit: 4-door vehicle protection kit equipped to units during Operation Iraqi Freedom PILAR: Acoustically based, fully passive system that determines sniper fire direction on LCD screen Talon Robot: A man-portable robot used for the disposal of IEDs and other dangerous explosives Boomerang Counter-Fire Detection: A gunfire locator that uses microphone sensors to detect where shots originate Minotaur: A robotic loader with front mine rollers to support dismounted operations Raven: A hand-launched, remote controlled unmanned aerial vehicle for surveillance Tactical Aerostats: Smaller aerostats used as ISR and communications platforms Pole Cam: Extendable pole-mounted camera with a handheld receiver for situational awareness Rapid Deployment Integrated Surveillance System (RDISS): System to monitor movement near remote FOBs and COPs Man-Portable Line Charge (MPLC): Backpack-packaged clearing charge to disrupt IED trigger mechanisms The REF currently supports priority equipping efforts over a wide range of challenges including solutions for subterranean operations, electronic warfare, unmanned and counter-unmanned aerial systems, intelligence, and expeditionary force protection. References External links Official REF Website Official U.S. Army Website Official TRADOC Website "Army Rapid Equipping Force Taking Root, Chief Says," National Defense, October 2006 "Mobile Labs Build On-the-Spot Combat Solutions," Military News, 17 August 2012 “Army 'can't afford' not to have Rapid Equipping Force, leader says,” Army.mil, 18 October 2013 "Army Confirms Rapid Equipping Force as ‘Enduring’" Army News Service, 3 February 2014 "How to Run the Pentagon: Letters to the Editor Regarding ‘Running the Pentagon Right,’" Foreign Affairs, May/June 2014 "Battlefield tech demands: Rapid Equipping Force preps for surge with new Army brigades," Defense News, 27 February 2018 “Rapid Equipping Force to deliver new electronic warfare platforms,” C4ISRNET 9 August 2018 "Rapid Equipping Force in Afghanistan enables Soldiers' ideas into battlefield solutions," Army.mil, 15 November 2018 "Rapid Response: Unit Works to Quickly Fulfill Urgent Requests" AUSA Army Magazine, 20 August 2019 "Still in service: ‘Ex Lab’ is the US Army's problem-solving MacGyver," Defense News, 14 October 2019 "Temperature checks begin at Commissary," Belvoir Eagle, 8 April2020 "Army REF deploys thermal imaging sensors," Army.mil, 1 May 2020 "Army REF Expands Thermal Imaging Sensors Deployment Effort," DVIDS, 21 May 2020 "FIGHTING COVID-19 -- Fort Rucker brings new asset to bear in protecting force, mission, surrounding communities," Army.mil, 5 June 2020 "Army to discontinue AWG, REF efforts next year," Army.mil, 2 October 2020 "Army to discontinue Asymmetric Warfare Group and Rapid Equipping Force," Army.mil, 2 October 2020 United States Army organization

4018298

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%2C%20Boveri%20%26%20Cie

Brown, Boveri & Cie

Brown, Boveri & Cie. (Brown, Boveri & Company; BBC) was a Swiss group of electrical engineering companies. It was founded in Baden bei Zürich, in 1891 by Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown and Walter Boveri who worked at the Maschinenfabrik Oerlikon. In 1970 BBC took over the Maschinenfabrik Oerlikon and in 1988 it merged with ASEA to form ABB. Early history of BBC Brown Boveri BBC Brown Boveri was established in 1891. The company was one of only a few multinational corporations to operate subsidiaries that were larger than the parent company. Because of the limitations of the Swiss domestic market, Brown Boveri established subsidiaries throughout Europe relatively early in its history, and at times had difficulty maintaining managerial control over some of its larger operating units. The merger with ASEA, a company which was praised for its strong management, was expected to help Brown Boveri reorganize and reassert control over its vast international network. Activity in Britain Brown Boveri's early activities included manufacturing electrical components such as electric motors for locomotives and power-generating equipment for Europe's railway systems. In 1919 the company entered into a licensing agreement with the British manufacturing firm Vickers which gave the British firm the right to manufacture and sell Brown Boveri products throughout the British Empire and in some parts of Europe. The agreement gave Brown Boveri a significant amount of money and the promise of substantial annual revenue, and also helped the company expand into foreign markets at a time when protectionist policies inhibited international expansion. Activity in Continental Europe In the early 1920s, Brown Boveri, which was already a geographically diversified company with successful operating subsidiaries in Italy, Germany, Norway, Austria, and the Balkans, suffered losses due to the devaluation of the French franc and the German mark. At the same time, in the Swiss domestic market, production costs increased while sales remained static, causing the company further losses. In 1924 Brown Boveri devalued its capital by 30 percent to cover the losses it had incurred. In 1927 the agreement with Vickers ran out and was not renewed. Besides the arrangement Brown Boveri had had with this British firm, it also had a somewhat similar relationship with Netherlands-based which lasted well into the early 1960s when the Heemaf led the creation of Holec (Holland Electric). Growth During the same time, Brown Boveri's various subsidiaries grew rapidly. Industrialization throughout Europe created strong demand for the company's heavy electrical equipment. Italy's burgeoning railroad industry provided a particularly strong boost to Brown Boveri's Italian subsidiary, and the company's German facility actually did considerably more business than the Swiss parent. For the next few decades Brown Boveri grew as fast as technological developments in electrical engineering. Each of the company's subsidiaries tended to develop individually, as if it were a domestic company in the country in which it operated, and broad geographic coverage helped insulate the parent from severe crises when a certain region experienced economic difficulties. Nazi era 1933-1945 Expansion continued during WWII. A BBC subsidiary in Mannheim, Germany used slave labor to expand operations. After World War II After World War II, the Cold War presented a variety of business opportunities for defense-related electrical contractors, but Brown Boveri's subsidiaries were seen as foreign companies in many of the countries in which they operated, sometimes making it difficult for the company to win lucrative contracts involving sensitive technology and other government contracts. The company, nevertheless, excelled at power generation, including nuclear power generators, and prospered in this field. Electrification in the Third World also provided Brown Boveri with substantial profits. Reorganization of Brown Boveri in 1970 In 1970 Brown Boveri began an extensive reorganization. The company's subsidiaries were divided into five groups: German, French, Swiss, "medium-sized" (seven manufacturing bases in Europe and Latin America), and Brown Boveri International (the remaining facilities). Each of these groups was further broken down into five product divisions: power generation, electronics, power distribution, traction equipment, and industrial equipment. The United States Throughout the 1970s, Brown Boveri struggled to expand into the US market. The company negotiated a joint venture with Rockwell, the American manufacturer of high-tech military and aerospace applications, but the deal collapsed when the two companies could not agree on financial terms. Brown Boveri had a handful of major U.S. customers as its clients, among them large utilities such as the Tennessee Valley Authority and American Electric Power's Nuclear Plant in southwest Michigan DC Cook Unit 2 steam turbine. Brown Boveri's American market share was low considering the company's international standing (North American sales accounted for only 3.5% of total sales in 1974 and 1975), and the company continued to seek entry into U.S. markets. Great Britain During the electrification of the British West Coast Main Line in the early 1970s, Brown Boveri traction insulators were used. In 1974 Brown Boveri acquired the British controls and instrument manufacturer, George Kent Group. The deal at first raised concern in Britain over foreign ownership of such highly sensitive technology, but Brown Boveri prevailed with the encouragement of George Kent's rank-and-file employees, who feared the alternative of being bought by General Electric Company. The newly acquired company was renamed Brown Boveri Kent. The Middle East and Africa In the mid-1970s growing demand in the Middle East for large power-generating facilities distracted the company from its push into North America. Oil-rich African nations, like Nigeria, attempting to diversify their manufacturing capabilities also created new markets for Brown Boveri's heavy electrical engineering expertise. The 1980s In the early 1980s Brown Boveri's sales flattened out and the company's earnings declined. In 1983 Brown Boveri's German subsidiary in Mannheim, West Germany, which accounted for nearly half of the entire parent company's sales, rebounded. In spite of an increase in orders, the company's cost structure kept earnings down. In 1985 the subsidiary's performance improved as a result of cost-cutting measures but price decreases in the international market and unfavorable shifts in currency exchanges rates largely offset these gains. In 1986 the parent company acquired a significant block of shares in the Mannheim subsidiary, bringing its total stake to 75 percent. Unification of research In the later 1980s Brown Boveri took steps to reduce duplication of research and development among its various groups. While each subsidiary continued to do some product-development research for its individual market, theoretical research was unified under the parent company, making more efficient use of research funding. Supercharger development In 1987 the company introduced a supercharging system for diesel engines called Comprex. This system was capable of increasing an engine's horsepower by 35% and delivering up to 50% more torque at lower speeds. Japanese automaker Mazda planned to use the supercharger in its diesel passenger models. Merger In January 1988, Brown Boveri merged with ASEA to form Asea Brown Boveri. Locomotives and railcars Electric SBB-CFF-FFS RABDe 12/12 SBB-CFF-FFS RBe 540 SBB-CFF-FFS RBDe 560 PRR O1 Gas turbine SBB-CFF-FFS Am 4/6 1101 British Rail 18000 Trams Tram 2000 Baltimore Light Rail LRV Gallery See also Norsk Elektrisk & Brown Boveri Société Anonyme des Ateliers de Sécheron References External links Defunct manufacturing companies of Switzerland Manufacturing companies established in 1891 Locomotive manufacturers of Switzerland Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1988 Swiss companies established in 1891 Swiss companies disestablished in 1988 Tram vehicles of Serbia

4018325

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DB%20Class%20111

DB Class 111

The Baureihe 111 is a class of electric locomotives built for the Deutsche Bundesbahn, and now owned by Deutsche Bahn AG. History Class 111 is the successor of the Class 110 express Einheitslokomotive. Since demand for fast electric locomotives was high even after production of the 110 ended, the Deutsche Bundesbahn (DB) decided to commission a new batch in the 1970s. The bogies were replaced with a different type, significantly improving the locomotive's behaviour at higher speeds. The driver's cab also was significantly improved by the DB-Einheitsführerstand (jointly developed by the Bundesbahn-Zentralamt München and Krauss-Maffei and designed under ergonomic aspects) that was first used for Class 111 locos and whose basic layout nowadays still forms part of the cab design found in many of DB's locomotives and control cars. For the first time, a digital cab car interface in addition to the then-standard conventional interface was used in new DB locomotives. The first locomotive, 111 001, left the Krauss-Maffei workshop in December 1974. Up to 1984, 226 more engines were produced, not only at Krauss-Maffei but also including parts from Henschel, Krupp, Siemens, AEG and BBC. 111 227 originally was supposed to be the last newly built conventional AC locomotive of the DB, as the Baureihe 120, using three-phase AC motors, was already being produced. However, after the German reunification it was decided to commission another batch of the Class 112, which had been developed by the East German railways. This decision was made mainly for political purposes. In 1979 it was decided to use the Class 111 for the S-Bahn trains of the Rhein-Ruhr S-Bahn. Hence, the engines 111 111 to 111 188 were delivered in S-Bahn colours and equipped with S-Bahn gear (destination displays, e.g.). In the same year, the Intercity was reformed under the InterCity '79 scheme and the network was enlarged. As it was foreseeable that the Class 103 engines would be stressed with that workload, the 111's licence was extended to a speed of , and from May 1980 onwards, the units could be found doing InterCity services. Accidents 111 109 was involved in an accident in the station of Wels, Austria, crashing with the ÖBB 1042 560. The driver suffered only slight bruises, however 111 109 was dismantled on-site on August 29, 1981 and not rebuilt later. On November 24, 2006, 111 004 crashed into a truck which unlawfully turned back on a railway crossing and was scrapped in May 2008 after reconstruction was rejected due to economical reasons. Nine people were injured in this incident. On June 3, 2022, 111 035-2 was involved in the Garmisch-Partenkirchen train derailment. Five people were killed and 44 injured in this incident. Trivia The locomotive 111 111 carries the checksum 1. This is widely believed to be for cosmetic purposes (leading to a smooth looking 111 111-1 inscription) only, however the checksum is correct. 111 030 was the first of the series featuring an advertising livery, advertising the musical Tanz der Vampire (Dance of the Vampires) in 2002. 111 009-7 in a cream and blue livery was used for a 1:87 scale model by Roco. A drawing of a Class 111 locomotive appeared on the cover of the Thomas Cook Continental Timetable for 12 years, starting in 1976 and continuing through 1987. References Bibliography External links European Railway Server Electric locomotives of Germany 15 kV AC locomotives 111 Brown, Boveri & Cie locomotives Siemens locomotives Krauss-Maffei locomotives Henschel locomotives Krupp locomotives AEG locomotives Bo′Bo′ locomotives Railway locomotives introduced in 1974 Standard gauge locomotives of Germany Passenger locomotives

4018458

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Williamson%20%28musician%29

James Williamson (musician)

James Robert Williamson (born October 29, 1949) is an American guitarist, songwriter, record producer and electronics engineer. He was a member of the iconic proto-punk rock band The Stooges, notably on the influential album Raw Power and in the reformed Stooges from 2009 to 2016. Between his stints in music, Williamson worked in Silicon Valley developing computer chips. Most recently he has continued as a solo artist. Early years Williamson was born in Castroville, Texas in 1949. His father died while he was young and he moved to San Antonio, Texas around the age of five. He began playing guitar in the 7th grade, while his family were living in Lawton, Oklahoma: When Williamson was in the ninth grade in Detroit, he formed his first rock band, The Chosen Few, with schoolmate Scott Richardson. They performed cover versions of Rolling Stones songs and others. Ron Asheton would go on to become the bassist in one of The Chosen Few's later line-ups. Despite this connection, the two were barely acquainted at the time, with Asheton recalling that "the first time I played with them, that was the last time James played with them. They met for the first time during a holiday break when Williamson attended a Frat Party Gig where Asheton was playing ... Iggy was also there that night and so Williamson met both people that night and remained in touch afterward." As a guitarist, Asheton went on to form The Stooges with his brother Scott (drums), bassist Dave Alexander and Iggy Pop. Williamson also spent some time in a juvenile home after his stepfather had told him to cut his hair and Williamson refused. In the first half of 1966, Williamson was sent to a boarding school in a small town eighty miles north of New York City. While there, Williamson helped form and played lead guitar in the Coba Seas. During that time, the Coba Seas taped a rehearsal session, resulting in the first recordings of Williamson. After graduating from high school in 1969, Williamson travelled to New York to keep in touch with The Stooges, who were recording their debut album with former Velvet Underground multi-instrumentalist John Cale. The Stooges By late 1970, Williamson was invited to join The Stooges as a second guitarist. He performed his first gig with the band on December 5, 1970. The band were by then struggling with drug problems and a lack of commercial success; despite the injection of Williamson's musicianship, The Stooges couldn't overcome their difficulties. According to Williamson, "I got hepatitis and moved back to Detroit and basically the band completely dissolved." Many of the demo recordings made during this period were belatedly issued as vinyl singles or EPs, including the proto-punk tracks "I Got A Right" and "Gimme Some Skin". In 1972, David Bowie offered Pop a chance to record in London; Pop promptly enlisted Williamson as a collaborator for the project. Having failed to find other suitable musicians during an intensive search, they eventually invited the Asheton brothers to join them and reformed The Stooges, with the elder Asheton reluctantly moving from guitar to bass. Ron Asheton would harbor a longstanding animus toward Williamson for several decades. In a 1997 interview with Perfect Sound Forever, he reflected upon his relationship with Williamson at length, alleging that "James was into bad stuff. He wasn't into junk at that time but he fell right in line with THE EVIL PROGRAM. He was supposed to be a helper for me but he totally usurped my position and eventually, kicked me out from playing guitar." Despite these tensions, Williamson co-wrote all the songs with Pop and played all the guitar parts on the ensuing album, Raw Power (1973). He played louder and raunchier than almost anybody at the time, with a jagged high-energy approach. According to Williamson, "I was a very emotional guitar player, so I always played that way. That's how we felt, so that was what it sounded like." Asheton was less sanguine, noting that "James always loved Keith Richards and he even emulated him in his personal style and appearance. [Pop] finally got his Jagger-Richards. So he and Iggy were the songwriters. They wouldn't let me do nothing even though I would come up with pieces. Jim would actually almost go for something. Little suggestions I made for the tunes, little twists. Not that I did any major structural changes. But I did do pieces to enhance and I was never recognized for it or even a fuckin' 'thank you.'" Nevertheless, Williamson's aggressive guitar playing on Raw Power has often been cited as a major influence on the emerging punk scene in the mid-seventies. Johnny Marr (The Smiths, Modest Mouse) has also lauded Williamson's abilities: "I'm his biggest fan. He has the technical ability of Jimmy Page without being as studious, and the swagger of Keith Richards without being sloppy. He's both demonic and intellectual, almost how you would imagine Darth Vader to sound if he was in a band." Under new management from Jeff Wald (the husband and manager of pop singer Helen Reddy), The Stooges began a highly chaotic tour in February 1973 with little support from Columbia Records, which would soon drop the group after Raw Power only managed to peak at #182 in Billboard. During this period, minimalist composer and former Prime Movers keyboardist Bob Sheff joined as the group's pianist; he was soon replaced by multi-instrumentalist Scott Thurston, who formed an enduring friendship with Williamson. According to Kevin L. Jones, "[T]he kind of touring they did was not what you would imagine today, with big buses, fancy stage lighting and expensive equipment. Iggy and the Stooges toured like an invasive species, showing up at whatever venue would have them, scrambling for gear to play through and sucking up the drugs around them like walking Hoovers. Those days are remembered with stories full of blood from random projectiles being thrown at them and even a moment when Elton John jumped onstage wearing a gorilla costume, scaring the living daylights out of Pop." Williamson was briefly dismissed due to criticism from the band's management (likely related to his turbulent romantic relationship with Cyrinda Foxe, a friend of road manager Leee Black Childers); guitarist Tornado Turner replaced him for a single gig (on June 15, 1973 at the Aragon Ballroom) before he was permitted to return. In February 1974, The Stooges disbanded as a result of their dwindling professional opportunities. After the Stooges Williamson collaborated with Pop in 1975 on tumultuous demo sessions for a proposed new album to possibly be produced by John Cale, which were released (despite Pop's objections) in 1977 as Kill City. During this period, Pop was briefly institutionalized of his own volition and Williamson was arrested for possessing heroin by the LAPD. After sustaining a finger injury during a drunken altercation at an Alice Cooper listening party, he gave up playing music professionally to work as a record producer and pursue a higher education as an electronics engineer, initially enrolling in classes at Los Angeles City College: "The Stooges was maybe my only real band and kind of a family and so when that fell apart it was difficult to go on." Looking back in 2010, Williamson said, "I gave up being a Stooge to study calculus." He noted, "It was a rather large existential gap, but I did it." Throughout the late 1970s, he worked on disco sessions as a staff engineer at Paramount Recorders in Los Angeles. In 1979, he was again persuaded to work with Iggy Pop as a producer and songwriter on New Values, his fourth solo album; in a partial reunion of The Stooges, Scott Thurston played guitar on all the tracks except "Don't Look Down." Although Williamson continued to work with Pop on the initial sessions for Soldier (1980) in Wales, he brandished an air pistol and began to drink vodka heavily after failing to acclimate to the singer's new band, which included former Sex Pistols bassist Glen Matlock, Patti Smith Band multi-instrumentalist Ivan Kral and Barry Andrews of XTC. Following a squabble with Pop and David Bowie (who Williamson accused of exploiting The Stooges during the Raw Power era) over recording methods, he left the project. Subsequently, Williamson and Pop would lose touch for 16 years. Williamson reflected on the experience in 2015: "Fuck Bowie. His showing up was just the last of many frustrations with being there ... In hindsight, I should have never taken that job. It was recorded in a studio I didn't want to be in, with music that was half-baked and with musicians I didn't respect. It was my own damned fault it didn't work out." After working on Soldier, Williamson left the music business entirely to concentrate on his studies. In 1982, he received an electrical engineering degree from California State Polytechnic University, Pomona. Technology career Immediately following his graduation from Cal Poly Pomona, Williamson moved to Silicon Valley. For the next fifteen years, he worked for Advanced Micro Devices in San Jose, California, designing products around its chips. His coworkers never inquired about his earlier career as a rock musician; in a 2010 interview with Uncut, Williamson asserted that many of his colleagues were "nerds and geeks ... they don't listen to The Stooges much." In 1997, he was hired as Sony's vice president of technical standards; in this capacity, he liaised with competitors and helped to codify nascent industry standards, most notably the Blu-ray Disc. During the Great Recession, he accepted an early retirement buyout offer from Sony in 2009. In 2015, Williamson was selected to receive ANSI's Ronald H. Brown Standards Leadership Award for his contributions to consumer electronics standards development. The award, named after late United States Secretary of Commerce Ron Brown, is presented as part of World Standards Day celebration. Reuniting with The Stooges Following Ron Asheton's sudden death in 2009, Williamson rejoined The Stooges, who had toured regularly after the Fun House-era lineup (save for Alexander, who had died years previously in 1975) reunited in 2003. To rehearse, he enlisted the help of local roots rock band Careless Hearts, who backed him on his first gig in 35 years at the Blank Club in San Jose, California on September 5, 2009. They performed a number of early Stooges songs, and also some material from the Kill City album. In June 2010, a CD + DVD combo was released of this event called James Williamson with Careless Hearts. The Stooges' first reunion concert with Williamson occurred on November 7, 2009 in São Paulo, Brazil. The band added material from Raw Power and several of Pop's early solo albums to its repertoire. In March 2010, The Stooges were inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame. The group's current line-up performed "Search and Destroy" with Scott Thurston. Following several additional tours (many of which included full performances of Raw Power), the band released what would become their last album, Ready to Die, on April 30, 2013 via Fat Possum Records. Produced by Williamson, the album contained ten new Pop-Williamson compositions. Re-Licked, Williamson's first solo studio album, was released by Leopard Lady Records in October 2014. Composed entirely of much-bootlegged songs by Pop and Williamson that were written, demoed and performed by The Stooges in the immediate aftermath of Raw Power, it featured vocal contributions from Jello Biafra, Bobby Gillespie, Ariel Pink, Carolyn Wonderland, Alison Mosshart and Lisa Kekaula along with performances by several members of the reunited Stooges (including bassist Mike Watt and touring drummer Toby Dammit). Pop did not participate in the project, with a representative alleging that "Iggy was never given an opportunity to participate on the album. He found out about the project in December of 2013 after it was rejected by a Chicago label." According to Williamson, "He gave me his blessing and wished me success. But it's a hard pill to swallow when someone is doing all your songs with your band and you're not on it. I think he's cool with it so far. We'll see how things progress ... I hope he maintains his positive attitude." In a subsequent interview with Rolling Stone, Pop said, "I don't have a problem with anything, I don't oppose anything. This statement about the 'hard pill' sounds kind of passive aggressive to me. The guys in the touring group have been phoning and emailing me and my rep before during and after the recordings, wondering how I felt about this. These guys are my friends and we've all worked together many years. I am glad someone is paying them; they are working musicians and they need to play. I want to thank all the wonderful singers on this record for covering my songs." On March 15, 2014, Scott Asheton died of a heart attack at the age of 64. Saxophonist Steve Mackay (who briefly joined the group in mid-1970 before participating in the post-2003 reunion and Re-Licked) also died in October 2015 at the age of 66. On June 22, 2016, Williamson issued an official statement for the band saying that The Stooges are no more: "The Stooges is over. Basically, everybody's dead except Iggy and I. So it would be sort-of ludicrous to try and tour as Iggy and The Stooges when there's only one Stooge in the band and then you have side guys. That doesn't make any sense to me." Williamson also added that touring had become boring, and trying to balance the band's career as well as Pop's was a difficult task. Equipment Williamson is known primarily for his use of Gibson Les Paul Custom guitars, but he also plays other guitars live (although Les Paul Customs are his guitar of choice). Williamson says that all the songs on Raw Power were written in his London bedroom on a Gibson B-25 acoustic and the acoustic guitar used in the studio was a Martin D-28. A Vox AC30 amplifier was used for recording Raw Power. Williamson says he plugged his Les Paul Custom into the AC30's Top Boost channel, volume at full and bass low, and played primarily on the Custom's low-impedance (hand wired) bridge humbucker pickup; no effects pedals were used. Williamson often used Marshall amplifiers when playing live in the 1970s, and recently switched to Blackstar Amplification's Artisan 30 for live use. All guitars currently used onstage by Williamson are equipped with low-impedance, microphonic, humbucker pickups modeled after those in his original 1969 Gibson Les Paul Custom. These pickups were custom wound by Jason Lollar who reverse engineered the 1969 pickups, at the suggestion of James' touring guitar tech Derek See, and local tech Brian Michael. In concert, for "Gimme Danger" and "Open Up And Bleed", Williamson uses a Fishman Power Bridge piezo pickup equipped Les Paul (patched through a Fishma Aura pedal) for simulated acoustic guitar sounds. A detailed gear diagram of James Williamson's 2011 Iggy & The Stooges guitar rig is well-documented: Personal life Williamson lives in Saratoga, California with his wife Linda. He has a son named Jamie and a daughter named Elizabeth. Discography Solo albums 2014 - Re-Licked Solo EPS 2017 – Acoustic K.O. Solo Singles with various artists 2014 - I Got A Right /Heavy Liquid 2014 - Open Up And Bleed/Gimme Some Skin 2015 - Sickk/I Made A Mistake 2016 - Blues Jumped The Rabbit/Last Kind Words 2016 - I Love my Tutu/Never Far From Where The Wild Things Are with The Stooges 1973 - Raw Power: Co-Song Writer, Guitars 1977 - Metallic K.O.: Guitars (live) 1995 - Open Up and Bleed: Guitars (live) 2013 - Ready to Die: Co-Song Writer, Guitars, Producer with Iggy Pop 1977 - Kill City: Co-Song Writer, Guitar, Producer, Mixing 1979 - New Values: Producer, Guitar, 1980 - Soldier: Producer (uncredited) 2005 - A Million in Prizes: The Anthology: with Careless Hearts 2010 - James Williamson with Careless Hearts: Guitar with the Coba Seas 2010 - (recorded in 1966) - Unreformed: Guitar with Deniz Tek 2017 - Acoustic K.O.: Guitar, Producer 2020 - Two to One and The Pink Hearts 2018 - Behind The Shade: Guitar, Producer References External links Official website Rolling Stone: Former Stooges Guitarist James Williamson Details New Album (2018) James Williamson and The Pink Hearts (2018) Stooges Guitarist James Williamson Talks Bowie (2018 2009 interview with Williamson Paraphilia Magazine Issue Five 2007 interview with Williamson 2001 interview with Williamson Creem magazine 1974 interview with Williamson & Pop IEEE 2008 Annual Election page for Standards Association Board of Governors with Williamson as nominee 2010 Interview on American Public Radio American punk rock guitarists The Stooges members Record producers from Texas Protopunk musicians Living people 1949 births Radar Records artists American electronics engineers California State Polytechnic University, Pomona alumni People from Medina County, Texas People from Saratoga, California American male guitarists 20th-century American guitarists Record producers from California

4018549

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller%20process

Miller process

The Miller process is an industrial-scale chemical procedure used to refine gold to a high degree of purity (99.5%). It was patented by Francis Bowyer Miller in 1867. This chemical process involves blowing chlorine gas through molten, but (slightly) impure, gold. Nearly all metal contaminants react to form chlorides but gold does not at these high temperatures. The other metals volatilize or form a low density slag on top of the molten gold. When all impurities have been removed from the gold (observable by a change in flame color) the gold is removed and processed in the manner required for sale or use. The resulting gold is 99.5% pure, but of lower purity than gold produced by the other common refining method, the Wohlwill process, which produces gold to 99.999% purity. The Wohlwill process is commonly used for producing high-purity gold, such as in electronics work, where exacting standards of purity are required. When highest purity gold is not required, refiners use the Miller process due to its relative ease, quicker turnaround times, and because it does not tie up the large amount of gold in the form of chloroauric acid which the Wohlwill process permanently requires for the electrolyte. See also Gold parting References Metallurgical processes Gold industry

4018641

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen%20Concept%20R

Volkswagen Concept R

The Volkswagen Concept R is a concept car developed by the German automaker Volkswagen and officially unveiled at the September 2003 Frankfurt Auto Show. It is a study of a sporty two seat roadster, with mid-engine and rear wheel drive. The Concept R is powered by a V6 3.2 L FSI petrol engine developing a maximum output of at 6,250 rpm and of torque at 2,800 rpm. It is strong enough to accelerate the car from 0 to 100 km/h in 5.3 seconds, and make it reach the electronically limited top speed of 250 km/h (155 mph). Without the speed governor, the car would be even able to reach the top speed of 270 km/h (167 mph). The power is transferred to the road via a six speed direct-shift gearbox. The designer team for this concept was led by Murat Günak and Peter Schreyer, and broke the ground for the Volkswagen brand in developing the roadster vehicle. At of length, of width and of height, the Concept R roadster has almost the same length and width as the fifth generation Volkswagen Golf hatchback, on whose platform it has been built. The concept has some interesting design features such as the Volkswagen logo, which is generated digitally by a display and begins to pulsate in the so-called OLED screen when the driver turns on the ignition. When the ignition is activated, the pulse stops. Also, its seats are not adjustable in any way and the driver must electrically move the polished metal information block of the instrument panel, including the steering wheel and pedal cluster back or forth to find the correct seating position. For the first time in a sports car, the seats are filled with active foam which adapts to the body shape of the driver and passenger. At a press dinner held during the 2005 North American International Auto Show, Bernd Pischetsrieder, the chairman of the Volkswagen Group, confirmed that Volkswagen intended to build a production vehicle similar to this concept. As of , no production model has appeared, however another, similar, concept car, the Volkswagen Concept BlueSport, was unveiled at the 2009 North American International Auto Show. External links and references RSportsCars.com - with story and both exterior and interior pictures Dr. Pischetsrieder confirms Concept R production - from VWvortex Concept R

4018680

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin%20Kingdom%20Valley

Twin Kingdom Valley

Twin Kingdom Valley is a text adventure game with animated pictures (on most formats) for the BBC Micro, Acorn Electron, Commodore 64, Commodore 16, and ZX Spectrum. It was released in 1983 by Bug-Byte. Gameplay Twin Kingdom Valley is a work of interactive fiction where the player enters commands such as "take jug" at a command prompt and is told the outcome of their move ("I have it now"). Each such command takes up one unit of time, during which other non-player characters will also move and take actions. It was one of the first text adventure games to have active non-player characters. The characters are interactive, and have their own personalities: some are friendly, and will follow and defend the player, while others are hostile. Witches and kings are complex characters, whereas gorillas and trolls are simpler. Battle sequences have additional features including weapons which can be dropped, broken, thrown or taken away by enemies. Plot The main character of this game, referred to as "you" by the game engine, is a treasure hunter. The player starts the game at the southern edge of the forest kingdom, with few possessions. An early encounter with the innkeeper of The Sword Inn may persuade the player to rent a small log cabin from him. In the cabin are some very meager supplies, such as a plain jug. To progress through the game, the player must determine which characters to regard as friends, and which as foes. Some characters, such as a gorilla who attacks the player with a wooden club, are clearly presented as foes, while others are ambiguous. There are two kingdoms - a forest and a desert - separated by a deep canyon. Each kingdom is ruled by a king, and the kings do not get along with one another. The player is told that the situation has got worse recently, and a royal from the forest kingdom is missing, the crime being attributed to the desert king. With two rich kingdoms at war, it is suggested that the player could take advantage of this and loot treasure from both sides. As the game progresses, the player finds it a challenge to transport spoils back to the log cabin, and is forced at times to choose between carrying a treasure and carrying a weapon, both types of object being at risk of theft if left unguarded. The plot develops over time. In the original BBC Micro game, there were a limited number of locations and graphics. Some additions appear in the C64 version, though the plot is largely the same. The modern smartphone edition of the game yet more locations and some new plot twists. Development Concept The game was inspired by the original Adventure by Will Crowther. The original game engine was written in 6502 assembly language. The game was then ported to Z80 for the Spectrum. The newer versions (for Commodore 64 and Spectrum) have an extended game. The game set out to add a level of realism through the addition of images, and complex characters. The beginnings of the game were more of a peer pressure challenge than a commercial venture. At that time, access to the "massive machines" (by the standards of the day) needed to run the original adventure were limited. The thought was: surely this can be done on a home computer, somehow. The slowness of high level language code (Basic) on home systems ruled that out as a path, and there was no access to a FORTRAN compiler at the time. That's why assembly was chosen. Few people had run the original, and (having graduated) those students who had access to university equipment capable of running the game had lost that privileged access. So the elements recalled (teasingly) resembled the original, with a road, a building (containing useful items, such as keys and a lamp) being repeated. The building is in the forest, with a spring nearby. However, beyond this teaser that it is a kind of clone, the similarity ends. The plan changed to "why copy, when you can do better". Rather than just modelling a cave, the challenge was to model a larger world, with many above ground, underground, inside and outside locations. Twin Kingdom Valley features 175 rooms. A somewhat medieval era was chosen for the game, allowing elements of mysticism. All combat was designed as basic hand-to-hand style, with the player and other characters taking turns to trade blows, Turns are always initiated by the player's typing, rather than occurring in real time. If the player attempts to flee from combat, the opponent is permitted one attack before the player moves. The player's behavior is modelled in the same manner as the characters. Like similar games, characters have various limits, such as their maximum health and rate of healing, and the carrying capacity. Graphics A major section of the software is a custom graphics language, which is an early scalable vector graphics format. Hundreds of images of objects and locations are drawn in the game using this custom tool. Perspective of a limited kind is achieved by permitting images to be drawn scaled down within another image. For example, a castle model would be designed for close up view, but could also be drawn as a subroutine for a distant castle in a desert. The graphics speed was about 10 polygons per second, so the game could not afford to write background polygons and over fill. Images are just created by flood fills, such that each screen pixels is filled only once. A modern PC (using an emulator) can paint these pictures instantly, but the original game owners would need to wait three or four seconds for the screen to paint. The graphics commands had to be heavily compressed, due to the limited memory space budget. Consider a line drawing call, which does a "draw to" from current position, with a color and new x,y coordinates. If you use 6502 to: load register x with the x coordinate, load register y with the y coordinate, load accumulator with a color, and then call "Draw line", you have used up 9 bytes. If there are a total of 1000 such lines in all game images, then that would be 9K gone. The actual memory used for a draw command in the game is 2 bytes. To draw and fill an outline, 3 basic commands are needed: Move, Draw, Fill. A move (to start of shape) followed by drawing to each point on the outline, until the shape is closed, then filling within the shape. Draw and fill need a color for the line. All of Move Draw and Fill need a coordinate. To decode this efficiently, just 2 bits are needed to resolve "Move, Draw, Fill, "any other instruction" in an assembly language. An extra bit determines if the command has absolute screen coordinates, or a relative position. 3 bits give a choice of 8 colors, and finally 10 bits give two 5 bit x,y coordinates. The other commands (not needing coordinates) included: Calling a subroutine, ending a subroutine, drawing a circular arc (center at the last moved coordinate) etc. Complex images, such as a cabin made of many logs, use a loop instruction, similar to for loop in C, with a constant loop limit. The assembly language has no concept of variables, and no branching instructions. Game engine The game has several micro databases of information, representing the locations, objects which can be used, various creatures, and other data. The game engine runs a simulated world for these items. A small AI module allows the non-player characters to make decisions. The location engine has some features to save memory. In most locations there are just a few words, but a detailed (bit packed) "exit database" is interpreted to make longer descriptions. These descriptions can vary as bits are set and cleared for locked and unlocked doors. A location with about eight lines of text describing it may be less than 30 bytes of data. Words used in the game location database are stored as a single byte per word, which look up into a 256 word list, and as a result many words are reused several times. For example, "You are by a babbling brook, North you can see a stream, South you can see a road, North West is a deep river". The words "You are" are added by the game engine. "by a babbling brook" is just 4 bytes of data, a 5th byte encodes the length (4) of the message in words. The location has 3 exits, which are coded as 2 or 3 bytes per exit. Byte 1 has the compass direction plus up or down (6 bits for N,S,E,W,U,D). An additional bit marks special exits such as locked doors. An additional byte then defines various bits for locked/unlocked or "can see through, cannot see through" etc. Finally a byte for the destination. The first word of the destination is then skipped, so: If North led to "By a stream", the word "By" is omitted, and the words "you can see" are added, giving "North you can see a stream" using just 2 bytes. All of this compression was needed to fit the game within the 32k limit or the original BBC Micro system. 10k is lost as the screen buffer, so the game memory is down to 22k from the start. With some of the memory needed for variable space or stack, the available code are in such as system is nearer to 20k. If the game had 200 locations at 30 bytes per location, this would be 6k. Even this would leave almost no space for game code, especially graphics. The original versions of the game had fewer than 200 unique locations, for this reason. There are roughly 180 locations in early editions (such as that of the BBC Micro), and 190 in later editions (such as the Commodore 64 version). Other game tables (such as those for creatures or objects) are much smaller. The game has a small data reset block, which re-locks doors and other objects when the player starts a new game. In later versions (such as C64), extra memory allowed for some longer messages in plain text for special game events and puzzles. Because creatures can hold objects, all creatures are treated as special locations by the game engine. An object has a single byte location which can be a room or a creature, and all locations above 200 are reserved for creatures, or other special location codes (such as "broken"). Continued development The game was in active development again in 2006, due to the availability of new platforms. The game engine has been ported, from the original 6502, into Java, with some game design tools in C#. Reception Reviews were generally positive. The World of Spectrum link has many screen captures of magazine reviews of the game. Here are the ratings given by Crash Magazine, for the ZX Spectrum version: Atmosphere: 9 Vocabulary: 7 Logic: 7 Debugging: 7 Overall value: 8 That review comments on the peculiarities which occur when porting games from the BBC micro or C64 to the ZX Spectrum. The original BBC version had been reported by the maker, Bug Byte, as a "No. 1 hit" by one magazine, reportedly based on sales figures. There is little or no information available on how magazines at the time compiled such charts. However, the sales were clearly significant enough for the publisher to request the various ports listed, and to run many full page adverts for the game. Letters were sent to the game publisher, in a time before "internet review systems" had been created. These are long lost, but did include generally positive comments. Most notable among them was a letter from the father of a blind child, who was able to play the game, thanks to the included speech synthesizer support. References External links 1980s interactive fiction 1983 video games BBC Micro and Acorn Electron games Bug-Byte Software games Commodore 16 and Plus/4 games Commodore 64 games Fantasy video games Single-player video games Video games developed in the United Kingdom ZX Spectrum games

4018823

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20Consoles%20Inc.

Computer Consoles Inc.

Computer Consoles Inc. or CCI was a telephony and computer company located in Rochester, New York, United States, which did business first as a private, and then ultimately a public company from 1968 to 1990. CCI provided worldwide telephone companies with directory assistance equipment and other systems to automate various operator and telephony services, and later sold a line of 68k-based Unix computers and the Power 6/32 Unix supermini. History Computer Consoles Inc. (CCI, incorporated May 20, 1968) was founded by three Xerox employees, Edward H. Nutter, Alfred J. Moretti, and Jeffrey Tai, to develop one of the earliest versions of a smart computer terminal, principally for the telephony market. Raymond J. Hasenauer (Manufacturing), Eiji Miki (Electronic design), Walter Ponivas (Documentation) and James M. Steinke (Mechanical design) joined the company at its inception. Due to the state of the art in electronics at the time, this smart terminal was the size of an average sized office desk. Automating Operator Services Due to the success of the smart computer terminal, and the expertise the company gained in understanding Operator Services, the company started development programs to offer networked computer systems that provided contract managed access time, specified as a guaranteed number of seconds to paint the operator's first screen of information, to various telephony databases such as directory assistance and intercept messages. The largest such system was designed and installed for British Telecom to provide initially Directory Assistance throughout Great Britain and Ireland. These systems combined Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-11 computers with custom hardware and software developed by CCI. Automatic Voice Response To provide higher levels of automation to operator services, CCI introduced in the early 1980s various Automatic Voice Response (AVR) systems tightly integrated with its popular Directory Assistance systems. AVR provided voice response of the customer requested data, almost universally starting the prompt with a variant of the phrase, "The number is". Early systems were based on very small vocabulary synthesised speech chips, follow-on systems utilized 8-bit PCM, and later ADPCM voice playback using audio authored either by CCI or the local phone company. Digital Switching To provide even higher levels of automation, CCI started a very aggressive program in the early 1980s to develop a PCM digital telephone switching system targeted for automated, user defined call scenarios. Initial installations handled intercept and calling card calls by capturing multi-frequency and DTMF audio band signaling via the DSP based multi-frequency receiver board. Later systems added speaker independent speech recognition via a quad digital audio processor board to initially automate collect calls. PERPOS, Perpetual Processing Operating System To provide better control over transaction processing, significant improvements in fault tolerance, and richer support for networking, CCI developed PERPOS, a Unix derivative that provided integrated support for real-time transaction processing, load balancing, and fault tolerant features such as hot and cold standby. Power 5 and Power 6 computers PERPOS was developed for a line of Motorola 68000-based computers called the Power 5 series, which CCI developed. They were a line of multi-processor, fault-tolerant computers, code-named after the Great Lakes. The Power 5 line also included single-processor 68000-based computers, code-named after the Finger Lakes, running a regular Unix port called PERPOS-S, which was originally a Version 7-derived kernel with a System III-derived userland; the kernel was later modified to provide System III compatibility. Later, Computer Consoles opened a development center in Irvine, California, United States, which developed a proprietary minicomputer, competitive with the Digital Equipment Corporation VAX, called the Power 6/32, code-named "Tahoe" after Lake Tahoe. It ran an internally developed BSD port, and the Computer Systems Research Group at the University of California, Berkeley also ported 4.3BSD to it, producing the release known as "4.3-Tahoe". Sperry Corporation remarketed the Power 6 as the 7000 series (referred to as U7000 after the merger with Burroughs to form Unisys.) Harris Computer Systems also sold the Power 6 as the HCX-7 and HCX-9. A companion 68010-based machine, the Power 5/32, also ran the internally developed BSD port; it was code-named "Walden" after Walden Pond. Targeted as a competitor to the Unix/VAX platform, it succeeded for solutions where processing power was paramount. Universities requiring time-shared compilation engines for their students were particularly keen. The machine suffered when applied to general purpose database application environments, not least because the I/O subsystem over-relied on the central processing power (much as the VAX did) and thus used relatively dumb I/O processors. The Power 6 running either version of Unix also suffered from the inefficient memory management inherent in BSD 4.3. The core of this was the use of a 512-byte page rather than a 4K-byte page. Leffer et al. suggest they did this due to concerns about VAX support of 4k dynamic paging. The Power 6 had no such problems, but no operating system to support it. The final issue with the Power 6/32 running Unix was the lack of support for symmetric multiprocessing: All system calls would have to run on the "Master" processor, forcing a dual processing machine to reschedule a process from the "slave" processor for every system call. The net result of this meant database benchmarks often ran faster on a single processor than a dual. Office automation Due to the success the firm had in network based data management, they partnered with, and ultimately acquired, a small company in Reston, Virginia, called RLG Corporation (named after founder Richard L Gauthier), to develop a terminal-based integrated office automation system. RLG had had experience developing this kind of system for the United States Department of Transportation. The office suite, called OfficePower, provided an integrated set of functions such as word processing, spreadsheet, email, and database access via a compact desktop smart terminal backed by a mini, or super mini-computer. Although the system software was ported to various Unix variants, most installations were hosted on CCI's Power 5 and Power 6 machines running CCI's Unix ports. One installation was at the US Naval Surface Weapons Center in Dahlgren, Virginia; it consisted of two VAXes running 4.2BSD and a number of Power 5/20 machines running PERPOS-S. The VAXes were connected to each other by an ethernet, but, at the time, it wasn't cost-effective to provide ethernet adapters on all the Power 5/20 machines. The Power 5/20s were using 3Com's UNET as their TCP/IP implementation; it included an encapsulation scheme for sending IP datagrams over serial lines. Rick Adams implemented this encapsulation scheme as a line discipline for 4.2BSD; this was the origin of SLIP. After the takeover of CCI by Standard Telephones and Cables (STC) (see below), OfficePower was developed as the primary office system for International Computers Limited (ICL), owned by STC, with ports for the ICL DRS range and later servers with Power 6/32, Motorola 68030, Intel x86 and Sun SPARC architectures. It continued to be used widely by ICL customers into the late 1990s. CCI (Europe) Inc CCI (Europe) Inc was the wholly owned European Sales, Marketing and Support operation based in West London and established with Richard Levy (Altergo, Wang) as European Vice President, with responsibilities for all business aspects outside of North America. Richard Levy recruited industry professionals to target specific market sectors and distribution channels for the European and International markets for the entire CCI range of computer and telephony products. CCI (Europe) maintained close co-operation with Rochester, NY for the manufacturing, stock & shipping and Irvine, CA for planning & management. Liaising closely with the Israeli R&D operation for international systems translation, CCI Europe established a solid base in major European accounts and International third-party Distribution channels such as ICL & BT and became an integral aspect of the parent company. CCI Israel, Inc. CCI Israel, Inc. was a separately incorporated Delaware corporation however it was closely affiliated with the Rochester, NY, Irvine, CA and Reston, VA operations of Computer Consoles, Inc (CCI). It was first established to manage a telephony project for the Israeli national telephone company, Bezeq. The initial Israeli project was based on products developed in the Rochester-based group. In Israel, development and installation was managed by CCI-Israel's managing director, Jacob "Jack" Mark. Mr. Mark, was earlier affiliated with the original Bell Labs team to which the core development of the Unix operating system is attributed. The small Ramat Gan-based office later grew to support the efforts of the U.S.-based CCI offices, eventually becoming a major research and development center for machine level/operating systems products, telephony products, office automation products (particularly for British and foreign language "OfficePower"). CCI Israel also undertook local development projects for major clients - notably Motorola and Israel Aircraft Industries. In the mid-1980s CCI-Israel introduced the U.S. companies' brand of 5/32 and 6/32 micro- and mini-computers to the local Israeli market. CCI-Israel - through seminars and training groups - was also instrumental in developing and popularizing the Unix operating system and the C programming language in Israel. CCI-Israel was also responsible for establishing the first Unix "User Group" in that country. Accomplishments CCI actively participated in various telecom and public standard bodies such as ANSI, and in the development of Unix and the C programming language. It was a pioneer of design and deployment of real-time, transaction processing computer systems, of true fault tolerant computing systems, distributed database access and distributed file system access. CCI was one of earliest commercial entities connected to the Internet as cci.com. CCI deployed the largest multi-processor, shared file-system, Unix based (PERPOS) system of the era in British Telecom in the late 1980s. The design concepts of the system were years ahead of its time. The company was also a pioneer of design and deployment of voice response and speech recognition to the public telephone networks to automate traditional operator based services. CCI controlled over 90% of the world market for equipment to automate telephony Directory services at the time of acquisition by STC. Acquisition by Standard Telephones and Cables STC acquired CCI effective January 1, 1989. At this time CCI was organized as two major business units: one in Rochester ("CCI - Rochester"), which manufactured telecommunications equipment, and a Computer Products Division in Irvine ("CCI - Irvine"), which manufactured computer hardware. Office systems software was produced at Reston, Virginia. In reality there was a third operation which was a financing group that held the commercial leases for equipment typically sold to telephone companies. At the time of the acquisition the lease base was rumored to be valued at over $700M US dollars. Also at the time of the acquisition, CCI was involved in a dispute with General Telephone and Electronics ("GTE") over GTE's failure to supply CCI with certain "computer chips" for a new generation of computers being developed by CCI (the "GTE litigation"). After completion of the acquisition, CCI - Rochester became a subsidiary of an STC operating unit known as STC Telecom. Shortly thereafter, the Computer Products Division at Irvine and Office Products Centre at Reston were sold to another STC operating unit, ICL, for net book value of the assets. CCI - Rochester was kept under the jurisdiction of STC Telecom, which was also in the telecommunications business. Acquisition by Northern Telecom Ltd. STC Telecom was acquired by Northern Telecom effective March 1991 and became part of the company's European operations. Effective January 1, 1992, CCI was transferred to the Northern Telecom U.S. entity, and was eventually merged into this business unit. At that time, CCI was dissolved and Northern Telecom assumed its assets and liabilities. Notable Historic Uses Pixar Computer Animation Group employed a Power 6/32 machine to render the "Glass Man" sequence in Steven Spielberg's Young Sherlock Holmes movie (1985). References 1968 establishments in New York (state) 1992 disestablishments in New York (state) Computer companies disestablished in 1992 Computer companies established in 1968 Defunct computer companies of the United States Defunct computer companies based in New York (state) Defunct computer hardware companies Manufacturing companies based in Rochester, New York

4018856

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan%20Blow

Jonathan Blow

Jonathan Blow (born 1971) is an American video game designer and programmer. He is best known for his work on the independent video games Braid (2008) and The Witness (2016). Blow was born in California, United States, and became interested in game programming while at middle school. He studied for computer science and English at the University of California, Berkeley, but dropped out to start a game company. After the company closed following the dot-com crash, Blow worked as a game-development contractor. He co-founded the Experimental Gameplay Workshop and wrote a monthly technical column for Game Developer magazine. Blow gained prominence in 2008 with Braid. He used its financial success to fund his next game, The Witness, and formed a company called Thekla Inc. After a lengthy development period, The Witness was released in 2016, and like Braid was critically and financially successful. During its development, Blow began designing and creating a new programming language after being frustrated with C++, the language Thekla used to program the game. Full-time work on the language, code-named Jai, and a new game implemented in it began after the release of The Witness. A compiler for the Jai language is currently in beta release. Blow's games are known for being artistic and challenging. They are made with custom game engines, and have larger budgets and longer development times than most independently funded games. Blow featured in Indie Game: The Movie, and is known for his strong opinions about the gaming industry. Early life Jonathan Blow was born in Southern California in 1971. His father worked as a defense contractor for TRW, and his mother was an ex-nun. He is the fourth of five siblings, having two brothers and two sisters. Blow was raised as a Christian and said his family regularly attended church. Blow went to middle school in Northern San Diego County. While there, he attended a fifth-or-sixth-grade computer class where the VIC-20 home computer provided him with his introduction to programming and computers. When his parents noticed his interest, they bought him a TRS-80 Color Computer, on which Blow learned to program in BASIC, often using exercise books from RadioShack. In high school, he programmed games on a Commodore 64. Some of the games he programmed were inspired by Indiana Jones and Pac-Man. In 1989, Blow attended UC Berkeley as an undergraduate, double-majoring in computer science and English. He started as a physics major but switched to computer science because he "just felt called in that direction". He was a member and president of the Computer Science Undergraduate Association, as well as the eXperimental Computing Facility, an undergraduate computer-interest organization. During college, Blow wrote some science fiction, which he published under a pseudonym. He spent five years at UC Berkeley but dropped out with less than one semester to go. He said; "I was really depressed about being at school, I didn't like it. I didn't have a good time." Career 1994–2000: Career beginnings and Wulfram After leaving UC Berkeley, Blow worked at a "really boring" enterprise software company for six months, before taking a contracting role at Silicon Graphics, where he ported Doom and Doom II to a set-top box. In early 1996, Blow co-founded the game company Bolt-Action Software, which was based in Oakland, California, with Bernt Habermeier, whom Blow had met in the eXperimental Computing Facility. An artist later joined the company, and they created Wulfram, a 3D action-strategy game for up to 32 players where players took control of heavily armed hovertanks. At its height, Bolt-Action Software had 14 employees. It folded in 2000 due to the dot-com crash. In a 2020 interview, Blow said he was convinced 1996 was the most difficult time in history to start a video game company because of the transition from 2D to 3D titles. A number of components of the game were challenging to implement, but Blow learned from the experience—he said; "we went broke, and I was burned out for several years after that from working hard ... but that's how I became a good programmer". 2001–2004: contracting work After Blow closed his first studio, he worked as a contractor for game studios with large budgets. Games he worked on include Oddworld: Munch's Oddysee, Deus Ex: Invisible War and Thief: Deadly Shadows. In 2002, Blow co-founded the Experimental Gameplay Workshop at the Game Developers Conference, which showcases game prototypes that include new mechanics or that are new videogame genres or mediums. Around this time, he wrote The Inner Product, a monthly technical column for magazine Game Developer. During this time, Blow moved to New York City, where he was introduced to an IBM research project about servers based on cell processors. Blow pitched them a proof of concept of a physics-intensive, online, multiplayer game about giant robots attacking a town. Blow and Atman Binstock did most of the programming for the game; Blow wrote the client-side code, graphics, and gameplay, while Binstock wrote the physics engine to run on the server from scratch. After submitting their final report to IBM, the team took the game to Electronic Arts, whom Blow said were not impressed. Blow's other contract work included particle effect programming on Flow on the Sony PlayStation 3; code review following MTV's purchase of Harmonix; and programming on the music-action iPod game Phase. Blow said of this part of his life; "I was just stumbling forward like people do sometimes, and doing the best that I knew how to do, which at that time was programming". 2005–2008: Braid Blow created a prototype for a 2D puzzle-platform game involving time manipulation in December 2004. Five months later, he began work on turning the prototype into a proper game, and by December 2005 the first version of what would be known as Braid was completed. Much of the work was done part-time because Blow also did consulting work and martial arts training. Blow felt the graphics and art style of the first version of the game "looked extremely amateur", and hired David Hellman to create all of the game's art. For the story, Blow drew inspiration from some of his favorite books and films such as Invisible Cities and Mulholland Drive. The game's narrative is told through textual exposition between worlds, environmental art, and gameplay, and has been interpreted in many different ways. In mid-2007, Blow signed with Microsoft to release Braid via its distribution platform XBLA. Blow felt time spent meeting the XBLA certification process would have been better spent polishing the game, but he noted Microsoft was "very hands-off" with game design, and that "the final game is exactly what I wanted to put there". Blow estimated he spent more than $180,000 of his own money to develop Braid. Braid was released in August 2008 to universal acclaim, was "an immediate sensation",, and made Blow a millionaire. In 2010, Blow co-founded funding organization Indie Fund together with some other successful independent game developers. Blow appeared in the documentary film Indie Game: The Movie, in which he discusses his experiences developing and releasing Braid. In 2014 Blow stated sales of Braid had earned more than $4 million, which he used to fund The Witness (2016). 20092016: The Witness Blow's next project was The Witness (2016), a first-person game in which players solve puzzles by drawing paths. Blow wanted to create a game using non-verbal communication; the puzzle rules are never explained with words but the puzzles themselves teach the player the rules. Blow felt solving puzzles in this way could generate epiphanies for players, and tried to design the game so the player experiences "miniature epiphanies over and over again". Blow estimated solving every puzzle in the game would take more than 80 hours. Work on The Witness began in 2008. Blow created prototypes of several game ideas before choosing the one he liked the most, despite it being a 3D game which he "absolutely didn't want to do". Throughout development, Blow hired developers full-time and founded the company Thekla, Inc., of which he is president. The Witness was revealed to the public in 2010, when three people were working full-time on the game. Blow hoped to release The Witness in 2013 as a launch title for the Sony PlayStation 4, but the goal passed as the scope of the game increased. By 2015, the core team had grown to eight. At the time, it was very rare for a small, independent game studio to spend more than seven years on a game. The game was released on Windows and the PlayStation 4 in January 2016. Blow reported that the first week sales revenue of The Witness totaled over US$5 million, and was one of the top downloads on illegal BitTorrent websites. The game received critical acclaim, several BAFTA and Game Developers Choice Awards nominations, and appeared on 'Best of the decade' features from IGN, Polygon, NME, CNET, and National Post. 2017–present: Jai programming language, untitled Sokoban game, and Braid, Anniversary Edition Towards the end of development of The Witness, Blow became frustrated with C++, the programming language Thekla used to implement the game's engine. Blow considered the language to be over-complex, noting; "C++ is a powerful language in some ways ... but it makes [software development] a lot harder than it should be". In September 2014, Blow delivered a talk on his Twitch channel about the possibility of a new programming language designed for game development. He evaluated alternative systems-level programming languages such as Go and Rust, but ultimately expressed the desire to create a new language. Blow estimated a new programming language designed for game development could reduce typical development time by at least 20% and advance the art form by making programming more enjoyable. He also said the language would be relatively easy to create compared to creating a game like The Witness. In 2014, Blow began designing the language, which is codenamed Jai, and started creating a compiler for it. The first year and a half of work on Jai was part-time because Thekla was shipping The Witness. In mid-2016, he began full-time work on the language, a game engine written in Jai, and a Sokoban-style puzzle game for the game engine. Among other things, Blow hopes the language will improve the experience of game programming and allow programmers to build more functionality with less code. By working on the Sokoban game, its engine, and Jai at the same time, Blow is able to test the language's design and adjust it early in its lifetime. , the Jai compiler is in a beta release. In August 2020, Thekla announced Braid, Anniversary Edition, a remastered edition of Braid. Blow said the remaster will be faithful to the original, noting Braid will not get the "Greedo shoots first" treatment—a reference to a change made to Star Wars. Thekla planned to launch the game in early 2021. , the game has not been released. Long-term project In 2013, Blow began making a prototype for a single-player game that was not a puzzle game. In 2018, Blow said the game had 40–50 hours of playable content. He intends for Thekla to make the game using the game engine being developed for the Sokoban game, once it has matured. He plans to work on the game for 20 years, releasing it in installments. Each installment will make the game larger and more complex. Blow noted one of his goals for the project is to expand his design abilities. Artistry In his youth, Blow liked playing text adventure games by Infocom; his favorite was Trinity, which Blow said "affected me in a relatively deep way in terms of the way that I think about games". In college, his favorite game was Netrek. Early in his career Blow frequently played Counter-Strike. Blow's games are known for being artistic, challenging, and not following industry trends. In a retrospective on Braid, GQ noted the game was released at a time when the market was dominated by violent and repetitive first-person shooters, yet "made an earnest effort to make an artistic statement" that went beyond this trend. The puzzles of Braid have been described as "tough" and "formidable". Time described The Witness as "categorically defiant", and described its reception as being "widely quantified as a game created by a genius for geniuses". Blow's games have higher budgets and longer development times than most independently funded games, and have custom game engines. Braid was built with a relatively large budget for independent games at the time, while The Witness—which was largely funded with the profits of Braid—cost close to six million dollars. The development times for Braid and The Witness were very rare for independent games at the time. Blow created a custom game engine for both games, which in the case of The Witness took a large amount of development time. He noted that when development of The Witness began, off-the-shelf engines such as Unity and Unreal Engine were not sufficiently capable to build the game. Blow also noted that he tries to make games which stand the test of time, so owning his own engine means he can continue to provide the game to people in contrast to off-the-shelf engines that come with no such guarantee. Braid artist David Hellman said Blow was not stressed about time or budget, and that for him "the game always came first." Blow said when he makes a game, he tries to make something he would want to play and be interested in. He wants to understand the world from many perspectives, and tries to uncover and understand truths about the universe through game design. Blow enjoys exploring the permutations of a simple idea. He described an ideal player of his games as someone who "is inquisitive and likes to be treated as an intelligent person". Blow hopes the design skills he developed by working on complicated games have made Jai better designed than most languages. Blow founded Thekla because he wanted creative freedom rather than out of aspiration to run a company. He used almost all of the profits of Braid to independently fund The Witness, noting that by doing so he had total creative freedom and thereby would not have to adjust the game to please the whims of a publisher. The team which worked on The Witness said Blow gave them a lot of autonomy when working on the game. Blow does not schedule development time for games at Thekla, noting; "we don't do it like Electronic Arts. We don't pick a quarter and ship the game. We're just trying to make the best game." Public image Blow has been characterized by VentureBeat as having a "reputation for doing outstanding work", and is known for voicing his opinions about the gaming industry. He has been described as a "prickly genius", and as the game industry's "most cerebral developer, but also as its most incisive and polarizing internal critic". Commenting on his criticism, Blow said "I honestly say what I think about games, and I honestly say if I think something is good or not, and why". Stephen Totilo of Kotaku said Blow's criticism is not targeted towards individuals or specific games but industry trends. Blow thinks there are individual elements of storytelling which work well in games, including mood, character and setting; but considers games to be a terrible medium for storytelling in general. As of 2016, he considered the quality of storytelling in games to be significantly lower than that in literature. In 2018, he said many contemporary games include designs that are self-sabotaging and weaken the structure of the game they are in, despite such designs existing nearly a decade earlier, indicating stalled progress in the medium. He does not consider microtransactions to be inherently unethical, but thinks many games made for phones are "just pretending to be games in order to have a microtransaction button or show ads". He considers social network games evil, and noted while SimCity and FarmVille appear superficially similar, SimCity is a creative activity that involves problem solving while FarmVille is about retaining the player's attention for as long as possible. According to Blow, games have the potential to have a much-bigger role culturally and help define the human condition. While Blow strives to make his games meaningful, he has noted games with relatively empty gameplay, such as massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) which keep players hooked with fake rewards, may be causing real harm to people. Despite being seen as a role model for independent development, Blow is uncomfortable with being described as an indie developer: he feels the indie game scene has changed into something in which he does not belong. In 2019, he said the independent development scene had changed in that it was easier to make and release a game than ever before, but that in terms of game-design "progress has not been as large as people assume". Blow noted Stephen's Sausage Roll, a game he thought in 2017 "may be the best puzzle of all time", was rarely discussed in development circles, indicating a stagnation of the development scene. The comments attracted social-media attention, which Blow found troubling, noting; "The job isn't to be in a community; the job is to make a good game." Blow considers much of current software to be of low quality. He noted in a 2020 interview "I think we're now in a situation where everybody in the world is flooded with low quality software, and everybody wishes that they had higher quality software." He considers most of what programmers currently do to be wasteful, describing programming in 2021 as dealing with unnecessary complexity. He has a low opinion of modern C++, describing it in 2020 as a terrible language, and was partly motivated to create Jai in order to improve the quality of life for programmers. He is considered to be uniquely positioned to develop a new programming language. Personal life Although several of Blow's hobbies are well-known, Blow has been described as being "intensely private". Blow began kung fu training when he began working on Braid, doing 15 hours a week towards the end of development. Through the training he learned meditation practices that helped him with game development, noting "I don't know if I would have finished Braid if I wasn't doing kung fu." He practiced tai chi during early development of The Witness. Blow is an avid dancer, and went out dancing several nights a week during the development of The Witness. He discovered that dancing helps him generate ideas, and during the 1990s took a notebook to clubs to write down programming ideas that would come to him on the dance floor. Works Video games Only games where Blow has had a major role in development are included below. For example, works in which he is credited under Special Thanks are omitted. Films Notes References Citations Sources External links 1971 births American computer programmers American video game designers American video game programmers Indie game developers Living people People from San Francisco University of California, Berkeley alumni Video game writers YouTubers from California

4019027

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature%20and%20Organisation

Nature and Organisation

Nature and Organisation is the creative musical works of British musician Michael Cashmore. The music of Nature and Organisation is characterized by a mix of acoustic, classical and folk structures met with abrasive electronic instrumentation. Overview Cashmore has also been a member of the group Current 93 since the late 1980s. He has collaborated with many artists, including David Tibet, Douglas Pearce, Steven Stapleton, Antony Hegarty, Marc Almond and Rose McDowall. Cashmore wrote most of the music for Current 93 after the departure of Douglas Pearce in the 1990s. During a long silence after 1998, it was unclear if Nature and Organisation still existed, as the official Nature and Organisation website was no longer online, and Cashmore released no official statements since the release of the 1998 album, Death in a Snow Leopard Winter. Since then World Serpent Distribution has dissolved and all Nature and Organisation material is out of print. In 2006, after breaking his silence with a new official MySpace page, Michael Cashmore released a new album under his own name entitled Sleep England on Durtro Jnana Records. This was followed in 2007 with the mini-album "The Snow Abides" with vocals by Antony Hegarty, and a collaborative album in 2008, Gabriel and The Lunatic Lover with singer Marc Almond. In 2015, the German label Trisol released the long-awaited CD reissue of the complete World Serpent recordings by Nature and Organisation including the two albums "Beauty Reaps the Blood of Solitude" and "Death in a Snow Leopard Winter" along with the "A Dozen Summers Against the World" EP and another compilation-only track. Entitled "Snow Leopard Messiah," the double-CD set features lyrics and entirely new artwork by Michael Cashmore. Discography Albums and EPs Compilations External links Official Myspace Nature and Organisation site Official Myspace Michael Cashmore site Nature and Organisation discography at Discogs.com British folk music groups British industrial music groups Neofolk music groups Apocalyptic folk musicians

4019049

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t%20Fool%20Yourself%20Dear

Don't Fool Yourself Dear

Don't Fool Yourself Dear (Spanish: No te engañes corazón) is a 1937 Mexican comedy-drama film directed by Miguel Contreras Torres and starring Carlos Orellana. It is the first full-feature film of Mexican comedian Cantinflas after becoming a star of the carpa circuit (folk theater). It was also one of the earliest films of Orellana and Sara García and the first where they share the screen. This film was released in DVD format on October 26, 2004. Plot Don Boni (Orellana) is diagnosed with a deadly disease and decides to spend his last days doing good deeds. He leaves his wife and decides to help people. He then gets drunk and wakes up with a winning lottery ticket and realizes that the doctor who diagnosed him has been sent to prison for fraud. Cast Carlos Orellana as Don Bonifacio "Boni" Bonafé Sara García as Doña Petronila "Petro" (as Sarah Garcia) Natalia Ortiz as Consuelito Eusebio Pirrín as Friend of Canti (as Don Catarino) Eduardo Vivas as Don Gregorio "Goyo" Vidal Cantinflas as Canti Carmen Molina as Carmencita Joaquín Coss as Señor Rebolledo Carlos Villatoro as Alfredo Manuel Buendía as Señor Palomares Gerardo del Castillo as Friend of Goyo (as G. del Castillo) Matilde Corell as Lady Student (uncredited) Paco Martínez as Señor Monforte, landlord (uncredited) Ismael Rodríguez as Office Worker (uncredited) Fanny Schiller as Refugio (uncredited) Estanislao Shilinsky as Restaurant Client (uncredited) Juan Villegas as Waiter (uncredited) Critical reception Introducing an analysis of Cantinflas' career, essayist Carlos Monciváis refers to the actor's performance in this picture as "his disregarded debut in an inauspicious film." References External links No Te Engañes Corazón at Yahoo! Movies 1937 films 1937 comedy-drama films 1930s Spanish-language films Mexican black-and-white films Mexican comedy-drama films 1930s Mexican films

4019054

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amp%20Fiddler

Amp Fiddler

Joseph Anthony "Amp" Fiddler is an American singer, songwriter, keyboardist, and record producer from Detroit, Michigan. His musical styles include funk, soul, dance and electronica music. He is probably best known for his contributions to the band Enchantment, and as part of George Clinton's Parliament and Funkadelic groups from 1985 until 1996. His first solo album Waltz of a Ghetto Fly was released in March 2004. His most recent album, Amp Dog Knights, was released in 2017. Early career Fiddler has worked with George Clinton, Moodymann, Stephanie McKay, Jamiroquai, Prince, Was (Not Was), the Brand New Heavies, Fishbone, Corinne Bailey Rae and neo soul artist Maxwell. Working with his brother, Bubz (bass guitarist, producer and songwriter), he released the album With Respect in 1990 on Elektra, recording under the name Mr. Fiddler. Amp Fiddler is credited with introducing hip-hop producer J Dilla to the Akai MPC sampling drum machine and also to A Tribe Called Quest member Q-Tip, who introduced the young Dilla into the music industry world. In regards to Dilla's memory, he said: Discography Albums With Respect (1990) Waltz of a Ghetto Fly (2004) - UK #82 Afro Strut (2006) - UK #126 Inspiration Information (2008) - with Sly and Robbie Motor City Booty (2016) Kindred Live (2017) - with Will Sessions Amp Dog Knights (2017) The One (2018) - with Will Sessions Singles, Maxi-singles & EP's "Basementality" (2002) "Love and War" (2003) "Possibilities" (2003) "I Believe in You" (2003) - UK #72 "Dreamin" (2004) - UK #71 "Too High" (2004) "If You Can't Get Me Off Your Mind" (2004) "I Believe In You" (2004) "Eye To Eye" (2004) "Right Where You Are" (2006) "Ridin' / Faith" (2006) "Hope / Dope" (2006) "If I Don't" (2007) - featuring Corinne Bailey Rae "Find My Way" (2007) "Stay Or Move On" (2008) "Inspiration Information" (2008) - with Sly and Robbie "Blackhouse (Paint The White House Black)" (2008) - with Sly and Robbie "Take it" (2014) featuring Raphael Saadiq "Basementality 2" (2014) "Bassmentality 3" (2015) "Motor City Booty" (2016) "So Sweet" (2017) "Lost Without You" (2017) - with Will Sessions "Reminiscin'" (2017) - with Will Sessions "Rendezvous" (2017) - with Will Sessions "Keep Coming" (2019) References External links Amp Fiddler interview by Pete Lewis in Blues & Soul, October 2008 Amp Fiddler interview in Clubbity Amp Fiddler interview by SoulRnB.com Amp Fiddler lecture at Red Bull Music Academy interview by Andre J. Ellington for Rollingout.com 20th-century African-American male singers 21st-century African-American male singers African-American male singer-songwriters American funk keyboardists American funk singers American soul keyboardists American soul singers Living people P-Funk members Singers from Detroit Year of birth missing (living people) Singer-songwriters from Michigan

4019188

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westphalian%20system

Westphalian system

The Westphalian system, also known as Westphalian sovereignty, is a principle in international law that each state has exclusive sovereignty over its territory. The principle developed in Europe after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, based on the state theory of Jean Bodin and the natural law teachings of Hugo Grotius. It underlies the modern international system of sovereign states and is enshrined in the United Nations Charter, which states that "nothing ... shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state." According to the principle, every state, no matter how large or small, has an equal right to sovereignty. Political scientists have traced the concept to the eponymous peace treaties which ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) and Eighty Years' War (1568–1648). The principle of non-interference was then further developed in the 18th century. The Westphalian system reached its peak in the 19th and 20th centuries, but it has faced recent challenges from advocates of humanitarian intervention. Efforts to curtail absolute sovereignty have met with substantial resistance by sovereigntist movements in multiple countries who seek to "take back control" from such transnational governance groups and agreements, restoring the world to pre-World War II norms of sovereignty. Principles and criticism A series of treaties made up the Peace of Westphalia, which has been considered by political scientists to be the beginning of the modern international system, in which external powers should avoid interfering in another country's domestic affairs. The backdrop of this was the previously held idea that Europe was supposed to be under the umbrella of a single Christian protectorate or empire; governed spiritually by the Pope, and temporally by one rightful emperor, such as that of the Holy Roman Empire. The then-emerging Reformation had undermined this as Protestant-controlled states were less willing to respect the "supra authority" of both the Catholic Church and the Catholic Habsburg-led Emperor. Recent scholarship has argued that the titular Westphalian treaties in 1648 actually had little to do with the principles with which they are often associated: sovereignty, non-intervention, and the legal equality of states. For example, Andreas Osiander writes that "the treaties confirm neither [France's or Sweden's] 'sovereignty' nor anybody else's; least of all do they contain anything about sovereignty as a principle." Political scientists like Hall Gardner have challenged the titular applicability of these historical treaties towards the political principle on such grounds as well. Others, such as Christoph Kampann and Johannes Paulmann, argue that the 1648 treaties, in fact, limited the sovereignty of numerous states within the Holy Roman Empire and that the Westphalian treaties did not present a coherent new state-system, although they were part of an ongoing change. Yet others, often post-colonialist scholars, point out the limited relevance of the 1648 system to the histories and state systems in the non-Western world. Nonetheless, "Westphalian sovereignty" continues to be used as a shorthand for the basic legal principles underlying the modern state system. The applicability and relevance of these principles have been questioned since the mid-20th century onward from a variety of viewpoints. Much of the debate has turned on the ideas of internationalism and globalization, which some say conflicts with the Doctrine of the two swords ideal of self-sovereignty. History The origins of Westphalian sovereignty have been traced in the scholarly literature to the eponymous Peace of Westphalia (1648). The peace treaties put an end to the Thirty Years' War, a war of religion that devastated Germany and killed 30% of its population. Since neither the Catholics nor the Protestants had won a clear victory, the peace settlement established a status quo order in which states would refrain from interfering in each other's religious practices. Henry Kissinger wrote: The principle of non-interference in other countries' domestic affairs was laid out in the mid-18th century by Swiss jurist Emer de Vattel. States became the primary institutional agents in an interstate system of relations. The Peace of Westphalia is said to have ended attempts to impose supranational authority on European states. The "Westphalian" doctrine of states as independent agents was bolstered by the rise in 19th-century thoughts of 'classical' nationalism, under which legitimate states were assumed to correspond to nations, defined as groups of people united by language and culture. Before the Westphalian system, the closest geopolitical system was the "Chanyuan system" established in East Asia in 1005 through the Treaty of Chanyuan, which, like the Westphalian peace treaties, designated national borders between the states of the Song and Liao dynasties in 11th century China. This system was thereafter copied and further developed in East Asia in the following centuries until the establishment of the pan-Eurasian Mongol Empire in the 13th century. The Westphalian system reached its peak in the late 19th century. Although practical considerations still led powerful states to seek to influence the affairs of others, forcible intervention by one country in the domestic affairs of another was less frequent between 1850 and 1900 than in most previous and subsequent periods (i.e. Napoleonic, the Great War, the Second World War). After the end of the Cold War, the United States and Western Europe began talking of a post-Westphalian order in which countries could intervene against other countries under the context of human rights abuses. Critics of the post-Westphalian policy have argued that such intervention would be and has been used to continue processes similar to standard Euro-American colonialism, and that the colonial powers always used ideas similar to "humanitarian intervention" to justify colonialism, slavery, and similar practices. China and Russia have used their United Nations Security Council veto power to block what they see as American attempts to violate the sovereignty of other nations, perceiving it as imperialistic expansion under the guise of humanitarian intervention. Challenges to Westphalia The end of the Cold War saw increased international integration and, arguably, the erosion of Westphalian sovereignty. Much of the literature was primarily concerned with criticizing realist models of international politics in which the notion of the state as a unitary agent is taken as axiomatic. In 1998, at a Symposium on the Continuing Political Relevance of the Peace of Westphalia, NATO Secretary-General Javier Solana said that "humanity and democracy [were] two principles essentially irrelevant to the original Westphalian order" and levelled a criticism that "the Westphalian system had its limits. For one, the principle of sovereignty it relied on also produced the basis for rivalry, not community of states; exclusion, not integration." In 1999, British Prime Minister Tony Blair gave a speech in Chicago where he "set out a new, post-Westphalian, 'doctrine of the international community. Blair argued that globalization had made the Westphalian approach anachronistic. Blair was later referred to by The Daily Telegraph as "the man who ushered in the post-Westphalian era". Others have also asserted that globalization has superseded the Westphalian system. In 2000, Germany's Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer referred to the Peace of Westphalia in his Humboldt Speech, which argued that the system of European politics set up by Westphalia was obsolete: "The core of the concept of Europe after 1945 was and still is a rejection of the European balance-of-power principle and the hegemonic ambitions of individual states that had emerged following the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, a rejection which took the form of closer meshing of vital interests and the transfer of nation-state sovereign rights to supranational European institutions." The European Union's concept of shared sovereignty is also somewhat contrary to historical views of Westphalian sovereignty, as it provides for external agents to influence and interfere in the internal affairs of its member countries. In a 2008 article, Phil Williams links the rise of terrorism and violent non-state actors (VNSAs), which pose a threat to the Westphalian sovereignty of the state, to globalization. Military intervention Interventions such as in Cambodia by Vietnam (the Cambodian–Vietnamese War) or in Bangladesh (then a part of Pakistan) by India (the Bangladesh Liberation War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971) were seen by some as examples of humanitarian intervention, although their basis in international law is debatable. Other more recent interventions, and their attendant infringements of state sovereignty, also have prompted debates about their legality and motivations. A new notion of contingent sovereignty seems to be emerging, but it has not yet reached the point of international legitimacy. Neoconservatism in particular has developed this line of thinking further, asserting that a lack of democracy may foreshadow future humanitarian crises, or that democracy itself constitutes a human right, and therefore states not respecting democratic principles open themselves up to just war by other countries. However, proponents of this theory have been accused of being concerned about democracy, human rights and humanitarian crises only in countries where American global dominance is challenged, while ignoring the same issues in other countries friendlier to the United States. Further criticism of Westphalian sovereignty arises regarding allegedly failed states, of which Afghanistan (before the 2001 US-led invasion) has been often considered an example. By this view, it has been argued that no sovereignty exists and that international intervention is justified on humanitarian grounds and by the threats posed by failed states to neighboring countries and the world as a whole. Defenders of Westphalia Although the Westphalian system developed in early modern Europe, its staunchest defenders can now be found in the non-Western world. The presidents of China and Russia issued a joint statement in 2001 vowing to "counter attempts to undermine the fundamental norms of the international law with the help of concepts such as 'humanitarian intervention' and 'limited sovereignty. China and Russia have used their United Nations Security Council veto power to block what they see as American violations of state sovereignty in Syria. Russia was left out of the original Westphalian system in 1648, but post-Soviet Russia has seen Westphalian sovereignty as a means to balance American power by encouraging a multipolar world order. Some in the West also speak favourably of Westphalian sovereignty. American political scientist Stephen Walt urged U.S. President Donald Trump to return to Westphalian principles, calling it a "sensible course" for American foreign policy. See also Civic nationalism Monopoly on violence Precedence among European monarchies Westfailure References Further reading John Agnew, Globalization and Sovereignty (2009) T. Biersteker and C. Weber (eds.), State Sovereignty as Social Construct (1996) Wendy Brown, Walled States, Waning Sovereignty (2010) Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society (1977) Joseph Camilleri and Jim Falk, The End of Sovereignty?: The Politics of a Shrinking and Fragmenting World, Edward Elgar, Aldershot (1992) Derek Croxton, "The Peace of Westphalia of 1648 and the Origins of Sovereignty," The International History Review vol. 21 (1999) A. Claire Cutler, "Critical Reflections on the Westphalian Assumptions of International Law and Organization," Review of International Studies vol. 27 (2001) M. Fowler and J. Bunck, Law, Power, and the Sovereign State (1995) S. H. Hashmi (ed.), State Sovereignty: Change and Persistence in International Relations (1997) F. H. Hinsley, Sovereignty (1986) K. J. Holsti, Taming the Sovereigns (2004) Robert Jackson, The Global Covenant (2000) Henry Kissinger, World Order (2014) Stephen Krasner, Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy (1999) Stephen Krasner (ed.), Problematic Sovereignty (2001) J.H. Leurdijk, Intervention in International Politics, Eisma BV, Leeuwarden, Netherlands (1986) Andreas Osiander, "Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Westphalian Myth," International Organization vol. 55 (2001) Daniel Philpott, Revolutions in Sovereignty (2001) Cormac Shine, 'Treaties and Turning Points: The Thirty Years' War', History Today (2016) Hendrik Spruyt, The Sovereign State and Its Competitors (1994) Phil Williams, Violent Non-State Actors and National and International Security, ISN, 2008 Wael Hallaq, "The Impossible State: Islam, Politics, and Modernity's Moral Predicament" (2012) 1648 in international relations Political terminology Sovereignty Early Modern history of Germany Legal history of the Dutch Republic 1648 in Europe History of diplomacy Western culture

4019196

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20GP2%20Series

2006 GP2 Series

The 2006 GP2 Series season was the second season of the Formula One feeder championship GP2 Series. The season began at Circuit de Valencia, Spain on 8 April 2006 and ended in Monza, Italy on 10 September 2006. The championship was won by ART Grand Prix driver Lewis Hamilton, over Piquet Sports driver Nelson Piquet Jr. 2006 GP2 car modifications Chassis The 2006 specification GP2 Car was designed by Dallara Automobili. The 2006 GP2 car featured a biplane rear wing, with the triplane rear wing used in 2005 only to be used at the Monaco race. The front upper and lower wishbones were reinforced, as were the front and rear suspension uprights. Engine The 4 litre V8 engine featured internal, cartographic and software upgrades designed to improve performance and fuel consumption. Gearbox The 2006 gearbox was manufactured by GearTek, and featured an 8 position barrel, with ratchet body and software upgrades, as well as a new transverse shafts fixing system designed to facilitate improved gear selection. Tyres The tyres supplied by Bridgestone for the 2006 season were full-slick, not featuring the four-line grooved slick seen in the 2005 season. Bridgestone supplied a soft, medium, and hard compound tyre, with the tyre choice being made by Bridgestone and the GP2 Series prior to each event. The wet specification tyre remained the same as 2005. Other parts Brembo supplied a new development of monobloc brake calipers and disc bells, which were exclusive to GP2. The car also featured internal cooling upgrades, a new water radiator, radiator duct, oil and water heat exchanger, modified oil degasser, new oil and water pipes and new heat exchanger fixing brackets. Sporting regulations changes The only change to the sporting regulations for the 2006 season was that drivers would only be awarded a single point for fastest lap in a race, rather than the two points that were awarded in 2005. The driver also had to start the race from his allocated grid position to be eligible to claim the fastest lap. Season summary Nelson Piquet Jr. won the first race at Valencia ahead of two rookies, Lewis Hamilton and Adrián Vallés. The latter failed to score in the rest of the season apart from one point for fastest lap at Barcelona. In a sprint race, Vallés was involved in a collision with Adam Carroll who rolled multiple times. The sprint race was won by Michael Ammermüller who had promising start to the season but failed to score during last six weekends. Gianmaria Bruni and Ernesto Viso then shared victories at Imola, where Hamilton failed to score, after being black-flagged in the feature race and therefore starting the sprint race from back of the grid. Hamilton won both races at Nürburgring, after Piquet took pole position but had a big crash following car failure in the feature race. He also failed to score in the sprint. Hamilton was on course to win feature race at Barcelona, but he collided with his teammate Alexandre Prémat on the last lap. The Frenchman went on to win with Hamilton second. Viso took his second victory of the season by winning the sprint. Hamilton then won three races in a row, including at Monaco where Nicolas Lapierre and Olivier Pla were injured and did not start. At his home circuit in Silverstone, Hamilton won the feature and then the sprint, where he overtook Clivio Piccione and Piquet in one move. There were few notable driver changes during the early season. Giorgio Pantano returned to the series with after missing the first three rounds and Timo Glock moved from BCN to iSport between the Monaco and British rounds. Both were serious contenders for race wins for the rest of the season and they shared victories at Magny-Cours. Glock also won at Hockenheim after overtaking José María López on the final lap. At this point, Hamilton had a 26-point lead over Piquet, but the Brazilian bounced back with a perfect weekend at Hungary, taking pole, two wins and two fastest laps. Hamilton spun in qualifying and started the feature race from back of the grid. He failed to score there but took second place in the wet Sunday sprint. Piquet's form continued in Turkey, where he won the feature race from pole. Hamilton was second, and in the sprint, he recovered from an early spin to take second place, while Piquet had to settle for fifth. Andreas Zuber took advantage of his front row starting position and won the race. Hamilton led by ten points before final weekend in Monza. Piquet cut the lead to eight by taking pole. Pantano beat both of them in the feature race and set the fastest lap as well. Piquet finished second and Hamilton third, meaning that the championship would be decided in final race. However, Pantano was deemed to have ignored yellow flags on his fastest lap so that time was disallowed, giving a point to Hamilton who now clinched the title. Pantano made a fantastic start in the sprint and went from 8th to 1st before first corner, and went on to win the race. Hamilton followed and took 2nd, beating Piquet by 12 points in the end. Teams and drivers All of the teams used the Dallara GP2/05 chassis with Renault-badged 4.0 litre (244 cu in) naturally-aspirated Mecachrome V8 engines order and with tyres supplied by Bridgestone. Driver changes Changed Teams Gianmaria Bruni: Durango → Trident Racing Adam Carroll: Super Nova International → Racing Engineering Fairuz Fauzy: DAMS → Super Nova International Sergio Hernández: Campos Racing → Durango Neel Jani: Racing Engineering → Arden International Ltd José María López: DAMS → Super Nova International Ferdinando Monfardini: Coloni Motorsport → DAMS Giorgio Pantano: Super Nova International → Petrol Ofisi FMS International Clivio Piccione: Durango → DPR Ernesto Viso: BCN Competición → iSport International Entering GP2 Michael Ammermüller: Eurocup Formula Renault 2.0 & Italian Formula Renault Championship (Jenzer Motorsport) → Arden International Ltd Mike Conway: British Formula 3 Championship (Fortec Motorsport) → DPR Direxiv Lucas di Grassi: Formula Three Euroseries (Manor Motorsport) → Durango Luca Filippi: Italian Formula 3000 (Fisichella Motorsport) → FMS International Timo Glock: Champ Car World Series (Rocketsports Racing) → BCN Competición Tristan Gommendy: World Series by Renault (Witmeur KTR) → iSport International Lewis Hamilton: Formula Three Euroseries (ASM Formule 3) → ART Grand Prix Franck Perera: Formula Three Euroseries (Prema Powerteam) → DAMS Vitaly Petrov: Formula 1600 Russia (Art Line ProTeam) → DPR Félix Porteiro: World Series by Renault (Epsilon by Graff) → Campos Racing Jason Tahinci: British Formula Renault Championship (Team JLR) → FMS International Adrián Vallés: World Series by Renault (Pons Racing) → Campos Racing Javier Villa: Spanish Formula Three Championship (Racing Engineering) → Racing Engineering Andreas Zuber: World Series by Renault (Carlin Motorsport) → Trident Racing Leaving GP2 Juan Cruz Álvarez: Campos Racing → Top Race V6 Argentina (Catalan Magni Motorsports) Can Artam: iSport International → Retirement Borja García: Racing Engineering → World Series by Renault (RC Motorsport) Heikki Kovalainen: Arden International → Formula One (Mild Seven Renault F1 Team test driver) Mathias Lauda: Coloni Motorsport → Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (Persson Motorsport) Giorgio Mondini: DPR → A1 Grand Prix (A1 Team Switzerland) Nico Rosberg: ART Grand Prix → Formula One (WilliamsF1 Team) Ryan Sharp: DPR → World Touring Car Championship (JAS Motorsport) Scott Speed: iSport International → Formula One (Scuderia Toro Rosso) Toni Vilander: Coloni Motorsport → Italian GT Championship (Playteam Sara Free) Midseason changes Giorgio Pantano replaced Luca Filippi after Nürburg races. Timo Glock replaced Tristan Gommendy after Monaco race. Luca Filippi replaced Timo Glock after Monaco race. Neel Jani replaced Nicolas Lapierre for Silverstone and Magny-Cours races. Mike Conway replaced Olivier Pla for Silverstone races. Vitaly Petrov replaced Olivier Pla after Magny-Cours races. Calendar Results Championship standings Scoring system Points are awarded to the top 8 classified finishers in the Feature race, and to the top 6 classified finishers in the Sprint race. The pole-sitter in the feature race will also receive two points, and one point is given to the driver who set the fastest lap in the feature and sprint races. The driver also had to start the race from his allocated grid position to be eligible to claim the fastest lap and has to drive 90% of race laps. No extra points are awarded to the pole-sitter in the sprint race. Feature race points Sprint race points Points are awarded to the top 6 classified finishers. Drivers' Championship Notes: Drivers did not finish the race, but were classified as they completed more than 90% of the race distance. Lewis Hamilton was disqualified during the first race at Imola for passing the safety car. Team ART Grand Prix's statement on this is that he was following the Campos Racing cars which led him past the car. Olivier Pla was disqualified in Montmeló from 8th place for car being under weight limit. Durango cars were excluded from second Silverstone race for illegal rear wing which caused di Grassi's accident in first race. Felix Porteiro was disqualified from 2nd place in Silverstone sprint race for illegal position of steering rack. Teams' Championship Notes References External links GP2 Series & GP2 Asia Series Results at autosport.com Results at sportresultaten.be GP2 Series season 2006 GP2 Series seasons GP2 Series

4019197

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiring%20pencil

Wiring pencil

A wiring pencil (often sold under the trade names of Roadrunner or Verowire) is a tool for making electrical connections. A small reel of insulated copper wire is mounted at the top of the tool. The wire runs down the center of the wiring pencil and through a hardened tip, which is small enough to move between the pins of 0.1" pitch DIL chip allowing connections to be wrapped and the wire to be led across the circuit board to the next point it's needed. The wire is coated with a polymer lacquer (commonly referred to as enamel, but not glass based). Once wrapped the connections are soldered, the heat of this burning the lacquer away and completing the joint. Insulated wire is normally 38 SWG (0.15mm), ground connections are sometimes made with uninsulated wire which is slightly heavier (33 SWG, 0.25mm). A well ventilated area and/or fume extraction are very important when carrying out this process due to the toxic fumes. Sometimes, where there are many wires, plastic comb-like structures are used for wire management. See also Wire wrap Solderable enamel wire References External links http://www.instructables.com/id/Mechanical-Prototyping-Pencil/ Electronics work tools Wire

4019285

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Cashmore

Michael Cashmore

Michael Cashmore is an English composer and musician currently living in Berlin. He has created music under the name of Nature and Organisation since the early 1980s and more recently (2006) under his own name. Cashmore was a member of the group Current 93 from the late 1980s until around 2006. He composed the majority of the music for the group during that period. He has collaborated with many artists including David Tibet, Anohni and the Johnsons, Bill Fay, Marc Almond, Nick Cave, Rose McDowall, Douglas P and Steven Stapleton. After moving to Berlin in 2004 Cashmore broke several years of silence by releasing his first solo CD Sleep England in May 2006. Early 2007 saw the release of The Snow Abides, a mini album containing a collection of songs that feature vocals by Anohni Hegarty of Anohni and the Johnsons. In April 2008 Cashmore released a two-track EP with Marc Almond titled Gabriel and the Lunatic Lover which sets two poems "Gabriel" and "The Lunatic Lover" by Count Stenbock to music. Marc Almond appeared as a guest of Current 93 at the Queen Elizabeth Hall in London on 21 June 2008 and performed these songs with Cashmore on guitar. These two songs later appeared on a collaborative album by Marc Almond and Michael Cashmore in 2011 called Feasting With Panthers. In 2017, Cashmore reissued published and unpublished works by the group Nature And Organisation on a double CD, and a series of four vinyl records, with the German label Trisol Music Group GmbH. In the same year, Cashmore released an electronic / experimental white vinyl EP under his own name with artist Shaltmira, to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the founding of the label. Cashmore has publicly stated via social media that he is transforming himself, and his music is a reflection of this transformation. He released two albums on the Austrian label Klanggalerie, The Doctrine Of Transformation Through Love Parts I and II in 2019 and 2020, which are heavily electronic and experimental but also feature two songs recorded with Bill Fay and Little Annie. Cashmore has also now formed a movement connected to his music called The Hidden Throne which he uses to share and promote his ideas of personal transformation. In 2021 Cashmore announced the release of his new album "The Night Has Rushed In" on the English record label House of Mythology. The title track of the album features a text written by David Tibet of Current 93 and sang by Anohni. In 2022 Cashmore wrote the musical score for the film "Stars" directed by Mars Roberge and based on the screenplay by Doron Braunshtein.The film is centered upon 5 homeless women living in New York who must learn that a glimmer of hope is worth more than all of the money in the World and its premiere was at the Winter Film Awards International Film Festival in New York on February 17th 2023. 2023 saw the release of Cashmore's first symphony "The Sword Becomes a Shield", a work composed of four movements and released digitally by House of Mythology. References English composers English rock singers English pop singers Living people Year of birth missing (living people) Place of birth missing (living people) Current 93 members

4019488

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultralight%20aircraft%20%28Canada%29

Ultralight aircraft (Canada)

The Canadian Aviation Regulations define two types of ultralight aircraft: basic ultra-light aeroplane (BULA), and advanced ultra-light aeroplane (AULA). Definition Regulation of ultra-light aircraft in Canada is covered by the Canadian Aviation Regulations. An earlier definition of "ultra-light aeroplane", effective October 10, 1996, meant: a single-seat aeroplane that has a launch weight of 165 kg (364 pounds) or less, and a wing area, expressed in square metres, of not less than the launch weight in kilograms minus 15, divided by 10, and in no case less than , a two-seat instructional aeroplane that has a launch weight of 195 kg (430 pounds) or less, and a wing area, expressed in square metres, of not less than 10 m2 and a wing loading of not more than 25 kg/m2 (5.12 lb/ft2), the wing loading being calculated using the launch weight plus the occupant weight of 80 kg (176 pounds) per person, or an advanced ultra-light aeroplane; On June 1, 2003, the definition was amended to state that an "ultra-light aeroplane" means either an advanced ultra-light aeroplane or a basic ultra-light aeroplane. Basic On July 6, 1956 the Department of Transport first issued new requirements for ultralight aircraft, a category that was eventually renamed "Amateur-built aircraft", leaving Canada without an ultralight category. The basic ultralight category was established as a new category in 1982 to fill this gap. Regulation of ultralight aircraft in Canada is covered by the Canadian Aviation Regulations, which defines a "basic ultra-light aeroplane" as: an aeroplane having no more than two seats, designed and manufactured to have: a maximum take-off weight not exceeding 544 kg (1,200 pounds), and a stall speed in the landing configuration (VS0) of 39 knots (45 mph) indicated airspeed, or less, at the maximum take-off weight; Advanced According to Canadian Aviation Regulations, Part I, Subpart 1, an "advanced ultra-light aeroplane" means an aeroplane that has a type design that is in compliance with the standards specified in the manual entitled Design Standards for Advanced Ultra-light Aeroplanes (DS10141). An advanced ultra-light aeroplane is an aeroplane which: Is propeller driven; Is designed to carry a maximum of two persons, including the pilot; Has a maximum take-off mass, MTOmax or WTOmax, of: 350 kg (770 lb) for a single place aeroplane, or 560.0 kg (1232 lb) for a two place aeroplane; A maximum stalling speed in the landing configuration, VS0, at manufacturer's recommended maximum take-off mass (weight) not exceeding 72 km/h (20 m/s, 45 mph) (IAS); and Is limited to non-aerobatic operations. Non-aerobatic operations include: manoeuvres incident to normal flying stalls and spins (if approved for type); lazy eights, chandelles; and steep turns, in which the angle of bank is not more than 60° The advanced ultra-light aeroplane (AULA) category is similar, but not identical, to the American Light-Sport Aircraft (LSA) category. Many aircraft are available as AULAs in Canada and LSAs in the United States. Minimum useful load Advanced ultra-light aeroplanes shall have a minimum useful load, MU or WU computed as follows: For a single place aeroplane: MU = 80 + 0.3P, in kg; where P is the rated engine(s) power in kilowatts; MU = 175 + 0.5P, in lb; where P is the rated engine(s) power in brake horsepower (bhp). For a two place aeroplane: MU = 160 + 0.3P, in kg; where P is the rated engine(s) power in kW; MU = 350 + 0.5P, in lb; where P is the rated engine(s) power in bhp. Maximum empty mass (weight) The maximum empty mass, MEmax, (WEmax) includes all operational equipment that is actually installed in the aeroplane. It includes the mass (weight) of the airframe, powerplant, required equipment, optional and specific equipment, fixed ballast, full engine coolant, hydraulic fluid, and the residual fuel and oil. Hence, the maximum empty mass (weight) = maximum take-off mass (weight) - minimum useful load. The registration marks for an advanced ultra-light aeroplane after 1997 begin with "C-Ixxx". Prior to that date they were C-Fxxx or C-Gxxx. Operations An ultra-light pilot permit, recreational pilot permit, private, commercial or airline transport aeroplane licence issued by Transport Canada, is required in order for a person to operate an ultra-light aeroplane in Canada. Pilots holding a Recreational or higher license may carry a passenger in a two-seat advanced ultra-light aeroplane. Pilots with only an ultra-light permit may not carry a passenger in an advanced ultralight unless they have received a passenger carrying endorsement. Basic ultralights cannot carry passengers unless the passenger is another pilot. Student pilots undergoing training may be carried in basic ultralights. Canadian Basic and Advanced Ultralights may be flown in the USA if the pilot holds a Recreational Pilot Permit or higher designation. Pilots holding an Ultralight Pilot Permit with instructor rating and who have at least 2 hours of cross country experience may also fly to the US. Any Canadian Ultralight flying to the US also requires a Special Flight Operations Certificate from the FAA. This is a form the pilot completes which is then valid for 180 days. Nomenclature Officially this category of aircraft are known in Canada as Ultra-light Aeroplanes although in common use the American term Ultralight Airplanes is often used. See also Pilot licensing in Canada References External links Ultralight Pilots Association of Canada - Review of Canadian Aircraft Categories Canadian Owners and Pilots Association - Aircraft in Canada - Ultralights Transport Canada Listing of Models Eligible to be Registered as Advanced Ultra-Light Aeroplanes (AULA) Aviation in Canada

4019497

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagele

Nagele

Nagele is a village in the Dutch province of Flevoland. It is a part of the municipality of Noordoostpolder, and lies about 10 km south of Emmeloord. History Nagele was designed by the architectural team "De 8" between 1948 and 1954. The final design by Aldo van Eyck and de 8 was shown at the CIAM 8 meeting in 1956. While the current condition of the town differs from the original design, some of the basic concepts remain. The village was founded in 1954 after an island in the Zuiderzee which used be located between Urk and Schokland. The etymology is unknown, however a river called Nakala was recorded in 966 near Urk. The organization of the Noordoostpolder area was based on a central nucleus with smaller towns circling around connected by roads back to the center. Nagele was proposed to be southwest of the main town, and was originally to be planned to contain 300 dwelling units, 3 churches, 3 primary schools, a post office, fire station, hotel, cafes, a clinic, cemetery, sports field, swimming pool and business zone. Aldo van Eyck proposed that the town be designed around 3 principles: 1. a non-hierarchical organization with mixed social groups, 2. a windbreak of trees to give the village a spatial character and stand out in the polder landscape, and 3. an open green center. The final design accepted by the Wieringermeer board included these ideas, which can still be seen today. The dwelling units form smaller courtyards that are shared around the outside of the main green, these clusters in turn forming the visual boundaries of the center. Public transportation There is no railway station in Nagele, but the nearest stations are in Kampen and Lelystad. Gallery References External links Official site (in Dutch) Populated places in Flevoland Modernist architecture in the Netherlands Noordoostpolder 1954 establishments in the Netherlands

4019617

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janek%20Schaefer

Janek Schaefer

Janek Schaefer (born 1970) is a British avant-garde artist, musician, composer, inventor, and entertainer, known for performing and exhibiting his work around the world with sound and installation art. Schaefer has released 37 albums, runs Lucky Dip Disco, and his own label, audiOh! Recordings. Life and career Schaefer was born in England to Polish and Canadian parents. While studying architecture at the Royal College of Art (RCA) with tutor Ben Kelly, Schaefer recorded the stop start noises of a sound-activated dictaphone travelling overnight through the Post Office. The resulting work, "Recorded Delivery" was made for the 'Self Storage' exhibition Time Out critics choice with former postman Brian Eno, Laurie Anderson, and Artangel. After graduating from the RCA with the annual portfolio prize, Schaefer invented the Tri-phonic Turntable in 1997, to create new music from discarded media, and began performing and touring live. The turntable is listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the "World's Most Versatile Record Player". Schaefer has performed, lectured, and exhibited in 30 countries throughout Europe (Sonar, Tate Modern, ICA), USA & Canada (The Walker, XI, Mutek, FIMAV, Princeton), and toured across Japan and Australia including a performance at the Sydney Opera House in 2003. His debut reverse play LP "His Masters Voices" was released in 1997 on his audiOh! Recordings label. His first studio CD Above Buildings (2000) was released on Fat Cat and was CD of the week in The Guardian. He created the original random playing LP called 'Skate' in 2004, which evolved into an audio visual installation, which won Award of Distinction at Ars Electronica in Austria 2004 Schaefer has collaborated on albums with Philip Jeck (Songs for Europe), Robert Hampson (Comae), Stephan Mathieu (Hidden Name), Charlemagne Palestine (Day of the Demons), and William Basinski (... on reflection). Schaefer is a visiting professor in sound art, and PhD external examiner. In 2008, using prize money from the Paul Hamlyn Award, he set up the Lucky Dip Disco. An all ages disco turning around the box of 7"s to invite the audience to search for their favourite music memories. In 2020 he won the 'Best Mobile DJ' National UK Award. In 2009, the Bluecoat gallery in Liverpool mounted a five gallery retrospective exhibition of his career to date. He lives and works at 'Narnia' in Walton-on-Thames with two children. Awards 1991: Royal Institute of British Architects, Photography Prize for ‘Neighbours’. 1996: Royal College of Art Old Student Award portfolio prize. 2002: McKnight Composer in Residence, American Composers Forum 2004: Award of Distinction at Prix Ars Electronica, Austria, for random playing LP Skate 2008: British Composer of the Year in Sonic Art Award, for "Extended Play" (triptych for the child survivors of war and conflict). 2008: Paul Hamlyn Award for Composers prize. 2020: UK 'Best Mobile DJ' Award at the Event Entertainment Awards References External links Official website Music & Art live Archive: audiOh! Room : Janek Schaefer foundsoundscape: ( ( ( foundsoundscape ) ) ) : created & curated by Janek Schaefer 1970 births British sound artists Alumni of the Royal College of Art Living people English composers English people of Polish descent English people of Canadian descent

4019618

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estadio%20Sausalito

Estadio Sausalito

Estadio Sausalito (; Sausalito Stadium) is a multi-purpose stadium in Viña del Mar, Chile. It is currently used mostly for football matches and is the home ground of CD Everton. The stadium holds 22,360 people, was built in 1929 and completely renovated in 2015. The stadium has hosted the 1962 World Cup, two times the Copa América (1991 and 2015) and a FIFA U-17 World Cup. The name comes from sister city Sausalito, California, who in turn renamed their main square for Viña del Mar in the 1960s. History It was built during Carlos Ibáñez del Campo government in 1929. In 1960, the stadium was practically destroyed by the Valdivia earthquake, but the rapid reconstruction financed by the municipality did that the ground was chosen as one of the venues to hold the 1962 World Cup hosting all the games of the Group C as well as one during the quarterfinals and semifinals respectively. In 1991, Sausalito returned to international football, after appearing as one of the four venues in the Copa América of that year, alongside Santiago, Valparaíso and Concepción. In January 2004, a new electronic scoreboard was installed in the stadium as part of the requirements for hosting the Pre-Olympic Tournament of that year. On 19 July 2012, President of Chile Sebastián Piñera announced a reshuffle to the stadium to host the 2015 Copa América and the FIFA U-17 World Cup of the same year, which started during his government and finished few days before the Copa América during Michelle Bachelet government. In July 2022, the venue was confirmed to host the men's football tournament at the 2023 Pan American Games. International matches As one of the venues for the 1962 World Cup, the Estadio Sausalito hosted eight matches including the semi-final between Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. It was also one of four venues to host matches during the 1991 Copa América, and it was one of the eight venues to host matches during the 2015 Copa América. 1962 FIFA World Cup 1991 Copa América 2015 Copa América 2015 FIFA U-17 World Cup References External links Sausalito 1962 FIFA World Cup stadiums Sausalito Copa América stadiums Multi-purpose stadiums in Chile Everton de Viña del Mar Sports venues completed in 1929 Venues of the 2023 Pan and Parapan American Games

4019636

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate%20coupling

Substrate coupling

In an integrated circuit, a signal can couple from one node to another via the substrate. This phenomenon is referred to as substrate coupling or substrate noise coupling. The push for reduced cost, more compact circuit boards, and added customer features has provided incentives for the inclusion of analog functions on primarily digital MOS integrated circuits (ICs) forming mixed-signal ICs. In these systems, the speed of digital circuits is constantly increasing, chips are becoming more densely packed, interconnect layers are added, and analog resolution is increased. In addition, recent increase in wireless applications and its growing market are introducing a new set of aggressive design goals for realizing mixed-signal systems. Here, the designer integrates radio frequency (RF) analog and base band digital circuitry on a single chip. The goal is to make single-chip radio frequency integrated circuits (RFICs) on silicon, where all the blocks are fabricated on the same chip. One of the advantages of this integration is low power dissipation for portability due to a reduction in the number of package pins and associated bond wire capacitance. Another reason that an integrated solution offers lower power consumption is that routing high-frequency signals off-chip often requires a 50Ω impedance match, which can result in higher power dissipation. Other advantages include improved high-frequency performance due to reduced package interconnect parasitics, higher system reliability, smaller package count, and higher integration of RF components with VLSI-compatible digital circuits. In fact, the single-chip transceiver is now a reality. The design of such systems, however, is a complicated task. There are two main challenges in realizing mixed-signal ICs. The first challenging task, specific to RFICs, is to fabricate good on-chip passive elements such as high-Q inductors. The second challenging task, applicable to any mixed-signal IC and the subject of this chapter, is to minimize noise coupling between various parts of the system to avoid any malfunctioning of the system. In other words, for successful system-on-chip integration of mixed-signal systems, the noise coupling caused by nonideal isolation must be minimized so that sensitive analog circuits and noisy digital circuits can effectively coexist, and the system operates correctly. To elaborate, note that in mixed-signal circuits, both sensitive analog circuits and high-swing high-frequency noise injector digital circuits may be present on the same chip, leading to undesired signal coupling between these two types of circuit via the conductive substrate. The reduced distance between these circuits, which is the result of constant technology scaling (see Moore's law and the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors), exacerbates the coupling. The problem is severe, since signals of different nature and strength interfere, thus affecting the overall performance, which demands higher clock rates and greater analog precisions. The primary mixed-signal noise coupling problem comes from fast-changing digital signals coupling to sensitive analog nodes. Another significant cause of undesired signal coupling is the crosstalk between analog nodes themselves owing to high-frequency/high-power analog signals. One of the media through which mixed-signal noise coupling occurs is the substrate. Digital operations cause fluctuations in the underlying substrate voltage, which spreads through the common substrate causing variations in the substrate potential of sensitive devices in the analog section. Similarly, in the case of crosstalk between analog nodes, a signal can couple from one node to another via the substrate. This phenomenon is referred to as substrate coupling or substrate noise coupling. Modelling, analysis, and verification of mixed signal coupling There is a sizeable literature on substrate, and mixed signal coupling. Some of the most common topics are: Differentiating between the random noise inherent to electronic devices and the deterministic noise generated by circuits. Examining the physical phenomena responsible for the creation of undesired signals in a digital circuit and the mechanisms of their transport to other parts of the system. The substrate is the most common coupling mechanism, but capacitive coupling, mutual inductance, and coupling through power supplies are also analyzed. Comparing various modeling approaches and simulation techniques. There are many possible models for digital noise generation, the substrate impedance network, and the sensitivity of the (unintended) receiver. The chosen techniques significantly influence the speed and accuracy of the analysis. Substrate and mixed-signal analysis techniques can be applied to placement and power distribution synthesis. References Electronic Design Automation For Integrated Circuits Handbook, by Lavagno, Martin, and Scheffer, A survey of the field of electronic design automation. This article was derived, with permission, from Chapter 23 of Book 2, Mixed-Signal Noise Coupling in System-on-Chip Design: Modeling, Analysis, and Validation, by Nishath Verghese and Makoto Nagata Further reading / External links Technical Book: "Noise Coupling in Integrated Circuits: A Practical Approach to Analysis, Modeling, and Suppression", by Cosmin Iorga, Ph.D., 286pages, Hardcover Electronic design Electronic design automation Electronic engineering Integrated circuits

4019845

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue%20%28disambiguation%29

Dialogue (disambiguation)

Dialogue is a conversational exchange. Dialogue(s) or dialog(s) may also refer to: Dialogue in writing, a verbal exchange between two or more characters Art and culture Philosophical concepts Socratic dialogue, a genre of philosophical literary prose developed mainly by Plato Dialogue (Bakhtin), the concept of dialogue in the philosophy of Mikhail Bakhtin Philosophy of dialogue, a type of philosophy based on the work of Martin Buber Books Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, a 1632 book by Galileo Galilei Dialogues (Pope Gregory), a collection of four books written by Pope Gregory I Dialogs (Lem), a 1957 book-length essay by Polish science-fiction writer Stanisław Lem A Dialogue, a 1973 book by James Baldwin and Nikki Giovanni Dialogues (Gilles Deleuze), 1977 book of discussions between Deleuze and Claire Parnet Journals Dialog (magazine), a magazine in Poland that publishes contemporary Polish and foreign plays Dialog (newspaper), a weekly newspaper from Varna city, Bulgaria, Europe Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought Dialogue: Canadian Philosophical Review Dialogue, philosophy journal of Phi Sigma Tau Dialogue (magazine), a 1978–2004 art magazine Classical music Dialogues, 1923 piano solo by Federico Mompou Dialogues 1, Op. 25, and Dialogues 2, Op. 62, by Carlos Veerhoff Dialogues II, Op. 126, by Frank Campo Dialogues II, for piano and chamber orchestra by Elliott Carter Groups and labels Dialogue+, a Japanese idol group Music albums Dialogue (Bobby Hutcherson album), 1965 Dialogue, by Valery Leontiev, 1984 Dialogues (Carlos Paredes & Charlie Haden album), 1990 Dialogue (Four Tet album), 1999 Dialogues (Houston Person and Ron Carter album), 2002 Dialogues (Kenny Davern album), 2005 A Dialogue, by Gwen Stacy, 2009 Dialogue (Thavius Beck album), 2009 Dialogues (Ivar Antonsen & Vigleik Storaas album), 2010 Dialogue (Steve Weingart & Renee Jones album), 2011 Restaurants Dialogue (restaurant), a defunct Michelin-starred restaurant in Santa Monica, California Songs "Dialogue (Part I & II)", a 1972 song by Chicago Television Dialogue, a television show on China Global Television Network formerly hosted by Yang Rui Religion Dialogue Mass, a religious rite Technology Dialog (architectural firm), a Canadian architectural, engineering, interior design and planning firm Dialog (online database), an information service Dialog (software), a shell script application that displays text user interface widgets Dialog Axiata, a Sri Lankan telecommunication company Dialog box, a type of user interface Dialog Semiconductor, a Germany technology company Dialogue system, a computer system intended to converse with a human , an HTML element Dyalog APL, a programming language implementation Ericsson Dialog, a telephone model Gorenje Dialog, a microcomputer system

4019861

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph%20K.%20Winter%20Jr.

Ralph K. Winter Jr.

Ralph Karl Winter Jr. (July 30, 1935 – December 8, 2020) was a United States circuit judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. Early life and career Born in Waterbury, Connecticut, Winter graduated from the Taft School in 1953. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree from Yale University in 1957 and obtained his Bachelor of Laws from Yale Law School in 1960. He served as a law clerk for Judge Caleb Merrill Wright of the United States District Court for the District of Delaware from 1960 to 1961 and as a law clerk for Judge Thurgood Marshall of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit from 1961 to 1962. He served as a faculty member at Yale Law School from 1962 to 1982, as a research associate and lecturer from 1962 to 1964, as an assistant and associate professor from 1964 to 1968 and as a professor of law from 1968 to 1982. He was a consultant to the Subcommittee on Separation of Powers of the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary from 1968 to 1972. He was a senior fellow at the Brookings Institution in Washington, D.C., from 1968 to 1970. He was a Guggenheim Fellow in Washington, D.C., from 1971 to 1972. He was an adjunct scholar at the American Enterprise Institute in Washington, D.C., from 1972 to 1981. He was a member of the Board of Trustees at Brooklyn Law School. Winter advocated for limited government involvement in business matters. He also supported state control in such matters, as opposed to federal control. Federal judicial service President Ronald Reagan nominated Winter on November 18, 1981, to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit vacated by Judge Walter R. Mansfield. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 9, 1981, and received his commission on December 10, 1981. He served as Chief Judge from 1997 to 2000. He assumed senior status on September 30, 2000. He was a member of the Judicial Conference of the United States from 1997 to 2000. From 2003 to 2010, Winter also served as one of the three judges on the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review. He died on December 8, 2020, from esophageal cancer. Notable law clerks Steven G. Calabresi, clerked 1983–1984, also clerked for Robert Bork and Antonin Scalia Paul G. Mahoney, clerked 1984–1985, also clerked for Thurgood Marshall George T. Conway III, clerked 1987–1988 Robert J. Giuffra Jr., clerked 1987–1988, also clerked for William Rehnquist Laura Ingraham, clerked 1991–1992, also clerked for Clarence Thomas Emmet Flood, clerked 1992–1993, also clerked for Antonin Scalia Florence Y. Pan, clerked 1994–1995 Wendy E. Stone (Long), clerked 1996–1997, also clerked for Clarence Thomas Robert M. Daines See also George H. W. Bush Supreme Court candidates References External links Court Says Regulator Exceeded Its Power 1935 births 2020 deaths 20th-century American judges 21st-century American judges American legal scholars Judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit People from Waterbury, Connecticut United States court of appeals judges appointed by Ronald Reagan Taft School alumni Yale Law School alumni Yale Law School faculty

4020018

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAP%20Scientific

CAP Scientific

CAP Scientific Ltd was a British defence software company, and was part of CAP (Computer Analysts and Programmers) Group plc. In 1988, CAP Group merged with the French firm Sema-Metra SA in 1988 as Sema Group plc. In 1991 Sema Group put most of its defence operations (CAP Scientific Ltd and YARD Ltd) into joint venture with British Aerospace called BAeSEMA, which British Aerospace bought out in 1998. Parts of the former CAP Scientific are now BAE Systems (Insyte). Formation of CAP Scientific CAP Scientific was formed in 1979 by four colleagues who had previously worked in Scicon, a BP subsidiary. Seeking to start a specialist software company for defence applications in the United Kingdom, they approached CAP-CPP, a commercial software house, to back a start-up operation. By 1985, CAP Scientific had established significant work in several areas. It had a strong naval business based on supporting the Admiralty Research Establishment. This Maritime Technology business applied the technologies fostered in research contracts on major development programmes. CAP worked with Vosper Thornycroft Controls to develop machinery control and surveillance systems for the Royal Navy's new generation ships and submarines. An associated Naval Command Systems business had built a strong Action Information Organisation design team, working with both surface and submarine fleets, and a Land Air Systems business also took research and development contracts and was prime contractor for the British Army's Brigade and Battlegroup Trainer (BBGT). The non-defence scientific sector was addressed by setting a Scientific Systems business with expertise in energy generation and conservation. In that year, CAP Scientific established the Centre for Operational Research and Defence Analysis (CORDA) as an independent unit to provide impartial assistance for investment appraisal. At that time military computer systems were purpose-built by major contractors, and CAP Scientific's strategy was to form joint ventures with companies which had market access but could not afford the investment to move into the new technology of microprocessors and distributed systems. The Falklands breakthrough, and DCG In its early years, CAP Scientific took time to establish itself, but in 1982 there came a breakthrough. While the UK was mustering its naval taskforce for the Falklands War, it became clear that for some purposes the Royal Navy needed more computational power. An Urgent Operational Requirement was raised to provide improved fire control solutions for RN Sub-Harpoon. Working in frantic haste, CAP's engineers were able to add an experimental Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-8 installation into a Royal Navy submarine before she sailed to the South Atlantic. This was one of the first examples of commercial off-the-shelf equipment being employed for military use. The success of this experimental deployment led to the development of a standard RN submarine fit, DCG, which allowed extra processing power to be added to submarine command systems. SMCS and Gresham-CAP By its prompt response to the needs of the Falklands War, CAP Scientific demonstrated its ability to supply naval computer technology. With the decision to build the new to carry the Trident missile system, the UK Ministry of Defence proceeded for the first time to run an open competition for the command system. In 1983, CAP Scientific teamed with Gresham-Lion, a British manufacturer of torpedo launch control equipment and now part of Ultra Electronics plc, to form a special purpose company, Gresham-CAP Ltd, to bid for the system. Up to that point all RN ships and submarines had command systems built by Ferranti using custom-built electronics. Gresham-CAP offered a novel distributed processing system based on commercial off-the-shelf components and utilising a modular software architecture largely written in the Ada programming language. The Gresham-CAP consortium won the bid, and their solution, known as Submarine Command System (SMCS) became the basis for subsequent products from the company. The choice of Intel 80386 processors and MultiBus, when many competing chips were available and the PC had only recently reached the market, showed foresight as the basic architecture remains in service today on RN submarines. (The choice of an array of INMOS Transputer chips to process sonar tracking data was less successful - whilst they did the job, the lack of long term support / future product line meant they have been phased out once general purpose processors were able to fulfill the role.) The impact of this still-young company displacing one of the great names of British electronics in the Royal Navy shocked the industry and can be seen as one of the first open competitions in modern British defence procurement and followed a long post-war period of 'preferred contractor' policies. The founders of CAP Scientific sold their complete shareholding to CAP-CPP, which subsequently listed on the London Stock Exchange as CAP Group plc. In June 1986, the Group acquired YARD (Yarrow-Admiralty Research Department) Ltd, a marine engineering consultancy, formerly part of Yarrow Shipbuilders, based in Glasgow. DNA (SSCS) and Merger The Falklands War prompted a further competition in British naval equipment supply when an analysis of the loss of showed that improvements were necessary in surface ship combat systems. A contract for the command system for the navy's new Type 23 frigates was cancelled and put out to competition, and after a long campaign was awarded to the CAP and Gresham consortium, teamed with Racal Electronics. The consortium developed the architecture of SMCS to create a derivative distributed system known internally as Surface-Ship Command System (SSCS). By now Gresham-Lion was under Dowty ownership and CAP Group had merged with the French company SEMA-METRA SA to form Sema Group plc. The Type 23 command system proved to be a step too far for Sema Scientific, as it was now called. The enormous fixed-price contract overran, causing problems for both Sema and Dowty. Dowty was taken over by TI Group, who sold their interests in Dowty-Sema back to Sema Group for £1. Sema Group invited British Aerospace in as a co-investor in the business, and the activities which once formed CAP Scientific, Gresham-CAP and YARD, together with some BAe interests were merged in 1991 into a new entity, BAeSEMA. Ultimately, BAe purchased Sema Group's interest in BAeSEMA. Ironically, with the BAe/Marconi Electronic Systems merger to form BAE Systems in 1999, the CAP Scientific business found itself under the same parent as its erstwhile competitor Ferranti. References Defence companies of the United Kingdom Defunct companies of the United Kingdom Software companies of the United Kingdom Software companies established in 1979 Software companies disestablished in 1988 British companies established in 1979 British companies disestablished in 1988

4020033

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimberly%20Hampton

Kimberly Hampton

Kimberly Nicole Hampton (August 18, 1976 – January 2, 2004) was a captain in the United States Army and the first female military pilot in United States history to be shot down and killed as a result of hostile fire. She was also the first woman from South Carolina to die in the Iraq War. Biography Early life Hampton was born on August 18, 1976, in Greenville, South Carolina, the only child of Dale and Ann Hampton. She was childhood friends with former Philadelphia 76ers general manager Sam Hinkie. Growing up in Easley, South Carolina, she graduated from Easley High School, where she had served as the student body president, CO of the NJROTC unit, and captain of the tennis team. Hampton began her college career playing tennis for Furman University. She went on to be an honors graduate and champion tennis player at Presbyterian College. Hampton led the school team, the Blue Hose, to three consecutive South Atlantic Conference women's tennis tournament titles. She was undefeated in three years of conference singles play. She won the SAC awards for Women's Tennis Player of the Year in 1997 and 1998, and Female Athlete of the Year in 1998. Military career Hampton joined the United States Army Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) while in college. As a senior, she became only the second woman to serve as the school's ROTC battalion commander. Upon graduation, she attended flight training and Aviation Officer Basic Course at Fort Rucker, Alabama, where she completed the training with honors. She served two years in South Korea, and also in Afghanistan as part of the United States forces in Operation Enduring Freedom. Hampton was assigned to the 82nd Airborne Division at Fort Bragg, North Carolina before becoming the commander of Delta Troop, 1st Squadron, 17th Cavalry Regiment prior to the unit's deployment to Iraq as part of Operation Iraqi Freedom in September 2003. Death and burial Hampton died when the OH-58D Kiowa Warrior helicopter she was flying was shot down near Fallujah, Iraq on January 2, 2004. Captain Hampton was the first female military pilot in United States history to be shot down and killed as a result of hostile fire. She was also the first female combat casualty in Iraq from South Carolina. Captain Hampton's resting place is located in the cemetery section just east of the bell tower at Robinson Memorial Gardens on Powdersville Road near her hometown of Easley, South Carolina. Honors Hampton was posthumously awarded the Bronze Star, Air Medal, and Purple Heart. On June 10, 2004, she was inducted into the South Atlantic Conference hall of fame. The South Carolina branch of the United States Tennis Association renamed its Tiger Hustle Award after Hampton. Presented to the most improved girl in the 12-and-under age division of the Wachovia Palmetto Championships, the renamed award was first presented in June 2004. The Easley High School NJROTC unit also named an award after her. In 2005, the Pickens County Public Library—Easley location—and the section of South Carolina Highway 88 were also named in her honor. Since 2006, Presbyterian College has annually presented a scholarship to an ROTC student in Hampton's name. Book Kimberly Hampton's mother Ann Hampton and journalist Anna Simon wrote a book about Kimberly titled KIMBERLY'S FLIGHT: The Story of Captain Kimberly Hampton, America's First Woman Combat Pilot Killed in Battle. It was first published in May 2012. References External links Captain Kimberly Hampton Memorial Foundation website in memory of Captain Kimberly Hampton and in service to military families. Kentucky Legislature resolution in memory of Captain Hampton. South Carolina General Assembly resolution in memory of Captain Hampton. Captain Kimberly Hampton Memorial Library in Easley American Flag Pole Marker Dedicated to Captain Hampton 1976 births 2004 deaths People from Greenville, South Carolina Presbyterian College alumni United States Army officers Women in the United States Army Military personnel from South Carolina United States Army aviators American women aviators Recipients of the Air Medal American military personnel killed in the Iraq War United States Army personnel of the Iraq War 21st-century American women

4020102

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-power%20point

Half-power point

The half-power point is the point at which the output power has dropped to half of its peak value; that is, at a level of approximately -3 dB. In filters, optical filters, and electronic amplifiers, the half-power point is also known as half-power bandwidth and is a commonly used definition for the cutoff frequency. In the characterization of antennas the half-power point is also known as half-power beamwidth and relates to measurement position as an angle and describes directionality. Amplifiers and filters This occurs when the output voltage has dropped to (~0.707) of the maximum output voltage and the power has dropped by half. A bandpass amplifier will have two half-power points, while a low-pass amplifier or a high-pass amplifier will have only one. The bandwidth of a filter or amplifier is usually defined as the difference between the lower and upper half-power points. This is, therefore, also known as the 3 dB bandwidth. There is no lower half-power point for a low-pass amplifier, so the bandwidth is measured relative to DC, i.e., 0 Hz. There is no upper half-power point for an ideal high-pass amplifier, its bandwidth is theoretically infinite. In practice the stopband and transition band are used to characterize a high-pass. Antenna beams In antennas, the expression half-power point does not relate to frequency: instead, it describes the extent in space of an antenna beam. The half-power point is the angle off boresight at which the antenna gain first falls to half power (approximately -3 dB) from the peak. The angle between the points is known as the half-power beam width (or simply beam width). Beamwidth is usually but not always expressed in degrees and for the horizontal plane. It refers to the main lobe, when referenced to the peak effective radiated power of the main lobe. Note that other definitions of beam width exist, such as the distance between nulls and distance between first side lobes. Calculation The beamwidth can be computed for arbitrary antenna arrays. Defining the array manifold as the complex response of the element antenna array as , where is a matrix with rows, the beam pattern is first computed as: where is the conjugate transpose of at the reference angle . From the beam pattern , the antenna power is computed as: The half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is then found as the range of where . See also Antenna aperture Angular resolution Full width at half maximum Notes References Electronic amplifiers Antennas (radio)

4020194

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trompo

Trompo

A trompo is a top which is spun by winding a length of string around the body, and launching it so that lands spinning on its point. If the string is attached to a stick the rotation can be maintained by whipping the side of the body. The string may also be wound around the point while the trompo is spinning in order to control its position or even lift the spinning top to another surface. Etymology These toys are popular in Latin America where the name trompo emerged, but there are many different local names. In Spain, these toys may be called trompo or peonza, perinola, and pirinola. In the Philippines, they are called trumpo or turumpo, while in Portugal they are called pião. In India it is called Bugari (Kannada); children make these tops by nailing wood and spin them with twisted jute rope. In Japan, similar tops are known as koma, with most cities having a particular design. In Germany a Peitschenkreisel may also be called Doppisch, Dildop, Pindopp, Dilledopp, Triesel or Tanzknopf (roughly dancing top) In Morocco it is called Trombia, and it is often made out of wood and painted in a reddish brown color. In Dutch it is called "priktol" (see https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priktol). A "tol" is a top. An other type of top is the "zweeptol". A "zweep" is a whip. (see https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinderspelen and find "zweep" on that page) History There is historical evidence suggesting the existence of trompos as early as 4000 BCE, and trompos have been found on the bank of the Euphrates river, likely belonging to an ancient civilization. There is also evidence that members of the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations used trompos as well. Description of motion The gyroscopic effect allows the trompo to spin over its point until the force of gravity ends up at an angle with respect to the top's axis of rotation, causing a variation in the location of the center of gravity as the trompo undergoes precession (where the axis of rotation of the trompo moves in a circular path). The fall of the top is directly proportional to the angle between the direction of gravity on the trompo and the top's axis of rotation. The fall is also directly proportional to the magnitude of the force of gravity and is inversely proportional to the trompo's angular velocity. As air resistance and friction with the ground begin to slow the trompo's spin, its center of gravity begins to destabilize and the top's bottom point begins to trace a circular path with the ground. Soon the trompo becomes fully unbalanced and it falls to the ground, rolling until it comes to rest. This general motion is largely shared among many trompo variants, but differences in several design parameters (such as the mass distribution, friction between the bottom point and the ground, and the spinning method) can still lead to significant variation in the aforementioned variables. Form The trompo's form has varied enormously throughout history. Though trompos have traditionally been cone-shaped, there are also diverse variations in trompo form across regions. However, despite these regional differences in design, all trompos are constructed to be capable of employing the gyroscopic effect. Trompos generally have an approximately pear-shaped body and are usually made of a hard wood such as hawthorn, oak or beech, although new resins and strong plastic materials have also been used. Clay trompos have also been found from ancient civilizations near the Euphrates river. Whipping tops often have a more cylindrical shape to provide a bigger surface to be struck by the whip. A trompo has a button-shaped on top, usually bigger than the tip on which it spins, and it is generally made of the same material as the rest of the body. The base of a trompo is a stud or spike which may have a groove or roller-bearing to facilitate lifting the spinning trompo with a whip or string without imposing much friction on the body. The trompo surface may be painted or decorated, and some versions incorporate synthetic sound devices. The small size diameter and low mass of most trompos means that mechanical whistles would cause excessive drag (physics) and reduce their spinning time. The Philippine trumpo differs in the tip, which is straight and pointed. It usually looks like a nail embedded in a wooden spheroid. Play Playing with a trompo consists of throwing the top and having it spin on the floor. Due to its shape, a trompo spins on its axis and swirls around its conic tip which is usually made of iron or steel. A trompo uses a string wrapped around it to get the necessary spin needed. The player must roll the cord around the trompo from the metallic tip up. The user must then tie the string in a knot on the button-shaped tip before releasing it. When rolling the cord around the trompo, the cord must be tightly attached to it. The technique for throwing a trompo varies. One end of the cord must be rolled around the player's fingers and with the same hand the trompo must be held with the metallic tip facing upwards. Championships are held in different Latin American countries, especially in Mexico, Colombia, Peru, Cuba, Nicaragua, and Puerto Rico where it is very popular among children of the middle and lower classes. In Mexico most trompos sold are made of plastic, with a metal tip, and sometimes they are made of wood. There is a popular game called picotazos, where the main goal is to destroy the opponents' trompo. Another game is where a circle is drawn on the ground and a coin is placed in the middle, and the goal here is to strike the coin. In Puerto Rico, trompos are sometimes played similarly to certain marble games, with trompos being placed in a circle drawn on the ground. The goal of this variant is to knock the trompos out of the circle. Failure to spin or spinning in the circle causes your trompo to be placed in the circle, and another person has a turn to spin. Trompos in Puerto Rico and Chile are frequently modified to have a sharper point. José Miguel Agrelot, a Puerto Rican comedian, hosted a long-standing television program, Encabulla y Vuelve y Tira, whose name described the action of throwing and spinning a trompo. One of his comedic characterizations, mischievous boy Torito Fuertes, was a one-time sponsor of a line of trompos. The Filipino trumpo is basically played in the same manner, except that a knot is not tied into the tip before throwing it for the spin. See also Top Gyroscope Bauernroulette Yo-yo References Traditional toys Latin American culture Wooden toys Tops Articles containing video clips

4020308

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survive%20%28disambiguation%29

Survive (disambiguation)

Survive is the verb form of survival. Survive may also refer to: Music Survive (band), electronica group Albums Survive (B'z album), or the title song Survive (Much the Same album) Survive (Nuclear Assault album), or the title song Survive (Stratovarius album), was released in 2022 Songs "Survive" (David Bowie song) "Survive", by Baker Boy featuring Uncle Jack Charles from the 2021 album Gela "Survive", by Miyavi, 2010 "Survive", by Rise Against from the 2006 album The Sufferer & the Witness "Survive", by Lacuna Coil from the 2009 album Shallow Life Other uses Survive (TV series), an American web television series Escape from Atlantis, a board game originally titled Survive! See also Survival (disambiguation) Survivor (disambiguation) Surviving (disambiguation)

4020323

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Pittsburgh%20at%20Johnstown

University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown

University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown (UPJ or Pitt-Johnstown) is a state-related college in Johnstown, Pennsylvania. It is a baccalaureate degree-granting regional campus of the University of Pittsburgh. The university is located in Richland Township, a suburban area of Johnstown, and was founded in 1927 as one of the first regional campuses of a major university in the United States. History The University of Pittsburgh first established a presence in the area prior to World War I, when the Johnstown School Board asked the university to offer continuing education courses at extension class sites in local teachers' institutions. By 1926, a more permanent relationship was sought by the school board, and UPJ was officially founded as a two-year college of the University of Pittsburgh on September 24, 1927. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s it held classes in the Johnstown High School building in the Kernville neighborhood which adjoins downtown Johnstown. After World War II, the Johnstown College moved to the Moxham section of the city where the number of courses and students increased. In the early 1960s, community leaders worked with the University of Pittsburgh to build a new campus in suburban Richland Township. The new campus opened in 1967 with two classroom buildings, five dormitories, and a student union. Degree-granting status was awarded to UPJ by the University of Pittsburgh in 1970. The campus has grown significantly since that time with five academic buildings, a library, an expanded student union, a sports and aquatic center, a conference center, a chapel, a performing arts center, and a large cluster of dormitories, lodges, townhouse apartments and other student residence housing. UPJ now offers over 40 baccalaureate and associate degree programs. Academics UPJ offers a Bachelor of Arts and a Bachelor of Science degree in over 40 areas of study in seven academic divisions, as well as offering the ability to obtain a Master of Social Work degree, several associate degrees in the allied health area, as well as certificate programs. The college offers 44 undergraduate majors, with minors available in most of the major fields, as well as in other areas of arts and sciences. The average class size is 25, and the student to teacher ratio is 20:1. The college is strictly undergraduate, and all courses are taught by college faculty. Special opportunities include internships, the President's Scholars program, independent and directed studies, a self-designed major, the Freshman Seminar Series, an International Studies Certificate, and the Academic Success Center. UPJ operates on a modified trimester calendar. The standard school year includes a 15-week fall term (September to mid-December) and a 15-week spring term (January to mid-April). Optional summer term offerings from 5-week to 15-week sessions allow students to accelerate their degrees. The University of Pittsburgh, including UPJ and other regional campuses, is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education. U.S. News & World Report's 2021 edition of Best Regional Colleges - North ranked Pitt-Johnstown 31st (tie) overall. The college received the following specialty rankings: UPJ was also ranked 75th among baccalaureate colleges by Washington Monthly in 2020. Campus and facilities The Pitt-Johnstown campus is situated in a suburban, wooded setting occupying which makes UPJ physically the third-largest campus in Pennsylvania. It is located eight miles (13 km) outside of Johnstown, Pennsylvania (metropolitan population of 110,000); east of Pittsburgh; and north of Washington, D.C. The 32 campus buildings, mostly in freestone masonry, include resident housing, classroom buildings, a performing arts center, sports center, library, student union, and outdoor recreation areas. Other features include a nature preserve, more than 15 intramural activities, more than 70 student organizations, and NCAA Division II men's and women's sports. The campus has six academic/administrative buildings: Biddle Hall, Krebs Hall, Murtha Engineering and Science Building, Blackington Administrative Classroom Building, Nursing and Health Sciences Building, and the Living/Learning Center. Each building contains classrooms, laboratories, faculty offices, and/or administrative offices. Additional facilities include a music room, greenhouse, computer rooms, auditoriums, an audio-visual classroom, and conference rooms. Also available to students is the advanced technology classroom (ATC) in Biddle Hall. The room is designed for electronic distance learning. It is equipped with satellite down-link programming, three full-motion cameras, data ports, video monitors, and much more. The Owen Library holds more than 146,086 bound volumes, 15,358 titles on microfilm, 625 periodical subscriptions, approximately 130 online subscription databases, and more than 4,500 electronic journals. All students have additional access to many additional libraries on Pitt's other campuses. Campus-wide computing labs for student use are available. Labs primarily contain Windows 8-based PCs, along with several Macintosh computers, application servers, laser printers, scanners, and advanced graphics devices. The labs can be used to work with software, such as word processing and programming languages, or to access network services, such as online card catalogs, electronic mail, and the Internet. There are more than 150 computers available on campus for student use. The Student Union, located in the middle of campus, houses the Student Life Office, Health Services, Residence Services, Career Services, Campus Ministry, and the Bookstore/convenience store. Also included are a full-service mail room, a 400-person cafeteria, a fast food shop, and a nonalcoholic pub. The union also holds a game room, information desk, and many organizational offices. A recent renovation created a bistro-style restaurant, named the Mountain Cat Club, as a dining option for students. Located directly outside of the cafeteria, the club features flat screen televisions, a dance floor, and a stage in order to provide an additional area for student programming. The Pasquerilla Performing Arts Center (PPAC) is a multipurpose facility; it was completed in 1991. It contains a 1,000-seat concert hall, a 200-seat black box theater, and supporting operational spaces. Performances include UPJ Department of Theatre Arts shows and Broadway productions. The PPAC is also home to the Johnstown Symphony Orchestra and the Southern Alleghenies Museum of Art at Johnstown. The art gallery displays at least eight exhibitions a year as well as work produced by UPJ students. The J. Irving Whalley Memorial Chapel was constructed in 1991 as well. It is nondenominational and seats 250 people. Weekly Catholic mass and Protestant services are held, as well as personal conferences. The Sports Center and Zamias Aquatic Center provide recreational facilities for more than 15 intramural sports, as well as intercollegiate activities. The building houses a indoor swimming pool, a workout room with free weights, an aerobic/dance studio, and locker rooms with showers. On January 5, 2011, the university opened the $9.7 million Wellness Center which is adjacent to the Sports Center The Wellness Center features a three-lane elevated running track, cardiovascular and strength-training equipment, dance/exercise/classroom space, two multipurpose courts for basketball and volleyball, an indoor climbing wall, as well as an outdoor wellness park. In fall 2013, an approximately $12 million Nursing and Health Sciences Building was opened. The two-floor facility consists of 11 laboratories for chemistry and biology, a nursing simulation laboratory, two seminar rooms, and six faculty offices. Student residences The Living/Learning Center, completed in 1994 and renovated in 2020, is a 400-person residence unit, which includes a study room, lounge area, dance practice room, and a smaller student cafeteria. The Living/Learning Center is not only used as a residence but also as a conference center throughout the year. With several meeting rooms, the facility can accommodate groups of 20–250 people. In addition to the residence units in the Living/Learning Center, the campus offers the choice of single-sex and coeducational housing. There are 5 freshman residence halls, one upper class residence hall, seven small-group lodges, 46 townhouse-style apartment units, and two apartment complexes. Heroes Memorial Pitt-Johnstown is the home to The Heroes Memorial, which is located between Whalley Memorial Chapel and Blackington Hall. The memorial's centerpiece is a 3,500 lb (1,587.6 kg) steel -beam from the World Trade Center which is surrounded by 12 granite panels that are engraved with over 9,000 names of those who died in the September 11 attacks as well as the service men and women who have been killed in the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. Dedicated on November 11, 2011, it is believed to be the only memorial of its kind on any college campus in the United States. Athletics The Pitt–Johnstown (UPJ) athletic teams are called the Mountain Cats. The university is a member of the NCAA Division II ranks, primarily competing in the Pennsylvania State Athletic Conference (PSAC) since the 2013–14 academic year, becoming that conference's first member from the Commonwealth System of Higher Education. The Mountain Cats previously competed as a member of the West Virginia Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (WVIAC) from 2006–07 to 2012–13. UPJ competes in fifteen intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, track & field (indoor and outdoor) and wrestling; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, soccer, softball, track & field (indoor and outdoor) and volleyball. Former sports include men's ice hockey Overview Perhaps the most prominent sport at UPJ is wrestling, which has had several top national finishes and won the Division II National Championships in 1996 and 1999. The wrestling program also includes several highly decorated wrestlers among its former athletes, including the most decorated wrestler in NCAA history, Carlton Haselrig, who went undefeated during his career and won three Division I and three Division II individual national championships. Men's Basketball is also successful and has advanced to four NCAA Men's Division II Basketball Tournaments, including appearances in the 1997, 1998, 2008, 2009, and 2023 tournaments. The men's basketball team has appeared in the Division II national rankings several times, and finished as high as fifth in the nation in 1999. Women's basketball at UPJ has appeared in 13 Division II and 3 Division III NCAA tournaments, including the 1987 Division II Final Four. The baseball team plays some of its home games at Point Stadium. The baseball program participated in the NCAA North Atlantic Regional Tournament in the 2006 and 2008 seasons. Notable alumni Robert E. Casey – Pennsylvania Treasurer from 1977–1981 Chris Dempsey – mixed martial artist Carlton Haselrig – former heavyweight collegiate wrestler and NFL player Frances Hesselbein – president and CEO of the Hesselbein Leadership Institute and former CEO of the Girl Scouts of the USA John Murtha – member of the United States House of Representatives John N. Wozniak – Pennsylvania State Senator Gary Gates – demographer Jenae Neiderhiser – behavior geneticist Gallery References Further reading External links Pitt-Johnstown Athletics website University Universities and colleges established in 1927 Universities and colleges in Cambria County, Pennsylvania 1927 establishments in Pennsylvania

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange%20Order

Orange Order

The Loyal Orange Institution, commonly known as the Orange Order, is an international Protestant fraternal order based in Northern Ireland and primarily associated with Ulster Protestants. It also has lodges in England, Scotland and the Republic of Ireland, as well as in parts of the Commonwealth of Nations and the United States. The Orange Order was founded by Ulster Protestants in County Armagh in 1795, during a period of Protestant–Catholic sectarian conflict, as a fraternity sworn to maintain the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The all-island Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland was established in 1798. Its name is a tribute to the Dutch-born Protestant king William of Orange, who defeated Catholic king James II in the Williamite–Jacobite War (16891691). The Order is best known for its yearly marches, the biggest of which are held on or around 12 July (The Twelfth), a public holiday in Northern Ireland. The Orange Order is a conservative, British unionist and Ulster loyalist organisation. Thus it has traditionally opposed Irish nationalism/republicanism and campaigned against Scottish independence. The Order sees itself as defending Protestant civil and religious liberties, whilst critics accuse it of being sectarian, triumphalist and supremacist. It does not accept non-Protestants as members unless they convert and adhere to its principles, nor does it accept Protestants married to non-Protestants. Orange marches through Catholic neighbourhoods are controversial and have often led to violence, such as the Drumcree conflict. History The Orange Order celebrates the civil and religious privileges conferred on Protestants by William of Orange, the Stadtholder of the Dutch Republic who became King of England, Scotland, and Ireland in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The Order regularly commemorates the victories of William III and his forces during the Williamite War in Ireland in the early 1690s, especially the Battle of the Boyne. Formation and early years Since the 1690s commemorations had been held throughout Ireland celebrating key dates in the Williamite War such as the Battle of Aughrim, Battle of the Boyne, Siege of Derry and the second Siege of Limerick. These followed a tradition started in Elizabethan England of celebrating key events in the Protestant calendar. By the 1740s there were organisations holding parades in Dublin such as the Boyne Club and the Protestant Society, both seen as forerunners to the Orange Order. Armagh disturbances Throughout the 1780s, sectarian tension had been building in County Armagh, largely due to the relaxation of the Penal Laws. Here the number of Protestants and Catholics (in what was then Ireland's most populous county) were of roughly equal number, and competition between them to rent patches of land near markets was fierce. Drunken brawls between rival gangs had by 1786 become openly sectarian. These gangs eventually reorganised as the Protestant Peep o' Day Boys and the Catholic Defenders, with the next decade in County Armagh marked by fierce sectarian conflict between both groups, which escalated and spread into neighbouring counties. Battle of the Diamond In September 1795, at a crossroads known as "The Diamond" near Loughgall, Defenders and Protestant Peep o' Day Boys gathered to fight each other. This initial stand-off ended without a battle when the priest who accompanied the Defenders persuaded them to seek a truce, after a group called the "Bleary Boys" came from County Down to reinforce the Peep o' Day Boys. When a contingent of Defenders from County Tyrone arrived on 21 September, however, they were "determined to fight". The Peep o' Day Boys quickly regrouped and opened fire on the Defenders. According to William Blacker, the battle was short and the Defenders suffered "not less than thirty" deaths. After the battle had ended, the Peep o' Days marched into Loughgall, and in the house of James Sloan they founded the Orange Order, which was to be a Protestant defence association made up of lodges. The principal pledge of these lodges was to defend "the King and his heirs so long as he or they support the Protestant Ascendancy". At the start the Orange Order was a "parallel organisation" to the Defenders in that it was a secret oath-bound society that used passwords and signs. One of the very few landed gentry that joined the Orange Order at the outset, William Blacker, was unhappy with some of the outcomes of the Battle of the Diamond. He says that a determination was expressed to "driving from this quarter of the county the entire of its Roman Catholic population", with notices posted warning them "to Hell or Connaught". Other people were warned by notices not to inform on local Orangemen or "I will Blow your Soul to the Low hils of Hell And Burn the House you are in". Within two months, 7,000 Catholics had been driven out of County Armagh. According to Lord Gosford, the governor of Armagh: A former Grand Master of the Order, also called William Blacker, and a former County Grand Master of Belfast, Robert Hugh Wallace have questioned this statement, saying whoever the Governor believed were the "lawless banditti", they could not have been Orangemen as there were no lodges in existence at the time of his speech. According to historian Jim Smyth:Later apologists rather implausibly deny any connection between the Peep-o'-Day Boys and the first Orangemen or, even less plausibly, between the Orangemen and the mass wrecking of Catholic cottages in Armagh in the months following 'the Diamond' – all of them, however, acknowledge the movement's lower-class origins. The Order's three main founders were James Wilson (founder of the Orange Boys), Daniel Winter and James Sloan. The first Orange lodge was established in nearby Dyan, and its first grandmaster was James Sloan of Loughgall. Its first-ever marches were to celebrate the Battle of the Boyne and they took place on 12 July 1796 in Portadown, Lurgan and Waringstown. United Irishmen rebellion The Society of United Irishmen was formed by liberal Presbyterians and Anglicans in Belfast in 1791. It sought reform of the Irish Parliament, Catholic Emancipation and the repeal of the Penal Laws. By the time the Orange Order was formed, the United Irishmen had become a revolutionary group advocating an independent Irish republic that would "Unite Catholic, Protestant and Dissenter". United Irishmen activity was on the rise, and the government hoped to thwart it by backing the Orange Order from 1796 onward. Irish nationalist historians Thomas A. Jackson and John Mitchel argued that the government's goal was to hinder the United Irishmen by fomenting sectarianism, thereby creating disunity and disorder under pretence of "passion for the Protestant religion". Mitchel wrote that the government invented and spread "fearful rumours of intended massacres of all the Protestant people by the Catholics". Historian Richard R Madden wrote that "efforts were made to infuse into the mind of the Protestant feelings of distrust to his Catholic fellow-countrymen". Thomas Knox, British military commander in Ulster, wrote in August 1796 that "As for the Orangemen, we have rather a difficult card to play ... we must to a certain degree uphold them, for with all their licentiousness, on them we must rely for the preservation of our lives and properties should critical times occur". The United Irishmen saw the Defenders as potential allies, and between 1794 and 1796 they formed a coalition. The United Irishmen, despite seeing the Defenders as "ignorant and poverty-stricken houghers and rick-burners" would claim in 1798 that they were indebted to the Armagh disturbances as the Orangemen had scattered politicised Catholics throughout the country and encouraged Defender recruitment, creating a proto-army for the United Irishmen to utilise. The United Irishmen launched a rebellion in 1798. In Ulster, most of the United Irish commanders and many of the rebels were Protestant. Orangemen were recruited into the yeomanry to help fight the rebellion and "proved an invaluable addition to government forces". No attempt was made to disarm Orangemen outside the yeomanry because they were seen as by far the lesser threat. It was also claimed that if an attempt had been made then "the whole of Ulster would be as bad as Antrim and Down", where the United Irishmen rebellion was at its strongest. However, sectarian massacres by the Defenders in County Wexford "did much to dampen" the rebellion in Ulster. The Scullabogue Barn massacre saw over 100 non-combatant (mostly Protestant) men, women, and children imprisoned in a barn which was then set alight, with the Catholic and Protestant rebels ensuring none escaped, not even a child who it is claimed managed to break out only for a rebel to kill with his pike. In the trials that followed the massacres, evidence was recorded of anti-Orange sentiments being expressed by the rebels at Scullabogue. Partly as a result of this atrocity, the Orange Order quickly grew and large numbers of gentry with experience gained in the yeomanry came into the movement. The homeland and birthplace of the Defenders was mid-Ulster and here they failed to participate in the rebellion, having been cowed into submission and surrounded by their Protestant neighbours who had been armed by the government. The sectarian attacks on them were so severe that Grand Masters of the Orange Order convened to find ways of reducing them. According to Ruth Dudley Edwards and two former Grand Masters, Orangemen were among the first to contribute to repair funds for Catholic property damaged in the rebellion. One major outcome of the United Irishmen rebellion was the 1800 Act of Union that merged the Irish Parliament with that of Westminster, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Many Catholics supported the Act, but the Orange Order saw it as a threat to the "Protestant constitution" and 36 lodges in counties Armagh and Monaghan alone passed declarations opposing the Union. Suppression In the early nineteenth century, Orangemen were heavily involved in violent conflict with an Irish Catholic secret society called the Ribbonmen. One instance, publicised in a 7 October 1816 edition of the Boston Commercial Gazette, included the murder of a Catholic priest and several members of the congregation of Dumreilly parish in County Cavan on 25 May 1816. According to the article, "A number of Orangemen with arms rushed into the church and fired upon the congregation". On 19 July 1823 the Unlawful Oaths Bill was passed, banning all oath-bound societies in Ireland. This included the Orange Order, which had to be dissolved and reconstituted. In 1825 a bill banning unlawful associations – largely directed at Daniel O'Connell and his Catholic Association, compelled the Orangemen once more to dissolve their association. When Westminster finally granted Catholic Emancipation in 1829, Roman Catholics were free to take seats as MPs (and take up various other positions of influence and power from which they had been excluded) and play a part in framing the laws of the land. The likelihood of Irish Catholic members holding the balance of power in the Westminster Parliament further increased the alarm of Orangemen in Ireland, as O'Connell's 'Repeal' movement aimed to bring about the restoration of a separate Irish Parliament in Dublin, which would have a Catholic majority, thereby ending to the Protestant Ascendancy. From this moment on, the Orange Order re-emerged in a new and even more militant form. In 1836 the Order was accused of plotting to place Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland and Imperial Grand Master of the Orange Order, on the throne in place of Victoria when King William IV died; once the plot was revealed the House of Commons called upon the King to disband the Order. Under pressure from Joseph Hume, William Molesworth and Lord John Russell, the King indicated measures would have to be taken and the Duke of Cumberland was forced to dissolve the Orange lodges. Hume laid evidence before the House of Commons of an approach in July 1832 to Lord Londonderry. A letter from Lieutenant-Colonel W. B. Fairman, Deputy Grand Secretary of the Orange Institution of Great Britain, advised the Marquess that following "a death of importance" (the passing of the King), the Orangemen would abandon their policy of "non-resistance" to the present "Popish Cabinet, and democratical Ministry" (the parliamentary reform ministry of Earl Grey) and that "it might be political to join" them. Londonderry demurred: he had no doubt that the Duke of Cumberland would be persuaded that "the present state of liberal Whig feeling in this very Whig county ... entirely preclude the possibility of successful efforts at this juncture". In 1845 the ban was again lifted, but the notorious Battle of Dolly's Brae between Orangemen and Ribbonmen in 1849 led to a ban on Orange marches which remained in place for several decades. This was eventually lifted after a campaign of disobedience led by William Johnston of Ballykilbeg, Sovereign Grand Master of the Royal Black Institution, a senior Orange fraternity. Since the Fenian-organised funeral in Dublin for Terence McManus in 1861, Johnston had been asking: "If Nationalists are allowed such mobilisation, why are loyal Orangemen not allowed to march freely". On the Orange Twelfth 1867, he forced the issue by leading a large procession of Orangemen from Bangor to Newtownards in County Down. The contravention of the Party Procession Act earned him a two month prison sentence. The following year, as the standard bearer of United Protestant Working Men's Association of Ulster, Johnston was returned to Parliament for Belfast. Revival and the Independent Order By the late 19th century, the Order was in decline. However, its fortunes were revived in the 1880s after its embrace by the landlords in opposition to both the Irish Land League and later Home Rule. The Order was heavily involved in opposition to Gladstone's first Irish Home Rule Bill 1886, and was instrumental in the formation of the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP). Protestant opposition to Irish self-government under Roman Catholic influence was intense, especially in the Protestant-dominated province of Ulster. In 1903, the Order suffered a split when Thomas Sloan left the organisation to set up the Independent Orange Order. Sloan had been suspended after running against the official unionist candidate on a pro-Belfast Protestant Association platform in the 1902 Belfast South by-election to succeed Johnston. For at least some of the independents, the split was a protest against what they saw as the co-optation of the Orange Order by the Ulster Unionist Party and its alignment with the interests of landlords and employers (the "fur coat brigade"). Their Grand Master, R. Lindsay Crawford outlined the new order's democratic manifesto in Orangeism, its history and progress: a plea for first principles (1904). However, his subsequent call in the Magheramorne Manifesto (1904) on Irish Protestants to "reconsider their position as Irish citizens and their attitude towards their Roman Catholic countrymen" proved too much for Sloan and most of the membership, and Crawford was eventually expelled. Role in the partition of Ireland In 1912, the Third Home Rule Bill was introduced in the House of Commons. However, its introduction would be delayed until 1914. The Orange Order, along with the British Conservative Party and unionists in general, were inflexible in opposing the Bill. The Order helped to organise the 1912 Ulster Covenant – a pledge to oppose Home Rule which was signed by up to 500,000 people. In 1911, some Orangemen began to arm themselves and train as militias. In 1913, the Ulster Unionist Council decided to bring these groups under central control, creating the Ulster Volunteer Force, an Ulster-wide militia dedicated to resisting Home Rule. There was a strong overlap between Orange Lodges and UVF units. A large shipment of rifles was imported from Germany to arm them in April 1914, in what became known as the Larne gun-running. However, the crisis was interrupted by the outbreak of the World War I in August 1914, which caused the Home Rule Bill to be suspended for the duration of the war. Many Orangemen served in the war with the 36th (Ulster) Division, suffering heavy losses, and commemorations of their sacrifice are still an important element of Orange ceremonies. The Fourth Home Rule Act was passed as the Government of Ireland Act 1920; the six northeastern counties of Ulster became Northern Ireland and the other twenty-six counties became Southern Ireland. This self-governing entity within the United Kingdom was confirmed in its status under the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, and in its borders by the Boundary Commission agreement of 1925. Southern Ireland became first the Irish Free State in 1922 and then in 1949 a Republic. Since 1921 The Orange Order had a central place in the new state of Northern Ireland. From 1921 to 1969, every Prime Minister of Northern Ireland was an Orangeman and member of the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP); all but three Cabinet Ministers were Orangemen; all but one unionist Senators were Orangemen; and 87 of the 95 MPs who did not become Cabinet Ministers were Orangemen. James Craig, the first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, maintained always that Ulster was in effect Protestant and the symbol of its ruling forces was the Orange Order. In 1932, Prime Minister Craig maintained that "ours is a Protestant government and I am an Orangeman". This was in response to a speech the year before by Eamonn de Valera in the Irish Free State claiming that Ireland was a "Catholic nation" in a debate about protests against Protestant woman Letitia Dunbar-Harrison being appointed as County Librarian in County Mayo. Two years later he stated: "I have always said that I am an Orangeman first and a politician and a member of this parliament afterwards ... All I boast is that we have a Protestant Parliament and a Protestant State". At its peak in 1965, the Order's membership was around 70,000, which meant that roughly 1 in 5 adult Ulster Protestant males were members. Since 1965, it has lost a third of its membership, especially in Belfast and Derry. The Order's political influence suffered greatly after the unionist-controlled government of Northern Ireland was abolished in 1973. In 2012, it was stated that estimated membership of the Orange Order was around 34,000. After the outbreak of "the Troubles" in 1969, the Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland encouraged Orangemen to join the Northern Ireland security forces, especially the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and the British Army's Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR). The response from Orangemen was strong. Over 300 Orangemen were killed during the conflict, the vast majority of them members of the security forces. Some Orangemen also joined loyalist paramilitary groups. During the conflict, the Order had a fractious relationship with loyalist paramilitary groups, the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), the Independent Orange Order and the Free Presbyterian Church. The Order urged its members not to join these organisations, and it is only recently that some of these intra-unionist breaches have been healed. Drumcree dispute The Drumcree dispute is perhaps the most well-known episode involving the Order since 1921. On the Sunday before 12 July each year, Orangemen in Portadown would traditionally march to-and-from Drumcree Church. Originally, most of the route was farmland, but is now the densely populated Catholic part of town. The residents have sought to re-route the march away from this area, seeing it as "triumphalist" and "supremacist". There have been intermittent violent clashes during the march since the 19th century. The onset of the Troubles led to the dispute intensifying in the 1970s and 1980s. At this time, the most contentious part of the march was the outward leg along Obins Street. After serious violence two years in a row, the march was banned from Obins Street in 1986. The focus then shifted to the return leg along Garvaghy Road. Each July from 1995 to 2000, the dispute drew worldwide attention as it sparked protests and violence throughout Northern Ireland, prompted a massive police/army operation, and threatened to derail the peace process. The situation in Portadown was likened to a "war zone" and a "siege". During this time, supporters of the Orangemen murdered at least six Catholic civilians. In 1995 and 1996, residents succeeded in stopping the march. This led to a standoff at Drumcree between the security forces and thousands of loyalists. Following a wave of loyalist violence, the march was allowed through. In 1997, security forces locked down the Catholic area and forced the march through, citing loyalist threats. This sparked widespread protests and violence by Irish nationalists. From 1998 onward the march was banned from Garvaghy Road and the Catholic area was sealed-off with large barricades. For a few years, there was an annual major standoff at Drumcree and widespread loyalist violence. Since 2001, things have been relatively calm, but the Order still campaigns for the right to march on Garvaghy Road. The dispute led to a short-lived boycott of businesses owned by Orangemen and their supporters elsewhere in the region. Membership rates Membership of the Order was historically lower in areas where Protestants are in the majority, and vice versa. In County Fermanagh, where the Catholic and Protestant populations are close to parity, membership in 1971 was three times as high as in the more Protestant counties of Antrim and Down, where it was just over 10% of adult Protestant males. Other factors that are associated with high rates of membership are levels of unemployment that more closely match Catholic levels, and low levels of support for the Democratic Unionist Party among unionists. Beliefs and activities Protestantism The basis of the modern Orange Order is the promotion and propagation of "biblical Protestantism" and the principles of the Reformation. As such the Order only accepts those who confess a belief in a Protestant religion. As well as Catholics, non-creedal and non-Trinitarian Christians are also banned. This includes members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Jehovah's Witnesses, Unitarians, and Quakers. Previous rules specifically forbade Roman Catholics and their close relatives from joining but the current rules use the wording "non-reformed faith" instead. Converts to Protestantism can join by appealing to Grand Lodge. Masonic influences James Wilson and James Sloan, who issued the warrants for the first Lodges of the Orange Order along with 'Diamond' Dan Winter, were Freemasons, and in the 19th century many Irish Republicans regarded the Orange Order as a front group established by Unionist Masons as a more violent and jingoist vehicle for the promotion of Unionism. Some anti-Masonic evangelical Christian groups have claimed that the Orange Order is still influenced by freemasonry. Many Masonic traditions survive, such as the organisation of the Order into lodges. The Order has a similar system of degrees through which new members advance. These degrees are interactive plays with references to the Bible. There is particular concern over the ritualism of higher degrees such as the Royal Arch Purple and the Royal Black Institutions. Sabbatarianism The Order considers important the Fourth Commandment, and that it forbids Christians to work, or engage in non-religious activity generally, on Sundays. When the Twelfth of July falls on a Sunday the parades traditionally held on that date are held the next day instead. In March 2002, the Order threatened "to take every action necessary, regardless of the consequences" to prevent the Ballymena Show being held on a Sunday. The County Antrim Agricultural Association complied with the Order's wishes. Conversely, notable exceptions to such apparently strict Sabbatarianism may be exemplified by Queen's Orange Society (LOL 1845) parading past Queen's University on Sunday, 26 September 2021 before and after holding their annual service in Union Theological College. Politics The Orange Order is strongly linked to British unionism. This is a political ideology that supports the continued unity of the United Kingdom. Unionism is thus opposed to, for example, the unification of Ireland and Scottish independence. The Order, from its very inception, was an overtly political organisation. In 1905, when the Ulster Unionist Council (UUC) was formed, the Orange Order was entitled to send delegates to its meetings. The UUC was the decision-making body of the Ulster Unionist Party (UUP). Between 1922 and 1972, the UUP was consistently the largest party in the Northern Ireland Parliament, and all Prime Ministers of Northern Ireland and the vast majority of senior UUP figures were members of the Order. Due to its close links with the UUP, the Orange Order was able to exert great influence. The Order was the force behind the UUP no-confidence votes in reformist Prime Ministers Terence O'Neill (1969), James Chichester-Clark (1969–71), and Brian Faulkner (1972–74). At the outbreak of The Troubles in 1969, the Order encouraged its members to join the Northern Ireland security forces. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) attracted the most seats in an election for the first time in 2003. DUP leader Ian Paisley had been clashing with the Order since 1951, when the Order banned members of Paisley's Free Presbyterian Church from acting as Orange chaplains and later, from the 1970s, when it openly endorsed the UUP against the DUP. Recently, however, Orangemen have begun voting for the DUP in large numbers due to their opposition to the Good Friday Agreement. Relations between the DUP and Order have healed greatly since 2001, and there are now a number of high-profile Orangemen who are DUP MPs and strategists. In December 2009, the Orange Order held secret talks with Northern Ireland's two main unionist parties, the DUP and UUP. The main goal of these talks was to foster greater unity between the two parties, in the run-up to the May 2010 general election. Sinn Féin's Alex Maskey said that the talks exposed the Order as a "very political organisation". Shortly after the election, Grand Master Robert Saulters called for a "single unionist party" to maintain the union. He said that the Order has members "who represent all the many shades of unionism" and warned, "we will continue to dilute the union if we fight and bicker among ourselves". In the October 2010 issue of The Orange Standard, Grand Master Robert Saulters referred to 'dissident' Irish republican paramilitaries as the "Roman Catholic IRA". SDLP MLA John Dallat asked Justice Minister David Ford to find if Saulters had broken the hate speech laws. He said: "Linking the Catholic community or indeed any community to terror groups is inciting weak-minded people to hatred, and surely history tells us what that has led to in the past". In a 2011 survey of 1,500 Orangemen throughout Northern Ireland, over 60% believed that "most Catholics are IRA sympathisers". In 2015, the Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland made a submission to the Northern Ireland Department of Arts, Culture and Leisure opposing the introduction of an Irish Language Bill. In its submission, the Lodge stated that it respected "Irish as one of the indigenous languages of the British Isles". However, the Lodge argued an Irish Language Act would promote inequality because it would be "directed towards a section of the Roman Catholic community". Parades Parades are a big part of the Order's activities. Most Orange lodges hold a yearly parade from their Orange hall to a local church. The denomination of the church is quite often rotated, depending on local demographics. The highlights of the Orange year are the parades leading up to the celebrations on the Twelfth of July. The Twelfth, however, remains in places a deeply divisive issue, not least because of the alleged triumphalism, anti-Catholicism and anti-Irish nationalism of the Orange Order. In recent years, most Orange parades have passed peacefully. All but a handful of the Orange Order parades, at so-called "interface areas" where the two communities live next to each other, are peaceful. The locations used for the annual Twelfth parades are located throughout the six counties of Northern Ireland with County Down having the most venues with thirty-three. Counties Armagh and Fermanagh having a smaller population both have twelve host venues. Some smaller villages such as Carrickmore, Cushendall, Rostrevor, Crossmaglen and Draperstown are not marched in at all and areas with a sizeable population like Coalisland and Dungiven have never been the host for a major Twelfth parade. The Grand Lodge of Ireland does not recognise the Parades Commission, which it sees as having been founded to target Protestant parades, as Protestants parade at ten times the rate of Catholics. Grand Lodge is, however, divided on the issue of working with the Parades Commission. 40% of Grand Lodge delegates oppose official policy while 60% are in favour. Most of those opposed to Grand Lodge policy are from areas facing parade restrictions like Portadown District, Bellaghy, Derry City and Lower Ormeau. In a 2011 survey of Orangemen throughout Northern Ireland, 58% said they should be allowed to march through Irish nationalist and Catholic areas with no restrictions; 20% said they should negotiate with residents first. Orange halls Monthly meetings are held in Orange halls. Orange halls on both sides of the Irish border often function as community halls for Protestants and sometimes those of other faiths, although this was more common in the past. The halls often host community groups such as credit unions, local marching bands, Ulster-Scots and other cultural groups as well as religious missions and unionist political parties. Of the approximately 700 Orange halls in Ireland, 282 have been targeted by arsonists since the beginning of the Troubles in 1968. Paul Butler, a prominent member of Sinn Féin, has said the arson is a "campaign against properties belonging to the Orange Order and other loyal institutions" by nationalists. On one occasion a member of Sinn Féin's youth wing was hospitalised after falling off the roof of an Orange hall. In a number of cases halls have been badly damaged or completely destroyed by arson, while others have been damaged by paint bombings, graffiti and other vandalism. The Order claims that there is considerable evidence of an organised campaign of sectarian vandalism by Irish republicans. Grand Secretary Drew Nelson claims that statistical analysis shows that this campaign began in the last years of the 1980s and continues to the present. Historiography One of the Orange Order's activities is teaching members and the general public about William of Orange and associated subjects. Both the Grand Lodge and various individual lodges have published numerous booklets about William and the Battle of the Boyne, often aiming to show that they have continued relevance, and sometimes comparing the actions of William's adversary James II with those of the Northern Ireland Office. Furthermore, historical articles are often published in the Order's monthly newspaper The Orange Standard (available in a print edition and also electronically) and the Twelfth souvenir booklet. While William is the most frequent subject, other topics have included the Battle of the Somme (particularly the 36th (Ulster) Division's role in it), Saint Patrick (who the Order argues was not Roman Catholic), and the Protestant Reformation. There are at least two Orange Lodges in Northern Ireland which they claim represent the heritage and religious ethos of Saint Patrick. The best known is the Cross of Saint Patrick LOL (Loyal Orange lodge) 688, instituted in 1968 for the purpose of (re)claiming Saint Patrick. The lodge has had several well-known members, including Rev Robert Bradford MP who was the lodge chaplain who himself was killed by the Provisional IRA, the late Ernest Baird. Today Nelson McCausland MLA and Gordon Lucy, Director of the Ulster Society are the more prominent members within the lodge membership. In the 1970s there was also a Belfast lodge called Oidhreacht Éireann (Ireland's Heritage) LOL 1303, which argued that the Irish language and Gaelic culture were not the exclusive property of Catholics or republicans. William was supported by the Pope in his campaigns against James' backer Louis XIV of France, and this fact is sometimes left out of Orange histories. Occasionally the Order and the more fundamentalist Independent Order publishes historical arguments based more on religion than on history. British Israelism, which claims that the British people are descended from the Israelites and that Queen Elizabeth II is a direct descendant of the Biblical King David, has from time to time been advanced in Orange publications. War commemoration The Order has been prominent in commemorating Ulster's war dead, particularly Orangemen and particularly those who died in the Battle of the Somme (1916) during World War I. There are many parades on and around 1 July in commemoration of the Somme, although the war memorial aspect is more obvious in some parades than others. There are several memorial lodges, and a number of banners which depict the Battle of the Somme, war memorials, or other commemorative images. In the grounds of the Ulster Tower Thiepval, which commemorates the men of the Ulster Division who died in the Battle of the Somme, a smaller monument pays homage to the Orangemen who died in the war. Relationship with loyalist paramilitaries The Orange Order has been criticised for associating with loyalist paramilitary groups such as the UVF and UDA, which are classified as terrorist organisations. However, it has publicly condemned terrorism and paramilitary violence. Some bands that appear at Orange marches openly display support for loyalist paramilitary groups, such as by carrying paramilitary flags or sporting paramilitary names and emblems. For example, prominent loyalist John Gregg was a member of Cloughfern Young Conquerors band, while Coleraine-based Freeman Memorial band was named after a UVF member who was killed by his own bomb. It has also been claimed that paramilitary groups approach certain bands asking the band to carry a flag of their organisation with financial assistance sometimes offered for doing so. A number of prominent loyalist militants were members of the Orange Order at the same time. This includes Gusty Spence, Robert Bates, Davy Payne, David Ervine, John Bingham, George Seawright, Richard Jameson, Billy McCaughey, Robert McConnell and Ernie Elliott. The banner of Old Boyne Island Heroes Orange lodge bears the names of John Bingham and Shankill Butcher Robert Bates, who were both members. Another Shankill Butcher, UDR soldier Eddie McIlwaine, was pictured taking part in an Orange march in 2003 with a bannerette of killed UVF member Brian Robinson (who himself was an Orangeman). McIlwaine was also pictured acting as a steward at a 2014 Orange march. An Orange Order spokesman refused to condemn McIlwaine's membership of the Order. On 12 July 1972, at least fifty masked and uniformed members of the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) escorted an Orange march into the Catholic area of Portadown, saluting the Orangemen as they passed. That year, Orangemen formed a paramilitary group called the Orange Volunteers. This group "bombed a pub in Belfast in 1973 but otherwise did little illegal other than collect the considerable bodies of arms found in Belfast Orange Halls". Portadown Orangemen allowed known militants such as George Seawright to take part in a 6 July 1986 march, contrary to a prior agreement. Seawright was a unionist politician and UVF member who had publicly proposed burning Catholics in ovens. As the march entered the town's Catholic district, the RUC seized Seawright and other known militants. The Orangemen attacked the officers with stones and other missiles. When a July 1992 Orange march passed the scene of the Sean Graham bookmakers' shooting—in which the UDA killed five Catholic civilians—Orangemen shouted pro-UDA slogans and held aloft five fingers as a taunt to residents. Journalists Henry McDonald and Jim Cusack said images of Orangemen "gloating over the massacre" were beamed around the world and were a public relations disaster for the Order. Patrick Mayhew, then Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, said the marchers "would have disgraced a tribe of cannibals". The incident led to a more concerted effort by residents to have the marches banned from the area. In 2007, a banner commemorating UDA member Joe Bratty appeared at an Orange march. Bratty was said to have orchestrated the massacre. Orange lodges in Britain have also been accused of links with loyalist paramilitaries. In the early years of The Troubles, the Order's Grand Secretary in Scotland toured Orange lodges for volunteers to "go to Ulster to fight". Thousands are believed to have volunteered although only a small number travelled to Ulster. During the 1970s an Orangeman—Roddy MacDonald—was the UDA's 'commander' in Scotland. In 1976, senior Scottish Orangemen tried to expel him after he admitted on television that he was a UDA leader and had smuggled weapons to Northern Ireland. However, his expulsion was blocked by 300 Orangemen at a special disciplinary hearing. His successor as Scottish UDA commander, James Hamilton, was also an Orangeman. Many Scottish Orangemen were also convicted for loyalist paramilitary activity, and some Orange meetings were used to raise funds for loyalist prisoners' welfare groups. In 2006, three Liverpool Orangemen were jailed for possession of weapons and UVF membership. Local MP Louise Ellman called for them to be expelled from the Order. During the Drumcree standoffs, loyalist militants publicly supported the Orangemen and launched waves of violence across NI in protest at the Orange march being blocked. They smuggled homemade weaponry to Drumcree, apparently unhindered by the Orangemen, and attacked police lines. Members of the UDA/UFF appeared at Drumcree with banners supporting the Orangemen. Portadown Orange Lodge said it could not stop such people from gathering, but added that it welcomed any support. Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF) leader Billy Wright was frequently seen at Drumcree in the company of Harold Gracey, head of Portadown Orange Lodge. Gracey later attended a rally in support of Wright and refused to condemn the loyalist violence linked to the standoff. In the late 1990s, Stoneyford Orange Hall was reported to be a focal point for the Orange Volunteers. Following a police raid on the hall, two Orangemen were convicted for possession of "documents likely to be of use to terrorists", an automatic rifle, and membership of the Orange Volunteers. Their Orange lodge refused to expel them. An Orangeman and DUP election candidate with links to the Real UFF in Antrim was jailed in 2013 for his part in a sectarian attack on a Polish family. He was expelled from the Order. The Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland has issued several statements condemning violence and paramilitarism. Answering accusations of paramilitary links by Sinn Féin in 2011, an Orange spokesman said: "The Orange Order has consistently condemned all terrorist violence". In 2008, Armagh Orangemen condemned the flying of paramilitary flags. Denis Watson, the then secretary of the Grand Lodge of Ireland, has publicly called for anyone convicted of terrorist offences to be thrown out. Addressing a 12 July demonstration in 2000, Orangeman and Democratic Unionist politician Jeffrey Donaldson said "It is essential that the Orange Order does not allow the paramilitaries to infiltrate its parades or hijack legitimate protests as a means of flaunting their aggression and engaging in displays of naked intimidation ... The Orange Order stands for higher ideals than this and must at every opportunity condemn the illegal activities of the paramilitaries and of all those who engage in acts of violence". Eric Kaufmann, in his book The New Unionism, writes: "The Orange Order actually took a firm stand against violence and paramilitarism throughout the Troubles. This opposition was rooted in the large contingent of Protestant clergymen who are built into the power structure of the Order. Young Orangemen were urged to join the RUC (police) or UDR (local security forces) and to stay away from paramilitaries". Requirements for entry "An Orangeman should have a sincere love and veneration for his Heavenly Father, a humble and steadfast faith in Jesus Christ, the Saviour of mankind, believing in Him as the only Mediator between God and man. He should cultivate truth and justice, brotherly kindness and charity, devotion and piety, concord and unity, and obedience to the laws; his deportment should be gentle and compassionate, kind and courteous; he should seek the society of the virtuous, and avoid that of the evil; he should honour and diligently study the Holy Scriptures, and make them the rule of his faith and practice; he should love, uphold, and defend the Protestant religion, and sincerely desire and endeavour to propagate its doctrines and precepts; he should strenuously oppose the fatal errors and doctrines of the Church of Rome and other Non-Reformed faiths, and scrupulously avoid countenancing (by his presence or otherwise) any act or ceremony of Roman Catholic or other non-Reformed Worship; he should, by all lawful means, resist the ascendancy, encroachments, and the extension of their power, ever abstaining from all uncharitable words, actions, or sentiments towards all those who do not practice the Reformed and Christian Faith; he should remember to keep holy the Sabbath Day, and attend the public worship of God, and diligently train up his offspring, and all under his control, in the fear of God, and in the Protestant faith; he should never take the name of God in vain, but abstain from all cursing and profane language, and use every opportunity of discouraging those, and all other sinful practices, in others; his conduct should be guided by wisdom and prudence, and marked by honesty, temperance, and sobriety, the glory of God and the welfare of man, the honour of his Sovereign, and the good of his country, should be the motives of his actions." Most jurisdictions require both the spouse and parents of potential applicants to be Protestant, although the Grand Lodge can be appealed to make exceptions for converts. Members have been expelled for attending Roman Catholic religious ceremonies. In the period from 1964 to 2002, 11% of those expelled from the order were expelled for their presence at a Roman Catholic religious event such as a baptism, service or funeral. This is based on Reformed Christian theology, which teaches that the Roman Catholic Mass is idolatry, a view promulgated by Protestant Reformers such as Martin Luther. The Order takes as its basis the Open Bible and historical Reformed documents such as the Presbyterian Westminster Confession, Anglican 39 Articles and other Protestant creeds. All prospective members must affirm their Reformed Christian Faith prior to membership. The Laws and Constitutions of the Loyal Orange Institution of Scotland of 1986 state, "No ex-Roman Catholic will be admitted into the Institution unless he is a Communicant in a Protestant Church for a reasonable period." Likewise, the "Constitution, Laws and Ordinances of the Loyal Orange Institution of Ireland" (1967) state, "No person who at any time has been a Roman Catholic ... shall be admitted into the Institution, except after permission given by a vote of seventy-five per cent of the members present founded on testimonials of good character ..." In the 19th century, Mortimer O'Sullivan, a converted Roman Catholic, was a Grand Chaplain of the Orange Order in Ireland. In the 1950s, Scotland also had a former Roman Catholic as a Grand Chaplain, William McDermott. Structure The Orange Institution in Ireland has the structure of a pyramid. At its base are about 1400 private lodges; every Orangeman belongs to a private lodge. Each private lodge sends six representatives to the district lodge, of which there are 126. Depending on size, each district lodge sends seven to thirteen representatives to the county lodge, of which there are 12. Each of these sends representatives to the Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland, which heads the Orange Order. The Grand Lodge of Ireland has 373 members. As a result, much of the real power in the Order resides in the Central Committee of the Grand Lodge, which is made up of three members from each of the six counties of Northern Ireland (Down, Antrim, Armagh, Londonderry, Tyrone and Fermanagh) as well as the two other County Lodges in Northern Ireland, the City of Belfast Grand Lodge and the City of Londonderry Grand Orange Lodge, two each from the remaining Ulster counties (Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan), one from Leitrim, and 19 others. There are other committees of the Grand Lodge, including rules revision, finance, and education. Despite this hierarchy, private lodges are basically autonomous as long as they generally obey the rules of the Institution. Breaking these can lead to suspension of the lodge's warrant – essentially the dissolution of the lodge – by the Grand Lodge, but this rarely occurs. Private lodges may disobey policies laid down by senior lodges without consequence. For example, several lodges have failed to expel members convicted of murder despite a rule stating that anyone convicted of a serious crime should be expelled, and Portadown lodges have negotiated with the Parades Commission in defiance of Grand Lodge policy that the commission should not be acknowledged. Private lodges wishing to change Orange Order rules or policy can submit a resolution to their district lodge, which may submit it upwards until it eventually reaches the Grand Lodge. All Lodge meetings commence with the reading of the Bible and prayers that non-practising Protestants, Roman Catholics and people of other faiths and none, 'may become wise unto salvation' (which is direct quote from 2 Timothy 3:15 in the Bible). Related organisations Association of Loyal Orangewomen of Ireland A distinct women's organisation grew up out of the Orange Order. Called the Association of Loyal Orangewomen of Ireland, this organisation was revived in December 1911 having been dormant since the late 1880s. They have risen in prominence in recent years, largely due to protests in Drumcree. The women's order is parallel to the male order, and participates in its parades as much as the males apart from 'all male' parades and 'all ladies' parades respectively. The contribution of women to the Orange Order is recognised in the song "Ladies Orange Lodges O!". Independent Orange Institution The Independent Orange Institution was formed in 1903 by Thomas Sloan, who opposed the main Order's domination by Unionist Party politicians and the upper classes. A dispute between unionist candidates in East Belfast who were both Orangemen, saw one being kicked out of the Order for embarrassing an Orange grandee who had apparently not voted against a nationalist motion. The Independent Order originally had radical tendencies, especially in the area of labour relations, but this soon faded. In the 1950s and 60s the Independents focused primarily on religious issues, especially the maintenance of Sunday as a holy day and separation of politics from religion. With the outbreak of the Troubles, Ian Paisley began regularly speaking at Independent meetings, although he was never a member. As a result, the Independent Institution has become associated with Paisley and the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster and Democratic Unionist Party. Recently the relationship between the two Orange Institutions has improved, with joint church services being held. Some people believe that this will ultimately result in a healing of the split which led to the Independent Orange Institution breaking away from the mainstream Order. Like the main Order, the Independent Institution parades and holds meetings on the Twelfth of July. It is based mainly in north Antrim. Royal Black Institution The Royal Black Institution was formed out of the Orange Order two years after the founding of the parent body. Although it is a separate organisation, one of the requirements for membership in the Royal Black is membership of the Orange Order and to be no less than 17 years old. The membership is exclusively male and the Royal Black Chapter is generally considered to be more religious and respectable in its proceedings than the Orange Order. Apprentice Boys of Derry The Apprentice Boys of Derry exist for their acts during the siege of Derry from James II. Although they have no formal connection with the Orange Order, the two societies have overlapping membership. Throughout the world The Orange Order was brought to other parts of the English-speaking world by Ulster Protestant migrants and missionaries. Grand Lodges have been set up in Scotland, England, Wales, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and West Africa. However, the Grand Lodges of Ireland and Scotland have always been the largest by far. The Imperial Grand Orange Council is made up of representatives from all of these various Grand Lodges. It has the power to arbitrate in disputes between Grand Lodges, and in internal disputes when invited. Famous Orangemen have included Thomas Barnardo, who joined the Order in Dublin; Mackenzie Bowell, who was Grandmaster of the Orange Order of British North America before becoming the Prime Minister of Canada; William Massey, who was Prime Minister of New Zealand; Harry Ferguson, inventor of the Ferguson tractor; and Earl Alexander, the Second World War general. Mohawk chief Oronhyatekha, an Oxford scholar, was also a member. Republic of Ireland The Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland represents lodges in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, where Orangeism remains particularly strong in border counties such as County Cavan, County Monaghan and, in particular, County Donegal (especially East Donegal). Before the partition of Ireland, the Order's headquarters were in Dublin, which at one stage had more than 300 private lodges. After partition, the Order declined rapidly in the Irish Free State, which later became the Republic of Ireland. Following partition, parades continued to take place in Counties Monaghan and Cavan, but none have taken place in those counties since 1931. The last 12 July parade in Dublin took place in 1937. The last Orange parade in the Republic of Ireland is at Rossnowlagh in County Donegal, an event which has been largely free from trouble and controversy. It is held on the Saturday before the Twelfth as the day is not a holiday in the Republic of Ireland. There are still Orange lodges in nine counties of the Republic of Ireland – counties Cavan, Cork, Donegal, Dublin, Laois, Leitrim, Louth, Monaghan and Wicklow, but most either do not parade or travel to other areas to do so. In February 2008 it was announced that the Orange Order was to be granted nearly €250,000 from the Department of Community, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs. The grant is intended to provide support for members in border areas and fund the repair of Orange halls, many of which have been subjected to vandalism. In July 2011 there were 45 Orange Lodges in the Republic. Scotland The Scottish branch of the Orange Order is the largest outside Ireland. The vast majority of Scotland's lodges are found in the Lowlands, especially the west Central Lowlands (Glasgow, Ayrshire, Renfrewshire, Lanarkshire). Scotland's first Orange lodges were founded in 1798 by soldiers returning home from Ireland, where they had helped suppress an Irish republican rebellion. The Scottish branch grew swiftly in the early 1800s, when there was an influx of working-class Ulster Protestant immigrants into the Scottish Lowlands. Many of these immigrants saw themselves as returning to the land of their forefathers (see Plantation of Ulster). As such, the Scottish branch has always had strong links with Ulster, and tends to be largest wherever there are most descendants of Irish Protestants. In 1881, three-quarters of its lodge masters were born in Ireland and, when compared to Canada, the Scottish branch has been both smaller (no more than two per cent of adult male Protestants in west central Scotland have ever been members) and had more of an Ulster link. Scottish Orangeism was associated with the Tory Party, especially with the Scottish Unionist Party. The Order's political influence crested between the World Wars, but was effectively nil thereafter as the Tory Party began to move away from Protestant politics. After the onset of the Troubles, many Scottish Orangemen began giving support to loyalist militant groups in Northern Ireland, such as the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) and Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). Although the Grand Lodge publicly denounced paramilitary groups, many Scottish Orangemen were convicted of involvement in loyalist paramilitary activity, and Orange meetings were used to raise funds for loyalist prisoners' welfare groups. The Grand Orange Lodge of Scotland has long been opposed to Scottish independence. In 2007, 12,000 Orangemen and women marched along Edinburgh's Royal Mile to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the Act of Union. It registered as an official participant in the 2014 independence referendum and formed an anti-independence campaign group called British Together. In 2004, former Scottish Orangeman Adam Ingram, then Armed Forces Minister, sued George Galloway for stating in his book I'm Not the Only One that Ingram had "played the flute in a sectarian, anti-Catholic, Protestant-supremacist Orange Order band". The Lord Ordinary, Lord Kingarth, ruled that the phrase was 'fair comment' on the Orange Order and that Ingram had been a member, although he had not played the flute. Between 2012 and 2016, an ethnographic study of the social, religious, and political life of the Orange Order in Scotland was conducted by anthropologist Joseph Webster. This was published by Manchester University Press in 2020 as a book entitled The Religion of Orange Politics: Protestantism and Fraternity in Contemporary Scotland. England The Orange Order reached England in 1807, spread by soldiers returning to the Manchester area from service in Ireland. Since then, the English branch of the Order has generally supported the Conservative and Unionist Party. The Orange Order in England is strongest in Liverpool including Toxteth and Garston. Its presence in Liverpool dates to at least 1819, when the first parade was held to mark the anniversary of the Battle of the Boyne, on 12 July. The Order was an important component in the founding of the Liverpool Protestant Party in 1909, keeping an association until the party's demise in 1974. The Orange Order in Liverpool holds its annual Twelfth parade in Southport, a seaside town north of Liverpool. The Institution also holds a Junior parade there on Whit Monday. The Black Institution holds its Southport parade on the first Saturday in August. The parades in Southport have attracted controversy in recent times, with criticism of the disruption that results from the closure of main roads. Other parades are held in Liverpool on the Sunday prior to the Twelfth and on the Sunday after. These parades along with Saint George's Day; Reformation Sunday and Remembrance Sunday go to and from church. Other parades are held by individual Districts of the Province, in all approximately 30 parades a year. Locations include Petersfield in Hampshire, where the town square has an equestrian statue of King William III, as does Hull and Brixham, Devon, where William of Orange landed in 1688. Wales Cymru LOL 1922 was the only Orange lodge in Wales. A new Lodge in Cardiff opened on 17 March 2012, the first new Orange Lodge to be opened there for over 90 years. Canada Founded by Ogle Gowan, in Brockville Ontario, the Orange Order played an important role in the history of Canada, where it was established in 1830. Most early members were from Ireland, but later many English, Scots, Italians and other Protestant Europeans joined the Order, as well as Mohawk Native Americans. Four Canadian prime ministers were Orangemen. Toronto was the epicentre of Canadian Orangeism: most mayors were Orange until the 1950s, and Toronto Orangemen battled against Ottawa-driven initiatives like bilingualism and Catholic immigration. The Toronto lodge has held an annual Orange parade since 1821, claiming it to be the longest running consecutive parade on the North American continent. A third of the Ontario legislature was Orange in 1920, but in Newfoundland, the proportion has been as high as 50% at times. Indeed, between 1920 and 1960, 35% of adult male Protestant Newfoundlanders were Orangemen, as compared with just 20% in Northern Ireland and 5%–10% in Ontario in the same period. In addition to Newfoundland and Ontario, the Orange Order played an important role in the frontier regions of Quebec, including the Gatineau-Pontiac, Quebec region. The region's earliest Protestant settlement occurred when fifteen families from County Tipperary settled in the valley in Carleton County after 1818. These families spread across the valley, settling towns near Shawville, Quebec. Despite these early Protestant migrants, it was only during the early 1820s that a larger wave of Irish migrants, many of them Protestants, came to the Ottawa valley region. Orangism developed throughout the region's Protestant communities, including Bristol, Lachute- Brownsburg, Shawville and Quyon. After further Protestant settlement throughout the 1830s and 40s, the Pontiac region's Orange Lodges developed into the largest rural contingent of Orangism in the Province. The Orange Lodges were seen as community cultural centres, as they hosted numerous dances, events, parades, and even the teaching of step dancing. Orange Parades still occur in the Pontiac-Gatineau- Ottawa Valley area; however, not every community hosts a parade. Now one larger parade is hosted by a different town every year. United States Participation in the Orange Institution was not as large in the United States as it was in Canada. In the early nineteenth century, the post-Revolutionary republican spirit of the new United States attracted exiled Protestant United Irishmen such as Wolfe Tone and others. Most Protestant Irish immigrants in the first several decades of the century were those who held to the republicanism of the 1790s, and who were unable to accept Orangeism. Loyalists and Orangemen made up a minority of Irish Protestant immigrants during this period. America offered a new beginning, and "... most descendents of the Ulster Presbyterians of the eighteenth century and even many new Protestant Irish immigrants turned their backs on all associations with Ireland and melted into the American Protestant mainstream." Most of the Irish loyalist emigration was bound for Upper Canada and the Maritime provinces, where Orange lodges were able to flourish under the British flag. By 1870, when there were about 930 Orange lodges in Ontario, there were only 43 in the entire eastern United States. The few American lodges were founded by newly arriving Protestant Irish immigrants in coastal cities such as Philadelphia and New York. The Institution maintained a home for sick and aged members. Qualifications for membership were restrictive, according to their "Declaration of Principles", and "no person who ever was or is a Roman Catholic, or who shall educate, or cause to be educated, his children or any children in his charge, in any Roman Catholic school, convent, nunnery or monastery, shall ever be admitted to membership." These ventures were short-lived and of limited political and social impact, although there were specific instances of violence involving Orangemen between Catholic and Protestant Irish immigrants, such as the Orange Riots in New York City in 1824, 1870 and 1871. The first "Orange riot" on record was in 1824, in Abingdon, New York, resulting from a 12 July march. Several Orangemen were arrested and found guilty of inciting the riot. According to the State prosecutor in the court record, "the Orange celebration was until then unknown in the country". The immigrants involved were admonished: "In the United States the oppressed of all nations find an asylum, and all that is asked in return is that they become law-abiding citizens. Orangemen, Ribbonmen, and United Irishmen are alike unknown. They are all entitled to protection by the laws of the country." The Orange riots of 1870 and 1871 killed nearly 70 people, and were fought out between Irish Protestant and Catholic immigrants. After this the activities of the Orange Order were banned for a time, the Order dissolved, and most members joined Masonic lodges. After 1871, there were no more riots between Irish Catholics and Protestants. In 1923 the Loyal Orange Institution of the United States of America had 32,862 members in 256 lodges. The office of the "Supreme Grand Secretary" was at 229 Rhode Island Avenue, Washington, D.C.. There was apparently a split in the group in the early 1920s. There are currently two Orange Lodges in New York City, one in Manhattan and the other in the Bronx. The Ulster-Scots LOL 1690 was established in Torrance, California in 1998. It was the first new lodge to be instituted in the US for more than 20 years. The latest American Lodge, Heirs of Cromwell LOL 1599 was formed in 2011 in Naples, Florida. Australia The first Orange Institution Warrant (No. 1780) arrived in Australia with the ship . It was sewn in the tunic of Private Andrew Alexander of the 50th Regiment. The 50th was mainly Irish; many of its members were Orangemen belonging to the Regimental lodge and they had secretly decided to retain their lodge warrant when they had been ordered to surrender all military warrants, believing that the order would eventually be rescinded and that the warrant would be useful in Australia. There are five state Grand Lodges in Australia which sit under the warrant of the Grand Lodge of Australia, the overall governing body for the institution in Australia. New Zealand New Zealand's first Orange lodge was founded in Auckland in 1842, only two years after the country became part of the British Empire, by James Carlton Hill of County Wicklow. The lodge initially had problems finding a place to meet, as several landlords were threatened by Irish Catholic immigrants for hosting it. The arrival of large numbers of British troops to fight the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s provided a boost for New Zealand Orangeism, and in 1867 a North Island Grand Lodge was formed. A decade later a South Island Grand Lodge was formed, and the two merged in 1908. From the 1870s the Order was involved in local and general elections, although Rory Sweetman argues that 'the longed-for Protestant block vote ultimately proved unobtainable'. Processions seem to have been unusual before the late 1870s: the Auckland lodges did not march until 1877 and in most places Orangemen celebrated the Twelfth and 5 November with dinners and concerts. The emergence of Orange parades in New Zealand was probably due to a Catholic revival movement which took place around this time. Although some parades resulted in rioting, Sweetman argues that the Order and its right to march were broadly supported by most New Zealanders, although many felt uneasy about the emergence of sectarianism in the colony. From 1912 to 1925 New Zealand's most famous Orangeman, William Massey, was Prime Minister. During World War I Massey co-led a coalition government with Irish Catholic Joseph Ward. Historian Geoffrey W. Rice maintains that William Massey's Orange sympathies were assumed rather than demonstrated. Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand argues that New Zealand Orangeism, along with other Protestant and anti-Catholic organisations, faded from the 1920s. The Order has certainly declined in visibility since that decade, although in 1994 it was still strong enough to host the Imperial Orange Council for its biennial meeting. However parades have ceased, and most New Zealanders are probably unaware of the Order's existence in their country. The New Zealand Order is unusual in having mixed-gender lodges, and at one point had a female Grand Master. West Africa Ghana The Orange Order in Ghana was founded by Ulster-Scots missionaries some time during the early twentieth century, and is currently supported by the Institute of Ulster Scots Studies. Its rituals mirror those of the Orange Order in Ulster, though it does not place restrictions on membership for those who have Roman Catholic family members. The Orange Order in Ghana appears to be growing, largely based with the growing democracy there. Nigeria The first Orange Lodge in Nigeria was the Lagos Fine Blues LOL 801, which was first listed in 1907 in the returns of Woolwich District 64 to the Grand Orange Lodge of England, this District providing the traditional 'home' to overseas and military Lodges. Altogether there were three male lodges and one female lodge. They all appear to have died out some time in the 1960s, due to political unrest. Conversely the Ghana lodges increased greatly in popularity with the return of democracy. Togo In 1915, John Amate Atayi, a member of the Lagos Fine Blues LOL 801 moved to Lomé, Togo, for work. Here he founded the Lomé Defenders of the Truth LOL 867, under warrant of the Grand Orange Lodge of England. In 1916 a second lodge, Paline Heroes LOL No 884 was constituted. 'Diamond Dan' As part of the re-branding of Orangeism to encourage younger people into a largely ageing membership, and as part of the planned rebranding of the July marches into an 'Orangefest', the 'superhero' Diamond Dan was created – named after one of its founding members, 'Diamond' Dan Winter – Diamond referring to the Institution's formation at the Diamond, Loughgall, in 1795. Initially unveiled with a competition for children to name their new mascot in November 2007 (it was nicknamed 'Sash Gordon' by several parts of the British media); at the official unveiling of the character's name in February 2008, Orange Order education officer David Scott said Diamond Dan was meant to represent the true values of the Order: "... the kind of person who offers his seat on a crowded bus to an elderly lady. He won't drop litter and he will be keen on recycling". There were plans for a range of Diamond Dan merchandise designed to appeal to children. There was however, uproar when it was revealed in the middle of the 'Marching Season' that Diamond Dan was a repaint of illustrator Dan Bailey's well-known "Super Guy" character (often used by British computer magazines), and taken without his permission, leading to the character being lampooned as "Bootleg Billy". List of members Grand Masters Grand Masters, of the Grand Orange Lodge of Ireland: 1795: William Blacker (Unofficial) 1798 Thomas Verner 1801: George Ogle 1818: Mervyn Archdall (to 1822) 1822?: Earl O'Neill 1828: Duke of Cumberland 1836: Earl of Roden (Unofficial) 1845: Earl of Enniskillen 1886: Earl of Erne 1914: Sir James Stronge, 5th Baronet 1915: William H. H. Lyons 1926: Sir Edward Archdale, 1st Baronet 1941: Sir Joseph Davison 1948: J. M. Andrews 1954: Sir William McCleery 1957: Sir George Clark, 3rd Baronet 1968: John Bryans 1971: Martin Smyth 1996: Robert Saulters 2011: Edward Stevenson University Societies Both major universities in Northern Ireland have student societies to promote Orangeism on campus. Students at Queen's University Belfast formed the first 'Student's Orange Society' in May 2007 aiming to, "educate the students of Queen's on the different aspects of the Orange Order." Societies were later formed at Ulster University, first at the Jordanstown campus in 2010, followed by Coleraine in 2012. The societies engage in a range of cultural, historical and social events. Any student can join the Orange Society at their university regardless of their religion or background. See also Anti-Catholicism Drumcree conflict Presbyterian Church in Ireland Royal Black Institution Notes and references Further reading (Considered the principal study of English Orange traditions) (Strongly favourable) Canada and United States: Pierre-Luc Bégin (2008). " Loyalisme et fanatisme ", Petite histoire du mouvement orangiste Canadien, Les Éditions du Québécois, 2008, 200 p. (). Luc Bouvier, (2002). « Les sacrifiés de la bonne entente » Histoire des francophones du Pontiac, Éditions de l'Action nationale. External links The Grand Orange Lodge Of Ireland The Independent Loyal Orange Institution Grand Orange Lodge of England Eric Kaufmann's Orange Order Page The Orange Order, Militant Protestantism and anti-Catholicism: A Bibliographical Essay (1999) Eric Kaufmann's Orange Order Page 1795 establishments in Ireland Patriotic societies Christian fundamentalism Protestant organizations Protestantism in the United Kingdom Anti-Catholicism in Northern Ireland Anti-Catholic organizations Ulster unionist organisations All-Ireland organisations Ulster Scottish Critics of the Catholic Church William III of England

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ata%20language

Ata language

The Ata language, also known as Pele-Ata after its two dialects, or Wasi, is a Papuan language spoken on New Britain island, Papua New Guinea. It appears to be related to neighboring Anêm, and possibly also to Yélî Dnye in a proposed Yele-West New Britain family. There are about 2000 speakers. Ata is spoken in West Pomio-Mamusi Rural LLG, East New Britain Province, and in Talasea District, West New Britain Province. Dialects According to Yanagida (2004), there are two dialects of Ata, a Lower dialect spoken in the lowlands and an Upper dialect spoken in the mountains. The Lower dialect is spoken in Bialla Rural LLG, West New Britain Province, while the Upper dialect is spoken mostly in West Pomio-Mamusi Rural LLG, East New Britain Province: Lower dialect (in Bialla Rural LLG, West New Britain Province): Kiava (Old Kiava) () Korovasi Malasi () Milikina (Elobe) () Mulusi Ole Sale (Gogosi) () Sege () Silanga [settlement] () Upper dialect (in West Pomio-Mamusi Rural LLG, East New Britain Province, unless noted otherwise): Sipa (Bauka), West New Britain () Uasilau [settlement], West New Britain () Kaikou () Lavugi () Luge, West New Britain () Ti () Yauyau () Kukulu () Both the lower and upper dialects are spoken in the settlement of Silanga. There are some lexical differences between the dialects. Some examples are listed below. {| ! gloss !! Upper Ata !! Lower Ata |- | rain || uali || laʔiua |- | sweet potato || totoʔo || kelatu |- | cassava || mio || mio, mioxa |- | throw something || paxele || pei |- | yes || iou || ani |- | the day before yesterday || malakaumei || malaʔo |- | 2nd person dual independent pronoun || ngolou || ngongou |- | 3rd person dual independent pronoun || olou || ilou |} Phonology Phonology of the Ata language: /s/ is pronounced as alveolo-palatal [ɕ] before /i/, /x/ is voiced as [ɣ] when occurring intervocalically. A word-initial /i/ is realized as a [j], and a word-initial /u/ becomes a [w] when preceding /o/ or /ɑ/. Noun classes Ata makes use of noun classes, some of which are: Class 1 nouns: stationary and function in a state of relative stagnancy Class 2 nouns: portable and function in a state of relative motion Class 3 nouns: relating to the body’s internal needs Below are some Ata noun class paradigms, using the noun roots lavo’o ‘stone’ and lexe ‘song’ as examples: {| ! root !! lavo’o !! /stone/ !! ‘stone’ |- | Class 1 || lavo'o-silo || /stone-my/ || ‘my stone to be used for a house’ |- | Class 2 || lavo'o-xeni || /stone-my/ || ‘my stone to be used for breaking nuts’ |- | Class 3 || lavo'o-xo || /stone-my/ || ‘my stone for a stone oven’ |} {| ! root !! lexe !! /song/ !! ‘song’ |- | Class 1 || lexe-silo || /song-my/ || ‘a song to be sung for me’ |- | Class 2 || lexe-xeni || /song-my/ || ‘the song I sing’ |- | Class 3 || lexe-xo || /song-my/ || ‘the song about me’ |} Vocabulary Selected basic vocabulary items in Ata: {| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Ata |- | bird || ngiala |- | blood || sialuxu |- | bone || xine |- | breast || susu |- | ear || sangalie |- | eat || ’ie |- | egg || atolu |- | eye || iei |- | fire || navu |- | give || iti; losie |- | go || lai |- | ground || lia |- | leg || tava'a |- | louse || meni |- | man || aliko |- | moon || so'io |- | name || uala |- | one || vile |- | road, path || vote'i |- | see || maisou |- | sky || loxotolo |- | stone || lavo'o |- | sun || aso |- | tongue || levexe |- | teeth || anaxu ilaanu (anaxu = 'mouth') |- | tree || aiinu; ovu |- | two || tamei |- | water || lexa |- | woman || sema |} See also East Papuan languages References Further reading West New Britain languages Languages of East New Britain Province Languages of West New Britain Province

4020699

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme%20Court%20of%20Alabama

Supreme Court of Alabama

The Supreme Court of Alabama is the highest court in the state of Alabama. The court consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices. Each justice is elected in partisan elections for staggered six-year terms. The Supreme Court is housed in the Heflin-Torbert Judicial Building in downtown Montgomery, Alabama. The Governor of Alabama may fill vacancies when they occur for the remainder of unexpired terms. The current partisan line-up for the court is all Republican. There is no specific limitation on the number of terms to which a member may be elected. However, the state constitution under Amendment 328, adopted in 1973, prohibits any member from seeking election once they have attained the age of seventy years. This amendment would have prohibited then Chief Justice Roy Moore from seeking re-election in 2018. However, on April 26, 2017, Moore announced his intent to run for the United States Senate seat formerly held by United States Attorney General Jeff Sessions, and resigned from the court. The current Clerk of Court is Margaret "Megan" Byrne Rhodebeck, who assumed the office by appointment on August 1, 2022. History The Supreme Court of Alabama was organized under the governorship of William Wyatt Bibb, and had its beginnings with the Alabama Constitution of 1819, which stated that until the General Assembly deemed otherwise, the functions of the Supreme Court would be handled by the judges of the Alabama circuit courts. The circuit judges were elected by a joint vote of both houses of the Alabama Legislature. These judges met in May 1820 in the capital city of Cahaba for the first term of the Supreme Court. Clement Comer Clay was appointed by the other judges as the first chief justice of the court. Following his resignation in 1823, he was succeeded by Abner Smith Lipscomb. The court was then reorganized in 1832. It then became a separate court with three justices elected to six-year terms. Abner Lipscomb remained as chief justice. In 1851 the number of justices was increased to five. In 1853 the membership of the court was reduced to three again. By this time the court had its own chambers in the newly completed Alabama State Capitol. No changes to the court occurred during the years of the Civil War. The new state constitution of 1868, drafted during the Reconstruction Era, committed the election of the three justices to the people rather than the legislature. The number of justices was increased to four in 1889. In 1891, the number increased to five. Following the adoption of the 1901 constitution, the 1903 session of the legislature raised the number of justices to seven. In 1940 the Supreme Court moved from the Capitol Building to 445 Dexter Avenue. The building had been built as a Scottish Rite temple in 1926 but was sold to the state during the financially difficult years of the Great Depression. The state acquired and started a remodel of the building in 1938 for the relocation of the Judicial Department, Attorney General and State Law Library. Legislative Act Number 602, 1969 Alabama Acts was passed during Regular Session of 1969. It increased the number of associate justices to eight, bringing the number of court justices to the configuration that remains today. Former Justice Janie L. Shores was the first of six women to serve on the court. She was elected to the court in 1974. The first of three black justices to serve on the court was former Justice Oscar W. Adams Jr., who in 1980 was initially appointed by then Governor Fob James to serve the remainder of an unexpired term. Justice Adams would become the first black justice elected to the court when he was elected two years later to serve a full six-year term. The court moved to the new Heflin-Torbert Judicial Building at 300 Dexter Avenue in 1994. In 2022 the Supreme Court of Alabama Chief Justice Tom Parker Issued a letter of apology on behalf of the State of Alabama to the Echota Cherokee Tribe of Alabama. Jurisdiction The Supreme Court of Alabama has the authority to review decisions by all the lower courts of the state and the authority to determine certain legal matters over which no other court has jurisdiction. It further has the authority to issue any necessary orders to carry out the general superintendence of the Unified Judicial System of Alabama. It has exclusive jurisdiction over all appeals in disputes exceeding $50,000, as well as appeals from the Alabama Public Service Commission. The chief justice also serves as the administrative head of the Alabama Judicial System. The court makes all rules governing administration, practice, and procedure for all Alabama courts. The exercise of this authority eliminates technicalities which usually cause delays in trial courts and reversals in appellate courts. Chief Justices The Alabama Supreme Court has had an unusually high turnover in the chief justice position, going back to October 1995. Since then, the post has been occupied by eight different individuals for nine different time periods. Not one of these individuals has completed an entire term of six years. Perry Hooper Sr., elected in 1994, did not assume the office until October, 1995, after a protracted election contest that prevented him from taking office until nine months into the term. He was succeeded by Roy Moore, who was elected in 2000 but removed from office due to violations of the judicial canon of ethics. Associate Justice Gorman Houston acted as temporary chief justice during Moore's suspension but before his actual removal from office. After Moore vacated the office, the Governor appointed Drayton Nabers Jr. Sue Bell Cobb defeated Chief Justice Nabers in 2006. Cobb resigned for personal reasons in the middle of her term. Her replacement, Chuck Malone was appointed on August 1, 2011, by Governor Robert Bentley but was defeated for re-nomination by former Chief Justice Roy Moore in 2012. Moore assumed the office a second time beginning in January 2013, and was again suspended from office on May 6, 2016, by the Court of the Judiciary. Associate Justice Lyn Stuart became chief justice on April 26, 2017, when Moore formally resigned from the seat from which he was already suspended. Moore then sought election to the U.S. Senate seat vacated by Jeff Sessions for which a special election was held in December 2017. Stuart was appointed for the remainder of the term by Governor Kay Ivey on April 26, 2017. Chief Justice Stuart, who became the first female Republican chief justice, has been an associate justice of the court since 2001. She faced Associate Justice Tom Parker in the GOP primary in June 2018, and lost the primary to Parker in a relatively close race. Parker had previously lost a GOP primary for the post to Drayton Nabers in 2006. In November 2018, Alabamians selected a new chief justice when Republican Tom Parker easily defeated Democrat Robert Vance. Justice Parker became the eighth different chief justice in only seventeen years when he assumed office on January 11, 2019. When Parker became chief justice, he vacated the associate justice seat he then held and Governor Kay Ivey appointed outgoing Justice Mendheim to the seat. Chief Justice Parker is 67 years old and will not be constitutionally eligible to seek another term in 2024, thus resulting in another new chief justice in 2025. List of all chief justices of Alabama Supreme Court: Clement Claiborne Clay Abner Smith Lipscomb Reuben Saffold Henry Hitchcock (D) Arthur F. Hopkins (D) Henry W. Collier (D) Edmund S. Dargan (D) William P. Chilton (D) George Goldthwaite (D) Samuel F. Rice (D) Abram J. Walker (D) Elisha W. Peck (R) Thomas Minott Peters (R) Robert C. Brickell (D) George W. Stone (D) Robert C. Brickell (D) (re-elected) Samuel D. Weakley Jr. (D) John R. Tyson (D) James R. Dowdell (D) John C. Anderson (D) Lucien D. Gardner (D) J. Ed Livingston (D) Howell Heflin (D) C.C. Torbert (D) (1977-1989) Ernest C. Hornsby (D) (1989-1995) Perry O. Hooper Sr. (R) (1995–2001) Roy Moore (R) (2001–2003) Gorman Houston (R) (acting 2003–2004) Drayton Nabers Jr. (R) (2004–2007) Sue Bell Cobb (D) (2007–2011) Chuck Malone (R) (2011–2013) Roy Moore (R) (2013–2017) Lyn Stuart (R) (acting 2016–2017; appointed 2017–2019) Tom Parker (R) (2019–present) Current Justices Most of the members of the court initially came to their seats via election, with two exceptions: Justice Lyn Stuart's elevation to the chief justice position created a vacancy in the associate justice seat she held. That vacancy was filled by Governor Kay Ivey on May 25, 2017, with the appointment of Justice William B. Sellers. Justice Tom Parker became chief justice on January 14, 2019, vacating the associate justice seat he held. On December 28, 2018, Governor Ivey appointed outgoing Justice Brady E. Mendheim Jr. to that seat, effective January 15, 2019. Mendheim had previously been appointed by Ivey to replace Justice Glenn Murdock, who resigned effective January 2018; Mendheim was defeated in the election to serve the remainder of that term. Administrative Office of the Courts and State Marshals The Administrative Office of the Courts is under the leadership of a director appointed by the chief justice of the Court. The Administrative Office of the Courts is responsible for a variety of functions including but not limited to the Juvenile Probation Offices for the Family Court System, Child Support Enforcement, Human Resources Division of the Court, and the Court Interpreter Registry. The current director, Rich Hobson, was appointed by Chief Justice Tom Parker to the position in January, 2019. This is Hobson's third time in the position having previously served in the post from 2001 to 2003 and from 2013 to 2016. The State of Alabama marshals are responsible for protection of the Supreme Court, Court of Criminal Appeals, and the Court of Civil Appeals. They also serve subpoenas and court documents among other duties. The current marshal of the Alabama Appellate Courts is Earl Marsh, who was appointed in 2020. See also Courts of Alabama Alabama Court of Civil Appeals Alabama Court of Criminal Appeals References External links Alabama Alabama state courts Politics of Alabama 1819 establishments in Alabama Courts and tribunals established in 1819

4020995

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser%20capture%20microdissection

Laser capture microdissection

Laser capture microdissection (LCM), also called microdissection, laser microdissection (LMD), or laser-assisted microdissection (LMD or LAM), is a method for isolating specific cells of interest from microscopic regions of tissue/cells/organisms (dissection on a microscopic scale with the help of a laser). Principle Laser-capture microdissection (LCM) is a method to procure subpopulations of tissue cells under direct microscopic visualization. LCM technology can harvest the cells of interest directly or can isolate specific cells by cutting away unwanted cells to give histologically pure enriched cell populations. A variety of downstream applications exist: DNA genotyping and loss of heterozygosity (LOH) analysis, RNA transcript profiling, cDNA library generation, proteomics discovery and signal-pathway profiling. The total time required to carry out this protocol is typically 1–1.5 h. Extraction A laser is coupled into a microscope and focuses onto the tissue on the slide. By movement of the laser by optics or the stage the focus follows a trajectory which is predefined by the user. This trajectory, also called element, is then cut out and separated from the adjacent tissue. After the cutting process, an extraction process has to follow if an extraction process is desired. More recent technologies utilize non-contact microdissection. There are several ways to extract tissue from a microscope slide with a histopathology sample on it. Press a sticky surface onto the sample and tear out. This extracts the desired region, but can also remove particles or unwanted tissue on the surface, because the surface is not selective. Melt a plastic membrane onto the sample and tear out. The heat is introduced, for example, by a red or infrared (IR) laser onto a membrane stained with an absorbing dye. As this adheres the desired sample onto the membrane, as with any membrane that is put close to the histopathology sample surface, there might be some debris extracted. Another danger is the introduced heat: Some molecules like DNA, RNA, or protein don't allow to be heated too much or at all for the goal of being isolated as purely as possible. For transport without contact. There are three different approaches. Transport by gravity using an upright microscope (called GAM, gravity-assisted microdissection) or transport by laser pressure catapult; the most recent generation utilizes a technology based on laser induced forward transfer (LIFT). With cut-and-capture, a cap coated with an adhesive is positioned directly on the thinly cut (5-8 μm) tissue section, the section itself resting on a thin membrane (polyethylene naphthalene). An IR laser gently heats the adhesive on the cap fusing it to the underlying tissue and an UV laser cuts through tissue and underlying membrane. The membrane-tissue entity now adheres to the cap and the cells on the cap can be used in downstream applications (DNA, RNA, protein analysis). Procedure Under a microscope using a software interface, a tissue section (typically 5-50 micrometres thick) is viewed and individual cells or clusters of cells are identified either manually or in semi-automated or more fully automated ways allowing the imaging and then automatic selection of targets for isolation. Currently six primary isolation/collection technologies exist using a microscope and device for cell isolation. Four of these typically use an ultraviolet pulsed laser (355 nm) for the cutting of the tissues directly or the membranes/film, and sometimes in combination with an IR laser responsible for heating/melting a sticky polymer for cellular adhesion and isolation. IR laser provides a more gentle approach to microdissection. A fifth ultraviolet laser based technology uses special slides coated with an energy transfer coating which, when activated by the laser pulse, propels the tissue or cells into a collection cap. The laser cutting width is usually less than 1 μm, thus the target cells are not affected by the laser beam. Even live cells are not damaged by the laser cutting and are viable after cutting for cloning and reculturing as appropriate. The various technologies differ in the collection process, possible imaging methods (fluorescence microscopy/bright field microscopy/differential interference contrast microscopy/phase contrast microscopy/ etc.) and the types of holders and tissue preparation needed before the imaging and isolation. Most are primarily dedicated micro-dissection systems, and some can be used as research microscopes as well, only one technology (#2 here, Leica) uses an upright microscope, limiting some of the sample handling capabilities somewhat, especially for live cell work. The first technology (used by Carl Zeiss PALM) cuts around the sample then collects it by a "catapulting" technology. The sample can be catapulted from a slide or special culture dish by a defocused U.V laser pulse which generates a photonic force to propel the material off the slide/dish, a technique sometimes called Laser Micro-dissection Pressure Catapulting (LMPC). The dissected material is sent upward (up to several millimetres) to a microfuge tube cap or other collector which contains either a buffer or a specialized tacky material in the tube cap that the tissue will adhere to. This active catapulting process avoids some of the static problems when using membrane-coated slides. Another process follows gravity-assisted microdissection method that turns on gravity to collect samples in tube cap under the slide used (used by ION LMD system, Jungwoo F&B). In case of this system, it moves the motorized stage to cut the cells of interests, keeping the laser beam fixed. And the system uses a 355 nm Solid-state laser(UV-A) which is the safest way to cut the tissues without RNA or DNA damage. Another closely related LCM process (used by Leica) cuts the sample from above and the sample drops via gravity (gravity-assisted microdissection) into a capture device below the sample. The different point with upper one is, the laser beam here is moving to cut tissue by moving dichroic mirror. When the cells (on a slide or special culture dish) of choice are in the center of the field of view, the operator selects the cells of interest using instrument software. The area to be isolated when a near-IR laser to activate transfer film on a cap placed on the tissue sample, melting the adhesive which then fuses the film with the underlying cells of choice (see Arcturus systems); and/or by activating a UV laser to cut out the cell of interest. The cells are then lifted off the thin tissue section, leaving all unwanted cells behind. The cells of interest are then viewed and documented prior to extraction. The fourth UV based technology (used by Molecular Machines and Industries AG) offers a slight difference to the 3rd technology here by essentially creating a sandwich of sorts with slide>sample>and membrane overlying the sample by the use of a frame slide whose membrane surface is cut by the laser and ultimately picked up from above by a special adhesive cap. A fifth UV based technology uses standard glass slides coated with an inert energy transfer coating and a UV based laser microdissection system (typically a Leica LMD or PALM Zeiss machine). Tissue sections are mounted on top of the energy transfer coating. The energy from a UV laser is converted to kinetic energy upon striking the coating, vaporizing it, instantly propelling selected tissue features into the collection tube. The energy transfer coated slides, commercialized under the trade name DIRECTOR slides by Expression Pathology Inc. (Rockville, MD), offer several advantages for proteomic work. They also do not autofluoresce, so they can be used for applications using fluorescent stains, DIC or polarized light. In addition to tissue sections, LCM can be performed on living cells/organisms, cell smears, chromosome preparations, and plant tissue. Applications The laser capture microdissection process does not alter or damage the morphology and chemistry of the sample collected, nor the surrounding cells. For this reason, LCM is a useful method of collecting selected cells for DNA, RNA and/or protein analyses. LCM has also been used to isolate acellular structures, such as amyloid plaques. LCM can be performed on a variety of tissue samples including blood smears, cytologic preparations, cell cultures and aliquots of solid tissue. Frozen and paraffin embedded archival tissue may also be used. References External links East Carolina University: LCM for "Dummies" Yale Rice Transcriptional Atlas Project employing Laser Capture Microdissection Cell imaging Biological techniques and tools Laser medicine

4021016

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape%20response

Escape response

Escape response, escape reaction, or escape behavior is a mechanism by which animals avoid potential predation. It consists of a rapid sequence of movements, or lack of movement, that position the animal in such a way that allows it to hide, freeze, or flee from the supposed predator. Often, an animal's escape response is representative of an instinctual defensive mechanism, though there is evidence that these escape responses may be learned or influenced by experience. The classical escape response follows this generalized, conceptual timeline: threat detection, escape initiation, escape execution, and escape termination or conclusion. Threat detection notifies an animal to a potential predator or otherwise dangerous stimulus, which provokes escape initiation, through neural reflexes or more coordinated cognitive processes. Escape execution refers to the movement or series of movements that will hide the animal from the threat or will allow for the animal to flee. Once the animal has effectively avoided the predator or threat, the escape response is terminated. Upon completion of the escape behavior or response, the animal may integrate the experience with its memory, allowing it to learn and adapt its escape response. Escape responses are anti-predator behaviour that can vary from species to species. The behaviors themselves differ depending upon the species, but may include camouflaging techniques, freezing, or some form of fleeing (jumping, flying, withdrawal, etc.). In fact, variation between individuals is linked to increased survival. In addition, it is not merely increased speed that contributes to the success of the escape response; other factors, including reaction time and the individual's context can play a role. The individual escape response of a particular animal can vary based on an animal's previous experiences and its current state. Evolutionary importance The ability to perform an effective escape maneuver directly affects the fitness of the animal, because the ability to evade predation enhances an animal's chance of survival. Those animals that learn to or are simply able to avoid predators have contributed to the wide variety of escape responses seen today. Animals that are able to adapt their responses in ways different from their own species have displayed increased rates of survival. Because of this, it is common for the individual escape response of an animal to vary according to reaction time, environmental conditions, and/or past and present experience. Arjun et al. (2017) found that it is not necessarily the speed of the response itself, but the greater distance between the targeted individual and the predator when the response is executed. In addition, the escape response of an individual is directly related to the threat of the predator. Predators that pose the biggest risk to the population will evoke the greatest escape response. Therefore, it may be an adaptive trait selected for by natural selection. Law & Blake (1996) argue that many morphological characteristics could contribute to an individual's efficient escape response, but the escape response has undoubtedly been molded by evolution. In their study, they compared more recent sticklebacks to their ancestral form, the Paxton Lake stickleback, and found that the performance of the ancestral form was significantly lower. Therefore, one may conclude that this response has been ripened by evolution. Neurobiology How the escape responses are initiated neurologically, and how the movements are coordinated is dependent on the species. The behaviors alone vary widely, so, in a similar manner, the neurobiology of the response can be highly variable between species. 'Simple' escape responses are commonly reflex movements that will quickly move the animal away from the potential threat. These neural circuits operate quickly and effectively, rapidly taking in sensory stimuli and initiating the escape behavior through well-defined neuron systems. Complex escape responses often require a mixture of cognitive processes. This may stem from a difficult environment to escape from, or the animal having multiple potential escape methods. Initially, the animal must recognize the threat of predation, but following the initial recognition the animal might have to quickly determine the best route of escape, based on prior experience. This means rapid integration of incoming information with prior knowledge, and then coordination of motor movements deemed necessary. Complex escape responses generally require a more robust neural network. Researchers will often evoke an escape response to test the potency of hormones and/or medication and their relationship to stress. As such, the escape response is fundamental to anatomical and pharmacological research. Role of learning Habituation A series of initially threatening encounters that do not lead to any true adverse outcomes for the animal can drive the development of habituation. Habituation is an adaptation strategy that refers to the diminishing response of an animal to a stimulus following repetitive exposures of the animal to that same stimulus. In other words, the animal learns to distinguish between innately threatening situations and may choose to not go through with their escape response. This is a highly variable phenomenon, where the stimulus itself is highly specific, and the experience is highly context dependent. This suggests that there is no one mechanism by which a species will develop habituation to a stimulus, instead habituation may arise from the integration of experiences. A number of cognitive processes may operate during one single threatening experience, but the levels at which these processes are integrated will determine how the individual animal will potentially respond next. Caenorhabditis elegans, commonly identified as nematodes, have been used as a model species for studies observing their characteristic "tap-withdrawal response". The tapping on serves as the fear-provoking, mechanical stimulus which C. elegans worms will move away from. If the tapping stimulus continues without any direct effects on the worms, they will gradually stop responding to the stimulus. This response is modulated by a series of mechanosensory neurons (AVM, ALM, PVD, and PLM) which synapse with interneurons (AVD, AVA, AVB, and PVC) transmitting the signal to motor neurons that cause the back-and-forth movements. Habituation to the tapping reduces activity of the initial mechanosensory neurons, seen as decrease in calcium channel activity and neurotransmitter release. The primary force driving escape habituation is suspected to be energy conservation. If an animal learns that a certain threat will not actively cause harm to it, then the animal can choose to minimize its energy costs by not performing its escape. For example, Zebra danios, also known as Zebrafish, who are habituated to predators are more latent to flee than those who were not habituated to predators. However, habituation did not affect the fish's angle of escape from the predator. Learned helplessness If an animal cannot react via a startle or avoidance response, they will develop learned helplessness as a result of receiving or perceiving repeated threatening stimuli and believing the stimuli is unavoidable. The animal will submit and not react, even if the stimuli previously triggered instinctual responses or if the animal is provided an escape opportunity. In these situations, escape responses are not used because the animal has almost forgotten their innate response systems. Helplessness is learned through habituation, because the brain is programmed to believe control is not present. In essence, animals operate under the assumption they have the free will to fight, flee or freeze as well as engage in other behaviors. When escape responses fail, they develop helplessness. A common, theoretical example of learned helplessness is an elephant, trained by humans who condition the elephant to believe it cannot escape punishment. As a young elephant, it would be chained down with a pick to keep it from leaving. As it grows, the elephant would have the ability to easily overpower the tiny pick. Development of learned helplessness keeps the elephant from doing so, believing that it is trapped and the effort is futile. In a more natural setting, learned helplessness would most often be displayed by animals that live in group settings. If food were scarce and one individual was always overpowered when it came time to get food, it would soon believe that no matter what it did, getting food would be impossible. It would have to find food on its own or submit to the idea it will not eat. Startle response Startle response is an unconscious response to sudden or threatening stimuli. In the wild, common examples would be sharp noises or quick movements. Because these stimuli are so harsh they are connected to a negative effect. This reflex causes a change in body posture, emotional state, or a mental shift to prepare for a specific motor task. A common example would be cats and how, when startled, their arrector pili muscles contract, making the hair stand up and increase their apparent size. Another example would be excessive blinking due to the contraction of the orbicularis oculi muscle when an object is rapidly moving toward an animal; this is often seen in humans. Halichoerus grypus, or Grey seals, respond to acoustic startle stimuli by fleeing from the noise. The acoustic startle reflex is only activated when the noise is over eighty decibels, which promotes stress and anxiety responses that encourage flight. Flight zone Flight zone and flight distance are interchangeable and refer to the distance needed to keep an animal under the threshold that would trigger a startle response. A flight zone can be circumstantial, because a threat can vary in size (individually or in group number). Overall, this distance is the measure of an animal's willingness to take on risks. This differentiates a flight zone from personal distance an animal prefers and social distance (how close other species are willing to be). An applicable analogy would be a reactive dog. When the flight zone is large, the dog will maintain an observant stance, but a startle response will not occur. As the threatening stimuli moves forward and decreases the flight zone, the dog will exhibit behaviors that fall into a startle or avoidance response. Avoidance response The avoidance response is a form of negative reinforcement which is learned through operant conditioning. This response is usually beneficial, as it reduces risk of injury or death for animals, also because it is an adaptive response and can change as the species evolves. Individuals are able to recognize certain species or environments that need to be avoided, which can allow them to increase the flight distance to ensure safety. When scared, octopus release ink to distract their predators enough that they can burrow into a safe area. Another example of avoidance is the fast-start response in fish. They are able to relegate musculoskeletal control which allows them to withdraw from the environment with the threatening stimuli. It is believed that the neural circuits have adapted over time to more quickly react to a stimulus. Interestingly, fish that keep to the same groups will be more reactive than those who are not. Examples In birds Avian species also display unique escape responses. Birds are uniquely vulnerable to human interference in the form of aircraft, drones, cars, and other technology. There has been a lot of interest in how these structures will and do affect the behaviors of terrestrial and aquatic birds. One study, Weston et al., 2020, observed how flight initiation changed according to the distance of the drone from the birds. It was found that as the drone approached the tendency of birds to take flight to escape it increased dramatically. This was positively affected by the altitude at which the birds were exposed to the drone. In another experiment by Devault et al. (1989), brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) were exposed to a demonstration of traffic traveling at speeds between 60 – 360 km/h. When approached by a vehicle travelling at 120 km/h, the birds only allotted 0.8s to escape before a possible collision. This study showed that fast traffic speeds may not allow enough time for birds to initiate an escape response. In fish In fish and amphibians, the escape response appears to be elicited by Mauthner cells, two giant neurons located in the rhombomere 4 of the hindbrain. Generally, when faced with a dangerous stimuli, fish will contract their axial muscle, resulting a C-shaped contraction away from the stimulus. This response occurs in two separate stages: a muscle contraction that allows them to speed away from a stimulus (stage 1), and a sequential contralateral movement (stage 2). This escape is also known as a "fast-start response". The majority of the fish respond to an external stimulus (pressure changes) within 5 to 15 milliseconds, while some will exhibit a slower response taking up to 80 milliseconds. While the escape response generally only propels the fish a small distance away, this distance is long enough to prevent predation. While many predators use water pressure to catch their prey, this short distance prevents them from feeding on the fish via suction. Particularly in the case of fish, it has been hypothesized that the differences in escape response are due to the evolution of neural circuits over time. This can be witnessed by observing the difference in the extent of stage 1 behaviour, and the distinct muscle activity in stage 2 of the C-start or fast-start response. In larval zebrafish (Danio rerio), they sense predators using their lateral line system. When larvae are positioned lateral to a predator, they will escape in a likewise lateral direction. According to game theory, zebrafish who are positioned lateral and ventral to the predator are more likely to survive, rather than any alternate strategy. Finally, the faster (cm/s) the predator is moving, the faster downward the fish will move to escape predation. Recent research in guppies has shown that familiarity can affect the reaction time involved in the escape response. Guppies that were placed in familiar groups were more likely to respond than guppies who were assigned to unfamiliar groups. Wolcott et al. (2017) suggest that familiar groups may lead to reduced inspection and aggression among conspecifics. The theory of limited attention states that the brain has a limited amount of information processing, and, as an individual is engaged in more tasks, the less resources it can provide to one given task. As a result, they have more attention that they can devote toward anti-predator behaviour. In insects When house flies (Musca domestica) encounter an aversive stimulus, they jump rapidly and fly away from the stimulus. A recent research suggests that the escape response in Musca domestica is controlled by a pair of compound eyes, rather than by the ocelli. When one of the compound eyes was covered, the minimum threshold to elicit an escape response increased. In short, the escape reaction of Musca domestica is evoked by the combination of both motion and light. Cockroaches are also well known for their escape response. When individuals sense a wind puff, they will turn and escape in the opposite direction. The sensory neurons in the paired caudal cerci (singular: cercus) at the rear of the animal send a message along the ventral nerve cord. Then, one of two responses are elicited: running (through the ventral giant interneurons) or flying/running (through the dorsal giant interneurons). In mammals Mammals can display a wide range of escape responses. Some of the most common escape responses include withdrawal reflexes, fleeing, and, in some instances where outright escape is too difficult, freezing behaviors. Higher-order mammals often display withdrawal reflexes. Exposure to danger, or a painful stimulus (in nociceptor-mediated loops), initiate a spinal reflex loop. Sensory receptors transmit the signal to the spine where it is rapidly integrated by interneurons and consequently an efferent signal is sent down motor neurons. The effect of the motor neurons is to contract the muscles necessary to pull the body, or body part away from the stimulus. Some mammals, like squirrels and other rodents, have defensive neural networks present in the midbrain that allow for quick adaptation of their defense strategy. If these animals are caught in an area without refuge, they can quickly change their strategy from fleeing to freezing. Freezing behavior allows for the animal to avoid detection by the predator. In one study, Stankowich & Coss (2007) studied the flight initiation distance of Columbian black-tailed deer. According to the authors, the flight initiation distance is the distance between prey and predator when the prey attempts an escape response. They found that the angle, distance, and speed that the deer escaped was related to the distance between the deer and its predator, a human male in this experiment. Other examples Squids have developed a multitude of anti-predator escape responses, including: jet-driven escape, postural displays, inking and camouflage. Inking and jet-driven escape are arguably the most salient responses, in which the individual squirts ink at the predator as it speeds away. These blobs of ink can vary in size and shape; larger blobs can distract the predator while smaller blobs can provide a cover under which the squid can disappear. Finally, the released ink also contains hormones such as L-dopa and dopamine that can warn other conspecifics of danger while blocking olfactory receptors in the targeted predator. Cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) are also well known for their escape responses. Unlike squids, who may engage more salient escape responses, the cuttlefish has few defences so it relies on more conspicuous means: jet-driven escape and freezing behaviour. However, it appears that the majority of cuttlefish use a freezing escape response when avoiding predation. When the cuttlefish freeze, it minimizes the voltage of their bioelectric field, making them less susceptible to their predators, mainly sharks. References Ethology Animals by adaptation

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitality

Vitality

Vitality (, , ) is the capacity to live, grow, or develop. Vitality is also the characteristic that distinguishes living from non-living things. To experience vitality is regarded as a basic psychological drive and, in philosophy, a component to the will to live. As such, people seek to maximize their vitality or their experience of vitality—that which corresponds to an enhanced physiological capacity and mental state. Overview The pursuit and maintenance of health and vitality have been at the forefront of medicine and natural philosophy throughout history. Life depends upon various biological processes known as vital processes. Historically, these vital processes have been viewed as having either mechanistic or non-mechanistic causes. The latter point of view is characteristic of vitalism, the doctrine that the phenomena of life cannot be explained by purely chemical and physical mechanisms. Prior to the 19th century, theoreticians often held that human lifespan had been less limited in the past, and that aging was due to a loss of, and failure to maintain, vitality. A commonly held view was that people are born with finite vitality, which diminishes over time until illness and debility set in, and finally death. Religion In traditional cultures, the capacity for life is often directly equated with the or . This can be found in the Hindu concept , where vitality in the body derives from a subtle principle in the air and in food, as well as in Hebrew and ancient Greek texts. Jainism Vitality and DNA damage Low vitality or fatigue is a common complaint by older patients. and may reflect an underlying medical illness. Vitality level was measured in 2,487 Copenhagen patients using a standardized, subjective, self-reported vitality scale and was found to be inversely related to DNA damage (as measured in peripheral blood mononuclear cells). DNA damage indicates cellular disfunction. See also Urban vitality Vitalism References Jain philosophical concepts Natural philosophy Philosophy of life Quality of life

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Sestak

Joe Sestak

Joseph Ambrose Sestak Jr. (born December 12, 1951) is an American politician and retired U.S. Navy officer. He represented in the U.S. House of Representatives from 2007 to 2011 and was the Democratic nominee for the United States Senate in 2010. A three-star vice admiral, he was the highest-ranking military official ever elected to the United States Congress at the time of his election. He was a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in the 2020 election, launching his campaign on June 23, 2019 and ending it on December 1, 2019, subsequently endorsing Amy Klobuchar. Graduating second in his class at the United States Naval Academy, Sestak served in the United States Navy for over 31 years and rose to the rank of three-star admiral. He served as the Director for Defense Policy on the National Security Council staff under President Bill Clinton and held a series of operational commands, including commanding the USS George Washington carrier strike group during combat operations in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean in 2002. Sestak was elected to the House of Representatives in 2006 in a heavily Republican district, and reelected in 2008 by a 20% margin. He declined to run for reelection in 2010, instead running for the Senate. In the Democratic primary he defeated incumbent Senator Arlen Specter, in office since 1981, 54% to 46%, but lost the general election to Republican nominee Pat Toomey in a close race. Sestak sought a rematch with Toomey in the 2016 election, but lost the primary to Katie McGinty by just under ten points, in the closest and costliest Senate primary of the 2016 cycle, while facing opposition from prominent Democrats. Sestak announced a campaign for the Democratic Party's presidential nomination in on June 23, 2019. His campaign attracted little support and he failed to qualify for any debates. He dropped out of the race on December 1, 2019. Sestak has also served as president of FIRST Global, a nonprofit with the objective of promoting STEM education that brought high-school age teams from 157 countries to Washington, D.C., for the inaugural robotics Olympics. In 2022, he announced he was leaving the Democratic Party and joining the centrist Forward Party. Early life, education and early career Sestak was born in Secane, Pennsylvania, the son of Kathleen L. (Schlichte) and Joseph Ambrose Sestak His grandfather Martin Šesták came to America from the Slovak village of Dolné Lovčice in 1922, after World War I, while his father, Joseph Sr., was sent to join Martin in America in 1924. Sestak's father graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1942, and then fought in both the Atlantic and the Pacific during World War II, attaining the rank of captain. He continued his service after the war as an engineering officer at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. Sestak attended Cardinal O'Hara High School in Springfield, Pennsylvania, where his mother worked as a math teacher. He was deeply inspired by his father and has recalled the time his father spent five hours fixing the family car in the freezing cold of a Philadelphia winter: I remember going to the window and watching him. And the admiration that I had—just that strong determination of his. Never give in. Following in his father's footsteps, Sestak was accepted into the U.S. Naval Academy immediately after graduating from high school, during the Vietnam War. In 1974 Sestak graduated second in his class of over 900 midshipmen, with a Bachelor of Science degree in American political systems. Between tours at sea he earned a Master of Public Administration and a PhD in political economy and government from the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University in 1980 and 1984, respectively. Naval career As a surface warfare officer Sestak served division officer tours as damage control assistant, combat information center officer and weapons officer on the guided missile destroyer USS Richard E. Byrd, and later as weapons officer on the guided missile destroyer USS Hoel. He then served as aide and flag lieutenant to the admiral in charge of United States Navy surface forces in the Pacific. In January 1986 Sestak became executive officer of the guided missile frigate USS Underwood and was instrumental in the Underwood's winning the coveted battle E and the Battenberg Cup (awarded to the best ship in the Atlantic fleet). He then served in the Politico-Military Assessment Division of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. On August 30, 1991, Sestak took command of the guided missile frigate USS Samuel B. Roberts, which was named the Atlantic Fleet's best surface combatant in the 1993 Battenberg Cup competition. In July 1993 Sestak became the head of the Strategy and Concepts Branch in the office of the Chief of Naval Operations. From November 1994 to March 1997 he was the Director for Defense Policy on the National Security Council staff at the White House, where he was responsible for the Clinton Administration's national security strategy, policies, programs, inter-agency and congressional coordination and regional political-military advice. In May 1997 he became the commander of Destroyer Squadron 14. Sestak then directed the CNO's Strategy and Policy Division (N51), and led the navy's efforts toward the 2000 Quadrennial Defense Review, for which he analyzed military strategic requirements and the economic value of U.S. defense spending. After the September 11 attacks he became the first director of the Navy Operations Group (Deep Blue), the navy's strategic anti-terrorism unit, which sought to redefine strategic, operational and budgetary policies in the Global War on Terrorism, reporting directly to the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) Admiral Vern Clark. In 2002 Sestak assumed command of the George Washington Aircraft Carrier Battle Group of 10 U.S. ships and 10,000 sailors, SEALs, Marines, and 100 aircraft. He integrated it with a coalition of 20 allied ships and 5,000 sailors. It conducted combat operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. Sestak became the director of the CNO's Analysis Group, again reporting directly to CNO Clark as policy adviser and administrator, where he directed independent analysis on strategy, warfare requirements, and resources for the CNO outside of the normal bureaucratic process of the Navy staff. Under Clark, Sestak worked to rein in military spending by maximizing fleet efficiency. In 2004 he was appointed Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Warfare Requirements and Programs (N6/N7), where he implemented his ideas and analyses in the Navy's $350 billion Five Year Defense Plan to transform the Navy from a less effective, expensive platform-centric force structure to a more effective capabilities-based force posture with cyber and sensors. It resulted in a shipbuilding plan that departed from the traditional goal for a 375-ship level to one as low as 260. On September 11, 2001, Sestak was on duty at the Pentagon, leaving the building moments before it was attacked. In 2005, Sestak pushed to add a second aircraft carrier in the Pacific to support allies, deter challenges from China, and be closer to potential hot spots such as the Koreas and the Taiwan Strait, saying, "if you don’t have the speed to get to the conflict when you really need to be there, you’re interesting, but irrelevant." 2005 reassignment In 2005, after CNO Clark retired, Sestak was administratively removed from his position as Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Warfare Requirements and Programs (N6/N7), a three-star position. His removal was one of the first changes made by Admiral Michael Mullen when he took over as the new Chief of Naval Operations in July 2005, according to Navy Times. Sestak was reverted to his permanent two-star rank of rear admiral, and was reassigned as a special assistant to the Vice Chief of Naval Operations. He then opted to retire when his three-year-old daughter was diagnosed with malignant brain cancer. Controversy ensued over his departure: it was reported that he was pushed out because he "ruffled feathers" within the Bush Administration and came into conflict with Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld over Sestak's advocacy for spending cuts; Sestak's plan to change the Navy's force structure goals from 375 to as low as 260 by commanding the new emerging capability of cyberspace was controversial. One hundred senior and junior officers, as well as enlisted personnel who served with Sestak, later signed a letter supporting him as "a leader of the highest caliber, a man of tremendous character, and a military officer of uncommon compassion." In an investigative report by The Philadelphia Inquirer, Chief of Naval Operations Vern Clark said of Sestak: He did what I asked him to do; I wanted straight talk, and this put him in the cross-hairs. People are going to say what they want to say, but [Sestak] challenged people who did not want to be challenged. The guy is courageous, a patriot's patriot. Clark told that Associated Press that Sestak "was an incredible officer, the best I've ever seen. Incredible moral courage, the courage to take the independent stand. When everybody else was saying, 'This is what we ought to do,' he would stand up and say, 'I don't see it that way.'" Of Sestak's reassignment by Mullen, Clark told The New York Times, "I put him in that environment where he was in a position to create enemies," adding, "I should have given him better top cover." After Sestak retired from the United States Navy, his daughter made a full recovery from cancer. He retired as a two-star admiral, not having maintained the rank of three-star admiral long enough to retain it in retirement. Military decorations Sestak's decorations include the Defense Distinguished Service Medal, Defense Superior Service Medal, two Legion of Merit awards, two Meritorious Service Medals, Joint Service Commendation Medal, three Navy Commendation Medals and the Navy Achievement Medal. U.S. House of Representatives Elections 2006 In 2006, with his daughter's recovery going smoothly, Sestak was motivated to run for Congress by the benefits he received under the United States Military's TRICARE health care program, which gave his daughter the care she needed to treat her brain tumor. Sestak stated that, during his travels to find the best treatment for his daughter, he saw children who did not have the same quality of care, or could not afford the necessary care. Sestak made health-care reform a pillar of his campaign in hopes of giving everyone the same care his family had. He called his congressional service a continuation of his military service, "paying back" the country that took care of his daughter. Sestak began laying the groundwork for a Congressional run in the 7th district, his home district in Pennsylvania, as a Democrat. He was then told he had to first receive the endorsement of the "DCCC". Sestak first thought this meant his hometown's Delaware County Community College, but he was eventually steered toward the correct DCCC, the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee, and informed its head, Rahm Emanuel, of his candidacy. Emanuel told Sestak he was not ready for to run in a district where registered Republicans outnumbered Democrats 2:1. Sestak decided to run anyway and turned to his brother, Richard, and sisters, Elizabeth and Margaret, who served as his campaign manager, top fundraiser and treasurer, respectively. Sestak challenged ten-term Republican incumbent Curt Weldon in the race, and proved a capable fundraiser. In the second quarter of 2006, he raised $704,000 to Weldon's $692,000; in the third, $1.14 million to $912,000. As of September 30, 2006, Sestak had $1.53 million cash on hand, while Weldon had $1.12 million in the bank after making a $500,000 TV ad buy that had not started as of the close of the third quarter. Sestak received campaign donations from people around the world, including performer Jimmy Buffett, John Grisham, Bill and Hillary Clinton, and many Naval officers. A late September 2006 poll showed Sestak and Weldon locked in a statistical dead heat. Sestak led Weldon 44-43 among likely voters in a Franklin & Marshall College Keystone Poll released September 29. The poll also found that 49% of registered voters in the district felt it was time for change in the district and only 37% said Weldon deserved reelection. The numbers suggested Sestak had seriously eroded Weldon's previous lead; an April 2006 poll conducted by the pro-Democratic Party organization Democracy Corps had Weldon leading 51% to 41%. On October 6 the nonpartisan Cook Political Report moved the race from "Lean Republican" to "Toss Up". An October 8–10 survey by nonpartisan pollster Constituent Dynamics put Sestak ahead 51–44. On October 13 CQPolitics moved the race from "Leans Republican" to "No Clear Favorite". The race remained a dead heat until late October, when FBI special agents raided the homes of Weldon's daughter and a close friend in connection with a federal corruption probe (neither has ever been charged with a crime). Sestak won by 13 points. Sestak became the second Democrat to represent the 7th since 1939, and the first since Bob Edgar gave up the seat after six terms to run for Senate. Weldon succeeded him and had held the seat since. The district had historically been a classic Rockefeller Republican area, but had become more competitive at the national level since the 1990s. It had gone Democratic in every presidential election since 1992, even as Weldon never faced a close contest before 2006. The race was in the national spotlight, as it was profiled in Time magazine as the harbinger of the national political climate of the 2006 elections and the most-watched swing district in the country. 2008 In 2008, Sestak faced Republican nominee Wendell Craig Williams, a U.S. Marine and attorney. Sestak defeated him by a 20-point margin (59.6% to 40.4%), eight points more than his 2006 margin. He purchased no advertisements, and his largest expense was lawn signs. Legislation and key votes Sestak wrote various pieces of bipartisan legislation that successfully passed Congress. In 2008 the National Journal placed him "at the ideological center of the House". House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer named Sestak the most productive freshman member of Congress in 2007, with 19 pieces of legislation passing in the House during the 110th Congress, including the Elder Abuse Victims Act, the first bill on elder abuse to pass the House in 17 years. In the 111th United States Congress, Sestak's last term in office, Congress passed more bills written by Sestak than bills written by both of Pennsylvania's senators combined. Most significantly, Sestak created the House Pediatric Cancer Caucus, which he co-chaired; extended benefits for those seeking work (COBRA) as a part of the JOBS bill; co-wrote the amendment to give small businesses tax credits, as a part of health care reform; and moved the first significant federal funds into autism care and research, nicknamed the "Sestak Amendment". As Congress's senior veteran, Sestak was an original cosponsor of the repeal of Don't Ask, Don't Tell as well as the repeal of the Defense of Marriage Act. He also strongly advocated ending bailouts to banks in the Wall Street Reform Bill. Sestak voted for the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 but lamented that it did not provide enough accountability measures. He also voted for the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, the American Clean Energy and Security Act, and the Affordable Health Care for America Act. Some of his legislation that generated attention but eventually failed included researching potential adoption and expansion of thorium-based nuclear power, and the first legislation to restrict the effects of Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission. Social media In 2007 Sestak's campaign was the first federal campaign to create a Facebook Fan Page. Sestak joined Twitter shortly before he was sworn in for his second term. His congressional account made him the first congressperson on Twitter to use it on an official basis. After he left office his social networks were merged with his personal accounts, which have been verified. Sestak is said to have been a prime example of the Colbert Bump. After appearing on "The Colbert Report" in 2008, Sestak spoke of the positive impact of social media and viral video clips of the appearance. He appeared on the show even after Democratic leaders Rahm Emanuel and Nancy Pelosi instructed Democrats not to. After his first appearance, Sestak won his election in a landslide in a Republican majority district, and after appearing again in 2009 as a part of his announcement of his candidacy against incumbent Senator Arlen Specter in the 2010 Democratic primary, Sestak won by a surprising eight points. He did not appear on the show during the 2010 general election, which he narrowly lost. The day after the loss, host Stephen Colbert lamented the loss on air, calling Sestak a "friend". Congressional staff Sestak and his staff were recognized for their successful tenure and he was voted "The Most Productive Member of Congress". Sestak focused heavily on the constituent services his office provided the people of his district as he entered Congress just as the Great Recession began, homes were being foreclosed, and health care and other services were being denied as people lost their jobs and missed payments. During his four years in Congress from 2007 to 2011, Sestak's office handled 18,000 cases, between three and four times the number of the average congressional office. "Every person who has worked for me has been tremendous," he said. Sestak hosted an average of 15 large summit gatherings in his district each year on key issues. Some critics were quick to cite Sestak's handling of his Congressional staff as supporting "the perception that he is a taskmaster with a prickly streak." During his first term in office, Sestak employed 61 people as staff in his official congressional office, while comparable representatives employed a total of 28, 26, and 25 staff members, indicating that Sestak had a high turnover rate, although a number of them were interns or had been hired as temporary staff members. The Hill reported that several former staffers said that "aides are expected to work seven days a week, including holidays, often 14 hours each day, going for months without a day off. These are very long hours even by Capitol Hill standards". A former aide added that Sestak's staff turnover was not as much of a drawback as one might expect. "Other Members rely on their staff to keep themselves informed, but with him, it's top-down," the former aide said. "He knows what he wants to accomplish, so in a sense, he just needs people to dictate to." Sestak acknowledged that his aides spend long hours on duty and that the work is "pretty demanding". He added that the staff was becoming stabler over time, with the turnover rate normalizing by the end of his second term. Contemporaneous staff accounts were published in the Delaware County Times, including Clarence Tong, a spokesman who had been with Sestak since the campaign, who said "They're getting off. The only person who does work Sunday is someone who travels with the congressman when he goes to different constituent meetings... I think the reality is, my boss doesn't deny he asks a lot of people who work for him ... I think he's someone who's very fair to work for"; Ashley Miller, a former aide, who said, "We were working long hours, there's no doubt about that, but it was absolutely what was needed to do it. None of us were happy leaving things half done at the end of the day"; Bryan Branton, Sestak's former chief of staff, who said, "Every freshman office has to work that much harder because you're starting an office from scratch. The people who have since left the campaign have done so because they had other things they were planning on doing"; and Ryan Rudominer, Sestak's communications director during the campaign, who said, "Just like it took hard work to defeat a 20-year incumbent ... it takes hard work to pass as much legislation as Joe has passed as a first-term congressman, to hold as many summits and town halls as Joe has held and to be as responsive to constituents as Joe is." 2008 presidential election Sestak endorsed Hillary Clinton for president in the 2008 Democratic primaries and served as her campaign national security adviser, specializing in veterans. He told Stephen Colbert on The Colbert Report that he trusted her leadership after serving with her in the White House. In addition to being Clinton's foreign policy adviser, Sestak served as her superdelegate and was a surrogate throughout the primary, making appearances at several rallies and on television, including in an ad emphasizing Clinton's foreign policy strengths. Sestak endorsed Barack Obama in the general election after Obama received the Democratic nomination. Committee assignments Committee on Armed Services Subcommittee on Seapower and Expeditionary Forces Subcommittee on Air and Land Forces Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations Committee on Education and Labor Subcommittee on Early Childhood, Elementary and Secondary Education Subcommittee on Health, Employment, Labor, and Pensions Committee on Small Business (Vice Chairman) Subcommittee on Finance and Tax Subcommittee on Contracting and Technology Subcommittee on Regulations, Healthcare and Trade 2010 U.S. Senate election Primary election Whispers of a possible U.S. Senate campaign appeared in 2008 after Sestak's landslide victory and $3 million campaign surplus after his reelection. Even before Arlen Specter's announcement to switch parties, draft efforts were organized. But after Specter switched from a Republican to a Democrat to ensure that (once Al Franken was seated) Democrats had a filibuster-proof 60-vote majority, Democrats, including President Obama and Governor Rendell, promised to support Specter in both the primary and the general election. Nationwide support mounted for Sestak's possible senatorial campaign, a primary challenge to Specter. Most prominent was a straw poll conducted by the Progressive Change Campaign Committee titled, "Should a Draft Sestak movement be created to take on Sen. Arlen Specter in the Pennsylvania Democratic primary?" Almost 8,000 votes were cast nationwide, with 86% responding yes, including 85% of Pennsylvanians. Sestak faced significant opposition to his candidacy from President Obama, Vice President Joe Biden, the national Democratic Party and the state party, even though Sestak pointed out Specter's humiliation of Anita Hill during her testimony about her harassment by Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas and other votes of Specter's. Then-Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell said on national television, "Joe Sestak should not run for the Senate in the Democratic primary." Sestak responded, "there's no more kings, there's no more kingmakers in America," and proceeded to visit all 67 counties of Pennsylvania. On May 27, 2009, Sestak indicated that he intended to challenge Specter in the 2010 Democratic primary (pending a final family decision because he had not "had the time to sit down with my eight-year-old daughter or my wife to make sure that we are all ready to get in"). In June he was overheard saying "[i]t would take an act of God for me to not get in now". In a Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll conducted May 20–26, Specter led the Democratic primary with 50 percent, with Sestak at 21 percent and 27 percent undecided. Despite the gap, it was noted that Sestak did not have much statewide recognition at the time, as he represented only one of Pennsylvania's 19 congressional districts. On August 4 Sestak officially announced his candidacy. His brother, Richard, was his campaign manager. In discussing Specter's switch from the Republican to the Democratic Party, Sestak has said that the switch was "100 percent" motivated by politics. Democratic opposition Throughout the primary election the Obama administration and the Democratic Party campaigned heavily against Sestak, as the President, Vice President, and numerous cabinet members and Senators hosted many fundraisers and events for Specter. On September 19, 2009, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid even shut down the entire United States Senate, as he, the President, and many senators instead flew to Philadelphia to host a prominent fundraiser for Specter. The event drew controversy for closing federal business and because the money raised during the event would be given to Republicans and conservative PACs that asked for refunds of contributions given before Specter's party switch. Obama's presidential campaign, called "Organizing for America" during the off years, also led efforts against Sestak. Even the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee (DSCC) decided to spend the maximum "coordinated funds" for Specter, which differ from most party spending in that the committee can use the money to work with the candidate and supplement his or her ad buys. Job offer to Sestak In a February 2010 interview Sestak responded affirmatively when asked if the Obama administration had offered him a "federal job" if he would end his candidacy for the Senate. Sestak stated that he had quickly refused the offer. When asked to give the specifics of the offer on Midweek Politics with David Pakman, he refused. The White House initially "vociferously" denied that an offer had been made, and Sestak continued to offer no further details until the Obama administration released White House Counsel Robert F. Bauer's official report on the incident on May 28, clarifying that White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel enlisted former President Bill Clinton to approach Sestak about potential, uncompensated executive branch positions on senior advisory boards and stating Bauer's official opinion that nothing inappropriate, illegal or unethical had taken place. The official report also stated that Clinton had made the offer on behalf of the Obama administration. After the report's release, Sestak issued a statement essentially confirming it. Republican Congressman Darrell Issa, the minority leader on the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, initially alleged that such an offer and Sestak's failure to report it could be felonies. Legal analysts disagreed, and Issa subsequently backtracked and dismissed the issue; his spokesperson said, "it was a mistake", and Issa said, "as we discovered, that it turns out that Republicans and previous administrations thought it was OK." Primary result Specter held a 20-point lead in polls as late as April 2010, and enjoyed support from the Democratic establishment, including Rendell and Philadelphia Mayor Michael Nutter, with the latter trying to mobilize voters in that city for Specter. A moderate Republican, Specter had switched parties after polls showed him likely being defeated by the more conservative Pat Toomey in the Republican primary, a rematch of the 2004 nomination contest where Specter narrowly defeated Toomey. Sestak attacked Specter's switch as "self-interested", and the move was disapproved of by a majority of registered Democrats in Pennsylvania, while a "fervent anti-incumbent mood" prevailed nationwide in the 2010 midterm elections. The Sestak campaign also ran an ad showing Specter with President George W. Bush, which seriously damaged Specter's standing. Sestak gained momentum in the last days of the primary contest as the turnout in Philadelphia for Specter failed to meet expectations. At a little after 10 p.m. on May 18 the Associated Press called the primary for Sestak, 53% to 47%. General election Many cited the Pennsylvania Senate general election as the "marquee race of 2010", a bellwether of the national stage. After securing the Democratic Party's nomination, calling it "a win for the people, over the establishment, over the status quo, even over Washington, DC," Sestak enjoyed a slight lead in the polls against the Republican nominee, former Congressman and Club for Growth President Pat Toomey. But while Sestak tried to recoup his financial losses after a long primary, Toomey had not faced a competitive primary and aired TV ads much earlier than Sestak. Toomey's effective fundraising and advertising allowed him to rise in the polls, at one point gaining a double-digit lead, causing political pundits to move the race from "Toss Up" to "Lean Republican". Many stopped short of calling the race "Solid Republican" as Sestak had a reputation for campaigning until he "sees the whites of their eyes" and 11th-hour comebacks. Sestak began airing ads in mid-fall and overcame his deficit in opinion polls, closing to within the margin of error. Toomey had been running unanswered ads depicting Sestak as a liberal for several months before the DSCC purchased airtime toward the end of the campaign. At the beginning of election night Sestak led in the exit polls by a wide margin, but as more votes were counted and central Pennsylvania's "red T" area began reporting, Toomey caught up. Counting continued until early morning, as the numbers were too close for a winner to be declared. As the percentages stabilized, it became clear Toomey was the winner. Sestak conceded the race to a ballroom full of his supporters at the Radnor Hotel. Toomey defeated Sestak, 51% to 49%, a margin of 80,229 votes out of almost four million cast, a margin large enough to avoid a recount. Percentage-wise, it was the smallest losing margin of any Pennsylvania Democratic candidate in 2010. The total spent on the race was $20 million, the most of any federal election in 2010. After Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission was decided, conservative Political Action Committees and corporations broke the record for outside spending, airing ads on Toomey's behalf and causing Sestak to be outspent 3 to 1. Sestak received little help from the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee (DSCC), which had spent significantly to assist Specter in the primary. The gap between pro-Toomey and pro-Sestak ads was the largest of any Senate race in the nation. Sestak responded to this outside spending at Philadelphia Constitution Hall, arguing, "It is we, the people. Not we, the corporations, nor we, Wall Street." Despite the funding gap, Sestak outperformed Pennsylvania's Democratic gubernatorial nominee, who lost by 9%, as well as the four Democratic Representatives who lost reelection by broad margins (Patrick Murphy by 7%, Paul Kanjorski by 9%, Kathy Dahlkemper by 11%, and Chris Carney by 10%). Sestak returned to each of Pennsylvania's 67 counties to thank his supporters, including numerous African American churches, synagogues, and mosques that had welcomed him. 2016 U.S. Senate election After his defeat, Sestak served as a professor at Cheyney University, the oldest historically black university in America, and as a Distinguished Practice Professor at Carnegie Mellon University's Heinz College. In May 2013 he was named the 2013–14 recipient of the General Omar N. Bradley Chair in Strategic Leadership, a joint initiative among the United States Army War College, Dickinson College and the Pennsylvania State University – Dickinson School of Law. Previous recipients of the Bradley Chair include former Assistant Secretary of State Philip J. Crowley and retired Major General John D. Altenburg. Sestak taught courses on "Ethical Leadership" and "Restoring the American Dream". Sestak remained active in public service through the Center for Refugee and Disaster Response at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health; the Ploughshares Fund working on nuclear disarmament; the Lenfest Foundation focused on education in Philadelphia, pre-K through early childhood, and those in danger of leaving or having left high school; co-chair with former Republican governor Mark Schweiker of the Pennsylvania State Advisory Committee of the U.S. Global Leadership Coalition, focused on U.S. diplomacy and development; and then-Secretary of State Clinton's Advisory Committee on U.S. educational programs. Primary election In 2013 Sestak announced he was considering a rematch with Toomey. In September 2014, as he campaigned with 2014 gubernatorial nominee Tom Wolf, he said he would make an official announcement soon. In November 2014 he sent out an email confirming that he would run, and in March 2015 he officially launched his campaign by walking 422 miles across Pennsylvania from the New Jersey to the Ohio borders, holding town hall meetings each day, saying throughout his campaign kickoff and the remainder of the election that "we are in a fight for the soul of America." Sestak simultaneously published his vision in a policy-based book, Walking in Your Shoes to Restore the American Dream, co-authored with Jake Sternberger. If Sestak had been nominated to run against Toomey in 2016 it would have been the first rematch for a United States Senate seat in Pennsylvania history. But starting in early 2015 after he refused to hire a party-approved campaign manager and other designated staffers as well as Washington, D.C.-based political consultants and firms, Sestak faced considerable opposition from the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee (DSCC) and EMILY's List. Many establishment Democrats also resented Sestak for defeating Arlen Specter in the 2010 primary. Sestak had led consistently in the polls, sometimes by as much as 17 points, though national Democrats including Obama encouraged six candidates to challenge Sestak in the primary, with Katie McGinty emerging as the establishment's preferred nominee. The DSCC provided over $1.5 million to McGinty's campaign, when no other non-incumbent Democrat in the nation received more than $14,000, with over $6 million being spent by pro-McGinty Super PACs on mailings, digital ads, and TV commercials. One of the commercials was an attack ad that the Washington Post assigned its highest rating of falsity and called "a sleazy way to win a campaign." Sestak's initial lead in polls dwindled and McGinty won the April 26 Democratic primary. The national Democrats' meddling in the primary was largely unpopular with their liberal base, as Sestak consistently polled higher than McGinty in a hypothetical matchup against Toomey. The Toomey campaign had also regarded Sestak as a stronger challenger since he was "a political outsider, well-attuned to the public's anti-establishment mood." In what was, at the time, the most expensive election for a U.S. Senate seat, Toomey narrowly defeated McGinty to win reelection. 2020 presidential campaign On June 23, 2019, Sestak announced his candidacy for the Democratic nomination for president in the 2020 election in a video posted on his website. Sestak entered the race days before the first Democratic presidential debate was held, and did not participate in any debates held in subsequent months, failing to meet the minimum requirements for eligibility. He attracted very little media attention and never polled above 1%. On December 1, 2019, he ended his bid for the Democratic nomination. He endorsed Amy Klobuchar on February 7, 2020. Political positions Abortion Sestak is pro-choice, holding a 100% rating from NARAL Pro-Choice America and a 0% rating from the National Right to Life Committee. NARAL endorsed Sestak over Specter in the 2010 Democratic primary because of Sestak's opposition to a ban on partial-birth abortion. In 2009 Sestak's invitation to speak to students at the Catholic Malvern Preparatory School was rescinded after parents and alumni objected. The cancellation was protested by many Malvern Seniors who staged a class walkout on the day of the scheduled talk. Economy Sestak supports requiring Congress to offset the cost of all new spending. He also supports expanding middle-class tax cuts and letting the Bush tax cuts expire. He voted for the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and the Tax Extenders and Alternative Minimum Tax Relief Act of 2008. Education Sestak voted for the Improving Head Start Act and the College Cost Reduction and Access Act. He has a 100% lifetime rating from the National Education Association. Environment Sestak voted for the Waxman Markey American Clean Energy and Security Act (Cap and Trade) program. He has a 96% lifetime rating from the League of Conservation Voters and a 100% rating from PennEnvironment. Sestak was endorsed by the Sierra Club in his 2006 and 2008 Congressional election campaigns. He voted for the Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation Tax Act of 2007 and the New Direction for Energy Independence, National Security and Consumer Protection Act, and was an original cosponsor of the Climate Stewardship Act (H.R. 620) and the Safe Climate Act. Gun rights Sestak supports gun control. He has a 100% rating from the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence and an F rating from the NRA Political Victory Fund. Sestak has called for reinstatement of the federal ban on assault weapons. Healthcare Sestak credits his support for health care reform as "payback" to the country that gave him and his family health care while he was in the Navy (the TRICARE program), especially for successfully treating his daughter's brain tumor. He supports state-provided preventive care and voted for the CHAMP Act. Sestak originally co-sponsored the Medicare Prescription Drug Price Negotiations Act, the Caroline Pryce Walker Conquer Childhood Cancer Act and co-sponsored H.R. 3800, which establishes a public-private Partnership for Health Care Improvement. He also announced the Pediatric Cancer Caucus, which he will co-chair. He is also a member of the Autism Caucus, Diabetes Caucus, 21st Century Health Care Caucus, Congressional Mental Health Caucus, Nursing Caucus, and Cystic Fibrosis Caucus. Iran nuclear deal Sestak cosigned, with 35 other retired admirals and generals, a letter endorsing the proposed 2015 Iran nuclear deal, and went on FOX News to defend the deal. Unions Sestak is an original cosponsor of the Employee Free Choice Act and supports the original version that includes card check. He created the Labor Advisory Committee to address the challenges facing working families in his district. Sestak holds a 97% lifetime rating from the AFL-CIO. Medical marijuana Sestak voted to allow states to regulate medical marijuana by voting for the Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act of 2008, which would have barred the Department of Justice from preventing the implementation of state laws regarding the distribution, possession, and cultivation of medical marijuana. The bill was defeated 165–262. Military As a candidate, Sestak campaigned to end the war in Iraq. Once in office, in 2007, he supported Congressional efforts to redeploy forces and submitted legislation for commencing the redeployment, allowing one year to safely withdraw the troops. He also voted for the war supplemental the House constructed after President Bush's veto, a bill many critics of the Bush administration called a "blank check" for the four month continuation of administration policies in the Middle East. In response, Sestak and other veterans argued that they should not punish soldiers for the President's actions, and supported the bill in order to give the armed forces adequate protection and equipment until withdrawn for the one year it would take to do it safely. Sestak supported the FISA Amendments Act of 2008, which critics contended continued the Bush administration's policy of warrantless wiretapping and provided retroactive immunity to telecommunications companies who participated in the National Security Agency's "terrorist surveillance program". Sestak supported the deployment of additional troops to Afghanistan in late 2009, and military actions such as drone strikes in northwest Pakistan. He supported a gradual draw-down of troops from Iraq. Sestak was an opponent of the "don't ask, don't tell" policy that excluded LGBT people from serving openly in the United States military, stating that the policy means "[w]e're absolutely not adhering to the ideals of our nation". He was instrumental in bringing to light a two-year pattern of abuse, including anti-gay hazing, that took place in a Military Working Dog unit stationed in Bahrain, sparking an investigation that turned up nearly 100 instances of abuse. Electoral history Nonprofit work In 2017, Sestak became the first president of FIRST Global, a nonprofit founded by Dean Kamen with the objective of promoting STEM education and careers in the developing world through Olympics-style robotics competitions. In July 2017, the inaugural FIRST Global Challenge brought together high school student teams from 157 countries. Afghanistan's team made headlines when its visa requests were denied twice and it almost missed the competition, until President Donald Trump intervened to urge the State Department authorities to reconsider. The five girls were granted entry to the U.S. less than a week before the competition. Each country that applied to be in the competition, including those on the Trump Administration's travel ban list—from Iran to a Syrian Refugee team—obtained U.S. visas to attend the competition. Women were responsible for leading, organizing, or funding 60% of all nations' teams. 84 of the teams had not had either STEM education or robotics. Sestak established "The Global STEM Corps" of approximately 800 U.S. and international college, high school, and other STEM volunteers to "adopt" a team for online assistance in the engineering and electronics "best assemblage" of their robot for the game competition. Personal life Sestak is married to the former Susan L. Clark, who works in international environmental issues from Kazakhstan to Mozambique; Russian relations, including the U.S. team searching for clues for Prisoners of War/Missing in Action within Soviet Union archives; and on suicide prevention for the Veterans Administration and Department of Defense. In childhood, their daughter Alexandra survived brain cancer twice, at four years old and again near adulthood, before dying of the disease in June 2020 at age 19. References External links Joe Sestak for U.S. Senate official campaign website Biography at the United States Navy Campaign contributions at the Federal Election Commission (U.S. House) Articles "GOP's Financial Edge Shrinks" The Washington Post, August 20, 2006 "One on One with Congressman Joe Sestak" Pottstown Herald, September 9, 2009, 20-minute podcast |- |- 1951 births 21st-century American politicians American people of Slovak descent Candidates in the 2010 United States elections Candidates in the 2016 United States Senate elections Candidates in the 2020 United States presidential election Carnegie Mellon University faculty Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania Harvard Kennedy School alumni Living people Members of the Forward Party (United States) Military personnel from Delaware County, Pennsylvania Politicians from Delaware County, Pennsylvania Recipients of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal Recipients of the Legion of Merit Recipients of the Meritorious Service Medal (United States) Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal United States National Security Council staffers United States Naval Academy alumni United States Navy vice admirals

4021373

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic%20Research

Acoustic Research

Acoustic Research was a Cambridge, Massachusetts-based company that manufactured high-end audio equipment. The brand is now owned by VOXX. Acoustic Research was known for the AR-3 series of speaker systems, which used the acoustic suspension woofer of the AR-1 with newly designed dome mid-range speaker and high-frequency drivers. AR's line of acoustic suspension speakers were the first loudspeakers with relatively flat response, extended bass, wide dispersion, small size, and reasonable cost. The AR Turntable remains a highly sought vinyl record player. Company history Acoustic Research, Inc. (“AR”) was founded in 1954 by audio pioneer, writer, inventor, researcher and audio-electronics teacher Edgar Villchur and his student, Henry Kloss. AR was established to produce the US$185 () model AR-1, a loudspeaker design incorporating the acoustic suspension principle based on , granted to Edgar Villchur and assigned to Acoustic Research in 1956. Edgar Villchur's technical innovation was based on objective testing and research, most of which was made publicly available as documents, specifications, and measurements—all of which were then new in the loudspeaker industry. Acoustic Research as an employer claimed equal opportunity and offered liberal employee benefits, insurance, and profit sharing to its employees. Acoustic suspension loudspeaker The acoustic suspension woofer provided an elegant solution to the age-old problem of bass distortion in loudspeakers caused by non-linear, mechanical suspensions in conventional loudspeakers. The existing state-of-the-art at the time of AR's invention was the bass reflex speaker, which boosted bass response for a given amount of cone travel by directing sound energy from the rear of the speaker cone through a port in the cabinet "tuned" for reinforcement of the direct signal from the front of the cone by the signal from the rear of the cone. Among the drawbacks of bass reflex design are the stringent design parameters required for accurate bass reinforcement, requiring high precision and at the time, large cabinets. Some loss of accuracy ("smearing" or "vooming" of low frequencies) was inevitable and the results were not entirely predictable. Extensive prototyping drove up the development costs of new designs, pushing them out of popular price ranges. High fidelity woofers were vulnerable to damage from extreme low frequency signals. Those issues were addressed with the invention of the acoustic suspension woofer. The acoustic suspension woofer (sometimes known as “air suspension”) used the elasticity of air within a small, sealed enclosure of about to provide the restoring force for the woofer cone. The entrapped air of the sealed-loudspeaker enclosure, unlike the mechanical springs of conventional speakers, provided an almost linear spring for the woofer's diaphragm, enabling it to move back and forth large distances (“excursion”) in a linear fashion, a requirement for the reproduction of deep bass tones. The disadvantage of this arrangement is low efficiency. Since the restoring force is large with a large woofer in a small cabinet, the cone must be massive to keep the resonant frequency in the required low bass region. The AR-1s were about 10 per cent as efficient as other (physically much larger) existing speakers with equivalent bass response, but since higher power amplifiers were becoming available about the same time, this was a reasonable trade-off to get good bass response from a relatively small speaker. The AR-1 set new standards for low-frequency performance and low distortion that were unsurpassed for many years. Some of the best loudspeakers available fifty years later continue to use the acoustic suspension principle for high quality, low distortion bass reproduction. The small size of the high performance AR-1 permitted by the acoustic suspension design, helped usher in the age of stereophonic sound reproduction. Two bookshelf-sized loudspeakers were far more acceptable in a living room than the two refrigerator-sized boxes previously necessary to reproduce low frequency bass notes. By March 1957, AR began shipping a smaller, less expensive, acoustic suspension system, the US$87 () Model AR-2. The AR-2 was selected by Consumer Reports as a "Best Buy", and the company's sales went from $383,000 in 1956 to nearly $1,000,000 by the end of 1957. Also that year, co-founder and Vice President Henry Kloss left AR to form a new loudspeaker company, KLH. AR-3 loudspeaker In 1958, AR once again pioneered loudspeaker technology with the introduction of the landmark model AR-3, which used the AR-1's acoustic-suspension woofer in conjunction with the first commercially available hemispherical (“dome”) mid-frequency midrange unit (squawker) and high-frequency tweeter. For nearly ten years after its introduction, the AR-3 was widely regarded as the most accurate loudspeaker available at any cost, and was used in many professional installations, recording studios, and concert halls. Many professional musicians used AR-3 loudspeakers as monitors because of their excellent sound reproduction. In the early 1960s, AR conducted a series of over 75 live vs. recorded demonstrations throughout the United States in which the sound of a live string quartet was alternated with echo-free recorded music played through a pair of AR-3s. In this “ultimate” subjective test of audio quality, the listeners were largely unable to detect the switch from live to recorded, a strong testament to Acoustic Research's audio quality. The company also established music demonstration rooms on the mezzanine of Grand Central Terminal in New York City and on a street corner of Harvard Square in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where the public could stop by and listen to its products, but no sales were made there. This low-key marketing innovation boosted the company's business. AR continued to introduce new designs, and by 1966 the company had grown to hold 32.2% of the US domestic loudspeaker market, based on the IHFM and High Fidelity surveys statistics for that year. This was the largest market share ever held by a loudspeaker manufacturer since statistics have been kept. The AR-3 was replaced by the AR-3a in 1969, having a new dome midrange and tweeter which were reduced in dimensions, for even better mid- and high-frequency dispersion. On September 13, 1993, an AR-3 was placed on permanent display in the Information Age exhibit of National Museum of American History at The Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. The AR-3a was subsequently replaced by the AR-11 and AR-10pi in 1977, which shared the same improved tweeter and midrange domes. The 10pi had woofer/bass response adjustment switches to allow for a variety of room placements. The new tweeter used in the AR-11/10pi had a brighter high-frequency response, partly to compensate for reduced dispersion compared to the tweeter of the AR3a. Turntables AR produced a low-cost ($68 in 1963) belt-drive turntable, a type of phonograph, using a cast aluminum turntable platter suspended with a T-bar sub-chassis that greatly reduced acoustic feedback. A 24-pole hysteresis-synchronous, permanent magnet Hurst AC motor propelled the platter via a precision ground rubber belt to produce very low wow and flutter, exceeding the NAB (National Association of Broadcasters) standards for turntable measurements. Many AR turntable models remain in high demand. In particular, the mid-1980s models are highly modifiable to become first-rate vinyl record playback units. Teledyne buyout In 1967, Acoustic Research was bought by Teledyne, Inc., and for the next 22 years it continued development and operations in Cambridge as Teledyne Acoustic Research. Technological breakthroughs during this period included a high-current amplifier. When purchased by Teledyne, AR was the world's second largest supplier of branded loudspeakers. Although Acoustic Research continued product development, by 1989 AR had dropped to fifth place worldwide, and Teledyne sold the company to their major competitor, Jensen Electronics. In 1996, Jensen, including AR, was sold to Recoton Audio Corporation. Under both Jensen and Recoton, the AR brand continued development in the speaker industry, including the environmental controls that allowed a speaker to be placed in different room areas, the Acoustic Blanket that minimized diffraction and interference in speaker baffles, and a speaker line designed to complement home theater and the digital technologies of the 1990s. In 2003, Audiovox (now Voxx International) acquired the US audio operations of Recoton, and continues with AR-brand speaker development and sales. An associated firm, AB Tech Services, provided maintenance of AR speakers until mid-2014. Web-based audiophile communities lamented the closure of the company and apparent liquidation of parts stock. As of July 2014, CM Tech Support assumed responsibility for Acoustic Research parts and service. References External links Acoustic Research Audiovox branded site Acoustic Research Manuals Repair and owners manuals The Classic Speaker Pages Resources and discussion forums Edgar Villchur and the Acoustic Suspension Loudspeaker website of the Audio Engineering Society Historical Committee CM Tech Support AR parts and service Best Speakers for Audio Technica LP120 Loudspeaker manufacturers Companies based in Cambridge, Massachusetts Audio equipment manufacturers of the United States

4021424

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yele%20language

Yele language

The Yele language, or (), is the language of Rossel Island, the easternmost island in the Louisiade Archipelago off the eastern tip of Papua New Guinea. There were some 4,000 speakers in 1998, comprising the entire ethnic population. The language remains unclassified by linguists. Classification For now, the language is best considered unclassified. It has been classified as a tentative language isolate that may turn out to be related to the Anêm and Ata language isolates of New Britain (in a tentative Yele – West New Britain family). Typologically it is more similar to the Oceanic languages of southern New Guinea than to the isolates of New Britain. Word order tends to be subject–object–verb (SOV; verb-final). Stebbins et al. (2018) classifies Yélî Dnye as an isolate. They explain similarities with Austronesian as being due to contact and diffusion. Phonology Yele has a uniquely rich set of doubly articulated consonants. In nearly all the languages of the world which have them, these are labial–velar consonants—that is, they are pronounced simultaneously with the lips and the back of the tongue, such as a simultaneous p and k. Only Yele is known to contrast other doubly articulated positions: besides labial–velar, it has two distinct labial–alveolar positions (laminal/dental and apical/postalveolar), as illustrated below. The two coronal articulations are (1) laminal/dental and slightly pre-alveolar, sometimes transcribed tʸ, nʸ, etc. (see denti-alveolar consonant), and (2) apical and slightly post-alveolar, sometimes transcribed ṭ, ṇ etc., ʈ, ɳ, etc., or simply t, n, etc. There are two other doubly articulated consonants, as in (a type of cane) and . The Yele w is labial–dental , which may be also transcribed in some sources as []. These doubly articulated consonants contrast with labialization (SIL 1992/2004). Many articulations may also be palatalized. Stops may be either pre- or (except perhaps for ) post-nasalized. The consonant inventory includes the following: It is not clear how many of the labial–velar and labial–alveolar consonants such as may also be labialized or palatalized. Nor is it clear how many of these articulations occur prenasalized or with nasal release, but besides those noted above, the following are noted in SIL 1992/2004: . The oral stops (that is, apart from dental ) are voiced between vowels and when prenasalized. The (post-)alveolar is further reduced to an (apparently dental) flap between vowels. Some of the palatalized alveolar stops are pronounced as fricatives or affricates, such as (or perhaps ) and (or perhaps ), but SIL (1992/2004) contradicts itself as to which these are. Yele also has many vowels, a noteworthy number of which are nasalized: (The distinction between open-mid and close-mid nasal vowels is rather unusual, and SIL (1992/2004) provides no examples of the close-mid vowels. They also fail to provide an example of .) Vowels may occur long or short. SIL (1992/2004) interprets other vowel sequences as being separated by rather than as diphthongs. Given that vowels may be long or short, Yele syllables may only be of the form V or CV, and in the former case, apparently only or . Orthography The multigraphs for complex consonants are not always transparent. The labial-velar and labial-alveolar consonants are written with the labial second: kp, dp, tp, ngm, nm, ńm, lv. Prenasalized is written mb, but and are written nt and nk to distinguish them from nd and ng . Prenasalized stops are written with an m when labial, including doubly articulated stops, as with md or mg , and with n otherwise. Nasal release is likewise written n or m, as in dny , kn , dm , km . Labialization is written w, and palatalization y, apart from ch for and nj for (it is not clear if ch and nj are dental or (post-)alveolar). Of the vowels, only a and u occur initially. Long vowels are written doubled, and nasal vowels with a preceding colon (꞉a for ), except for short vowels after a nasal consonant (or a nasal release?), where vowel nasality is not contrastive. Grammar Yele has been studied extensively by cognitive linguists. It has an extensive set of spatial postpositions. Yele has eleven postpositions equivalent to English on; using different ones depending factors such as whether the object is on a table (horizontal), a wall (vertical), or atop a peak; whether or not it is attached to the surface; and whether it is solid or granular (distributed). Pronouns Yele has a set of free pronouns and a set of bound possessive pronouns. {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | ! colspan="2" |Singular ! colspan="2" |Dual ! colspan="2" |Plural |- !English !Yele !English !Yele !English !Yele |- ! rowspan="2" |1st person !free | rowspan="2" | I || || rowspan="2" | we two || || rowspan="2" | we || |- !bound | | | |- ! rowspan="2" |2nd person !free | rowspan="2" | thou || || rowspan="2" | you two || || rowspan="2" | you || |- !bound | | | |- ! rowspan="2" |3rd person !free | rowspan="2" | he/she || – || rowspan="2" |they two | rowspan="2" |–|| rowspan="2" | they || |- !bound | | |} Taboos and special registers There are three different types of taboos present in Yélî Dnye: vocabulary avoided by women, vocabulary avoided when in the presence of in-laws and vocabulary related to sacred places. However, since the language has fallen into disuse, many of these language changes are no longer used. Additionally, special registers and terms are used when discussing shell money (), at a mortuary feast () and during songs. Women's language As a form of women's speech, women avoid certain words, especially those related to the sea. Instead, other words are substituted. In-laws Since great respect is shown to in-laws on Rossel Island, speakers of Yélî Dnye will not say their in-laws' names, will only speak of each in-law using the polite third-person plural pronoun , and will replace certain words when speaking near them. While the alternative vocabulary is mostly no longer used, the name and pronoun taboos are still observed. Most of the taboo words are body parts, clothing or carried possessions. Not all body words are replaced, however: for example, 'neck', 'Adam's apple' and 'stomach' retain their everyday forms. Vocabulary Selected basic vocabulary items in Yélî Dnye: {| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Yélî Dnye |- | bird || ; |- | blood || |- | bone || |- | breast || |- | ear || |- | eat || |- | egg || |- | eye || |- | fire || ; |- | give || |- | go || ; ; |- | ground || ; |- | hair || |- | head || |- | leg || |- | louse || |- | man || |- | moon || |- | name || |- | one || |- | road, path || |- | see || |- | sky || ; |- | stone || |- | sun || |- | tongue || |- | tooth || |- | tree || |- | two || |- | water || ; |- | woman || ; |} Sample text Yélî Dnye: Yélî Dnye in the International Phonetic Alphabet: Translation: The savage dog is called "Peetuuki", and he lives at Doongê. It's nothing to do with me. It's not my dog. It's Nkal's dog. He raised it. It's a bad dog. It bites everyone. It doesn't like anyone. Recently it bit Mépé's son, Yidika. It really bit him hard. Mépé became very angry, and said, 'I'm going to kill that dog'. The dog ran away into the bush, so Mépé could not kill it. So now it's still there at Doongê, so there's not a safe road through there. That's the end of my story. (SIL 1992/2004) References Bibliography James E. Henderson, 1995. Phonology and grammar of Yele, Papua New Guinea. Pacific Linguistics B-112. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Peter Ladefoged & Ian Maddieson, 1996. The sounds of the world’s languages. Oxford: Blackwells. Stephen C. Levinson, 2003. Space in Language and Cognition: Explorations in Cognitive Diversity. Cambridge University Press. Phonology sketch from SIL, 1992/2004 External links Paradisec has multiple collections with Yele materials, including two collections of Arthur Cappell's materials (AC1, AC2). The World Atlas of Language Structures lists 44 typological features of "Yelî Dnye" based on from James Henderson's 1975 and 1995 grammars of the language. https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_yel Yele–West New Britain languages Language isolates of New Guinea Languages of Milne Bay Province Nuclear Papuan Tip languages

4021459

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20knife

Air knife

An air knife is a tool used to blow off liquid or debris from products as they travel on conveyors. Air knives are normally used in manufacturing or as the first step in a recursive recycling process to separate lighter or smaller particles from other components for use in later or subsequent steps, post manufacturing parts drying and conveyor cleaning, part of component cleaning. The knife consists of a high-intensity, uniform sheet of laminar airflow sometimes known as streamline flow. An industrial air knife is a pressurized air plenum containing a series of holes or continuous slots through which pressurized air exits in a laminar flow pattern. The exit air velocity then creates an impact air velocity onto the surface of whatever object the air is directed. This impact air velocity can range from a gentle breeze to greater than Mach 0.6 (40,000 ft/min) to alter the surface of a product without mechanical contact. Air knives remove liquids, control the thickness of liquids, dry the liquid coatings, remove foreign particles, cool product surfaces or create a hold down force to assist in the mechanical bonding of materials to the surface. Electrical currents from anti-static bars can also be injected into the exit air knife stream to neutralize the static electricity charge on some surfaces. In the majority of manufacturing applications for air knives, the air knives are stationary while the product passes through the air velocity air stream. In other circumstances, the product is stationary and the air knives move (reciprocate or rotate) over the surface of the stationary product. Although there are very few applications where an air knife can actually cut a product (break mechanical bonds between two points), air knives are often the most efficient method of removing or controlling unwanted or foreign substances on any surface. In reference to the galvanizing industry, air knives are used to precisely control the amount of zinc coating by wiping away the coating while it is still in a liquid state on the steel surface. In most hot dip applications both top and bottom coated surfaces can be independently controlled by computer via feedback loop as accurately as plus or minus 5 grams/meter squared. Most air knife systems for this application use heated nitrogen gas as the wiping agent, not atmospheric air. Nitrogen is used to reduce oxidation of the base metal. History In the 1950s and 60s, the term "air doctor" was first used to refer to the non-contact method of debris blow-off using compressed air. The printing and textile industries were some of the largest users of air doctors at that time, named by analogy with "doctor rolls" and "doctor blades". They often needed wide paths of air from a compressed air system to control the thickness of liquids on a surface, or to blow debris off the surface of materials prior to the next process. Other terms used were air bar, air squeegee, air curtain, air jet, air blast, air blow off, air nozzle, air comb, air blade and air doctor blade. Today the most commonly used term is simply "air knife". Although air knives powered by compressed plant air are used in a wide variety of industrial applications, industrial blower-powered air knives have proven to reduce the energy usage versus compressed air knives by 50–75% for most applications. Blower-powered air knife systems came of age with the advent of the 1987 Montreal Protocol, which started the clock on the worldwide phase-out of atmospheric ozone depleting CFC’s (chlorofluorocarbons) then used as cleaning agents in many industries. Most of these solvent-based cleaning agents simply evaporated which required no blow-off or other drying methods. Although the printed circuit board industry was still in its infancy, it was among the first to initiate the conversion to aqueous and semi-aqueous-based parts cleaning systems. With nearly every existing and all future circuit board factories using the new environmentally friendly cleaning technology, they also needed a new method of drying the p.c. boards following their water-based cleaning to remove solder fluxes and other contaminants. The trend away from other types of solvent-based parts cleaning to water-based cleaning for other industries began soon thereafter. Additionally, the conversion to water-based inks, paints, coatings, adhesives and other solutions used in various manufacturing sectors has resulted in the need for air knife dryers where none had previously existed. As a result of the Montreal Protocol and worldwide industry compliance with environmental stewardship mandates, the former niche business of air knives became an industry. Description of operation Air knives on a production line commonly range from in length with a discharge air slot or holes ranging from . A stationary air knife configuration can require from one to a dozen air knives depending on the application criteria. Air is blasted through the air knife slots via an air generator, either an industrial blower or air compressor, to deliver the predetermined exit air volume and velocity needed. There are many application, environmental, efficiency and duty cycle aspects to consider when choosing between compressors and blowers. Compressed air, which is least efficient when used for air knives discharging into free air, allows for use of primary plant air. The piping sizes supplying the air knives can be as little as diameter, so they are ideal for confined spaces. Blower-powered air knives must be larger in size along with larger diameter supply piping, but the efficiency improvement over compressed air is easily justified with the electrical power cost savings. Air knife designs today have evolved to where some manufacturers produce a very efficient “teardrop” shape with a .95 coefficient of discharge. These blower-powered air knife designs typically have a profile of approximately wide x tall x any length, but the teardrop profile can range from tall depending on the criteria of the product for which the impact air velocity must be engineered. With construction ranging from thick aluminum extrusion to 11 gauge fabricated stainless steel, air knives can weigh 1 lb/ft to 25 lbs/ft. Depending on the width and speed of the product, the air knife can provide effective blow-off performance from or more away from the surface of the product. Round air nozzles of diameter can be effective against surfaces which are up to several feet (1 to 2 meters) from the product surface when engineered for such applications. Types and applications The most common use of air knives is to contain or remove free-standing materials (liquids or solids) from the surface of material. The applications include drying bottles and cans after filling and rinsing, printed circuit boards following the conveyorized wash to remove solder paste and flux, metals castings after automatic machining and many more. They can also deliver heated or cooled air to a surface, or create an invisible air barrier to separate heated or cooled environments from one another in industrial applications such as continuous metal heat treating ovens, cold process or storage areas in food processing or dust containment for the entrance to clean rooms. There is a variety of uses for air knives in many different industries, applications and environments. The invisible-high velocity air streams can be discharged by air knife designs of numerous shapes and sizes. These range from “garage built” devices with a low level of precision to the most exotic metals of construction used in air knives for class 100 clean rooms. In instances where noise reduction and moisture containment around a conveyorized air knife installation becomes important, some manufacturing facilities have installed air knives within an enclosure. These enclosures keep water contained, reduce the amount of air knife noise and even eliminate any liquid that could create safety concerns. Basic design features Compressed air-powered air knives There has always been a wide assortment of blow-off appliances. Air knives and nozzles for compressed air blow-off range from home made round pipes with holes to engineered high pressure air knives. In order to achieve the highest efficiency using compressed air, many manufacturers of compressed air knives utilize the Coandă effect to improve compressed air knife design over other types of knives and nozzles. Although the efficiency of compressed air for low-pressure blow-off air is much lower than blowers, the Coanda-inspired air knives entrain ambient air into the high-velocity stream to enhance the blow off effect. Blower-powered air knives The teardrop-shaped air knife has a bulbous plenum which tapers down to a precise air discharge slot as the standard of the blower driven air knife industry. Whereas a round pipe with holes drilled has an average coefficient of discharge of 0.6 (60% efficient), the teardrop-shaped air knife is commonly 0.95 (95% efficient), which provides much higher-impact air velocity to the surface at which the air is directed with the lowest blower motor power demand. These teardrop designs are available in extruded aluminum shapes as well as fabricated carbon and stainless steels. OSHA compliance Information is needed regarding the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and their standards and directives on Compressed Air, especially when used for cleaning. References Pneumatic tools Industrial processes Cleaning tools Drying

4021483

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Leavy

Edward Leavy

Edward Leavy (August 14, 1929 – March 12, 2023) was an American jurist who served as a judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review, and the United States District Court for the District of Oregon. Early life, education and early legal career Leavy was born on August 14, 1929, in Butteville, Oregon, along the Willamette River south of Portland in 1929. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Portland in 1950, and earned his Bachelor of Laws from the Notre Dame Law School in 1953. Leavy entered private legal practice in Eugene in Lane County, Oregon, in 1953, where he remained until becoming a deputy district attorney for Lane County the following year. He served in that position until 1957. Judicial career In 1957, Leavy became a district court judge for the county, and in 1961 became an Oregon circuit court (trial level court in Oregon) judge when the district courts in Oregon were abolished. He continued as a judge in Lane County until 1976, and in 1974 spent time as a justice pro tempore on the Oregon Supreme Court. From 1976 until 1984 he was a United States Magistrate of the United States District Court for the District of Oregon headquartered in Portland. Leavy was nominated by President Ronald Reagan on March 26, 1984, to a seat on the United States District Court for the District of Oregon vacated by Judge Robert C. Belloni. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on April 24, 1984, and received commission on May 3, 1984. His service terminated on April 8, 1987, due to elevation to the court of appeals. Leavy was nominated by President Reagan on February 2, 1987, to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit vacated by Judge Otto Richard Skopil Jr. He was confirmed by the Senate on March 20, 1987, and received commission on March 23, 1987. He assumed senior status on May 19, 1997. In 2019, he was on panels regarding Donald Trump's asylum ban and Trump's rule against abortion counseling at federally funded facilities. Personal life and death Leavy died on March 12, 2023, at the age of 93. He had been in hospice care for several months. See also List of Jewish American jurists References External links 1929 births 2023 deaths 20th-century American judges Judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit Judges of the United States District Court for the District of Oregon Oregon state court judges Justices of the Oregon Supreme Court Notre Dame Law School alumni Lawyers from Eugene, Oregon People from Marion County, Oregon United States court of appeals judges appointed by Ronald Reagan United States district court judges appointed by Ronald Reagan United States magistrate judges University of Portland alumni Judges of the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review

4021512

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted%20Wells

Ted Wells

Theodore V. Wells, Jr. (born April 28, 1950) is an American lawyer who works in the field of criminal law. He is a litigation partner at the New York law firm of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison and a fellow of the Harvard Corporation. Early life and education Wells received his B.A. from College of the Holy Cross, his M.B.A. from Harvard Business School, and his J.D. from Harvard Law School. He and his wife, former Secretary of State of New Jersey Nina Mitchell Wells, reside in Livingston, New Jersey. Wells attended Holy Cross at the same time as future Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas. Both participated in a walkout based on their beliefs of unfair racially motivated practices on the part of the college. The two were part of the same organization for African-American students at Holy Cross. Career In 2019 Wells represented ExxonMobil in People of the State of New York v. Exxon Mobil Corp., a suit alleging that the company misled the company's investors about management of risks posed by climate change. Wells represented Lewis "Scooter" Libby, Jr., who was convicted on March 6, 2007, in the CIA leak grand jury investigation for perjury, obstruction of justice, and lying to the FBI. Wells filed an appeal of Libby's convictions, but dropped the appeal in December 2007 after President Bush commuted Libby's 30-month prison sentence. Some of Wells' more notable clients include Michael Espy, Senator Robert Torricelli, and Congressman Floyd Flake. He represented former New York Governor Eliot Spitzer against allegations stemming from his alleged involvement in a prostitution ring. In 2008 Wells won a $364.2 million verdict for Citigroup in a trial against Parmalat. Parmalat had been asking for $2 billion in damages. The jury found that Citi was not liable, and gave Citi the highest verdict award permissible. Wells also has represented several major corporations during class action lawsuits including Merck, Philip Morris, and Johnson and Johnson. In November 2013, the National Football League hired Wells to prepare a report on a bullying incident with the Miami Dolphins involving Richie Incognito. The report, released on February 14, 2014, made headlines for its finding of "a pattern of harassment". Wells also served as the national Treasurer to Democrat Bill Bradley's presidential campaign. In 2015, Ted Wells was again hired by the NFL, this time to investigate the New England Patriots' alleged "Deflategate" infractions. His report concluded that it was "more probable than not" that Tom Brady was "generally aware" of tampering with NFL game footballs during the 2015 AFC Championship Game. Ted Wells's independence and impartiality has been called into question in the wake of the report because of his extensive prior business relations with the NFL, his use of a scientific consultancy with a reputation for questionable client-serving results, and because of his track-record of success exculpating high-profile clients and corporations during public scandals. Eventually, Judge Richard Berman overturned Tom Brady's suspension in the Deflategate saga that had been based on Wells's report; however the Second Circuit Court of Appeals reinstated it in 2016. Wells was selected by the National Law Journal as one of America's best white-collar defense attorneys. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2020 and serves as a fellow at the Harvard Corporation. Notes References "Profiles in Power: The 100 Most Influential Lawyers in America", National Law Journal, June 19, 2006. Linton Weeks, "Ted Wells, Center Of the Defense: Scooter Libby's Attorney Makes His Case for the Powerful", The Washington Post, February 21, 2007. Eric Lichtblau, "A Libby Lawyer Long Used to the Legal Spotlight", The New York Times, November 5, 2005. Alan Feuer and Benjamin Weiser, "For Spitzer, Lawyers Both Formidable and Familiar Prepare to Do Battle", The New York Times, March 14, 2008. Michael Reardon, "THE PROFILE: Theodore V. Wells Jr. ’72", Holy Cross Magazine, Fall 2005; accessed April 9, 2008. Kevin Bohn and Paul Courson, "Democrats to Bush: Don't pardon Libby", CNN.com, March 7, 2007; accessed April 9, 2008. Ken Bensinger and Ralph Vartabedian, "Toyota Calls in Exponent Inc. as Hired Gun, "The Los Angeles Times", February 18, 2010; accessed May 14, 2015. Lloyd Grove, "The Scandal Guru", The Daily Beast, March 11, 2010; accessed May 14, 2015. External links Paul, Weiss | Lawyers | Theodore V. Wells, Jr. Paul, Weiss Homepage 1950 births New Jersey lawyers Harvard Law School alumni Harvard Business School alumni People from Livingston, New Jersey Living people Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison people College of the Holy Cross alumni New Jersey Democrats

4021589

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Philosophy%20of%20Freedom

The Philosophy of Freedom

The Philosophy of Freedom is the fundamental philosophical work of philosopher, Goethe scholar and esotericist Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925). It addresses the question of whether and in what sense human beings are free. Originally published in 1894 in German as Die Philosophie der Freiheit, with a second edition published in 1918, the work has appeared under a number of English titles, including The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity (the title Steiner proposed for the English-language translation), The Philosophy of Freedom, and Intuitive Thinking as a Spiritual Path. Part One of The Philosophy of Freedom examines the basis of freedom in human thinking, gives an account of the relationship between knowledge and perception, and explores the role and reliability of thinking in the formation of knowledge. In Part Two Steiner analyzes the conditions necessary for human beings to be free, and develops a moral philosophy that he labels "ethical individualism". The book's subtitle, Some results of introspective observation following the methods of natural science, indicates the philosophical approach Steiner intends to take. Steiner hoped that the book "would gain him a professorship", but the book "did not receive the attention he had hoped for." In fact, the book was reasonably favourably received in English, with reviews in Mind, the leading journal of philosophy in England, the Philosophical Review, and the Monist, and in German. Historical context Steiner had wanted to write a philosophy of freedom since at least 1880. The appearance of The Philosophy of Freedom in 1894 was preceded by his publications on Goethe, focusing on epistemology and the philosophy of science, particularly Goethe the Scientist (1883) and The Theory of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World Conception (1886). In 1891, Steiner presented his doctoral dissertation, an epistemological study that includes discussion of Kant's and Fichte's theories of knowledge. A revised version of the thesis was published a year later in book form as Truth and Knowledge: Introduction to a Philosophy of Freedom, dedicated to Eduard von Hartmann. In the Preface to The Philosophy of Freedom itself, Steiner described the aim of the book: knowledge should become "organically alive". "All real philosophers have been artists in the realm of concepts. For them, human ideas were their artists' materials and scientific method their artistic technique." While a student in Vienna, Steiner attended some of the lectures of Franz Brentano, an important precursor of the phenomenological movement in philosophy (see School of Brentano). Like the later phenomenologists, Steiner was seeking a way to solve the subject–object problem. Steiner's approach to freedom was also in part inspired by Schiller's On the Aesthetic Education of Man and a response to the scientific works of Goethe, whom Steiner believed had not focused sufficiently on the role of thinking in developing inner freedom. Steiner was also deeply affected as a young man by Kant's argument in the Critique of Pure Reason that we cannot know things as they are in themselves, and he devotes a long chapter of The Philosophy of Freedom, "Are there Limits to Knowledge?", to a refutation of this view, arguing that there are in principle no limits to knowledge. This claim is important to freedom, because for Steiner freedom involves knowing the real basis of our actions. If this basis cannot be known, then freedom is not possible. Steiner's argument in favour of freedom also responds to determinists such as Spinoza, for whom human action is just as much determined as anything else in the necessity that governs nature as a whole. Arrangement and outline of the book The Philosophy of Freedom is divided into three parts. The first part - "Knowledge of Freedom" - is epistemological and in a broad sense metaphysical (the nature of reality). The second part -"The Reality of Freedom" - is about freewill and ethics. The title of the third part - "Ultimate Questions" or, in German, 'die letzten Fragen', deals with the nature and consequences of the completely monistic though not materialist view of the world presented in the book. In his epistemology Steiner seeks to show that we can achieve a true picture of reality only by uniting perception, which reflects only the outer appearance of the world, and conception, which together give us access to the world's inner nature. In his account of freedom this idea is applied to the question what freedom is. From another epistemological angle, Steiner's account of thinking in Part One becomes his concept of thinking in Part Two. We act freely when we act through the thinking activity of our being. Ethics finds its place as the actions of the free being. The very short Part Three places this activity and the cognitive activity of man in the context of the world considered as an epistemological whole. Knowledge of Freedom Steiner begins exploring the nature of human freedom by accepting "that an action, of which the agent does not know why he performs it, cannot be free," but asking what happens when a person becomes conscious of his or her motives for acting. He proposes (1) that through introspective observation we can become conscious of the motivations of our actions, and (2) that the sole possibility of human freedom, if it exists at all, must be sought in an awareness of the motives of our actions. In Chapter 2, "The Fundamental Desire for Knowledge," Steiner discusses how an awareness of the division between mind, or subject, and world, or object, gives rise to a desire to reestablish a unity between these poles. After criticizing solutions to this problem provided by dualism in the philosophy of mind and several forms of monism as one-sided, Steiner suggests that only by locating nature's manifestations within our subjective nature can we overcome this division. In Chapter 3, "Thinking in the Service of Knowledge," Steiner observes that when confronted with percepts, we feel obliged to think about and add concepts to these: to observation we add thinking. Steiner seeks to demonstrate that what he considers the primary antithesis between observation and thinking underlies all other related antitheses and philosophical distinctions, such as subject vs. object, appearance vs. reality, and so on. For most objects of observation, he points out, we cannot observe both the percept and our thinking about this percept simultaneously, for a tree and thinking about a tree are fundamentally different; we can only attend to one at a time. In contrast, we can simultaneously observe thinking and observe our thoughts about thinking, for here the percept (thinking) and our thinking about the percept consist of the same element (thought): Thinking and thinking about thinking are the same process; observing the latter, we are simultaneously observing the former. Normally, however, for just that reason we do not pay attention to the process of thinking, only its results, the thoughts themselves: "The first observation which we make about thinking is therefore this: that it is the unobserved element in our ordinary mental and spiritual life". Steiner connects this "first observation" to the fact that thinking is entirely due to our own activity. It does not appear before us unless we ourselves produce it. Nevertheless, when I apprehend the content of thinking, a concept, this is self-justifying, in the sense that it can be asked why I feel this or that way about something, but not why it produces in me this or that concept. Such a question would be "simply meaningless". Their contents justify the relations of concepts to one another. Furthermore, when observing my thinking, it is always a past instance of thinking that I observe, not a present one. That the thinker and the observer of the thinker are one and the same explains why I can know thinking "more intimately and immediately than any other process in the world" This is what Steiner calls the transparency of our thinking process. To appreciate this point, we must be able to adapt to our own thinking the "exceptional" procedure mentioned above: we must apply it to itself. If we are unable to do this, and we think of thinking as a brain-process, it is because we do not see thinking, because we are unable to take up the exceptional position needed to do so. Steiner takes Descartes' dictum, "I think, therefore I am," to signify that "I am certain . . . that [thinking] exists in the sense that I myself bring it forth," However, Steiner advances the objection (common to many others, beginning in Descartes' own time), that the further claim that I am is more problematic. Steiner's full view is found in the following passage. ...thinking must never be regarded as merely a subjective activity. Thinking lies beyond subject and object. It produces these two concepts just as it produces all others. When, therefore, I, as thinking subject, refer a concept to an object, we must not regard this reference as something purely subjective. It is not the subject that makes the reference, but thinking. The subject does not think because it is a subject; rather it appears to itself as a subject because it can think. The activity exercised by thinking beings is thus not merely subjective. Rather is it something neither subjective nor objective, that transcends both these concepts. I ought never to say that my individual subject thinks, but much more that my individual subject lives by the grace of thinking. The Chapter on thinking is followed by a shorter one on perception, Chapter 4. It contains two main and very important points. Steiner points out the inconsistency of treating all our perceptions as mere subjective mental images inside the brain. If that were true, the perception of the brain itself would have to be a mere subjective mental image inside the brain! In that case the basis for our knowledge of the brain would be completely undermined. The scientific claim is made, on the basis of physiology and psychology, that our percepts are produced by a causal process within the organism and hence are subjective. This is called "critical idealism" But physiology and psychology are based on these percepts. So our knowledge of physiology and psychology is subjective. But then it cannot validate the claim that percepts are subjective. Furthermore, critical idealism leaves unaccounted for the passage from the brain process to the sensation. What are the consequences of such a view of perception for the concept of knowledge? In Chapter 5 Steiner presents his concept of knowledge. Human beings are two-sided, as they both think and also perceive. The two activities together give a complete view of the world. Knowledge is the union of what is produced in thinking, the concept, and what is produced in perceiving, the percept. Steiner argues that there can be no relationship among the objects of perception other than what is revealed in the ideal element produced by thinking, the concept. Accordingly, the relation between some perceived object and ourselves is also an ideal one. An important passage analyzes the view that we cannot experience the world itself but only subjective images somewhere inside the brain, or in the soul inside the brain. This view is based on treating the perceptual relationship between self and world as other than ideal, as naively real, just as we perceive it, as a process derived in its content from perception itself. At the end of Chapter 5 Steiner completes the view of perception begun in Chapter 4. What is the percept that perceiving produces? Steiner rejects this question. 'The question asked in this way is absurd.' For a percept is the determinate content of the perception, and its "what?" - what it is - can only refer to this content. We can become conscious of our thought processes in a way that we cannot be of our feelings, will or sense perceptions. We know that what we experience in thinking is exactly what it seems, so that appearance and reality become one. By contrast, our feelings' meaning is not directly apparent, while we only perceive the meaning of a percept after some form of conceptual framework has been brought to bear (for example, we give the right spatial meaning to the visually converging lines of railroad tracks through our understanding of perspective). Mathematics is an example of thinking in which thought itself forms the perceptions; no sense-perceptions are needed to form a basis for mathematical principles. In this sense mathematics could be said to be one discipline that studies the inner aspect of reality. Steiner proposes that the apparent dualism of experience can be overcome by discovering the inner and initially hidden unity of perception and thinking. By observing a thinking process sufficiently intensively, perceiving and thinking can begin to unify. This is knowledge. By the same token, a clear-eyed study of what is revealed in observation can lead to appropriate concepts - thinking. Steiner argues that thinking is more pervasive in our ordinary perceiving than we often recognize. If, for example, we had not as infants learned, unconsciously, to think with our eyes and limbs, then our eyes, even if functioning perfectly in a physical sense, would see only something like what the philosopher William James referred to as a "blooming buzzing confusion,” or what Steiner referred to as a highly chaotic stage of the “given.” We would not perceive spatial or temporal structure or recognize distinct qualities. If that conclusion seems surprising, that is because the thinking-in-perceiving learned in childhood becomes habitual and automatic long before we attain fully consciousness, so we rarely become aware of the key role cognition plays in even the simplest perceptions. Similarly, we are unconscious of the ways we perceive our thinking. 'Our next task must be to define the concept of "mental picture" more closely', Steiner writes at the end of the Chapter 6. With this concept we arrive at the relation of knowledge to the individual, and to life, and feeling. After an interesting refutation of the subjectivity of percepts, Steiner describes a mental picture as an intuition or thought related to an individual percept. And so the mental picture is defined as an individualized concept. Experience is the "sum total" of mental pictures of the individual. But there is more to the human being's cognitive inventory than percept, concept and mental picture. There is the relation of these things to the Ego; and this is feeling. Feeling gives our personal relation to the world, and we oscillate between it and the "universal world process" given in thinking. The mental pictures we form gives our mental life an individual stamp, and relates it to our own life. Chapter 7 takes up the consequences of the view that knowledge consists of the restoration of the unity of the content of the percept and the concept. Steiner calls those who make the epistemological distinction into a permanent metaphysical one dualists. For the monist ‘The world is given to us as a duality, and knowledge transforms it into a unity.' Working with an irresolvable distinction, the dualist is bound to assert that there are limits to knowledge: ‘the “in itself” of a thing.’ For the monist there is no in-principle limit to knowledge. For monism in Steiner's sense there are only concepts and percepts, which, united, form the object; for the dualist there is the subject, the object, the percept, and the concept. We must not conceive of the process of perception as though it is naïvely real, as we do when we take perception to be a causal effect of the things as they are in themselves on us. Metaphysical realism is the view that there is an object in the world that is imperceptible as it is in itself, but is also to be conceived naïve realistically. It 'is a contradictory mixture of naïve realism and idealism. Its hypothetical [elements] are imperceptible entities endowed with the qualities of percepts’. For the monist, the process of perception is an ideal relation. The metaphysical realist, however, is left with the unanswerable question how the metaphysically real objects are converted into subjective percepts. Here Steiner can be read as giving his account of the structure and basis of what is today called the mind-body problem. Steiner's summary of Part I of The Philosophy of Freedom, at the start of Chapter 8 in Part II, contains the following passage: The world comes to meet me as a multiplicity, a sum of separate details. As a human being, I am myself one of these details, an entity among other entities. We call this form of the world simply the given and—insofar as we do not develop it through conscious activity but find it ready-made—we call it percept. Within the world of percepts, we perceive ourselves. But if something did not emerge out of this self-percept that proved capable of linking both percepts in general and also the sum of all other percepts with the percept of our self, our self-percept would remain simply one among many. This emerging something, however, is no longer a mere percept; nor is it, like percepts, simply present. It is produced through activity and initially appears linked to what we perceive as our self, but its inner meaning reaches beyond the self. It adds conceptual determinates to individual percepts, but these conceptual determinates relate to one another and are grounded in a whole. It determines conceptually what is achieved through self-perception conceptually, just as it determines all other percepts. It places this as the subject or “I” over against objects. This “something” is thinking, and the conceptual determinates are concepts and ideas. The Reality of Freedom Steiner begins the second part of the book by emphasizing the role of self-awareness in objective thinking. Here he modifies the usual description of inner and outer experience by pointing out that our feelings, for example, are given to us as naively as outer perceptions. Both of these, feelings and perceptions, tell about objects we are interested in: the one about ourselves, the other about the world. Both require the help of thinking to penetrate the reasons that they arise, to comprehend their inner message. The same is true of our will. Whereas our feelings tell how the world affects us, our will tells how we would affect the world. Neither attains to true objectivity, for both mix the world's existence and our inner life in an unclear way. Steiner emphasizes that we experience our feelings and will - and our perceptions as well – as being more essentially part of us than our thinking; the former are more basic, more natural. He celebrates this gift of natural, direct experience, but points out that this experience is still dualistic in the sense that it only encompasses one side of the world. With regard to freedom of the will, Steiner observes that a key question is how the will to action arises in the first place. Steiner describes to begin with two sources for human action: on the one hand, the driving forces springing from our natural being, from our instincts, feelings, and thoughts insofar as these are determined by our character - and on the other hand, various kinds of external motives we may adopt, including the dictates of abstract ethical or moral codes. In this way, both nature and culture bring forces to bear on our will and soul life. Overcoming these two elements, neither of which is individualized, we can achieve genuinely individualized intuitions that speak to the particular situation at hand. By overcoming a slavish or automatic response to the dictates of both our 'lower' drives and conventional morality, and by orchestrating a meeting place of objective and subjective elements of experience, we find the freedom to choose how to think and act (Steiner [Wilson translation] Ch. 9). Freedom for Steiner does not consist in acting out everything subjective within us, but in acting out of love, thoughtfully and creatively. In this way we can love our own actions, which are unique and individual to us, rather than stemming from obedience to external moral codes or compulsive physical drives. Both of the latter constitute limitations on freedom: Whether his unfreedom is forced on him by physical means or by moral laws, whether man is unfree because he follows his unlimited sexual desire or because he is bound by the fetters of conventional morality, is quite immaterial from a certain point of view...let us not assert that such a man can rightly call his actions his own, seeing that he is driven to them by a force other than himself. Freedom arises most clearly at the moment when a human being becomes active in pure, individualized thinking; this is, for Steiner, spiritual activity. Achieving freedom is then accomplished by learning to let an ever larger portion of one's actions be determined by such individualized thought, rather than by habit, addiction, reflex, or involuntary or unconscious motives. Steiner differentiates pure thinking into "moral intuition" (formulation of individual purposes), "moral imagination" (creative strategies for realizing these larger purposes in the concrete situation), and "moral technique" (the practical capacity to accomplish what was intended). He suggests that we only achieve free deeds when we find an ethically impelled but particularized response to the immediacy of a given situation. Such a response will always be radically individual; it cannot be predicted or prescribed. Four Concepts of Freedom Already in Ch. 1 of The Philosophy of Freedom Steiner had made the claim, 'That an action, of which the agent does not know why he performs it, cannot be free, goes without saying' (ist selbstverständlich). This is a preliminary statement; it does not amount to a definition or statement of what freedom is. The statement that no action is free unless the agent knows why he performs it is equivalent to the statement that if an action is free, then the agent does know why he performs it. The second statement is not a definition, which has the form of a full equivalence, but merely one implication, though a highly suggestive and methodologically important one. For the full account of freedom, which includes four different characterizations of freedom, we must wait until Chapter 9, "The Idea of Freedom". Here we encounter the following definitions. But they are distinct. 'It is difficult to find out exactly what Dr. Steiner understands by 'freedom.' He defines it differently in different places . . .' It may be, however, that Steiner is proposing four criteria that must all be satisfied, rather than four mutually contradictory definitions. Or he may be offering four perspectives or angles from which the fundamental concept of freedom is meant to emerge. From the text of Chapter 9 it is difficult to say which of these is the correct interpretation. (1) Love 'I carry it [the action] out because I love it.' In the long paragraph containing this statement, Steiner sets the love of the action within the context that a free action is not influenced by any "moral maxim". This is clearly an attack on Kant. The action is carried out the moment '. . . I have grasped the idea of it', on the basis of love, and I am not a "superior automaton" obeying the maxim. (2) The Ideal Part of my Being: Thinking 'An action is felt to be free in so far as the reasons for it spring from the ideal part of my individual being; every other part of an action [?] . . . is felt to be unfree'''; . . . every other part of an action . . . is felt to be unfree' (Wilson's translation gives an unnecessarily subjective reading here, as the German original makes no mention of what "is felt to be free": 'Einen Handlung, deren Grund in dem ideellen Teil meines individuellen Wesens liegt, ist (emphasis added) frei . . . jede andere . . .ist (emphasis added) unfrei.' Steiner's entirely objective formulation does not allow the so-called open question argument: though 'Though the action is felt to be free, is it free?' and thereby sidesteps the vexed and dubious libertarian argument for freewill based merely on the subjective feeling of freedom.)(3) Obedience to Oneself'Man is free in so far as he is able to obey himself in every moment of his life' Here the topic has changed. In (2) we were offered a definition of the free act. Now in (3) the question seems to be what a free man or human being is. 'Man is free . . .' ('Frei ist der Mensch'). The requirement is remarkably demanding: 'in so far as he is able to obey himself in every moment of his life . . .', so that it only takes one failure of the ability in one "Augenblick" to make him unfree. Besides, Definition (3) suffers from a formal defect, to the extent that it must include the modal formulation ("is able to obey himself") which seems to presuppose freedom ("is able to . . .", "in der Lage ist"). Definition (3) is also surprisingly Spinozist, in the sense that the freedom of a being is for Spinoza, in the Letter to Schuller of 1674, quoted by Steiner in Steiner [Wilson translation], 1965, p. 5, "the ability to act from the necessity of its nature". It is a consequence of (3) that freedom is the antithesis of duty, because "duty does not acknowledge the individual element" in our actions.(4) "Non-Objective Self-Determination"In the case of man the free spirit, unlike in every other case, the concept and percept of our being do not coincide, in reality, or belong together originally, until man himself brings it about, in his own consciousness, that they should. 'Concept and percept coincide in this case only if man makes them coincide. This he can only do if he has found the concept of the free spirit, that is, if he has found the concept of his own self.''Only he himself can make of himself a free man('Ein freies Wesen kann er nur selbst aus sich machen.)' Freedom is (1) love; (2) thinking, which Steiner also calls "love in its spiritual form"; (3) Obedience to Oneself; (4) "Non-Objective Self-Determination". It seems, however, that Steiner intends his different characterizations or definitions to apply to different aspects of the concept of freedom, rather than to be different concepts of freedom, and that he regarded them as bringing out different points about a consistent whole. It would be worth trying to express what this consistent whole is, or how Steiner intended to characterize it, if he did. It seems reasonable to suppose that he saw this unity in the concept of spirit or a spiritual being, and where on his view, as on traditional religious views, as well as New Age views, not all spiritual beings are human beings, though (a further difficulty) not all spiritual beings are free. On the other hand, Steiner had a strong sense of the proper order of epistemological exposition, and a difficulty might be that he cannot assume the concept of a spiritual being prior to the epistemology and metaphysics of The Philosophy of Freedom. The alternative is to forego the ideal of an inquiry which is vorausetzungslos or without presupposition, or to rest with a "disjunctive" concept of freedom: an act is free if it is done out of love, or from the ideal part of one's nature, or out of obedience to oneself, or which has the characteristic of "non-objective self-determination". The latter course hardly seems to have been one that Steiner would have taken, since he regarded the definitions as complementary if not equivalent. Steiner's Ethics Steiner's ethical philosophy is neither utilitarian nor deontological. "...Steiner is not implying that the circumstances are...shaping the free deed. For Steiner, the highest morality exists when a person acts in the world through deeds of love realized by means of individually developed and contextually-sensitive moral imaginations. The ethical act is the one performed in or out of freedom, in the sense developed in the first part of Steiner's book. This of course raises a difficulty concerning the one who loves evil, and acts on the basis of this love. Are his actions of "the highest morality"? It cannot be so, since the act is evil. On the other hand, it must be so, since the act is performed out of love. Steiner's answer . . . This all is by way of introduction and recapitulation. Steiner then introduces the principle that we can act out of the compulsions of our natural being (reflexes, drives, desires) or out of the compulsion of ethical principles, and that neither of these leaves us free. Between them, however, is an individual insight, a situational ethic, that arises neither from abstract principles nor from our bodily impulses. A deed that arises in this way can be said to be truly free; it is also both unpredictable and wholly individual. Here Steiner articulates his fundamental maxim of social life: Live through deeds of love, and let others live with understanding for each person's unique intentions. Reference? Here he describes a polarity of influences on human nature, stating that morality transcends both the determining factors of bodily influences and those of convention: A moral misunderstanding, a clash, is out of the question between people who are morally free. Only one who is morally unfree, who obeys bodily instincts or conventional demands of duty, turns away from a fellow human being if the latter does not obey the same instincts and demands as himself. Reference? For Steiner, true morality, the highest good, is the universal mediated by the profoundly individual and situational; it depends upon our achieving freedom from both our inner drives and outer pressures. To achieve such free deeds, we must cultivate our moral imagination, our ability to imaginatively create ethically sound and practical solutions to new situations, in fact, to forge our own ethical principles and to transform these flexibly as needed - not in the service of our own egotistical purposes, but in the face of new demands and unique situations. This is only possible through moral intuitions, immediate experiences of spiritual realities that underlie moral judgments. Moral imagination and intuition allow us to realize our subjective impulses in objective reality, thus creating bridges between the spiritual influence of our subjectivity and the natural influence of the objective world in deeds whereby "that which is natural is spiritual, that which is spiritual is natural". Toward the end of the second part of the book, Steiner writes that "The unique character of the idea, by means of which I distinguish myself as 'I', makes me an individual." And then, "An act the grounds for which lie in the ideal part of my nature is free." Steiner there is using the term ideal to refer to pure ideation or pure thinking in Steiner's sense. "The action is therefore neither stereotyped, carried out according to set rules, nor is it performed automatically in response to an external impetus; the action is determined solely through its ideal content." What is individual in us is to be distinguished from what is generic by its ideal character. If an act proceeds out of genuine thinking, or practical reason, then it is free. Steiner concludes by pointing out that to achieve this level of freedom, we must lift ourselves out of our group-existence: out of the prejudices we receive from our family, nation, ethnic group and religion, and all that we inherit from the past that limits our creative and imaginative capacity to meet the world directly. Only when we realize our potential to be a unique individual are we free. Thus, it lies in our freedom to achieve freedom; only when we actively strive towards freedom do we have some chance of attaining it. Die letzten Fragen (Ultimate Questions) The third part of Steiner's book is the shortest, consisting of one Chapter, "The Consequences of Monism", nine pages in the original German of the 1894 edition, and ten pages in Michael Wilson's 1964 translation. Relation to earlier and later works Before 1900, Steiner was laying the epistemological basis of his thought. Steiner wrote that The Philosophy of Freedom was intended to give the philosophical foundations for what had been outlined in his earlier work Truth and Science (1892). In works written after 1900, Steiner began to explain how thinking can evolve to become an organ of perception of higher worlds of living, creative, spiritual beings. Steiner frequently referred to The Philosophy of Freedom in his later lectures and in written works. Near the end of his life, he suggested that The Philosophy of Freedom would outlive all his other works. Steiner's principal works on philosophy include: 1886 The Theory of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World-Conception. Steiner considered this to be "the epistemological foundation and justification for every thing I said and published later. It speaks of the essential being of knowing activity that opens the way from the sense perceptible world into the spiritual one." 1892 Truth and Science (or Truth and Knowledge), dedicated to Eduard von Hartmann. 1894 The Philosophy of Freedom. This presented the philosophical foundations for what had been outlined in Truth and Science, and its line of thought led to the same goal as Steiner's later book Theosophy: An Introduction to the Supersensible Knowledge of the World and the Destination of Man (1904). It contained, he claimed, the entire content, in a philosophical form, of what he later developed explicitly as anthroposophy. 1914 A Brief Outline of an Approach to Anthroposophy, chapter 8 in the book The Riddles of Philosophy Presented in an Outline of Its History. Editorial History The first edition of Die Philosophie der Freiheit was published in 1894. A second revised edition appeared in 1918. Further German editions reprinted the 1918 text until 1973, when a revised edition was produced based on Steiner's corrections of the galley proofs of the 1918 edition. Minor changes, including corrections to some of Steiner's citations, were made in the 1987 German edition. The first edition included the following passage Steiner removed from later editions: “We no longer believe that there is a norm to which we must all strive to conform. Nothing is accepted as valid, unless it springs from the roots of individuality. The saying Each one of us must choose his hero in whose footsteps he toils up to Olympus no longer holds for us. If only we probe deep enough into the very heart of our being, there dwells something noble, something worthy of development.” In the appendix added to the 1918 edition, Steiner stated emphatically that the monism "of thought" proposed in his book was quite different from what Eduard von Hartmann and others called "epistemological" monism. English Translations English translations include: 1916: The Philosophy of Freedom: A Modern Philosophy of Life Developed by Scientific Methods. trans. Hoernlé and Hoernlé, ed. Harry Collison, published by G. P. Putnam's Sons, London and New York. The only English translation of the first German edition. This edition's chapter numbering differs from that of all later editions. 1922: The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity. Based on 2nd German edition, trans. Hoernlé and Hoernlé. 1939: The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity, trans. Hermann Poppelbaum, based on Hoernlé and Hoernlé translation 1963: The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity: Fundamentals of a Modern View of the World, trans. Rita Stebbing. A USA edition; includes a Bibliographical Note 1964: The Philosophy of Freedom: The Basis for a Modern World Conception, trans. Michael Wilson. 7th English edition, 1986: The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity: Basic Features of a Modern World View, trans. William Lindeman 1992: The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity: A Philosophy of Freedom trans. Rita Stebbing, 1995: Intuitive Thinking as a Spiritual Path: A Philosophy of Freedom, trans. Michael Lipson, based on Wilson translation There is a comparison tool to compare most of the above translations. The Source of the Alternative Titles Though The Philosophy of Freedom is a literal translation of the original German title (Die Philosophie der Freiheit), Steiner suggested at the time of the first English edition in 1916 that the title The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity should be used in the English translation, as it would represent the book's theme of freedom as a dynamic process of development more accurately, as opposed to the fixed state perhaps suggested by the etymology of "freedom" (dom=a state or condition). English readers, Steiner believed, might easily believe that freedom is something already in their possession, and needed to be shaken out of their complacence See also Paul Tillich Natural Science Scientific method Introspection References Bibliography Rudolf Steiner on His Book the Philosophy of Freedom, Compiled by Otto Palmer (1964), SteinerBooks (1975), Reprinted. G. A. Bondarev, Rudolf Steiner's "Philosophie der Freiheit" as the Foundation of the Logic of Beholding. Religion of the Thinking Will. Organon of the New Cultural Epoch. An introduction to Anthroposophical Methodology, translated from the German edition, 2004. . Welburn, Andrew, Rudolf Steiner's Philosophy and the Crisis of Contemporary Thought (2004), (for Steiner and Edmund Husserl, see p. 98 ff.). Sergei O. Prokofieff, Anthroposophy and The Philosophy of Freedom. Anthroposophy and its Method of Cognition. The Christological and Cosmic-Human Dimension of The Philosophy of Freedom, Temple Lodge Publishing, London 2009, from the German edition, 2006. . Iddo Oberski, Key to Life: An Introductory Sketch to Rudolf Steiner's Philosophy of Freedom, Eloquent Books 2010. . Sergei O. Prokofieff, The Guardian of the Threshold and the Philosophy of Freedom: On the Relationship of The Philosophy of Freedom to the Fifth Gospel'', Temple Lodge Publishing, Forest Row 2011. Notes External links The Philosophy of Freedom/Spiritual Activity complete text in English (various versions), and other languages including the original German. THE PERSONALITY OF RUDOLF STEINER AND HIS DEVELOPMENT By Edouard Schuré The Philosophy of Freedom, PDF Downloads of complete text in English and German, various versions Die Philosophie der Freiheit, original German text Intuitive Thinking As A Spiritual Path, Audiobook, read by Dale Brunsvold Ethics books Rudolf Steiner Anthroposophy Metaphysics books

4021739

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LaSalle%27s%20invariance%20principle

LaSalle's invariance principle

LaSalle's invariance principle (also known as the invariance principle, Barbashin-Krasovskii-LaSalle principle, or Krasovskii-LaSalle principle) is a criterion for the asymptotic stability of an autonomous (possibly nonlinear) dynamical system. Global version Suppose a system is represented as where is the vector of variables, with If a (see Smoothness) function can be found such that for all (negative semidefinite), then the set of accumulation points of any trajectory is contained in where is the union of complete trajectories contained entirely in the set . If we additionally have that the function is positive definite, i.e. , for all and if contains no trajectory of the system except the trivial trajectory for , then the origin is asymptotically stable. Furthermore, if is radially unbounded, i.e. , as then the origin is globally asymptotically stable. Local version If , when hold only for in some neighborhood of the origin, and the set does not contain any trajectories of the system besides the trajectory , then the local version of the invariance principle states that the origin is locally asymptotically stable. Relation to Lyapunov theory If is negative definite, then the global asymptotic stability of the origin is a consequence of Lyapunov's second theorem. The invariance principle gives a criterion for asymptotic stability in the case when is only negative semidefinite. Examples Simple example Example taken from. Consider the vector field in the plane. The function satisfies , and is radially unbounded, showing that the origin is globally asymptotically stable. Pendulum with friction This section will apply the invariance principle to establish the local asymptotic stability of a simple system, the pendulum with friction. This system can be modeled with the differential equation where is the angle the pendulum makes with the vertical normal, is the mass of the pendulum, is the length of the pendulum, is the friction coefficient, and g is acceleration due to gravity. This, in turn, can be written as the system of equations Using the invariance principle, it can be shown that all trajectories that begin in a ball of certain size around the origin asymptotically converge to the origin. We define as This is simply the scaled energy of the system. Clearly, is positive definite in an open ball of radius around the origin. Computing the derivative, Observe that . If it were true that , we could conclude that every trajectory approaches the origin by Lyapunov's second theorem. Unfortunately, and is only negative semidefinite since can be non-zero when . However, the set which is simply the set does not contain any trajectory of the system, except the trivial trajectory x = 0. Indeed, if at some time , , then because must be less than away from the origin, and . As a result, the trajectory will not stay in the set . All the conditions of the local version of the invariance principle are satisfied, and we can conclude that every trajectory that begins in some neighborhood of the origin will converge to the origin as . History The general result was independently discovered by J.P. LaSalle (then at RIAS) and N.N. Krasovskii, who published in 1960 and 1959 respectively. While LaSalle was the first author in the West to publish the general theorem in 1960, a special case of the theorem was communicated in 1952 by Barbashin and Krasovskii, followed by a publication of the general result in 1959 by Krasovskii. See also Stability theory Lyapunov stability Original papers LaSalle, J.P. Some extensions of Liapunov's second method, IRE Transactions on Circuit Theory, CT-7, pp. 520–527, 1960. (PDF ) Krasovskii, N. N. Problems of the Theory of Stability of Motion, (Russian), 1959. English translation: Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA, 1963. Text books Lectures Texas A&M University notes on the invariance principle (PDF) NC State University notes on LaSalle's invariance principle (PDF). Caltech notes on LaSalle's invariance principle (PDF). MIT OpenCourseware notes on Lyapunov stability analysis and the invariance principle (PDF). Purdue University notes on stability theory and LaSalle's invariance principle (PDF). References Stability theory Dynamical systems Principles

4021779

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirty%20Harry%20%28film%20series%29

Dirty Harry (film series)

Dirty Harry is an American neo-noir vigilante action thriller film series featuring San Francisco Police Department Homicide Division Inspector "Dirty" Harry Callahan. There are five films: Dirty Harry (1971), Magnum Force (1973), The Enforcer (1976), Sudden Impact (1983) and The Dead Pool (1988). Clint Eastwood portrayed Callahan in all five films and directed Sudden Impact. Callahan is notorious for his unorthodox, violent and ruthless methods against the criminals and killers he is assigned to apprehend. At the same time, he is assigned a partner who is usually either killed or seriously injured during the film. Films Dirty Harry (1971) Dirty Harry (1971) was directed by Don Siegel and starred Clint Eastwood as Harry Callahan. Harry tracks serial killer Scorpio (loosely based on the Zodiac killer). Eastwood's iconic portrayal of the blunt-speaking, unorthodox detective set the style for a number of his subsequent roles, and its box-office success led to the production of four sequels. The "alienated cop" motif was subsequently imitated by a number of other films. At the beginning of the film, Callahan corners a bank robber and says, "You've got to ask yourself a question: 'Do I feel lucky?'. Well, do ya, punk?". The line became famous, although often misquoted as "Do you feel lucky, punk?"; the second movie, Magnum Force, opens with Harry asking, "Do you feel lucky?" It was the fourth-highest-grossing film of 1971 after Fiddler on the Roof, The French Connection, and Diamonds Are Forever. Magnum Force (1973) Magnum Force (1973) was directed by Ted Post. The main theme of this film is vigilante justice, and the plot revolves around a group of renegade traffic cops who are executing criminals who have avoided conviction in court. Despite Harry's penchant for strong-arm methods, he does not tolerate coldblooded murder of the accused and resolves to stop the killers. In this film, Harry's catch-phrase is "A man's got to know his limitations". The Enforcer (1976) The Enforcer (1976) was directed by James Fargo. In this film, Harry is teamed with a female partner with no field experience (in 1976, American women had only recently been allowed to fill patrol and investigative assignments in most police bureaus), Inspector Kate Moore (Tyne Daly), as they take on a terrorist ring calling themselves the People's Revolutionary Strike Force. Harry opposes introducing inexperienced officers to the dangers of police work, whether male or female, and sees the homicide division as too dangerous for his new partner, who worked until recently in the personnel department. Though Moore starts out overenthusiastic, she soon proves herself valuable to Harry, and matures quickly, earning Harry's respect in the process. Sudden Impact (1983) Sudden Impact (1983) was directed by Clint Eastwood. Aging, but still bitter, Callahan is sent to a small town to follow up a lead in a murder case, which leads him directly to a rape victim who is out to avenge herself and her catatonic sister by killing the people who sexually assaulted them. The film is notable for Callahan's catchphrase, "Go ahead, make my day". The Dead Pool (1988) The Dead Pool (1988) was directed by Buddy Van Horn. Harry finds that he is among the subjects of a dead pool, a game betting on deaths of celebrities. Someone tries to rig the game by killing the celebrities on one player's list. Harry's catch phrase in this movie was "You're shit out of luck". After this film, Eastwood retired from playing the Dirty Harry character, as he felt his age (58 in 1988) would make Harry a parody. Cast and crew Cast Reception Critical and public response Influence on other productions Sin City: That Yellow Bastard Frank Miller, creator of the Sin City graphic novels, revealed in an interview that he created the Sin City story-arc That Yellow Bastard out of his dislike of The Dead Pool. Miller said: "When I went to see the last Dirty Harry movie, The Dead Pool, I was disgusted. I went out and said, this is not a Dirty Harry movie, this is nothing, this is a pale sequel." and I also said, "that's not the last Dirty Harry story, I will show you the last Dirty Harry story." Another character in That Yellow Bastard story is Nancy Callahan, named after Harry Callahan. Bruce Willis played Hartigan, the "Dirty Harry of the story", in the Sin City (2005) film. The Protector This 1985 film featuring Jackie Chan was Chan's second American feature film. The movie was noted for being similar to the Dirty Harry series, with inspiration taken from there by director James Glickenhaus. The Rookie Directed by and co-starring Clint Eastwood; the film features an aging, tough cop who partners with a rookie cop, played by Charlie Sheen. Upon the film's release critics and audiences noted the similarities between Eastwood's two characters. Gran Torino Eastwood returned to acting after a four-year self-imposed hiatus in this 2008 film, which he also directed, produced, and partly scored with his son Kyle and Jamie Cullum. Eastwood plays Walt Kowalski, a recently widowed Korean War veteran alienated from his family and angry at the world. Walt's young neighbor, Thao Vang Lor, is pressured into stealing Walt's prized 1972 Ford Gran Torino by his cousin for his initiation into a gang. Walt thwarts the theft and subsequently develops a relationship with the boy and his family. Biographer Marc Eliot called Eastwood's role "an amalgam of the Man with No Name, Dirty Harry, and William Munny, here, aged and cynical, but willing and able to fight on whenever the need arose". Manohla Dargis compared Eastwood's presence on film to Dirty Harry and the Man with No Name, stating, "Dirty Harry is back, in a way, in Gran Torino, not as a character but as a ghostly presence. He hovers in the film, in its themes and high-caliber imagery, and of course, most obviously in Mr. Eastwood's face. It is a monumental face now, so puckered and pleated that it no longer looks merely weathered, as it has for decades, but seems closer to petrified wood." Tania Modleski, author of Clint Eastwood and Male Weepies, said, "[f]or many reviewers, Gran Torino represents the final step in Eastwood's repudiation of the Dirty Harry persona. If Unforgiven ends up being equivocal in its attitude toward violence and vigilantism, Gran Torino appears to accept the impotence of the lone, avenging hero" and that the impotence "is perhaps underlined by Walt's repeated gesture of pointing his finger at villains as if it were a gun." Amy Biancolli of the Houston Chronicle said that though Walt, an "old fart", does not have the same name as Dirty Harry, "there's no mistaking the rasp in his voice or the uncompromising crankiness of his Weltanschauung." Tom Charity of CNN said of Walt, "Like other Eastwood heroes before him, Walt sacrifices his independence by accepting that others depend on him." John Serba of The Grand Rapids Press said that Walt, who is "bitter, hopelessly cranky," "shares a sense of moral certainty" with Callahan, but that Walt "is infused with the wisdom and weariness" that Callahan does not have. Home media Warner Home Video owns rights to the Dirty Harry series. The five films have been remastered for DVD three times — in 1998, 2001 and 2008. They have been packaged in several DVD box sets. The Dirty Harry films made their high-definition debuts with the 2008 Blu-ray discs. Warner's marketing plan calls for only "The Dead Pool" film to be available as a separate Blu-ray, requiring fans who want the other four movies in high definition to buy the box set. In 2010 all five movies were released as a Blu-ray box set, "Clint Eastwood Dirty Harry Collection". Other media Novels In the early 1980s, Warner Books published twelve books, authored under the pseudonym Dane Hartman, that further the adventures of Dirty Harry. The novels were later translated into French in the 1990s, as the Collection Supercops. Video games In 1995 Williams Electronic Games (WMS) created a Dirty Harry pinball machine, inspired by the 1971 film. 4,248 units were manufactured. Notable features include a gun handle shooter, a moving cannon used to shoot playfield targets and custom audio callouts recorded by Clint Eastwood. Game modes, sounds and dot matrix animations reflect events in the film, such as a car chase, barroom brawl, defusing bombs and "Feel Lucky" mode. Dirty Harry: The War Against Drugs is a 1990 video game based on Dirty Harry film series. It incorporates several references to the film series. Dirty Harry, originally scheduled for a 2007 release, is a canceled video game by The Collective based on the 1971 film of the same name. References External links Dirty Harry filming locations San Francisco in Cinema: Dirty Harry The Best Dirty Harry Movies from American Movie Classics Film series introduced in 1971 Action film series American police detective films Warner Bros. Pictures franchises American vigilante films 1970s English-language films 1980s English-language films

4021869

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WYKE-CD

WYKE-CD

WYKE-CD (channel 47) is a low-power, Class A television station licensed to both Inglis and Yankeetown, Florida, United States, two cities in Levy County—part of the Gainesville market—but serving Citrus County, part of the Tampa Bay market. It is a translator of Clearwater-based WCLF (channel 22), the flagship station of the Christian Television Network (CTN). History The station was founded in 1982 as W49AI (channel 49). It was owned by the Citrus County Association for Retarded Citizens, a non-profit organization that assists handicapped and disabled people in Citrus County. The station repeated the TV signal of Orlando's WOFL, with some shows replaced with local programming. However, it did not carry WOFL's late-night programming, as it left the air around midnight. W49AI became a Fox affiliate when WOFL did in 1986. W49AI dropped Fox and WOFL around 1991, when Ocala's WOGX affiliated with the Fox network. At that point, it offered more local programming, plus shows from other satellite networks, like Channel America, America One (later Youtoo America, now YTA TV) and My Family TV. WYKE has also aired religious programming from Faith TV and Orlando independent station WACX. In May 1995, W49AI became WYKE-LP, named after the Key Training Center in Inverness, where Citrus County's handicapped learn basic occupational skills for employment. On February 9, 2005, WYKE relocated to channel 47 and became a Class A station (though they kept the "-LP" suffix). Soon after, on March 21, the station completed a flash-cut to digital, becoming one of the first licensed digital Class A stations in the United States. However, the station would not adopt a "-CD" suffix until 2009. On December 10, 2021, it was announced that CTN would purchase WYKE-CD for $1 million; the sale was completed on March 15, 2022. News operation WYKE aired a half hour morning show called Citrus Today, hosted by Dennis Miller. Originally called Citrus Sunrise, the show aired weekdays at 9:30 a.m. and featured local news and public affairs segments. In the past, the station has aired simulcasts of Gainesville ABC affiliate WCJB's morning, evening, and late newscasts. References External links The Key Training Center YKE-CD Television channels and stations established in 1982 1982 establishments in Florida Christian Television Network affiliates Citrus County, Florida

4021930

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%20TPNS

IBM TPNS

Teleprocessing Network Simulator (TPNS) is an IBM licensed program, first released in 1976 as a test automation tool to simulate the end-user activity of network terminal(s) to a mainframe computer system, for functional testing, regression testing, system testing, capacity management, benchmarking and stress testing. In 2002, IBM re-packaged TPNS and released Workload Simulator for z/OS and S/390 (WSim) as a successor product. History Teleprocessing Network Simulator (TPNS) Version 1 Release 1 (V1R1) was introduced as Program Product 5740-XT4 in February 1976, followed by four additional releases up to V1R5 (1981). In August 1981, IBM announced TPNS Version 2 Release 1 () as Program Product 5662-262, followed by three additional releases up to V2R4 (1987). In January 1989, IBM announced TPNS Version 3 Release 1 () as Program Product 5688-121, followed by four additional releases up to (1996). In December 1997, IBM announced a Service Level 9711 Functional and Service Enhancements release. In September 1998, IBM announced the TPNS Test Manager (for ) as a usability enhancement to automate the test process further in order to improve productivity through a logical flow, and to streamline TPNS-based testing of IBM 3270 applications or CPI-C transaction programs. In December 2001, IBM announced a Service Level 0110 Functional and Service Enhancements release. In August 2002, IBM announced Workload Simulator for z/OS and S/390 (WSim) V1.1 as Program Number 5655-I39, a re-packaged successor product to TPNS, alongside the WSim Test Manager V1.1, a re-packaged successor to the TPNS Test Manager. In November 2012, IBM announced a maintenance update of Workload Simulator for z/OS and S/390 (WSim) V1.1, to simplify the installation of updates to the product. In December 2015, IBM announced enhancements to Workload Simulator for z/OS and S/390 (WSim) V1.1, providing new utilities for TCP/IP data capture and script generation. Features Simulation support Teleprocessing Network Simulator (TPNS) TPNS supports the simulation of a wide range of networking protocols and devices: SNA/SDLC, start-stop, BSC, TWX, TTY, X.25 Packet Switching Network, Token Ring Local Area Networking, and TCP/IP servers and clients (Telnet 3270 & 5250, Telnet Line Mode Network Virtual Terminal, FTP and simple UDP clients). TPNS can also simulate devices using the Airline Line Control (ALC) and the HDLC protocols. The full implementation of SNA in TPNS enables it to simulate all LU types (including LU6.2 and CPI-C), PU types (including PU2.1), and SSCP functions. Finally, TPNS also provides extensive user exit access to its internal processes to enable the simulation of user-defined (home-grown) line disciplines, communications protocols, devices (terminals and printers) and programs. TPNS is therefore the appropriate test tool for installations that need to test: either the entire system configuration path of hardware and software components, from the teleprocessing line interface (modem, for example) all the way to the subsystem (CICS, IMS, DB2, TSO/ISPF, etc.), the application and finally to the file or database record (disk I/O) and back; Note: In this configuration, TPNS transmits its generated data traffic from its MVS address space, first across a channel-adapter to its TPNS Control Program (TPNCP) running in a dedicated IBM 37x5 Communications Controller, and then across teleprocessing lines connected back-to-back between the TPNCP and the target IBM 37x5 channel-attached to the host system (server) under test and its subsystems, applications and databases/files. or only application systems and their hardware and software components, from the networking access method API (either the VTAM API or the TCP/IP High Performance Native Sockets, or Macro, API) to the subsystem (CICS, IMS, DB2, TSO/ISPF, etc.), the application and finally to the file or database record (disk I/O) and back; Note: In this configuration, TPNS transmits its generated data traffic from its MVS address space to the target application directly across the networking access method's API and does not, therefore, require a dedicated IBM 37x5 Communications Controller to run its TPNCP, or any other networking hardware and software components except the networking access method (VTAM or IBM TCP/IP for MVS) that already runs in—or is already network-connected to—the host system (server) under test. or both. Workload Simulator for z/OS and S/390 (WSim) WSim fully supports a subset of TPNS-simulated devices and programmed resources: CPI-C, TCP/IP servers and clients (Telnet 3270 & 5250, Telnet Line Mode Network Virtual Terminal, FTP and simple UDP clients), and SNA LU simulation. WSim relies solely on software interfaces to communicate with the system under test. WSim is therefore the appropriate test tool for installations that need to test application systems and their hardware and software components, from the networking access method API (either the VTAM API or the TCP/IP High Performance Native Sockets, or Macro, API) to the subsystem (CICS, IMS, DB2, TSO/ISPF, etc.), the application and finally to the file or database record (disk I/O) and back; that is to say, without the need to install any networking hardware and software components except the networking access method (VTAM or IBM TCP/IP for MVS) that already runs in—or is already network-connected to—the host system (server) under test. Other uses In addition to its use as a test tool exchanging message traffic with a system under test, TPNS/Wsim has been deployed: as a systems management tool — to monitor the availability of an online system, from the end-user's perspective; as a software development tool — for prototyping software programs during the development process. Scripting languages TPNS language TPNS initially provided its own 'TPNS language', a high-level, macro assembler-like language with programming statements and operands that a test programmer would use to define: the configuration of the network device(s) to be simulated (NTWRK definitions, simply called the network), typically one or more terminal(s), such as IBM 3270 display screen(s); one or more message text script(s) (MSGTXT definitions, simply called scripts), corresponding to the keystrokes and data transmission activity of the simulated user(s) at the simulated terminal(s). Separate scripts could be written to perform specific test scenarios, such as: 'login', 'data enquiry', 'data entry' and 'logout', for example; the sequence in which scripts are to be executed by each (or all) simulated terminal(s): in the NTWRK, one or more PATH statement(s) define(s) the order in which MSGTXTs are executed, each NTWRK terminal has a PATH operand that names the PATH statement(s) assigned to the terminal. Once defined, these test scripts are executed during the simulation run, when the TPNS program ITPENTER (the simulator) processes the submitted statements and creates data streams in the required formats and protocols, prior to sending them to the system under test as if they had originated from real user(s) operating real terminal(s). In turn, the target application(s) running in the system under test respond(s) to the simulated terminal(s) and, if the simulation is successful, these exchanges would continue until the programmed scripts reach the end of the simulation run—i.e., when the simulated users have all completed their scripted activity and logged off, for example—at which time ITPENTER is terminated by the test programmer. During the simulation, ITPENTER keeps a log (on tape or disk) of all messages exchanged between the simulated device(s) and the real application(s) under test. After the simulation has completed, the test programmer can therefore run any of three TPNS-supplied log analysis utilities to list and review the data exchanges in detail (ITPLL), to calculate and print response times reports (ITPRESP), or to compare the 3270 screen images logged during two simulation runs of the same script(s) and report on differences between them (ITPCOMP). When TPNS was re-packaged and renamed 'WSim' in 2002, the term 'TPNS language' was changed to 'WSim language' in the product publications; however, the existing nomenclature was maintained and all TPNS components re-packaged into WSim—such as the TPNS program names and message numbers (ITPxxxxx), for example—retained their existing identity. Structured Translator Language (STL) With TPNS V3R1 (1989), IBM added the Structured Translator Language—or 'STL', a TPNS high-level scripting language with a syntax based on REXX—to make it easier for test scripts to be written by programmers familiar with REXX or similar structured programming languages. STL therefore made it possible to write test scripts, not only for the usual activity of simulated terminal operators, but also for exchanges between TPNS-simulated programs and real application programs or, for example, to prototype elements of an ATM shared network. Scripts written in STL must be translated into the TPNS language before the simulation run and a translator utility (ITPSTL) is supplied for that purpose. Another way of defining STL would be as a 'script generation language'; its programming clauses are identical to REXX, but they need to be translated (i.e. 'script-generated') into the TPNS language in order to be executable during the simulation run. Script coding facilities Both scripting languages provide a comprehensive set of coding facilities that enable the test programmer to: specify the input data entered by the simulated user(s), along with related actions: counting down think time delays, pressing keys to send data, then waiting for responses from the application under test; logic-test the content of incoming and/or outgoing messages and taking one of a wide range of optional actions according to the results of the evaluation; set up test verification clauses that create log records for 'predicted good'/'predicted bad' conditions; group message text data in user data tables, to make scripts more generic and data-independent; invoke an extensive range of data field options, to create test data dynamically into messages; collect real-time data into save areas, during the simulation run, to re-use as 'on the fly' test data; generate random numbers; maintain a wide range of counters and switches; set up events to synchronise the activity of simulated users; set up named queues to provide a queuing method for passing data between simulated resources; perform sequential file I/O (QSAM) operations from a script to a user-defined, external dataset; select script debugging facilities, including a message generation trace (MSGTRACE) which logs the step-by-step flow of all logic tests, actions (taken and ignored), and data exchanges occurring during the execution of scripts; log message traffic during the simulation run, for post-processing analysis (including message generation tracing, data transmitted/received, printing screen images, test data verification, response time calculation, and screen image comparison across repeated simulations of the same scripts); define and alter the rate at which message traffic is generated during the simulation run; specify the protocols for session initiation and termination between simulated programmed resources and real programs, as well as for data exchanges between them; and many more. WSim supports the same scripting language facilities as TPNS, except that its network configuration (NTWRK) definitions require only those statements provided for CPI-C, TCP/IP servers and clients (Telnet 3270 & 5250, Telnet Line Mode Network Virtual Terminal, FTP and simple UDP clients), and SNA LU simulation. Syntax checking preprocessor The simulator program ITPENTER can also be run as a preprocessor (when submitted with parameter PARM='PREP'), simply to check the syntax of networks and scripts before they are submitted for a simulation run. This enables test personnel to ensure that a subsequent simulation run will not fail because of coding errors in the scripts themselves. Repeatability One of the benefits of using test scripts is that they can be run repeatedly throughout the test cycle, as functional errors in the application under test and/or system-wide defects are gradually resolved over time, in order to improve the reliability, capacity or performance of any, or all, hardware or software components in the system under test. For functional and regression testing, test programmers would typically define a network of just one simulated terminal executing test scripts tailored to evaluate a comprehensive set of transactions (database enquiry or data entry) serially, and at slow or average rates of message traffic. For system testing, performance/capacity testing, stress testing and benchmarking, the same test programmers would define large networks of dozens or even thousands of simulated terminals, each running—for example—a range of these functional test scripts, now grouped together to exercise as many system components as possible at high rates of message traffic. Script generation TPNS provides a number of solutions to automate the creation of test scripts. The script generation facilities described in the next three sections are also available in Workload Simulator for z/OS and S/390 (WSim). The Interactive Data Capture (IDC) script generator (ITPIDC) The Interactive Data Capture (IDC) script generator is a 'pass-through & data intercept' VTAM application (ITPIDC) controlled by the test programmer from one real 3270 display screen in session with a target application for which a script is required. ITPIDC maintains two SNA sessions simultaneously: a primary LU session with the real 3270 terminal operated by the test programmer, and a secondary LU session with the target application. During the data capture–or 'recording'–session, ITPIDC logs the data traffic exchanged between the test programmer's real 3270 device and the target application, and then uses that log to generate the equivalent script, in either of the two scripting languages (TPNS language or STL). Since the IDC log dataset is in exactly the same format as the log dataset TPNS creates during a simulation run, it can be used as input to the TPNS post-processing utilities to print its contents, to calculate response times of the IDC session, or to compare the screen images of the data capture session with the TPNS log obtained by running the IDC-generated script. The 3270 trace reformatter and script generator (ITPLU2RF & ITPLSGEN) When capturing the activity of a production network consisting of one or many 3270 devices, the 3270 trace reformatter and script generator processes the trace dataset produced by the IBM Network Performance Monitor (NPM V1R4 or later) VTAM PIU log (FNMVLOG), or by the IBM VTAM (V4R1 or later) Full Buffer Trace. When the tracing activity is completed, a utility (ITPLU2RF) reformats the trace dataset into a log dataset in the format required as input to the IDC script generator (see previous section), which can also create scripts in batch mode (ITPLSGEN). This reformatted IDC log can also be analyzed by the three post-processing utilities (list the log's contents, calculate response times or compare screen images). The script generator (ITPSGEN) The script generator processes the trace dataset produced by the IBM Network Performance Monitor (NPM), or by the IBM VTAM Buffer Trace in conjunction with the IBM Generalized Trace Facility (GTF), when tracing a production network of one or many 3270 devices, as well as devices of various types and protocols, including LU0, LU1, LU2, LU4, LU 6.2 and CPI-C resources. For CPI-C script generation, it is also possible to use the LU 6.2 trace dataset created by the OS/2 Communications Manager (CM/2) or the IBM Communications Server. Different TPNS-supplied utilities reformat any of these various trace datasets into a single-format dataset used as input to the script generator (ITPSGEN), which produces scripts: optionally in either language (TPNS language or STL) for all supported device types except CPI-C programmed resources; only in STL for CPI-C programmed resources. The TCP/IP script generator (ITPIPGEN) The TCP/IP script generator is unique to WSim and was introduced in December 2015. It processes a TCP/IP trace dataset produced by the WSim-supplied TCP/IP Trace Utility (ITPIPTRX), which invokes the z/OS Communication Server real-time, application-controlled TCP/IP trace Network Management Interface (NMI) to capture TCP/IP data trace records. These trace records contain HTTP messages (packets and data) exchanged between a server and client. The TCP/IP script generator (ITPIPGEN) then processes this trace dataset and creates a script, in the STL language, which replicates the communication that occurred between the server and client. After translation from STL into the WSim language and when running the simulation (ITPENTER), the generated script sends the client messages—obtained from the trace—to the server port, and waits to receive a message from the server. A separate utility (ITPIPFMT) is also supplied to format and print the contents of the trace dataset created by the TCP/IP Trace Utility (ITPIPTRX). The TPNS Test Manager It is established practice that a script obtained from a script generator is subsequently edited by test programmers in order to make such scripts more generally reusable. This editing process consists in adding advanced script-programming clauses that script generators cannot supply, such as re-locating hard-coded data into user data tables that can then be expanded with more test data, for example. This editing can be done directly into the NTWRK and MSGTXT datasets, or through the services of the TPNS Test Manager (or its affiliated WSim Test Manager) which, like TPNS (and WSim), also runs under TSO/ISPF.The Test Manager is a knowledge-based, interactive usability tool designed to boost the productivity of test personnel, and to optimize the test cycle by enabling test projects to be organized methodically during the development and execution of test cases, and in the subsequent analysis of test results. Run-time interfaces Operator commands Once the TPNS program ITPENTER (the simulator) has been submitted for execution and is up and running, test personnel can use a range of TPNS-specific operator commands to initialise, start, alter, and stop the execution of one or more TPNS networks and their associated scripts. It is also possible to query the activity of a simulated device and its current script, and to intervene in real time, by altering the rate of message traffic, for example. Running as a MVS procedure In its early releases, ITPENTER ran as a MVS procedure controlled from the MVS operator console. Its generated data traffic was transmitted from its MVS address space, first across a channel-adapter to its TPNS Control Program (TPNCP) running in a dedicated IBM 37x5 Communications Controller, and then across teleprocessing lines connected back-to-back between the TPNCP and the target IBM 37x5 channel-attached to the host system under test and its application subsystems (CICS, IMS, DB2, TSO/ISPF, etc.). Running under TSO With TPNS V1R5 (1979), ITPENTER was enhanced to run from a TSO command list (in the TSO user address space) and therefore to operate simulations from a remote display terminal in the VTAM network instead of the MVS system console. Running as a VTAM application With TPNS V2R3 (1985), ITPENTER was enhanced to run as a VTAM application, thus sending the data traffic generated by its simulated terminals or programmed resources (now defined as VTAM logical units) via the VTAM API to the application under test. This removed the requirement for a 37x5 and other dedicated teleprocessing hardware when using TPNS to test applications systems running under VTAM, such as CICS, IMS, DB2, ISPF, and other online transaction processing systems. Display Monitor With TPNS V2R4 (1987), ITPENTER was enhanced with the Display Monitor, so that the screen images of a simulated 3270 display could be externalized onto a real 3270 terminal, thus enabling test personnel to monitor the ongoing, live execution of a script during the simulation run, in real time. It also became possible to operate TPNS from the NetView console and, in turn, to automate TPNS simulation runs from NetView by means of TPNS-supplied NetView command lists. Running under ISPF With TPNS V3R3 (1992), all TPNS programs and utilities (ITPxxxxx) could be operated entirely from ISPF in a panel-driven fashion, instead of through the TSO command line or through discrete JCL job streams. Running as a TCP/IP for MVS application With TPNS V3R5 (1997), ITPENTER was enhanced to run as a TCP/IP for MVS application, thus sending the data traffic generated by its simulated terminals and/or programmed resources (clients) to the application(s) (servers) under test via the IBM TCP/IP V3R2 for MVS High Performance Native Sockets (HPNS) API, subsequently renamed 'the Macro API'. TPNS Test Manager In 1998, IBM introduced the Test Manager for TPNS V3R5 which added substantial automation features that streamline many repetitive tasks associated with planning, preparing, operating and analyzing a TPNS-based simulation run, while still enabling the test programmer optionally to retain full awareness, in real-time, of the events unfolding at every step and to intervene if necessary. Post-processing utilities During the simulation, ITPENTER keeps a log (on tape or disk) of all messages exchanged between the simulated device(s) and the real application(s) under test. After the simulation has completed, the test programmer can therefore run any of three TPNS-supplied log analysis utilities. Log list (ITPLL) The log list utility (ITPLL) is used to list and review the logged data in detail, including operator commands, data transmitted and received, screen images, message generation tracing, and test data verification. Response time calculator (ITPRESP) The response time calculator (ITPRESP) is used to calculate and print response times reports. Log compare (ITPCOMP) The log compare utility (ITPCOMP) is used to compare the 3270 screen images logged during two simulation runs of the same script(s) and report on differences between them. Additional facilities The Echo program (ITPECHO) The Echo program (ITPECHO) is supplied with TPNS (and WSim) as a ready-made VTAM application that runs in the system under test as a target for messages sent by real or simulated 3270 display device(s). Using ITPECHO enables network connectivity and load testing to be carried out without the need to set up a copy of a production-level application and its databases, thereby saving test personnel the effort of writing scripts or allocating disk space for such an application and its datasets. As its name implies, ITPECHO will return exactly the message it has just received (when sent with the 'Enter' key), but it can also return the amount of data that was requested in the previous message (when sent with the 'PF5' key), from real or simulated display device(s). The latter feature is useful for creating test conditions where the 'send' and 'receive' messages need to be of different and variable lengths. To provide the amount of data requested, ITPECHO pads its message with as many occurrences of the alphabet as necessary, or a fraction of it if the amount of data requested in less than 26 characters. The AVailability MONitor (AVMON) facility Rather than applying TPNS as a test tool, AVMON (AVailability MONitor) is a TPNS implementation designed to monitor the availability and performance of real network subsystems running in production (NetView and TSO). The TPNS-supplied sample AVMON scripts monitor only NetView and TSO, but a user installation may add support for monitoring more subsystems (CICS, IMS, DB2, etc.) and any of their applications, by modifying or extending the AVMON scripts, perhaps through the use of the Interactive Data Capture script generator mentioned above to create the new script(s). During the TPNS simulation run, AVMON updates the TPNS log dataset, which can therefore be processed by the three TPNS log analysis utilities (log list, response times calculator and log compare). AVMON monitors availability by simulating a single terminal user in session with a real subsystem, periodically sending a brief probing message, and sensing when the subsystem becomes unavailable. When the simulated user detects unavailability, it sends a message to the operator console alerting the operator to the problem. AVMON also tracks the time it takes for the monitored subsystem to return a response, and reports whenever a user-specified performance threshold is exceeded. By using the TPNS Response Time utility, the performance statistics of the entire monitoring run can be compiled into a single report, thus providing an installation with evidence of the end-to-end response times experienced by the subsystem's end-users. For automated operations, AVMON may also be modified to perform operator functions when it senses that a real resource has become inoperative and therefore requires an operator intervention, such as restarting the resource for example. Publications library Teleprocessing Network Simulator (TPNS) library TPNS Samples SC30-3454 TPNS Operation SC30-3289 TPNS Messages and Codes SC30-3310 TPNS General Utilities SC30-3290 TPNS Script Generating Utilities SC30-3453 TPNS Planning and Installation SH20-2488 TPNS Language Reference SH20-2489 Defining TPNS Networks SC31-6008 Creating TPNS Message Generation Decks SC31-6009 Using TPNS Structured Translator Language (STL) and STL Translator SC31-6013 TPNS STL Reference Card SX75-0065 TPNS User Exits SC31-6071 TPNS Licensed Program Specifications GH20-5323 TPNS General Information GH20-2487 TPNS Primer SC31-6043 TPNS Master Index GC31-6059 TPNS Function and Service Enhancements V3R5 (1997) SC31-8654-00 TPNS Function and Service Enhancements V3R5 (2001) SC31-8654-02 Workload Simulator (WSim) library Creating Workload Simulator Scripts SC31-8945 Workload Simulator Script Guide and Reference SC31-8946 Workload Simulator Utilities Guide SC31-8947 Workload Simulator User's Guide SC31-8948 Workload Simulator Test Manager User's Guide and Reference SC31-8949 Workload Simulator User Exits SC31-8950 Workload Simulator Messages and Codes SC31-8951 References Bibliography External links Technical Update Series: Using TPNS Version 2 Release 4 to Test On-Line Systems (34567) Workload Simulator for z/OS and OS/390 Library Workload Simulator for z/OS and OS/390 Service Information TPNS Simulation software Load testing tools Software testing tools Product testing IBM mainframe software