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[ { "answer": "Ohh man its complicated..\nSo ISIS is the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria. They have been active mainly in Syria fighting against Bashir Al Asad, but have been pushed back there (out of Alepo and denser urban areas) by more moderate rebels (who the US ostensibly supports). Recently they cashed in on the Iraq side of their organization and captured several cities there in rapid succession meeting little or no resistance from Iraqi security forces (trained and supplied by the USA) which freaked everyone out. They got a ton of gold and cash from banks and military equipment left behind by the Iraqi security forces.\nNow weird shit is happening. Iran is offering to send republican guards to Iraq to fight ISIS and the US is considering bombing ISIS in Iraq and Syria. The Kurdish autonomous region has sent soldiers in to hold off ISIS and capture a few cities... basically its the penultimate strange bedfellows type of situation where enemy factions are coming together to try and stop this army who showed up from nowhere and displayed shocking capability. Not a good spot for US regional interests whatever we do will be no bueno. Really points out weakness and division in the Iraqi gov. Basically no one saw it coming.\nSide note ISIS was rejected by Al Queda for being \"too extreme\"\nThere are rumors of old Iraq army brass from the Saddam days working with them.\nThe danger is that Iraq will devolve into a full on ethnic civil war which combined with Syria's war could easily become the biggest genocide of this century.\nThis is what I have gathered feel free to fact check or ask me and Ill explain to the best of my ability.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "OK, as someone who once lived in one of the cities that fell, a major problem is there are three kinds of people there. For the sake of simplicity we'll call them the red, white, and blue people. \n\n\nThere are more of the white people than any other people, so the red people and the blue people never favored a national democracy. \n\nHistorically the red people have been in charge, because Saddam was red. \n\nNow the red people are ousted from power and are the minority. They know that democracy is going to work against their interests, so they are capturing cities from the government. Many of the army soldiers were red people so they quit instead of fighting, and the white ones who stayed and fought were executed. \n\nThe blue people also left because they have their own area they want to make into a separate country.\n\nTo make matters more complicated, Saudis and Syrians are red, and Iranians are white. The blue people are disinclined to help, because they are holding their own borders well, and it only makes their case for them that they should be independent.\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9087364", "title": "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant", "section": "Section::::History.:Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (2013–2014).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 375, "text": "In early 2014, ISIL drove Iraqi government forces out of key cities in its Anbar campaign, which was followed by the capture of Mosul and the Sinjar massacre. The loss of control almost caused a collapse of the Iraqi government and prompted a renewal of US military action in Iraq. In Syria, ISIL has conducted ground attacks on both the Syrian Arab Army and rebel factions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9087364", "title": "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant", "section": "Section::::Human rights abuse and war crime findings.:Religious and minority group massacres, forced conversion, and expulsion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 316, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 316, "end_character": 763, "text": "Amnesty International has held ISIL responsible for the ethnic cleansing of ethnic and religious minority groups in northern Iraq on a \"historic scale\", putting entire communities \"at risk of being wiped off the map of Iraq\". In a special report released on 2 September 2014, the organization described how ISIL had \"systematically targeted non-Arab and non-Sunni Muslim communities, killing or abducting hundreds, possibly thousands, of individuals and forcing more than 830,000 others to flee the areas it has captured since 10 June 2014\". Among these people were Assyrian Christians, Turkmen Shia, Shabak Shia, Kaka'i, Yazidis and Sabean Mandeans, who have lived together for centuries in Nineveh province, large parts of which have come under ISIL's control.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50280659", "title": "Genocide of Yazidis by ISIL", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 737, "text": "The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL, calling itself Islamic State) is recognized by the United Nations as the perpetrator of a genocide of Yazidis in Iraq. The genocide led to the expulsion, flight and effective exile of the Yazidis from their ancestral lands in Northern Iraq whose women and girls were forced into sexual slavery by the Islamic State and whose men were killed by the thousands. The genocide led to the abduction of Yazidi women and massacres that killed five thousand Yazidi civilians during what has been called a \"forced conversion campaign\" being carried out in Northern Iraq by ISIL, starting in 2014. The genocide happened following the Kurdish Peshmerga withdrawal, which left the Yazidis defenseless.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34507632", "title": "Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 569, "text": "In 2014, the insurgency escalated dramatically following the conquest of Mosul and major areas in northern Iraq by the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), a Salafi jihadist militant group and unrecognised proto-state that follows a fundamentalist, Wahhabi doctrine of Sunni Islam. ISIL gained global prominence in early 2014 when it drove Iraqi government forces out of key cities in its Western Iraq offensive, followed by its capture of Mosul and the Sinjar massacre, thereby merging the new conflict with the Syrian Civil War, into a new, far deadlier conflict.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49264982", "title": "Persecution of Shias by ISIL", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 798, "text": "Amnesty International has held ISIL responsible for the ethnic cleansing of ethnic and religious minority groups in northern Iraq (Christians and Yezidis) on a \"historic scale\", putting entire communities \"at risk of being wiped off the map of Iraq\". In a special report released on 2 September 2014, it described how ISIL had \"systematically targeted non-Sunni Muslim communities, killing or abducting hundreds, possibly thousands, of individuals and forcing more than tens of thousands of Shias, Sunnis, along with other minorities to flee the areas it has captured since 10 June 2014\". The most targeted Shia groups in Nineveh Governorate were Shia Turkmens and Shabak, who have lived together for centuries in Nineveh, large parts of which came under ISIL's control from mid-2014 to late 2017.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51144183", "title": "July 2016 Kabul bombing", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 427, "text": "The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) is a Syria-based terror group who have committed various attacks against civilians on the Eurasian continent. ISIL's Afghanistan branch is small, based in the country's east near the Pakistani border. In March 2016, Afghan president Ashraf Ghani claimed that the group was 'wiped out of Afghanistan', after the group failed to expand and pose a serious threat to the government.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "199292", "title": "Kirkuk", "section": "Section::::History.:Kurdish control (2014-2016).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 491, "text": "On 21 October 2016, ISIL launched multiple attacks in Kirkuk to divert Iraqi military resources during the Battle of Mosul. Witnesses reported multiple explosions and gun battles in the city, most centered on a government compound. At least 11 workers, including several Iranians, were killed by a suicide bomber at a power plant in nearby Dibis. The attack was brought to an end by 24 October, with 74 militants being killed and others including the leader of the attackers being arrested.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "We define the ecliptic as the plane that contains the Earths orbit around the sun. We define the tilt of a planet as the angle between the normal direction of the ecliptic and the axis of rotation of the planet.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15032003", "title": "Exoplanetology", "section": "Section::::Orbital parameters.:Inclination vs. spin–orbit angle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 1535, "text": "Orbital inclination is the angle between a planet's orbital plane and another plane of reference. For exoplanets, the inclination is usually stated with respect to an observer on Earth: the angle used is that between the normal to the planet's orbital plane and the line of sight from Earth to the star. Therefore, most planets observed by the transit method are close to 90 degrees. Because the word 'inclination' is used in exoplanet studies for this line-of-sight inclination then the angle between the planet's orbit and the star's rotation must use a different word and is termed the spin–orbit angle or spin–orbit alignment. In most cases the orientation of the star's rotational axis is unknown. The \"Kepler\" spacecraft has found a few hundred multi-planet systems and in most of these systems the planets all orbit in nearly the same plane, much like the Solar System. However, a combination of astrometric and radial-velocity measurements has shown that some planetary systems contain planets whose orbital planes are significantly tilted relative to each other. More than half of hot Jupiters have orbital planes substantially misaligned with their parent star's rotation. A substantial fraction of hot-Jupiters even have retrograde orbits, meaning that they orbit in the opposite direction from the star's rotation. Rather than a planet's orbit having been disturbed, it may be that the star itself flipped early in their system's formation due to interactions between the star's magnetic field and the planet-forming disk.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "91173", "title": "Axial tilt", "section": "Section::::Standards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 321, "text": "There are two standard methods of specifying tilt. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) defines the \"north pole\" of a planet as that which lies on Earth's north side of the invariable plane of the Solar System; under this system, Venus is tilted 3° and spins retrograde, opposite that of most of the other planets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "641656", "title": "CubeSat", "section": "Section::::Design.:Attitude control.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 677, "text": "Pointing in a specific direction is necessary for Earth observation, orbital maneuvers, maximizing solar power, and some scientific instruments. Directional pointing accuracy can be achieved by sensing Earth and its horizon, the Sun, or specific stars. Sinclair Interplanetary's SS-411 sun sensor and ST-16 star tracker both have applications for CubeSats and have flight heritage. Pumpkin's Colony I Bus uses an aerodynamic wing for passive attitude stabilization. Determination of a CubeSat's location can be done through the use of on-board GPS, which is relatively expensive for a CubeSat, or by relaying radar tracking data to the craft from Earth-based tracking systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56440", "title": "Orbital inclination", "section": "Section::::Other meaning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 275, "text": "For planets and other rotating celestial bodies, the angle of the equatorial plane relative to the orbital plane — such as the tilt of the Earth's poles toward or away from the Sun — is sometimes also called inclination, but less ambiguous terms are axial tilt or obliquity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "72576", "title": "Axial precession", "section": "Section::::Values.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 416, "text": "The precession of Earth's axis is a very slow effect, but at the level of accuracy at which astronomers work, it does need to be taken into account on a daily basis. Note that although the precession and the tilt of Earth's axis (the obliquity of the ecliptic) are calculated from the same theory and thus, are related to each other, the two movements act independently of each other, moving in opposite directions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "372608", "title": "Milankovitch cycles", "section": "Section::::Earth's movements.:Orbital inclination.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 367, "text": "The inclination of Earth's orbit drifts up and down relative to its present orbit. This three-dimensional movement is known as \"precession of the ecliptic\" or \"planetary precession\". Earth's current inclination relative to the invariable plane (the plane that represents the angular momentum of the Solar System, approximately the orbital plane of Jupiter) is 1.57°.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11821775", "title": "Poles of astronomical bodies", "section": "Section::::Orbital pole.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 284, "text": "In addition to the rotational pole, a planet's orbit also has a defined direction in space. The direction of the angular momentum vector of that orbit can be defined as an orbital pole. Earth's orbital pole, i.e. the ecliptic pole, points in the direction of the constellation Draco.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Point of clarification. What are you looking for when you say \"a general history of *the Reconquista*?\" Although the underlying crusade ideology is there for the Christians, and as time wore on Muslims definitely realized their al-Andalus (by then comprised of many little kingdoms) was losing ground to a bunch of Christians, overall it's hardly a unified campaign or even always primarily making progress. There are larger swathes of time where territory either isn't changing hands, or already conquered territory is being filled in (most of the Iberian interior was fairly empty), or Christian and Muslim statelets alike are batting away at each other, making and breaking alliances. \"Reconquista\" is kind of a convenient name, but the point is, it's not really separate from the political and social history of later medieval Iberia.\n\nIs that what you're looking for? Or are you looking for more, military history-style accounts of battles, sieges, civil wars?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11253978", "title": "Amparito Roca", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 313, "text": "A book has been published (written in Spanish) under the auspices of the Ajuntament De Carlet, Valencia, with the title \"Amparito Roca, El Pasadoble Del Mestre Texidor\". It contains biographical material and commentary on the works of Texidor with a catalogue and discography. The text is by Angel Valero Garcia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43271086", "title": "Historia general de las Indias", "section": "Section::::Opinions of historians contemporary to Gómara.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 435, "text": "On the other side, Bernal Díaz del Castillo, who had been a soldier in the expeditions and conquests, heavily criticized the book in his \"\"Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España\"\", in particular because Gómara had never set foot in the Americas, and for the book's praising of Hernán Cortés, without giving credit to others involved. Nevertheless, he referenced the timeline of the work while composing his own account.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52665280", "title": "Epítome de la conquista del Nuevo Reino de Granada", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 417, "text": "Epítome de la conquista del Nuevo Reino de Granada (English: \"Summary of the conquest of the New Kingdom of Granada\") is a document of uncertain authorship, possibly (partly) written by Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada between 1548 and 1559. The book was not published until 1889 by anthropologist Marcos Jiménez de la Espada in his work \"Juan de Castellanos y su Historia del Nuevo Reino de Granada\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "733303", "title": "The Rivan Codex", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 578, "text": "The Rivan Codex is a collection of background material to the Belgariad and Malloreon fantasy saga by David and Leigh Eddings. It consists of two bodies of material used in writing the novels, one for each series, with three informal essays by David Eddings. \"Belgarath the Sorcerer\" and \"Polgara the Sorceress\" do not have dedicated sections, but are referred to in the Eddings' discussions, and drew on the material of the first ten books. In particular, one text presented in the background to the Belgariad forms the basis for the first chapter of \"Belgarath the Sorcerer\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39983421", "title": "Journey to the Alcarria", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 385, "text": "Written in the third person, the book describes the author's travels in the Alcarria region of Spain. It has been described as \"the most celebrated Spanish travelogue of all times\". It was translated into English by Frances M. López-Morillas and published by the University of Wisconsin Press in 1964. In 1986, the author published a follow-up book called \"Nuevo viaje a la Alcarria\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5725924", "title": "Fray Juan de Torquemada", "section": "Section::::Literary works.:\"Monarquía indiana\".:Subject-matter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 803, "text": "The first volume comprises five books which principally treat of the creation of the world and the origin of the peoples who occupied New Spain (I, II), as well as the diverse nations constituting the Aztec Empire (III), followed by its conquest by the Spanish (IV) and its subsequent re-organisation (V). To the second volume were assigned nine books which deal with the religion (VI-X), government (XI), laws (XII), institutions (XIII) and social and military life of the indigenous peoples together with remarks on various geographical features and their cultural relevance (XIV). The subject of the seven books which constitute the third volume is the evangelisation of the Indians, with particular focus (especially in the last three books) upon the life, work and fate of Franciscan missionaries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39523687", "title": "Zamorano Eighty", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 399, "text": "The Zamorano Eighty is a list of books intended to represent the most significant early volumes published on the history of California. It was compiled in 1945 by members of the Zamorano Club, a Los Angeles-based group of bibliophiles. Collecting first editions of every volume on the list has become the goal of a number of book collectors, though to date only four people have completed the task.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "See:\n\n_URL_0_ \n_URL_1_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The heat leaked increases at a rate faster than the clock speed. This increase becomes pretty ridiculous so that the cooling systems needed are not affordable to the average person and the complications of putting in enough power to run it. Add in the ability to focus on improvements other than clock speed so that we have better performing cpus, and focusing on faster clock speed ends up with a pretty bad rate of return compared to other improvements. Economic decisions drive it from there.\n\nNow, new technology may decrease the energy needed for a given clock speed, but the standard of energy leakage increasing far faster than clock-speed would still apply, so you would basically get a one time boost per development. Add in us hitting certain physical limits inside of microchips, and these onetime boosts are running out.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4120803", "title": "CDC 6000 series", "section": "Section::::Hardware.:Central processor.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 846, "text": "Both the 6400 and 6600 CPUs had a cycle time of 100 ns (10MHz). Due to the serial nature of the 6400 CPU, its exact speed was heavily dependent on instruction mix, but generally around 1 MIPS. Floating-point additions were fairly fast at 11 clock cycles, however floating-point multiplication was very slow at 57 clock cycles. Thus its floating point speed would depend heavily on the mix of operations and could be under 200 kFLOPS. The 6600 was, of course, much faster. With good compiler instruction scheduling, the machine could approach its theoretical peak of 10 MIPS. Floating-point additions took four clock cycles, and floating-point multiplies took 10 clocks (but there were two multiply functional units, so two operations could be processing at the same time.) The 6600 could therefore have a peak floating point speed of 2-3 MFLOPS.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1109754", "title": "SGI O2", "section": "Section::::Performance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 219, "text": "While CPU frequencies of 180 to 400 MHz seem low today, when the O2 was released in 1996, these speeds were on par with or above the current offerings for the x86 family of computers (cf. Intel's Pentium and AMD's K5).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45473832", "title": "Beyond CMOS", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 216, "text": "CPUs using CMOS were released from 1986 (e.g. 12 MHz Intel 80386). As CMOS transistor dimensions were shrunk the clock speeds also increased. Since about 2004 CMOS CPU clock speeds have leveled off at about 3.5 GHz.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20326", "title": "Motorola 6809", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 579, "text": "As a comparison, the higher resolution state machine of a CPU like the Z80 allowed clock frequencies 3-5 times as high with the same speed memory chips, which was often the limiting factor. This is because the Z80 combines two full (but short) clock cycles into a \"relatively\" long memory access period compared to the clock, while the more asynchronous 6809 instead has \"relatively\" short memory access times: depending on version and speed grade, approximately 40-60% of a single clock cycle was typically available for memory access in a 6800, 6502 or 6809 (see data sheets).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "228385", "title": "Clock rate", "section": "Section::::Historical milestones and current records.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 670, "text": "In 1992, both Hewlett-Packard and Digital Equipment Corporation broke the difficult 100 MHz limit with RISC techniques in the PA-7100 and AXP 21064 DEC Alpha respectively. In 1995, Intel's P5 Pentium chip ran at 100 MHz (100 million cycles per second). On March 6, 2000, AMD reached the 1 GHz milestone a few months ahead of Intel. In 2002, an Intel Pentium 4 model was introduced as the first CPU with a clock rate of 3 GHz (three billion cycles per second corresponding to ~3.3×10seconds or 0.33 nanoseconds per cycle). Since then, the clock rate of production processors has increased much more slowly, with performance improvements coming from other design changes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1195660", "title": "Evans & Sutherland ES-1", "section": "Section::::Basic design.:Instruction pipeline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 527, "text": "The processors ran at 20 MHz in the integer units and 40 MHz for the FPUs, with the intention being to increase this to 50 MHz by the time it shipped. At about 12 Mflops peak per CU, the machine as a whole would deliver up to 1.5 Gflops, although due to the memory latencies this was typically closer to 250 Mflops. While this was fast for a CMOS machine processor of the time, it was hardly competitive for a supercomputer. Nevertheless, the machine was air cooled, and would have been the fastest such machine on the market.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "368817", "title": "Zilog Z8000", "section": "Section::::Limited success.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 616, "text": "For those looking for pure performance, the Z8000 was the fastest CPU available in early 1979. However, this was true only for a period of a few months. The 16/32-bit Motorola 68000 came to market later the same year at 8 Mhz, and turns in a time of 0.49 seconds on the same test, over twice as fast as the Z8000. Although it used a larger 64-pin DIP layout, this was a small price to pay for what was by far the fastest processor of its era. It's 32-bit instructions and registers, combined with a 24-bit address bus with flat addressing, also made it much more attractive to designers, something Faggin admits to.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The Romans celebrated plenty of festivals, and I'll highlight a couple of the more important ones for you.\n\n* **Lupercalia:** This is possibly the most famous Roman festival, along with Saturnalia. It was celebrated during February (13-15) and it was a celebration of the health and fertility of the city of Rome. Probably the most famous ceremony of this festival is when two young men run around the Palatine clad in goatskin, holding strips of the skin of animals sacrificed earlier in the day. Crowds gathered to watch and women hoped to be whipped with these skins, believing it would make them fertile. An interesting anecdote occurred in 44BC, when the then-consul Mark Antony refused to participate in this Lupercalia tradition.\n\n\n* **Saturnalia:** Along with Lupercalia, this is a very famous Roman festival. Unsurprisingly, this was a festival honoring the god Saturn and was originally celebrated on December 17th, the solstice, but over the centuries the festivities spread between the 17th and 23rd. Everyone loved this festival, especially servants because on this feast day, their masters would wait on them in a fun (ish) role reversal. Also, gambling was permitted during these festivities, but was back to restricted for the rest of the year.\n\nedit; forgot a word!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "69361", "title": "Religious festival", "section": "Section::::By religion.:Ancient Roman.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 575, "text": "A major source for Roman holidays is Ovid's \"Fasti\", a poem that describes and provides origins for festivals from January to June at the time of Augustus. Because it ends with June, less is known about Roman festivals in the second half of the year, with the exception of the Saturnalia, a religious festival in honor of Saturn on December 17 that expanded with celebrations through December 23. Probably the best-known Roman festival, some of its customs, such as gift-giving and the prevalence of candles, are thought to have influenced popular celebrations of Christmas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33595910", "title": "Feriae Latinae", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 466, "text": "The Feriae Latinae or Latin Festival was an ancient Roman religious festival held in April on the Alban Mount. The date varied, and was determined and announced by the consuls each year when they took office. It was one of the most ancient festivals celebrated by the Roman state and is supposed to have predated the founding of Rome—in historical terms, to have dated to a pre-urban pastoral age. It continued to be held into the 3rd century AD, and perhaps later.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "312726", "title": "Roman festivals", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 991, "text": "Festivals in ancient Rome were a very important part of Roman religious life during both the Republican and Imperial eras, and one of the primary features of the Roman calendar. Feriae (\"holidays\" in the sense of \"holy days\"; singular also \"feriae\" or dies ferialis) were either public \"(publicae)\" or private \"(privatae)\". State holidays were celebrated by the Roman people and received public funding. Games \"(ludi)\", such as the Ludi Apollinares, were not technically \"feriae\", but the days on which they were celebrated were \"dies festi\", holidays in the modern sense of days off work. Although \"feriae\" were paid for by the state, \"ludi\" were often funded by wealthy individuals. \"Feriae privatae\" were holidays celebrated in honor of private individuals or by families. This article deals only with public holidays, including rites celebrated by the state priests of Rome at temples, as well as celebrations by neighborhoods, families, and friends held simultaneously throughout Rome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2396086", "title": "Roman Festivals (Respighi)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 552, "text": "Roman Festivals (Italian: Feste Romane) is a symphonic poem written in 1928 by the Italian composer Ottorino Respighi. It is the third orchestral work in his \"Roman trilogy\", preceded by \"Fountains of Rome \"(1916) and \"Pines of Rome\" (1924). Each of the four movements depict a scene of celebration from ancient or modern Rome. It is the longest and most demanding of the trilogy, and thus it is less-often programmed than its companion pieces. Its premiere was performed by the New York Philharmonic Orchestra with conductor Arturo Toscanini in 1929.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33653", "title": "Wheel of the Year", "section": "Section::::Festivals.:Beltane (May Eve).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 237, "text": "Traditionally the first day of summer in Ireland, in Rome the earliest celebrations appeared in pre-Christian times with the festival of Flora, the Roman goddess of flowers, and the Walpurgisnacht celebrations of the Germanic countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15786", "title": "July", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 217, "text": "In Ancient Rome, the festival of Poplifugia was celebrated on 5 July, and Ludi Apollinares was held on 13 July and for several days afterwards. However, these dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "822373", "title": "Caristia", "section": "Section::::On the calendar.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 622, "text": "In the first half of the 6th century, some Gallo-Romans still observed a form of the holiday with food offerings to the dead and a ritual meal. By then, however, the practice had come under suspicion as a \"pagan\" ritual, and the Council of Tours in 567 explicitly censured those who \"defiled\" the feast day of St. Peter. The observances were condemned by Caesarius of Arles as an excuse for drunkenness, dancing, singing, and other demonic behaviors. The suppression of traditional commemorations of the dead were part of increasing efforts by the Church to control and monopolize religious behaviors in Merovingian Gaul.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The heat capacity of water is much greater than air meaning it can absorb heat from the body much faster. This is basically the idea behind how you can reach into a newly opened oven without harm but dunking your hand into a casserole which was baking in there would hurt you.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Heat generally transfers from molecule to molecule. More molecules means faster heat transfer. The amount of molecules in a given volume is called density. Generally speaking, the denser a substance is, the better it is at transferring energy. Water is much denser than air. So, heat energy from your body will flow faster into water than it will into air. That's why cold water is more dangerous than cold air at the same temperature. The water will \"suck\" the heat out of you much faster than the air", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The easiest example to show you of this can be done with an easy experiment at home. Get some tin foil, or an item with both metal and non metal surfaces. Touch the metal / tin foil surface with one hand, and touch the non metal surface (carpet or plastic or w/e) with the other. \n\nDespite them both being the same temperature, the metal feels colder, because it is more efficient at drawing heat energy away from you, which your body perceives as cold. Water functions in a similar manner, although in this case it is more about conduction vs convection heat loss, which makes a big difference.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "146879", "title": "Hypothermia", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Water immersion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 552, "text": "Heat is lost much more quickly in water than in air. Thus, water temperatures that would be quite reasonable as outdoor air temperatures can lead to hypothermia in survivors, although this is not usually the direct clinical cause of death for those who are not rescued. A water temperature of can lead to death in as little as one hour, and water temperatures near freezing can cause death in as little as 15 minutes. A notable example of this occurred during the sinking of the \"Titanic\", when most people who entered the water died in 15–30 minutes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "305265", "title": "Underwater environment", "section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Thermal conductivity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 312, "text": "Water conducts heat around 25 times more efficiently than air. Hypothermia, a potentially fatal condition, occurs when the human body's core temperature falls below 35 °C. Insulating the body's warmth from water is the main purpose of diving suits and exposure suits when used in water temperatures below 25 °C.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24999087", "title": "Heat stroke", "section": "Section::::Treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 1183, "text": "Immersion in very cold water was once thought to be counterproductive by reducing blood flow to the skin and thereby preventing heat from escaping the body core. However, this hypothesis has been challenged in experimental studies, as well as by systematic reviews of the clinical data, indicating that cutaneous vasoconstriction and shivering thermogenesis do not play a dominant role in the decrease in core body temperature brought on by cold water immersion. This can be seen in the effect of submersion hypothermia, where the body temperature decrease is directly related to environmental temperature, and though bodily defenses slow the decrease in temperature for a time, they ultimately fail to maintain endothermic homeostasis. Dantrolene, a direct-acting paralytic which abolishes shuddering and is effective in many other forms of hyperthermia, including centrally-, peripherally- and cellularly-mediated thermogenesis, has no individual or additive effects to cooling in the context of heat stroke, showing a lack of endogenous thermogenic response to cold water immersion. Thus, aggressive ice-water immersion remains the gold standard for life-threatening heat stroke.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59156", "title": "Dry ice", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 346, "text": "Dry ice sublimates at , at Earth atmospheric pressures. This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing (frostbite). While generally not very toxic, the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia (abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood) due to buildup in confined locations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54637386", "title": "Physiology of underwater diving", "section": "Section::::Exposure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 591, "text": "Hypothermia is reduced body temperature that happens when a body dissipates more heat than it absorbs. Hypothermia is a major limitation to swimming or diving in cold water. The reduction in finger dexterity due to pain or numbness decreases general safety and work capacity, which consequently increases the risk of other injuries. Body heat is lost much more quickly in water than in air, so water temperatures that would be quite reasonable as outdoor air temperatures can lead to hypothermia in inadequately protected divers, although it is not often the direct clinical cause of death.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2798893", "title": "Atmospheric icing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 416, "text": "Atmospheric icing occurs in the atmosphere when water droplets freeze on objects they come in contact with. Icing conditions can be particularly dangerous to aircraft, as the built-up ice changes the aerodynamics of the flight surfaces, which can increase the risk of a stall. For this reason, on-board ice protection systems have been developed, and aircraft are often deiced prior to take-off in icy environments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "219367", "title": "Drowning", "section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Cold water immersion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 515, "text": "Heat transfers very well into water, and body heat is therefore lost extremely quickly in water compared to air, even in merely 'cool' swimming waters around 70F (~20C). A water temperature of can lead to death in as little as one hour, and water temperatures hovering at freezing can lead to death in as little as 15 minutes. This is because cold water can have other lethal effects on the body, so hypothermia is not usually a reason for drowning or the clinical cause of death for those who drown in cold water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The Second Industrial Revolution happened.\n\nGenerally considered to have started in 1870, the Second Industrial Revolution saw the development of a wide range of technologies, manufacturing techniques and chemicals that made many of the weapons and technologies of the First World War possible.\n\nMore efficient means of producing steel (and higher quality steel as well), the internal combustion engine, electrification, pneumatic tires, highly efficient steam engines for ships, increased mechanisation of manufacturing including the mechanical manufacturing of parts for manufacturing machines making them cheaper and standardising them, incandescent lightbulbs, increased production of petroleum, increased understandings of thermodynamics and metallurgy, ball bearings, fertilisers, bicycles, the telephone and much much more emerged from the is period.\n\nYou can probably see how these technologies contributed to the First World War, better steel coupled with better steam engines led to the expansion of ironclad ships and ultimately the first modern modern battleship HMS Dreadnought which kicked off a naval arms race. Developments in manufacturing coupled with increased understanding of metallurgy and new chemicals allowed bigger, more powerful guns to be created. Internal combustion led to powered flight and then the land ship more commonly known as the tank. The development of fertiliser cannot be underestimated as well. By being able to artificially replenish the nutrients in soil, crops could be reason in the same fields leading to an increase in food production which increases supply and in turn drives down prices. This allows nations to feed their people and keep their armies fed. It also allows them to have bigger armies and better manufacturing allows them to equip their armies with newer and bigger weapons. \n\nThis is an extremely vast topic and deserves a much more in depth answer then I have time to give but I'm sure a resident expert will be along shortly to provide a far better answer then this.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2148", "title": "Armoured fighting vehicle", "section": "Section::::Modern classification by type and role.:Self-propelled artillery.:Tank destroyer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 151, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 151, "end_character": 534, "text": "In post-Cold War conflict, the resurgence of expeditionary warfare has seen the emergence of gun-armed wheeled vehicles, sometimes called \"protected gun systems\", which may bear a superficial resemblance to tank destroyers, but are employed as direct fire support units typically providing support in low intensity operations such as Iraq and Afghanistan. These have the advantage of easier deployment, as only the largest air transports can carry a main battle tank, and their smaller size makes them more effective in urban combat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "972784", "title": "Military aviation", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 449, "text": "While they first appeared during World War I, ground attack aircraft didn't provide a decisive contribution until the Germans introduced Blitzkrieg during the Invasion of Poland and Battle of France, where aircraft functioned as mobile flying artillery to quickly disrupt defensive formations. The Allies would later use rocket-equipped fighters in the same role, immobilizing German armored divisions during the Battle of Normandy and afterwards. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "212341", "title": "History of the tank", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 843, "text": "Few recognised during World War I that the means for returning mobility and shock action to combat was already present in a device destined to revolutionise warfare on the ground and in the air. This was the internal combustion engine, which had made possible the development of the tank and eventually would lead to the mechanised forces that were to assume the old roles of horse cavalry and to loosen the grip of the machine-gun on the battlefield. With increased firepower and protection, these mechanised forces would, only some 20 years later, become the armour of World War II. When self-propelled artillery, the armoured personnel carrier, the wheeled cargo vehicle, and supporting aviation — all with adequate communications — were combined to constitute the modern armoured division, commanders regained the capability of manoeuvre.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48588189", "title": "Forward air control operations during the Korean War", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 569, "text": "Two different forward air control systems had emerged during World War II. The U.S. Army and its Air Corps had developed one system in the North African Campaign; the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps developed a different system in the Pacific Theater. The U.S. Army fought a conventional land war in North Africa, using its tactical air power to strike beyond the range of its artillery. The U.S. Marine fought an amphibious war as light infantry supported by little artillery fire; consequently, they directed air strikes on targets within 1,000 yards of their own forces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3358976", "title": "Rocket artillery", "section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 517, "text": "The Western Allies of World War II employed little rocket artillery. During later periods of the war, British and Canadian troops used the Land Mattress, a towed rocket launcher. The United States Army built and deployed a small number of turret-mounted T34 Calliope and T40 Whizbang rocket artillery tanks (converted from M4 Sherman medium tanks) in France and Italy. In 1945, the British Army also fitted some M4 Shermans with two 60 lb RP3 rockets, the same as used on ground attack aircraft and known as \"Tulip\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "326213", "title": "Technology during World War I", "section": "Section::::Air warfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 313, "text": "As with most technologies, aircraft and their use underwent many improvements during World War I. As the initial war of movement on the Western Front settled into trench warfare, aerial reconnaissance over the front added to the difficulty of mounting surprise attacks against entrenched and concealed defenders.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23000071", "title": "Environmental impact of war", "section": "Section::::Historical events.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 287, "text": "During World War II, new technology was used to create aircraft, which were used in air raids. Aircraft during the war were used for transporting resources from different military bases and dropping bombs on enemy, neutral, and friendly targets alike. These activities damaged habitats.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Whatever the artist feels he is owed is weighed against public appraisal. It’s supply and demand, but on a very intimate scale, that determines the price. That is to say, the worth of the piece is the highest value a person wishes to pay. If the artist accepts, then that will be the price at which it is sold.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8395427", "title": "Economics of the arts and literature", "section": "Section::::Market for artworks.:Price determination.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 839, "text": "Components of a work of art, like raw stone, tubes of paint or unpainted canvas, in general have a value much lower than the finished products, such as a sculpture or a finished painting. Also, the amount of labour needed to produce an item does not explain the big price differences between works of art. It seems that the value is much more dependent on potential buyers', and experts' perception of it. This perception has three elements: First, social value, which is the social status the buyer has by owning it. The artist thus has an \"artistic capital\". Second, the artistic value, compared to contemporary works, or as importance to later generations. Third, the price history of the item, if a buyer uses this for his expectation of a future price at which he might sell the item again (given the oligopolistic market structure).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "727478", "title": "Ten Thousand Villages", "section": "Section::::Artisan partners.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 759, "text": "Prices are determined by a combination of what the artisan believes fair and demand in the foreign market. Artisans are paid up-front fifty percent of the agreed-upon price in order to help them pay for the raw materials used in their products. The other fifty percent is paid once the products are complete. The artisans are paid in full before their products are sold in North America, even if they never get sold. Ten Thousand Villages’ marketing director Doug Dirks estimated that market prices abroad are up to five times what is paid to the artisan. He said that his company is willing to take that risk because they feel that it is important to what they do. Most of the artisans in these countries cannot obtain business loans from their local banks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2983120", "title": "Art auction", "section": "Section::::History.:21st century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 484, "text": "In the 21st Century, and especially since 2010, it has become more common for artworks to sell for prices in excess of $100m. Of the most expensive paintings of all time, most of those that sold for more than $100m were auctioned during or after 2010. The factors that can drive the price of a piece this high include the reputation of the artist, the age of the piece, the state of the art market, the piece's provenance, and the length of time since the piece was last up for sale.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "211295", "title": "Price", "section": "Section::::Confusion between prices and costs of production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 551, "text": "Price is commonly confused with the notion of cost of production, as in \"I paid a high cost for buying my new plasma television\"; but technically these are different concepts. Price is what a buyer pays to acquire products from a seller. Cost of production concerns the seller's expenses (e.g., manufacturing expense) in producing the product being exchanged with a buyer. For marketing organizations seeking to make a profit, the hope is that price will exceed cost of production so that the organization can see financial gain from the transaction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23225955", "title": "Art valuation", "section": "Section::::Valuing art.:Participant activity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 505, "text": "One of many factors in the primary market's price of a living artist's work is a dealer's contract with an artist: many dealers, as stakeholders in their artists' success, agree to buy their own stable of artists' work at auction in order to prevent price drops, to maintain price stability, or to increase perceived value, or all three, thus dealers bidding on their own artists at auction have a direct impact on the selling price for those artists' works and as a result, the valuation of those works.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23225955", "title": "Art valuation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 970, "text": "Art valuation, an art-specific subset of financial valuation, is the process of estimating either the market value of works of art. As such, it is more of a financial rather than an aesthetic concern, however, subjective views of cultural value play a part as well. Art valuation involves comparing data from multiple sources such as art auction houses, private and corporate collectors, curators, art dealer activities, gallerists (gallery owners), experienced consultants, and specialized market analysts to arrive at a value. Art valuation is accomplished not only for collection, investment, divestment, and financing purposes, but as part of estate valuations, for charitable contributions, for tax planning, insurance, and loan collateral purposes. This article deals with the valuation of works of fine art, especially contemporary art, at the top end of the international market, but similar principles apply to the valuation of less expensive art and antiques.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "212420", "title": "The Scream", "section": "Section::::Record sale at auction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 303, "text": "The previous record for the most expensive work of art sold at auction had been held by Picasso's \"Nude, Green Leaves and Bust\", which went for US$106.5 million at Christie's two years prior on 4 May 2010. As of 2018, the pastel remains the fourth highest nominal price paid for a painting at auction. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because a lot of people suffer from depression and better to make a joke of it than wallow in it. I think Reddit has almost helped me with my depression because I don't take it as seriously anymore.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Reddit is a fairly liberal place that likes to focus on fighting for marginalized causes. Depression and mental health are largely ignored in general society and affect a huge number of people, so naturally Reddit wants to talk about it. Also, since Reddit is an anonymous community, it is much easier to talk about our problems when we are anonymous than in person. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36156441", "title": "Logic-based therapy", "section": "Section::::Higher order premises.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 203, "text": "In this way, the depression can be traced back to a demand for perfection from which a person is deducing their own worthlessness, from which they are in turn deducing the horribleness of what happened.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39733154", "title": "Fear of missing out", "section": "Section::::Causes and correlations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 892, "text": "Scholars Dhir et al. discuss the potential for depression in relation to social media use and FOMO. They describe depression as an emotional state that does not allow an individual to feel things of pleasure or if they do, it is severely diminished. They go on to mention that depression often includes two extremes of emotion. This is when positives or good moods are low, and negatives or bad moods are high. Those who suffer from depression also experience feelings and symptoms of distress, sadness, anguish, and other extreme emotions. Depression interrupts daily activity and hinders one’s ability to concentrate, sleep, eat, or even move. Over the years, researchers have found out that social media use is a cause of depression. As individuals increase their media exposure, it leads them vulnerable to depression and can even make it worse with FOMO and other media based anxieties.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13190302", "title": "Evolutionary approaches to depression", "section": "Section::::Social navigation or niche change theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 1501, "text": "Thus depression may be a social adaptation especially useful in motivating a variety of social partners, all at once, to help the depressive initiate major fitness-enhancing changes in their socioeconomic life. There are diverse circumstances under which this may become necessary in human social life, ranging from loss of rank or a key social ally which makes the current social niche uneconomic to having a set of creative new ideas about how to make a livelihood which begs for a new niche. The social navigation hypothesis emphasizes that an individual can become tightly ensnared in an overly restrictive matrix of social exchange contracts, and that this situation sometimes necessitates a radical contractual upheaval that is beyond conventional methods of negotiation. Regarding the treatment of depression, this hypothesis calls into question any assumptions by the clinician that the typical cause of depression is related to maladaptive perverted thinking processes or other purely endogenous sources. The social navigation hypothesis calls instead for analysis of the depressive's talents and dreams, identification of relevant social constraints (especially those with a relatively diffuse non-point source within the social network of the depressive), and practical social problem-solving therapy designed to relax those constraints enough to allow the depressive to move forward with their life under an improved set of social contracts. This theory has been the subject of criticism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54301172", "title": "Well-being contributing factors", "section": "Section::::Other factors.:Modernity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 337, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 337, "end_character": 216, "text": "Many people believe it is the increased number of pressures and expectations, increased isolation, increased individualism, and increased inactivity that contribute to higher rates of depression in modern societies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8389", "title": "Major depressive disorder", "section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 126, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 126, "end_character": 903, "text": "The term \"depression\" is used in a number of different ways. It is often used to mean this syndrome but may refer to other mood disorders or simply to a low mood. People's conceptualizations of depression vary widely, both within and among cultures. \"Because of the lack of scientific certainty,\" one commentator has observed, \"the debate over depression turns on questions of language. What we call it—'disease,' 'disorder,' 'state of mind'—affects how we view, diagnose, and treat it.\" There are cultural differences in the extent to which serious depression is considered an illness requiring personal professional treatment, or is an indicator of something else, such as the need to address social or moral problems, the result of biological imbalances, or a reflection of individual differences in the understanding of distress that may reinforce feelings of powerlessness, and emotional struggle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14754086", "title": "S100A10", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Depression.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 517, "text": "Depression is a widespread, debilitating disease affecting persons of all ages and backgrounds. Depression is characterized by a plethora of emotional and physiological symptoms including feelings of sadness, hopelessness, pessimism, guilt, a general loss of interest in life, and a sense of reduced emotional well-being or low energy. Very little is known about the underlying pathophysiology of clinical depression and other related mood-disorders including anxiety, bipolar disorder, ADD, ADHD, and Schizophrenia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26975661", "title": "Symptoms of victimization", "section": "Section::::Categories of outcomes.:Psychological.:Depression.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1089, "text": "Depression has been found to be associated with many forms of victimization, including sexual victimization, violent crime, property crime, peer victimization, and domestic abuse. Indicators of depression include irritable or sad mood for prolonged periods of time, lack of interest in most activities, significant changes in weight/appetite, activity, and sleep patterns, loss of energy and concentration, excessive feelings of guilt or worthlessness, and suicidality. The loss of energy, interest, and concentration associated with depression may impact individuals who have experienced victimization academically or professionally. Depression can impact many other areas of a person's life as well, including interpersonal relationships and physical health. Depression in response to victimization may be lethal, as it can result in suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. Examples of this include a ten-fold increase found in suicide attempts among rape victims compared to the general population, and significant correlations between being victimized in school and suicidal ideation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Rabbits have a reputation of breeding prolifically, which leads to their reputation of having sex very often.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26573", "title": "Rabbit", "section": "Section::::In art, literature, and culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 110, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 110, "end_character": 423, "text": "Rabbits are often used as a symbol of fertility or rebirth, and have long been associated with spring and Easter as the Easter Bunny. The species' role as a prey animal with few defenses evokes vulnerability and innocence, and in folklore and modern children's stories, rabbits often appear as sympathetic characters, able to connect easily with youth of all kinds (for example, the Velveteen Rabbit, or Thumper in Bambi).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33064179", "title": "Rabbits and hares in art", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 381, "text": "Rabbits and hares are common motifs in the visual arts, with variable mythological and artistic meanings in different cultures. The rabbit as well as the hare have been associated with moon deities and may signify rebirth or resurrection. They may also be symbols of fertility or sensuality, and they appear in depictions of hunting and spring scenes in the Labours of the Months.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23221", "title": "Playboy", "section": "Section::::Features and format.:Rabbit logo.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 264, "text": "The jaunty rabbit was quickly made into a popular symbol of extroverted male culture, becoming a lucrative source of merchandizing revenue for Playboy. In the 1950s, it was adopted as the military aircraft insignia for the Navy's VX-4 fighter-evaluation squadron.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1545323", "title": "Rabbits (film)", "section": "Section::::Use in psychological research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 268, "text": "\"Rabbits\" was used as a stimulus in a psychological experiment on the effects of acetaminophen on existential crisis. The research, in a paper entitled \"The Common Pain of Surrealism and Death\" suggested that acetaminophen acted to suppress the effects of surrealism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "249601", "title": "Isle of Portland", "section": "Section::::Culture.:Rabbits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 620, "text": "Rabbits have long been associated with bad luck on Portland. Use of the name is still taboo—the creatures are often referred to as \"underground mutton\", \"long-eared furry things\" or just \"bunnies\". The origin of this superstition is obscure (there is no record of it before the 1920s) but it is believed to derive from quarry workers. They would see rabbits emerging from their burrows immediately before a rock fall and blame them for increasing the risk of dangerous, sometimes deadly, landslides. If a rabbit was seen in a quarry, the workers would go home for the day, until the safety of the area had been assured.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53735838", "title": "The Rabbits' Wedding", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 736, "text": "The Rabbits' Wedding is a children's picture book created and illustrated by American author and illustrator Garth Williams, who came to the fore as a writer after his success as an illustrator with \"Stuart Little\". \"The Rabbits' Wedding\" was published on April 30, 1958, and depicted the love affair and wedding of two bunnies, one white and one black. The following year it became the center of a controversy in the state of Alabama when Edward Oswell Eddins, State Senator from Marengo County, claimed the book was \"propaganda for integration and intermarriage\". Alabama's State Library Agency director, Emily Wheelock Reed, faced censorship challenges over the book at the height of the Civil Rights Movement in the American South.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26573", "title": "Rabbit", "section": "Section::::In art, literature, and culture.:Folklore and mythology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 122, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 122, "end_character": 213, "text": "The rabbit as trickster is a part of American popular culture, as Br'er Rabbit (from African-American folktales and, later, Disney animation) and Bugs Bunny (the cartoon character from Warner Bros.), for example.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Memory typically refers to RAM (random access memory) where as SSD (solid state drive) refers to storage.\n\nEasiest way to know the difference is think of RAM as a work table and SSD or other storage device like a hard drive as storage cabinets. \n\nIf you want to work on a project, you can only use as many tools (aka apps) as you have room on your work bench. If you run out of room on your work bench but need something else, you'll have to put something away in the cabinets and search for the new thing you need, pull it out and put it on the work bench to use. The bigger your work bench, the more stuff you can use at one time. The bigger the cabinets, the more stuff you can have in total, whether using it or not. \n\nThings like editing software take up a lot of room on the work bench. Games can too. Games also take up a lot of room in your storage cabinet. Things like pictures are tiny and take up little room on the work bench, but can add up in your storage cabinets if you have enough of them", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Memory is temporary storage, similar to your brains \"working memory\". It controls how much stuff you can have \"in-flight\" or be working on/thinking about simultaneously (e.g., many browser tabs).\n\nSSD is like you brain's long term memory. A big, slow data store for things you want to refer to much later, like a word document or your garage code.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7366298", "title": "Solid-state drive", "section": "Section::::Comparison with other technologies.:Memory cards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 105, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 105, "end_character": 316, "text": "While both memory cards and most SSDs use flash memory, they serve very different markets and purposes. Each has a number of different attributes which are optimized and adjusted to best meet the needs of particular users. Some of these characteristics include power consumption, performance, size, and reliability.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7366298", "title": "Solid-state drive", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 131, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 131, "end_character": 635, "text": "Due to their generally prohibitive cost versus HDD's at the time, until 2009, SSDs were mainly used in those aspects of mission critical applications where the speed of the storage system needed to be as high as possible. Since flash memory has become a common component of SSDs, the falling prices and increased densities have made it more cost-effective for many other applications. Organizations that can benefit from faster access of system data include equity trading companies, telecommunication corporations, and streaming media and video editing firms. The list of applications which could benefit from faster storage is vast.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22348455", "title": "Memory virtualization", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 262, "text": "Memory virtualization is also different from storage based on flash memory such as solid-state drives (SSDs) - SSDs and other similar technologies replace hard-drives (networked or otherwise), while memory virtualization replaces or complements traditional RAM.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7366298", "title": "Solid-state drive", "section": "Section::::Architecture and function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 228, "text": "The key components of an SSD are the controller and the memory to store the data. The primary memory component in an SSD was traditionally DRAM volatile memory, but since 2009 it is more commonly NAND flash non-volatile memory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7366298", "title": "Solid-state drive", "section": "Section::::Architecture and function.:Memory.:DRAM-based.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 258, "text": "SSDs based on volatile memory such as DRAM are characterized by very fast data access, generally less than 10 microseconds, and are used primarily to accelerate applications that would otherwise be held back by the latency of flash SSDs or traditional HDDs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "622962", "title": "Single system image", "section": "Section::::Features of SSI clustering systems.:Single IPC space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 273, "text": "Some SSI systems allow processes on different nodes to communicate using inter-process communications mechanisms as if they were running on the same machine. On some SSI systems this can even include shared memory (can be emulated with Software Distributed shared memory).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7366298", "title": "Solid-state drive", "section": "Section::::Comparison with other technologies.:Memory cards.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 807, "text": "In contrast, memory cards (such as Secure Digital (SD), CompactFlash (CF), and many others) were originally designed for digital cameras and later found their way into cell phones, gaming devices, GPS units, etc. Most memory cards are physically smaller than SSDs, and designed to be inserted and removed repeatedly. There are adapters which enable some memory cards to interface to a computer, allowing use as an SSD, but they are not intended to be the primary storage device in the computer. The typical CompactFlash card interface is three to four times slower than an SSD. As memory cards are not designed to tolerate the amount of reading and writing which occurs during typical computer use, their data may get damaged unless special procedures are taken to reduce the wear on the card to a minimum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's pretty much a huge case of fomo with the placebo effect. You see a bunch of people doing something and your mind thinks that the might be something triggering it that effects you so you begin to physically manifest something like an uncontrollable urge to dance or some kind of sickness", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "247836", "title": "List of mass hysteria cases", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 345, "text": "In sociology and psychology, mass hysteria (also known as \"mass psychogenic illness\", \"collective hysteria\", \"group hysteria\", or \"collective obsessional behavior\") is a phenomenon that transmits collective illusions of threats, whether real or imaginary, through a population in society as a result of rumors and fear (memory acknowledgement).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14313934", "title": "Mass psychogenic illness", "section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 441, "text": "Mass psychogenic illness involves the spread of illness symptoms through a population where there is no viral or bacterial agent responsible for contagion. MPI is distinct from other types of collective delusions in that MPI involves physical symptoms. According to Balaratnasingam and Janca, \"Mass hysteria is to date a poorly understood condition. Little certainty exists regarding its etiology\". Qualities of MPI outbreaks often include:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14313934", "title": "Mass psychogenic illness", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 427, "text": "Mass psychogenic illness (MPI), also called mass sociogenic illness, mass psychogenic disorder, epidemic hysteria, or mass hysteria, is \"the rapid spread of illness signs and symptoms affecting members of a cohesive group, originating from a nervous system disturbance involving excitation, loss, or alteration of function, whereby physical complaints that are exhibited unconsciously have no corresponding organic aetiology\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "184000", "title": "Hysteria", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 404, "text": "Hysteria colloquially means ungovernable emotional excess. Generally, modern medical professionals have abandoned using the term \"hysteria\" to denote a diagnostic category, replacing it with more precisely defined categories, such as somatization disorder. In 1980, the American Psychiatric Association officially changed the diagnosis of \"hysterical neurosis, conversion type\" to \"conversion disorder\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1397641", "title": "Elaine Showalter", "section": "Section::::Summaries of major works.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 1041, "text": "In \"Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and Modern Media\" (1997) Showalter argues that hysteria, a medical condition traditionally seen as feminine, has persisted for centuries and is now manifesting itself in cultural phenomena in the forms of socially and medically accepted maladies. Psychological and physical effects of unhappy lives become \"hysterical epidemics\" when popular media saturate the public with paranoid reports and findings, essentially legitimizing, as Showalter calls them, \"imaginary illnesses\" (\"Hystories\", cover). Showalter says \"Hysteria is part of everyday life. It not only survives in the 1990s, but it is more contagious than in the past. Newspapers, magazines, talk shows, self-help books, and of course the Internet ensure that ideas, once planted, manifest themselves internationally as symptoms\" (Plett). This view has caused Showalter to be criticized by patient's rights groups and medical practitioners, who argue that Showalter, with no formal medical training, is not qualified to make this determination.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14313934", "title": "Mass psychogenic illness", "section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 237, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Mass motor hysteria\" \"consists of abnormalities in motor behaviour. It occurs in any age group and prior tension is present. Initial cases can be identified and the spread is gradual. . . . [T]he outbreak may be prolonged.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "184000", "title": "Hysteria", "section": "Section::::Origin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 588, "text": "Historically, hysteria was thought to manifest itself in women (female hysteria) with a variety of symptoms, including: anxiety, shortness of breath, fainting, insomnia, irritability, nervousness, as well as sexually forward behaviour. These symptoms mimic symptoms of other more definable diseases and create a case for arguing against the validity of hysteria as an actual disease, and it is often implied that it is an umbrella term for an indefinable illness. One of the early definitive works on hysteria was Paul Briquet's study involving 400 hysterical patients from 1849 to 1859.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's been cut.\n\nAs long as the outside of the cheese is entirely the outside of the cheese (the rind), the cheese will have a substantial shelf life. As soon as you cut it, opening up the more moist interior to oxidation, mold, and bacteria, it has a shelf life. That being said, some cheese (like parmigiano reggiano) will, in my experience, simply get rock hard when kept for too long, rather than spoiling in some way that makes them inedible.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I worked in the cheese department at a grocery store where cheese wedges are cut from big wheels and there are a lot of fancy, expensive cheeses. When we would cut pieces off the wheel we would put a price tag with a certain \"expiration date\" on them but when the cheeses were getting close to that date we would just re-wrap them and put new price labels on them...We would also cut off mold spots and re-wrap them to sell. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The majority of these comments are accurate but there's one thing I've seen to be mentioned.\nCheese is a very tricky food, it requires much care and handling.\nCheese isn't just packaged then thrown in some guys basement to age, it is kept inside of temperature/humidity controlled areas to reduce/increase moisture and so on. Also a reason why you will see cave aged cheese sometimes. Different kinds of conditions make for a different kind of cheese, it's just about knowing what you want from your cheese!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The most common cause of cheese \"going bad\" in my experience is mold. Mold growth is easy to prevent in a controlled cheese aging facility. In your kitchen it's damn near guaranteed. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Cheese is more than a dairy product that you add to your eggs or pizza. It's essentially a living creature. A fungus really. It's a carefully controlled rot of milk, salt, and rennet. When it's mixed right, kept in the right environment it will grow and age into wonderful fully grown cheese. It's similar to beef. Why does beef have a short shelf life. It's been just put in a field or a barn or what have you for years. It's because once you kill the cow cut off the bits you want, the meat will start to spoil. Once you crack a wheel of cheese it died. Unless you are good about keeping the exposed bits sealed. But once the cheese is cut up and packaged. It's a dead part of a once living organism and will succumb to the mold and bacteria that live inside it that make it, well cheese.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The sell by date is to comply with government and/or corporate standards. It's not a \"becomes poison\" date.\n\nMost cheeses can still be eaten long past their sell-by date as long as they don't visibly look bad (mold, dried out, weeping), or smell off (ammonia smells, especially, are not a good sign). If the cheese still presents as a perfectly good cheese, you can eat it. If there's mold on the cheese, you can usually scrape it off and eat the rest. \n\nAs for why cheeses tend to go bad when technically they're already \"rotten\", that's because part of the cheese making process is to figure out what the optimal age for a cheese is. I mean, you still want to make a product that tastes good. The cheese companies know what age makes a good cheddar, gouda, parmigiano, etc. and produce and sell cheese according to that timeframe. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How do they pack all that cheese flavor into a bite sized cracker?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Mostly because you dont have the condition to keep cheese in the same environment that it was aged in. Plus in most countries it is law to have expiration date on all products even if it last forever(Honey/salt/sugar). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "French here, most French cheese does not have an expiration date or I haven't heard of a French trowing old cheese. As I get it here, the oldest it gets, the stinkier it becomes. And stinkier = better. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "17055183", "title": "Types of cheese", "section": "Section::::Moisture: soft to hard.:Semi-hard or hard cheese.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 473, "text": "Harder cheeses have a lower moisture content than softer cheeses. They are generally packed into moulds under more pressure and aged for a longer time than the soft cheeses. Cheeses that are classified as semi-hard to hard include the familiar Cheddar, originating in the village of Cheddar in England but now used as a generic term for this style of cheese, of which varieties are imitated worldwide and are marketed by strength or the length of time they have been aged.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25492013", "title": "Clochette", "section": "Section::::Life cycle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 318, "text": "Clochette cheese is created mainly during the summertime, from March to sometime in fall. It is mold-ripened and matures for two weeks before heading off to be sold. It only lasts for 45 days, so it has to sell fast. The older it gets, the more wrinkly it gets, until finally it is too old and can no longer be eaten.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "349558", "title": "Gorgonzola", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 572, "text": "During the aging process metal rods are quickly inserted and removed, creating air channels that allow the mold spores to grow into hyphae and cause the cheese's characteristic veining. Gorgonzola is typically aged for three to four months. The length of the aging process determines the consistency of the cheese, which gets firmer as it ripens. There are two varieties of Gorgonzola, which differ mainly in their age: Gorgonzola Dolce (also called Sweet Gorgonzola) and Gorgonzola Piccante (also called Gorgonzola Naturale, Gorgonzola Montagna, or Mountain Gorgonzola).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5192955", "title": "Danbo", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 215, "text": "The cheese is typically aged between 12 and 52 weeks in rectangular blocks of , coated with a bacterial culture. The culture is washed off at the end of the aging cycle, and the cheese is packaged for retail sales.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6936", "title": "Cheddar cheese", "section": "Section::::Process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 637, "text": "\"Cheddaring\" refers to an additional step in the production of Cheddar cheese where, after heating, the curd is kneaded with salt, cut into cubes to drain the whey, and then stacked and turned. Strong, extra-mature Cheddar, sometimes called vintage, needs to be matured for 15 months or more. The cheese is kept at a constant temperature, often requiring special facilities. As with other hard cheese varieties produced worldwide, caves provide an ideal environment for maturing cheese; still, today, some Cheddar cheese is matured in the caves at Wookey Hole and Cheddar Gorge. Additionally, some versions of Cheddar cheese are smoked.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28139506", "title": "Pecorino Toscano", "section": "Section::::The cheese.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 267, "text": "The cheese is ready to be eaten after a maturation period of just twenty days. However, it is generally regarded as a hard cheese, frequently used for grating, and to achieve this characteristic hard texture, the cheese should be left alone for at least four months.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29319967", "title": "Cheese ripening", "section": "Section::::Process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 365, "text": "After the initial manufacturing process of the cheese is done, the cheese ripening process occurs. This process is especially important, since it defines the flavour and texture of the cheese, which differentiates the many varieties. Duration is dependent on the type of cheese and the desired quality, and typically ranges from \"three weeks to two or more years\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I know that the VRAM (video RAM) is only faster because it can be without losing stability. \n\nThere are also less compatibility issues, because it serves only one purpose, and doesn't have to juggle tasks. \n\nI hope someone else can expand on this, but that's what I know for sure. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "GDDR, similar to GPUs are very parallel in design.\n\nSo while you might have \"dual channel\" or \"triple channel\" memory slots on a system board, GDDR memory can be arranged into 8, 16, or 32 parallel channels on the graphics circuit board. This yields nearly linear performance gains in memory throughput since memory chips are accessed in parallel. For this to work efficiently, this requires that the graphics chip itself is also designed to be massively parallel (unlike CPUs) with hundreds (or thousands) of cores / shader processing units that are all loaded up between ticks and all fired simultaneously on the clock tick.\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "VRAM is dual ported DRAM, it can read/write at the same time. This is necessary since VRAM is used as a frame buffer, so you can ouput the final image in the frame buffer without blocking the GPU.\n\nThe rest of the speed increases generally come from configuration of the Graphics Card and how a GPU works. VRAM is technically not faster but just has a wider bus.\n\nCPU's do sequentual work. Today we use 64bit architectures which will read/write in chunks of 64bits into memory.\n\nA GPU, does vector math, so instead of having a single register to operate on one 64bit value, they'll operate on an array of 64bit values. A GPU will need to pull out a lot of values out of memory to do an operation so the VRAM has a wider bus to pull out an array of values much faster. So instead of reading a 64 bit value, a 512b bus can read 8 64bit values at once.\n\nGenerally reading multiple values has a higher latency, so for a CPU to use VRAM it would actually be slower because it would increase the latency for a CPU and would still only be able to read/write in chunks of 64bit. For a GPU the additional latency is offset by being able to read/write more values at once.\n\nedit: I modified my answer based on telling someone else why a CPU would not get benefit from VRAM. I feel like it explains how the differences of a CPU/GPU differ and why the GPU just needs a different type of ram. It may also be oversimplified on the GPU end... ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8192994", "title": "ATI video card suffixes", "section": "Section::::Descriptions/Common Features.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 478, "text": "BULLET::::- Clock Speeds: This is the clock speed that the graphics core and video RAM run at; they do not need to be the same. The faster the clock speed, the more the graphics core and/or video RAM can accomplish in a second. All modern video cards use DDR SDRAM, which, for all performance issues, is twice as fast as its actual clock speed indicates. All clock speeds mentioned here for DDR RAM are their effective \"DDR speeds,\" and their actual clock speeds are half that.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "93807", "title": "Synchronous dynamic random-access memory", "section": "Section::::Generations.:SDR.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 98, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 98, "end_character": 275, "text": "This type of SDRAM is slower than the DDR variants, because only one word of data is transmitted per clock cycle (single data rate). But this type is also faster than its predecessors EDO-RAM and FPM-RAM which took typically two or three clocks to transfer one word of data.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3879451", "title": "Gaming computer", "section": "Section::::Custom-built gaming computers.:Memory.:DDR memory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 438, "text": "DDR (Double Data Rate) memory is essential for any computer system. Adding more memory allows the CPU to address more data for it to quickly access instead of reading off a comparatively slow disk drive or solid-state storage device. DDR RAM also has much lower latency than its GDDR counterpart and much lower bandwidth as the CPU relies on being able to change small amounts of data quickly. The latest standard of DDR memory is DDR4L.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55349", "title": "RAM drive", "section": "Section::::Performance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 283, "text": "The performance of a RAM drive is in general orders of magnitude faster than other forms of storage media, such as an SSD, hard drive, tape drive, or optical drive. This performance gain is due to multiple factors, including access time, maximum throughput, and type of file system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "399520", "title": "List of interface bit rates", "section": "Section::::Bandwidths.:Graphics processing units' RAM.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 261, "text": "Because of this variability, graphics memory speeds are sometimes compared per pin. For direct comparison to the values for 64-bit modules shown above, video RAM is compared here in 64-lane lots, corresponding to two chips for those devices with 32-bit widths.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "156210", "title": "MSX", "section": "Section::::History.:Adoption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 487, "text": "A problem for some game software developers was that the method by which MSX-1 computers addressed their video RAM could be quite slow compared to systems that gave direct access to the video memory. This, and the fact that the completely different features the MSX-1's video chip (using the MSX Video access method) had to compensate for the slower video access were not efficiently used while porting (mostly Spectrum) software, made the MSX-1 appear slower when running ported games.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18979136", "title": "MSX Video access method", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 619, "text": "The TMS9918A's method of accessing the video RAM is slower than direct access, as used in unified-memory computers, because accessing video memory involved first outputting the low- then the hi-byte of the (14-bit) video memory address to I/O port $99, then one or more bytes of 8-bit data to port $98. After each write, the memory pointer advances to the next address, so consecutive addresses can be written to with repeated OUT instructions to $98. Z80 had as fast OTIR/OTDR block instructions which could be used instead of LDIR/LDDR, still, allowed VRAM access rate was restricted unless during vertical blanking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you have the DVD/Blu-Ray sets, watch the behind-the-scenes extras. \n\nThese nature photographers spend months and months working to catch the perfect moment (really makes the viewer marvel and appreciate their contributions to public knowledge).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "325634", "title": "Life on Earth (TV series)", "section": "Section::::Filming techniques.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 640, "text": "Several special filming techniques were devised to obtain some of the footage of rare and elusive animals. One cameraman spent hundreds of hours waiting for the fleeting moment when a rare frog, which incubates its young in its mouth, finally spat them out. Another built a replica of a mole rat burrow in a horizontally mounted wheel, so that as the mole rat ran along the tunnel, the wheel could be spun to keep the animal adjacent to the camera. To illustrate the motion of bats' wings in flight, a slow-motion sequence was filmed in a wind tunnel. The series was also the first to include footage of a live (although dying) coelacanth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18011919", "title": "Life (British TV series)", "section": "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 737, "text": "New camera technology was used to build on the cinematic techniques first employed in \"Planet Earth\", notably the pioneering use of stabilised helicopter-mounted cameras. The \"Life\" crew succeeded in using gyroscopic stabilisation to create steady shots from moving vehicles, even on rough terrain, allowing the cameras to track alongside reindeer and elephant herds for the first time. Miniature high-definition cameras were used extensively for the \"Insects\" programme. In the forests of Mexico, the crew erected a spider's web of cables in the canopy to give the sense of flying alongside millions of monarch butterflies. In Zambia, they filmed from a hot air balloon to avoid disturbing the huge flocks of straw-coloured fruit bats.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38102511", "title": "Life on Fire", "section": "Section::::Cinematography and Archives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 262, "text": "Cinematographers have been using innovative techniques seen in other wildlife series, such as Cineflex or Phantom cameras. But they also developed some special artisanal tools, as revealed by some behind the scenes clips on the US or French Home Video editions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "375327", "title": "Zoopraxiscope", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1411, "text": "The zoöpraxiscope (initially named \"zoographiscope\" and \"zoogyroscope\") is an early device for displaying moving images and is considered an important predecessor of the movie projector. It was conceived by photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge in 1879 (and built for him by January 1880 to project his famous chronophotographic pictures in motion and thus prove that these were authentic). Muybridge used the projector in his public lectures from 1880 to 1895. The projector used 16\" glass disks onto which Muybridge had an unidentified artist paint the sequences as silhouettes. This technique eliminated the backgrounds and enabled the creation of fanciful combinations and additional imaginary elements. Only one disk used photographic images, of a horse skeleton posed in different positions. A later series of 12\" discs, made in 1892–1894, used outlines drawn by Erwin F. Faber that were printed onto the discs photographically, then colored by hand. These colored discs were probably never used in Muybridge's lectures. All images of the known 71 disks, including those of the photographic disk, were rendered in elongated form to compensate the distortion of the projection. The projector was related to other projecting phenakistiscopes and used some slotted metal shutter discs that were interchangeable for different picture disks or different effects on the screen. The machine was hand-cranked. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4436357", "title": "Meerkat Manor", "section": "Section::::Production details.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 738, "text": "The show was primarily filmed using Sony DSR-570 cameras, although special equipment was needed for some unique footage. For scenes inside the animals' burrows, mini fibre-optic infra-red cameras were employed; wide-angle shots were filmed with a seven-metre crane and a remote-controlled camera platform. An off-camera wireless microphone was also used to record many meerkat vocalizations, only partially audible to cameras' on-board systems. Most filming was done by a single cameraman and a single sound engineer; researchers have required a minimal human presence to avoid stressing the animals. Eye-level shots were difficult to achieve at times, due to the meerkats' small size and the limited height of even the smallest tripods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1462860", "title": "Camera dolly", "section": "Section::::Movement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 410, "text": "The camera dolly may be used as a shooting platform on any surface but is often raised onto a track, to create smooth movement on a horizontal axis known as a tracking shot. Additionally, most professional film studio dollies have a hydraulic jib arm that raises or lowers the camera on the vertical axis. When a dolly grip operates a dolly on perpendicular axes simultaneously, it's known as a compound move.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2646394", "title": "Come Outside", "section": "Section::::Animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 452, "text": "Many other animals took part in \"Come Outside\". Specially-shot footage included snails from London Zoo, frogs at Chester Zoo, geese at Folly Farm in Gloucestershire, rabbits at Tilgate Nature Centre in West Sussex, butterflies in the Butterfly Centre, Eastbourne, hedgehogs supplied by St. Tiggywinkles Animal Hospital and spiders from a private collection. In addition archive shots were provided by the BBC's Natural History Film Library in Bristol.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It really *really* depends on where you're trying to get geothermal energy from. In Iceland, which has tons of volcanic activity and gets all its electricity from geothermal, electricity prices are about half the cost in other Nordic countries.\n\nHowever, in almost every other part of the world, you'd have to drill 5-10 times deeper than in Iceland to reach rock hot enough to run a steam turbine. The extra cost, plus the difficulty in getting water in and steam out of such a deep hole, make geothermal energy impractical.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13021878", "title": "Geothermal power", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 359, "text": "Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable, renewable source of energy because the heat extraction is small compared with the Earth's heat content. The greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal electric stations are on average 45 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of electricity, or less than 5 percent of that of conventional coal-fired plants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1055890", "title": "Sustainable energy", "section": "Section::::Renewable energy sources.:Geothermal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 592, "text": "Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable, renewable source of energy because the heat extraction is small compared with the Earth's heat content. The greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal electric stations are on average 45 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of electricity, or less than 5 percent of that of conventional coal-fired plants. As a source of renewable energy for both power and heating, geothermal has the potential to meet 3-5% of global demand by 2050. With economic incentives, it is estimated that by 2100 it will be possible to meet 10% of global demand.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4432542", "title": "Renewable heat", "section": "Section::::Leading renewable heat technologies.:Geothermal heating.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 331, "text": "Geothermal energy is accessed by drilling water or steam wells in a process similar to drilling for oil. Geothermal energy is an enormous, underused heat and power resource that is clean (emits little or no greenhouse gases), reliable (average system availability of 95%), and homegrown (making populations less dependent on oil).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11492908", "title": "Renewable energy in Africa", "section": "Section::::Renewable energy use.:Geothermal power.:Finance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 479, "text": "Exploration and construction of future geothermal plants present a high cost for poor countries. Drilling potential sites alone costs millions of dollars and can result in zero energy return if the consistency of the heat and steam is unreliable. Return on investments into geothermal power are not as quick as those into fossil fuels and may take years to pay off; however, low-maintenance cost and the renewable nature of geothermal energy mean more benefits in the long term.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14090587", "title": "Low-carbon power", "section": "Section::::Examples of low carbon power technology.:Geothermal power.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 312, "text": "Geothermal power is considered to be sustainable because the heat extraction is small compared to the Earth's heat content. The emission intensity of existing geothermal electric plants is on average 122 kg of per megawatt-hour (MW·h) of electricity, a small fraction of that of conventional fossil fuel plants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25778061", "title": "List of power stations in Ethiopia", "section": "Section::::Lists of ICS power plants.:Renewable energies.:Geothermics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 260, "text": "The energy conversion efficiency of geothermal energies is low, at 10-15%, so that the released thermal energy is much larger than the obtained electrical energy. But thermal energy does not cost anything, so a low energy conversion efficiency does not hurt. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13021878", "title": "Geothermal power", "section": "Section::::History and development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1034, "text": "The thermal efficiency of geothermal electric stations is low, around 7–10%, because geothermal fluids are at a low temperature compared with steam from boilers. By the laws of thermodynamics this low temperature limits the efficiency of heat engines in extracting useful energy during the generation of electricity. Exhaust heat is wasted, unless it can be used directly and locally, for example in greenhouses, timber mills, and district heating. The efficiency of the system does not affect operational costs as it would for a coal or other fossil fuel plant, but it does factor into the viability of the station. In order to produce more energy than the pumps consume, electricity generation requires high-temperature geothermal fields and specialized heat cycles. Because geothermal power does not rely on variable sources of energy, unlike, for example, wind or solar, its capacity factor can be quite large – up to 96% has been demonstrated. However the global average capacity factor was 74.5% in 2008, according to the IPCC.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I can't answer your question directly, but you might try x-posting this /r/japan", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can't read all of it--the vertical text on the sides is quite difficult and I will leave it to somebody else. But the text on the top 国報身 献、is a wartime slogan that means something like 'serve the country, give up one's body' and the name of the soldier on the bottom horizontal text, I think, is Hisanaga Takeshi. It also gives the family name of the Lieutenant General of his unit (I'm assuming), which was Tominaga and would probably help in locating his family. It's also dated Showa 18 or 1943. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "565971", "title": "1943 in aviation", "section": "Section::::Events.:September.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 278, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 278, "end_character": 380, "text": "BULLET::::- Finding the red in the national insignia adopted in June 1943 for its military aircraft could cause confusion with Japanese markings during combat, the United States adopts a new marking consisting of a white star centered in a blue circle flanked by white rectangles, with the entire insignia outlined in blue . The new marking will remain in use until January 1947.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "320622", "title": "Genpei War", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 283, "text": "In addition, this war and its aftermath established red and white, the colors of the Taira and Minamoto standards, respectively, as Japan's national colors. Today, these colors can be seen on the flag of Japan, and also in banners and flags in sumo and other traditional activities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11535807", "title": "Rising Sun Flag", "section": "Section::::History and design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 537, "text": "It was historically used by the \"daimyō\" (大名) and Japan's military, particularly the Imperial Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy. The ensign, known in Japanese as the , was first adopted as the war flag on May 15, 1870, and was used until the end of World War II in 1945. It was re-adopted on June 30, 1954, and is now used by the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF). The Japan Self-Defense Forces (JSDF) and Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF) use a variation of the Rising Sun Flag with red, white and gold colors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "144954", "title": "Flag of Japan", "section": "Section::::History.:U.S. occupation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 458, "text": "The \"Hinomaru\" was the \"de facto\" flag of Japan throughout World War II and the occupation period. During the occupation of Japan after World War II, permission from the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAPJ) was needed to fly the \"Hinomaru\". Sources differ on the degree to which the use of the \"Hinomaru\" flag was restricted; some use the term \"banned;\" however, while the original restrictions were severe, they did not amount to an outright ban.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29525672", "title": "World War II Allied names for Japanese aircraft", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1018, "text": "During the first year of the Pacific War beginning on 7 December 1941, Allied personnel often struggled to quickly, succinctly, and accurately identify Japanese aircraft encountered in combat. They found the Japanese designation system bewildering and awkward, as it allocated two names to each aircraft. One was the manufacturer's alphanumeric project code, and the other was the official military designation, which consisted of a description of the aircraft plus the year it entered service. For example, the military designation of the Mitsubishi A5M fighter was the \"Navy Type 96 Carrier Fighter\". Type 96 meant that the aircraft had entered service in Imperial year 2596, equivalent to Gregorian calendar year 1936. Other aircraft, however, which had entered service the same year carried the same type number; aircraft such as the Type 96 Carrier Bomber and the Type 96 Land Attack Bomber. Adding to the confusion, the US Army and US Navy each had their own different systems for identifying Japanese aircraft.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "202484", "title": "Friendly fire", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 483, "text": "During World War II, \"invasion stripes\" were painted on Allied aircraft to assist identification in preparation for the invasion of Normandy. Similar markings had been used when the Hawker Typhoon was first introduced into use as it was otherwise very similar in profile to a German aircraft. Late in the war the \"protection squadron\" that covered the elite German jet fighter squadron as it landed or took off were brightly painted to distinguish them from raiding Allied fighters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "565971", "title": "1943 in aviation", "section": "Section::::Events.:June.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 145, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 145, "end_character": 450, "text": "BULLET::::- June 28 – To increase the visibility of the national insignia on its military aircraft, the United States replaces the marking adopted in June 1942 with a new marking consisting of a white star centered in a blue circle flanked by white rectangles, with the entire insignia outlined in red . The new marking containing the red graphic elements will cause confusion with Japanese markings and will remain in use only until September 1943.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "People are always leaving and moving up even when an army downsizes. Ergo there are always needs for replacements at the bottom. \n\nNow you may not get to be a helicopter pilot. There is always need in the infantry", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a high turnaround in the military. A lot people join the military for a temporary job once they graduate high school. They only serve for a couple of years because: they need money for college, they figure it's a cheap way to learn a trade (mechanic, technician, driver, etc.) their parents kicked them out and they a need place to go, they have dreams of being war heroes but are quickly disenchanted, etc. Once they meet their short term goals, they leave the military and continue on with their lives. In this case, they always need new recruits to fill in the gaps.\n\nIn some, it depends on the current government policies. If you have military happy government, recruiters will lower the standards and accept more people. If the government cuts military funding, fewer people are accepted.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "People leave the military a lot.\n\nEnd of contract, injuries, KIA, suicides, etc...\n\nSo they always have openings.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1) Drafts are no longer in effect in most countries so they only have volunteers, which means they have to recruit. \n\n2) There are always people leaving the military (retirement, medical discharge, behavioral discharge, death) and those people have to be replaced. That means that they have to recruit all the time. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most people join the military for a few years, so they need to keep replenishing the ranks since people keep leaving the military. They can use various financial incentives, training program access, how much advertising, etc. to control their immediate needs. Also often has to do with how the general job market is how hard they have to recruit.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "37879363", "title": "Elaboration principle", "section": "Section::::Recruitment.:Military.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 770, "text": "The most popular age group to recruit for the military is the youth population, because many youth are opting out of going to college because of the economic times and financial positions. \"The recruiting process involves national and local advertising to efficiently supply information on a widespread basis; informational visits by recruiters to schools and student groups; traveling military exhibits to provide information to schools and the public; direct mail advertising and telephone solicitation to identify interested youth; web sites to provide information on military services; and contacts and visits with recruiters to qualify leads and to assist youth in gaining needed information about the decision to enlist and the selection of a particular Service.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "938728", "title": "Military service", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 205, "text": "Some nations with armed forces do not conscript their personnel (e.g. most NATO and European Union states). Instead, they promote military careers to attract and select recruits; see military recruitment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3135672", "title": "Military recruitment", "section": "Section::::In the United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 661, "text": "The American military has had recruiters since the time of the colonies in the 1700s. Today there are thousands of recruiting stations across the United States, serving the Army, Navy, Marines, and Air Force. Recruiting offices normally consist of 2–8 recruiters between the ranks of E-5 and E-7. When a potential applicant walks into a recruiting station his or her height and weight are checked and their background investigated. A finger print scan is conducted and a practice ASVAB exam is given to them. Applicants can not officially swear their enlistment oath in the recruiting office. This is conducted at a Military Entrance Processing Station – MEPS.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3135672", "title": "Military recruitment", "section": "Section::::Outreach and marketing.:Early years.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 1054, "text": "The process of attracting children and young people to military employment begins in their early years. In Germany, Israel, Poland, the UK, the US, and elsewhere, the armed forces visit schools frequently, including primary schools, to encourage children to enlist once they become old enough to do so. For example, a poster used by the German armed forces in schools reads: \"After school you have the world at your feet, make it safer.\" [\"Nach der Schule liegt dir die Welt zu Füßen, mach sie sicherer.\"] In the US, recruiters have right of access to all schools and to the contact details of students, and are encouraged to embed themselves into the school community. A former head of recruitment for the British Army, Colonel (latterly Brigadier) David Allfrey, explained the British approach in 2007:\"Our new model is about raising awareness, and that takes a ten-year span. It starts with a seven-year-old boy seeing a parachutist at an air show and thinking, 'That looks great.' From then the army is trying to build interest by drip, drip, drip.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38824110", "title": "Match Day (medicine)", "section": "Section::::Military.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 275, "text": "Members of the U.S. military participate in their own selection process for programs located at military hospitals, clinics, and bases. The military selection usually occurs in mid-December to allow students who did not match to participate in other national matching plans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3135672", "title": "Military recruitment", "section": "Section::::Outreach and marketing.:Public realm.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 299, "text": "Recruiters use civic space to promote their military organisation. Among the methods used are recruitment stalls in public spaces, air shows; military amusement parks, such as Patriot Park in Russia; national days, such as the Belgian national day and military parade; and annual armed forces days.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32212", "title": "United States Armed Forces", "section": "Section::::Personnel.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 300, "text": "It is an all-volunteer military, but conscription through the Selective Service System can be enacted at the president's request and Congress' approval. All males ages 18 through 25 who are living in the United States are required to register with the Selective Service for a potential future draft.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They spend years failing to land on their feet. Its an enormous amount of practice, and even then they aren't always perfect.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "47319", "title": "Vault (gymnastics)", "section": "Section::::Routines.:Scoring and rules.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 304, "text": "Gymnasts are expected to land cleanly, with no hops or steps, and within a set landing zone on the landing mat. They must also demonstrate good technique and execution in the actual vault. Falling or stepping on landing incurs deduction, as will lack of height off the table, or distance from the table.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1137930", "title": "Foot gymnastics", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 314, "text": "Foot gymnastics are games and exercises intended to strengthen the muscles of legs and feet, improve the motion sequences of walking and sports, support therapy of varicose veins and dorsal pain. Such activities are recommended to improve flat feet especially of children and the gait performance of older adults.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10134942", "title": "Flying rings", "section": "Section::::The Performance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 748, "text": "To start a routine, the gymnast jumped or was lifted until he could grasp the rings; then an assistant pulled or pushed him, starting his swing. At the end of each arc the gymnast would do \"pikes\", \"dislocates\" or \"front\" or \"back-uprises\" to build up height. A typical routine would show a number of \"flying\" \"dislocates\" or \"inlocates\" (a dislocate leading directly to a \"support\" above the rings or a handstand was called a \"flange\"). The performer might also do additional moves typical of the still rings while in flight, such as a \"flying cross\". After several passes the routine would end with a (usually) spectacular \"dismount\", normally off a front swing - with fellow gymnasts in place, prepared to help break a fall if the move failed. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12551", "title": "Gymnastics", "section": "Section::::FIG-recognized disciplines.:Artistic gymnastics.:Artistic events for women.:Vault.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 1314, "text": "In the vaulting events, gymnasts sprint down a runway, jump onto a springboard (or perform a roundoff or handspring entry onto a springboard), land momentarily inverted on the hands on the vaulting horse or vaulting table (pre-flight segment), then propel themselves forward or backward off that platform to a two-footed landing (post-flight segment). Every gymnast starts at a different point on the vault runway depending on their height and strength. The post-flight segment may include one or more multiple saltos, somersaults, or twisting movements. A round-off entry vault, called a Yurchenko, is the most common vault in the higher levels in gymnastics. When performing a Yurchenko, gymnasts \"round off\" so their hands are on the runway while their feet land on the springboard. From the roundoff position, the gymnast travels backwards and executes a back handspring so that the hands land on the vaulting table. The gymnast then blocks off the vaulting platform into various twisting and/or somersaulting combinations. The post-flight segment brings the gymnast to her feet. In the lower levels of gymnastics, the gymnasts do not perform this move. These gymnasts will jump onto the springboard with both feet at the same time and either do a front handspring onto the vault or a roundoff onto the vault.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "230835", "title": "Uneven bars", "section": "Section::::Routines.:Scoring and rules.:Apparatus specific rules.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 210, "text": "Gymnasts are permitted to tape their hands or use grips or hand guards on bars level 4 through elite. Their coaches are also permitted to apply chalk and/or water to the bars to ensure gymnasts don't slip off.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47319", "title": "Vault (gymnastics)", "section": "Section::::Routines.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 603, "text": "To perform a vault, the gymnast runs down a runway (the run), which is usually padded or carpeted. They hurdle onto a springboard and spring onto the vault with their hands (the preflight or first flight, and block). For vaults in the Yurchenko family, the gymnast will put their hands onto a mat that is placed before the springboard, round-off onto the board, and do a back handspring onto the vault. The off-flight may be as simple as leaping over the apparatus or as complicated as executing several twists and turns in the air. The gymnast then lands on the mat on the other side of the apparatus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "230835", "title": "Uneven bars", "section": "Section::::Routines.:Scoring and rules.:Apparatus specific rules.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 255, "text": "Unlike high bar and rings in MAG, gymnasts may not be lifted to the uneven bars to begin their routines. They may mount the apparatus with either a simple or a difficult skill, on either the high or low bar; running mounts and springboards are permitted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because your school years were the most formative years of your life.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You can think of it as a very, very mild form of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).\n\nBasically, you dream of it because you went through it. If someone does go broke and lives on the streets or get very sick enough that it impacts their life, they will probably have nightmares about being back in that situation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8754635", "title": "Zadok HaKohen", "section": "Section::::Ideas.:Tzidkas HaTzaddik.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 204, "text": "You can learn a lot about a person from his dreams. What we dream is a reflection of who we are. It is the measure of our aspirations and goals, and of those values we hold dear and place above all else.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61121463", "title": "Corazón rebelde", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 265, "text": "This group of teenagers will discover that they have more in common than they imagined, they are united by the same passion and can forget their problems through music; but their parents and even the school principal are opposed to somehow fulfilling their dreams.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "185307", "title": "Magical thinking", "section": "Section::::In children.:Grieving children.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 335, "text": "It was discovered that children often feel that they are responsible for an event or events occurring or are capable of reversing an event simply by thinking about it and wishing for a change: namely, \"magical thinking\". Make-believe and fantasy are an integral part of life at this age and are often used to explain the inexplicable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14236113", "title": "How Children Fail", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 466, "text": "When children are very young, they have natural curiosity about the world, trying diligently to figure out what is real. As they become \"producers\" rather than \"thinkers,\" they fall away from exploration and start fishing for the right answers with little thought. They believe that they must always be right and so quickly forget mistakes and how the mistakes were made. They believe that the only good response from the teacher is a yes and that a no is a defeat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3188174", "title": "Early childhood", "section": "Section::::Psychology.:Cognitive growth and development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1107, "text": "Called the preoperational stage by Jean Piaget, this is the stage during which the child repeatedly asks \"Why?\", and is used to build relationships with the child. The child can't yet perform the abstract thinking operations. The child has to be able to see what is being talked about, because they do not understand the concepts of logic, betrayal, contemplation, etc. This means that they think literally: if a child is told that they have to go to bed because \"night is falling\", they will ask how can the night (literally) fall from the sky. They also see the human characteristics in every object, e.g. the table \"is bad\" if they accidentally hit it with their foot and it hurts. They also exhibit egocentrism; not to be confused with egoism; that being said, they do not comprehend that the other person has beliefs and the children at this age think that what they think, everybody thinks. There is also a matter of perceptive centration, which causes the children to primarily see what is visually most prominent on someone/something, e.g. if a man has long hair, the child will think he's a woman.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "422247", "title": "Self-awareness", "section": "Section::::Infancy and early childhood.:Piaget.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 1222, "text": "Around school age a child's awareness of personal memory transitions into a sense of one's own self. At this stage, a child begins to develop interests along with likes and dislikes. This transition enables the awareness of an individual's past, present, and future to grow as conscious experiences are remembered more often. As a preschooler, they begin to give much more specific details about things, instead of generalizing. For example, the infant will talk about the Los Angeles Lakers basketball team, and the New York Rangers hockey team, instead of the infant just stating that he likes sports. Furthermore, they will start to express certain preferences (e.g., Tod likes mac and cheese) and will start to identify certain possessions of theirs (e.g., Lara has a bird as a pet at home). At this age, the infant is in the stage Piaget names the \"pre operational\" stage of development. The infant is very inaccurate at judging themselves because they do not have much to go about. For example, an infant at this stage will not associate that they are strong with their ability to cross the jungle gym at their school, nor will they associate the fact that they can solve a math problem with their ability to count.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46232205", "title": "Ma Byujiyepachi", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 341, "text": "A girl narrates her day to day life and tells how her parents discriminate between son and daughter. She wants to read as her brother but she is tangled in daily chores. She thinks this is only her bad dream and one day she thinks she will wake up from this dream, maybe to find herself in some world where there will not be discrimination.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In terms of quality and variety, I would assume you are right. Although, they had vats of wine, honey, and all sorts of cheeses and wild game, I imagine the quality was not great. \n\nIt's also interesting how the gap between leaders and citizens has been closed / widened since then. \n\nThis White House State Dinner menu is great, but in-line with any business dinner I would have here in NYC. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nWhereas in several countries, say, Saudi Arabia, Cuba, India, China, Brazil, the citizens are eating way worse than leaders. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Whether the food itself was of a higher quality is pretty subjective, I suppose, although I'd venture that health standards are a lot better in your modern kitchen than a medieval one. There have been some pretty infamous cases of badly-cooked medieval food - most notoriously Henry I's supposed demise after a case of serious indigestion following a meal of Lamprey pie, his favourite dish (albeit against the advice of his doctor - Lamprey is very easy to cook badly, as it goes off very easily). However, what you should consider is just how rich medieval royal food tended to be, and how predominantly meaty it was - that alone, I'd argue, meant that the medieval monarch ate far worse than the modern man, even if his food tasted better. Vegetables were not common to the table as meat was, and what meat there was tended to be roasted and dripping with fat. Honestly, an enjoyable look at the diet of the medieval royals is the _URL_0_ Supersizers Medieval program. It's witty and informative, so give it a look!\n\nDo remember, however, that considering the outliers of modern people will give you examples of people who ate less healthily than monarchs - but in doing so you'd be considering a sample size of about seven billion in comparison with one that's probably in the thousands. On average, I'd venture, someone today **will** eat better than your typical medieval royal.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Actually, the quality of the cuisine was generally pretty good, if you're talking about how good it would have tasted. As (and it's embarrassing to admit) a Medieval food enthusiast, I can personally vouch for how tasty the food was. It was generally very similar to the modern foods of whatever country you're looking at. Pasties have been around, in one form or another, for a *very* long time. The major documents like the Forme of Cury were recorded because they were the king's, and so forth, so we know less about the smaller manors (much less about food that wasn't being consumed by VIPs), but they probably ate similar foods.\n\nThe flavoring ingredients, the spices and herbs, were imported from all over, and they would have been dried, so they'd keep a long time. Vinegar and oil keep well, too. And there was probably a bigger variety of spices back then! As (I think) a status symbol, courtly food often called for very exotic spices like cubebs, imported from (I think) Madagascar, and grains of paradise, from Ethiopia, which are very hard to find nowadays. Cinnamon and ginger, brought from the East, were especially popular. \n\nAs for variety in the diet, royalty actually did pretty well with that, too. There were large varieties of meats and fish available. Hunting was a regular occurrence and people ate, if anything, more varieties of meat than they do now. Because of religious days, fish was mandated many, many days of the year, and fish is pretty good for you. Apparently fish was called for so often that there are books with writing in the margins that say \"I am so sick of fish,\" and some recipe books suggest that beavers, since they lived in the water, could be considered fish.\n\nVegetables were also pretty varied within the diet, although more things are available now. Again, the kings and queens would have had large gardens to supply whatever was in season. Medieval recipes don't include as many vegetables as modern ones, but they were there. Medieval palates seem to have loved sweetness, as a lot of dishes, sweet and savory, include fruit.\n\nThere was also cheese and other dairy. Cheese tends to keep pretty well. Different countries have different kinds of cheese, and hard cheeses keep better than the others. Again, since stuff was consumed in quantity, I would imagine spoilage wasn't an issue with stuff like milk and cream.\n\nThere were also plenty of starches - there was lots of bread. As a side note, whole grains were actually good for medieval teeth, as they have a scouring effect on the teeth.\n\nSince we're talking about royalty, meat/fish spoilage wouldn't have been an issue, as the meat and fish would be consumed right away in large quantities. Plus, there was available game year-round. Certain vegetables would be kept in root cellars, etc, and they did find ways to keep things from spoiling (after all, it's not like rotten fruit or veg tastes very good).\n\nIn general, we know more about nutrition than people did back then, so we are more conscious of bringing variety into our diets, whereas Medieval royalty was more about flavor and flash (banquets could, for example, feature porpoise as a dish, no doubt served whole as a dramatic platter). Because the more expensive things like meat, cheese, etc taste better, the diet was probably not as balanced between meat and non-meat as it is now.\n\nStill, the Medieval palate had some interesting tastes, and I find it pretty enjoyable to connect with history in such a sensory way. If you're interested, I can post some recipes, etc.\n\nedit: clarity", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10928780", "title": "Early modern European cuisine", "section": "Section::::Foods.:Meats.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 667, "text": "European consumption of meat remained exceptional by world standards, and during the period high levels generally moved down the social scale. But the poor continued to rely mainly on eggs, dairy products, and pulses for protein. Often they did better in the less populated regions, where wild game and fish could still easily be found. The richer nations, especially England, ate considerably more meat than the poorer ones. In some areas, especially Germany and the Mediterranean counties, the meat consumption of ordinary people actually declined, beginning in about 1550, and continuing throughout the period. Increasing population seem to lie behind this trend.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21955305", "title": "Food history", "section": "Section::::19th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 611, "text": "Laborers in Western Europe in the 18th century ate bread and gruel, often in a soup with greens and lentils, a little bacon, and occasionally potato or a bit of cheese. They washed it down with beer (water usually was too contaminated), and a sip of milk. Three fourths of the food was derived from plants. Meat was much more attractive, but very expensive. By 1870 the West European diet was at about 16 kilos per person per year of meat, rising to 50 kilos by 1914, and 77 kilos in 2010. Milk, and cheese, was seldom in the diet-- even in the early 20th century, it was still uncommon in Mediterranean diets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16531537", "title": "Industrious Revolution", "section": "Section::::Patterns of consumption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 850, "text": "The patterns of consumption present in England at this time period were similar to what one might find in Europe, as well as in some of the Ottoman territories. This is unsurprising, however, since most of Europe and the Ottoman Empire were all connected through trade. Through these trade connections, people were able to buy many of the luxury goods that they desired. Very common amongst the nobility was the idea of Conspicuous consumption. This can be traced back, even into the Middle Ages. People, the nobility especially, had trade connections throughout Europe, and many of them would use these connections to buy the works of art, etc. that they desired. This does not extend only to the rich however: even Medieval peasants enjoyed imported luxury items; there is evidence to suggest that some English peasants drank imported French wine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20167", "title": "Mexican cuisine", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 372, "text": "After the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the 16th century, Europeans introduced a number of other foods, the most important of which were meats from domesticated animals (beef, pork, chicken, goat, and sheep), dairy products (especially cheese and milk), and rice. While the Spanish initially tried to impose their own diet on the country, this was not possible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "77208", "title": "English cuisine", "section": "Section::::Quality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 1190, "text": "English cuisine in the twentieth century suffered from a poor international reputation. Keith Arscott of Chawton House Library comments that \"at one time people didn't think the English knew how to cook and yet these [eighteenth and nineteenth century] female writers were at the forefront of modern day cooking.\" English food was popularly supposed to be bland, but English cuisine has made extensive use of spices since the Middle Ages; introduced curry to Europe; and makes use of strong flavourings such as English mustard. It was similarly reputed to be dull, like roast beef: but that dish was highly prized both in Britain and abroad, and few people could afford it; the \"Roast Beef of Old England\" lauded by William Hogarth in his 1748 painting celebrated the high quality of English cattle, which the French at the \"Gate of Calais\" (the other name of his painting) could only look at with envy. The years of wartime shortages and rationing certainly did impair the variety and flavour of English food during the twentieth century, but the nation's cooking recovered from this with increasing prosperity and the availability of new ingredients from soon after the Second World War.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31517226", "title": "Early impact of Mesoamerican goods in Iberian society", "section": "Section::::Non-social consequences.:State impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 363, "text": "If not for the incorporation of American \"miracle foods\", Europe may have not pulled out of its 16th-century cycles of hunger and starvation. The dependence on Spain and Portugal for New World goods perpetuated their colonization throughout the world. This, in turn, led to Spain and Portugal becoming the two leading world powers in the 16th and 17th centuries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7299", "title": "Colonialism", "section": "Section::::Impact of colonialism and colonisation.:Economy, trade and commerce.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 496, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 496, "end_character": 1040, "text": "For example, one interesting observation is \"the Reversal of Fortune\" – the less developed civilisations in 1500, like North America, Australia, and New Zealand, are now much richer than those countries who used to be in the prosperous civilisations in 1500 before the colonists came, like the Mughals in India and the Incas in the Americas. One explanation offered by the paper focuses on the political institutions of the various colonies: it was less likely for European colonists to introduce economic institutions where they could benefit quickly from the extraction of resources in the area. Therefore, given a more developed civilisation and denser population, European colonists would rather keep the existing economic systems than introduce an entirely new system; while in places with little to extract, European colonists would rather establish new economic institutions to protect their interests. Political institutions thus gave rise to different types of economic systems, which determined the colonial economic performance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In some cases they absolutely cannot, and must use a machine such as an \"iron lung\" or respirator.\n\nIn other cases, although their voluntary nerves aren't working, the other nerves that run automatic systems are still in good shape.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "194068", "title": "Blue-ringed octopus", "section": "Section::::Toxicity.:Treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 316, "text": "It is essential that rescue breathing be continued without pause until the paralysis subsides and the victim regains the ability to breathe on their own. This is a daunting physical prospect for a single individual, but use of a bag valve mask respirator reduces fatigue to sustainable levels until help can arrive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "293763", "title": "Phrenic nerve", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 241, "text": "The phrenic nerve arises from the neck (C3-C5) and innervates the diaphragm, which is much lower. Hence, patients suffering spinal cord injuries below the neck are still able to breathe effectively, despite any paralysis of the lower limbs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11296", "title": "First aid", "section": "Section::::Key skills.:Preserving life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 467, "text": "To save a person's life, you need to have an open airway so it makes a clear passage where air can go through the mouth or nose through the pharynx and down into the lungs, without obstruction. Conscious people will maintain their own airway automatically, but those who are unconscious (with a GCS of less than 8) may be unable to maintain a patent airway, as the part of the brain which automatically controls breathing in normal situations may not be functioning.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1053949", "title": "Spinal cord injury", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Cervical.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 352, "text": "Additional signs and symptoms of cervical injuries include low heart rate, low blood pressure, problems regulating body temperature, and breathing dysfunction. If the injury is high enough in the neck to impair the muscles involved in breathing, the person may not be able to breathe without the help of an endotracheal tube and mechanical ventilator.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "222836", "title": "Positional asphyxia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 355, "text": "BULLET::::- People may die from positional asphyxia by simply getting themselves into a breathing-restricted position they cannot get out of, either through the person's own carelessness, as a consequence of another accident, or where infants are placed in a position where the mouth and nose is blocked, or where the chest may be unable to fully expand.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "219367", "title": "Drowning", "section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Oxygen deprivation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 390, "text": "A conscious person will hold his or her breath (see Apnea) and will try to access air, often resulting in panic, including rapid body movement. This uses up more oxygen in the blood stream and reduces the time to unconsciousness. The person can voluntarily hold his or her breath for some time, but the breathing reflex will increase until the person tries to breathe, even when submerged.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27154", "title": "Epileptic seizure", "section": "Section::::Management.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 570, "text": "Treatments of a person that is actively seizing follows a progression from initial response, through first line, second line, and third line treatments. The initial response involves ensuring the person is protected from potential harms (such as nearby objects) and managing their airway, breathing, and circulation. Airway management should include placing the person on their side, known as the recovery position, to prevent them from choking. If they are unable to breathe because something is blocking their airway, they may require treatments to open their airway.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Pop stars maybe. Trust me, as an adolescent, I was obsessed with anything with breasts. I had Heather Locklear and Bo Derek posters all over my room. Pop is a lot more mainstream and the musicians (if you can call them that) get a lot more publicity today than in past times, thus they are more visible and people obsess via social media - which we never used to have.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Boy pop stars are marketed to girls.\n\nGirl pop stars are marketed to girls.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I am a man and I would bang the fuck out of Justin Bieber. Just saying.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "That phenomenon goes way back. Franz Liszt had panties thrown at him already, and the knights in tournaments received their tokens of favor too.\n\nI guess it comes down to hypergamy: women are attracted to social status. And a performer in front of a crowd, in combination with media campaigns are pretty effective way to simulate social status. And once enough girls start buying it, it becomes real social status.\n\nMen are attracted to fertility. That can be faked too, hence the cosmetics and fashion industry, and more than enough men fall for it as well. But the thing teenage boys look for they can find in all the girls around them in their daily lives. And often those girls are as unattainable to them as pop stars are to the girls.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because there are a whole bunch of other male icons for boys to obsess with. Sports superstars, male leads in movies, tv shows, animes, comic books, in addition to a number of male stars in music.\n\nBias also probably plays a role here, young boys would rather be dead than to be caught liking stuff that girls like and mercilessly made fun of by their other male friends.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Girls want boys that other girls want. Guys just want girls, any of them, it doesn't matter", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I agree with some of the other answers, as a once-adolescent girl with a once-adolescent brother, he had porn to watch, which gave him all the 'female' he needed in his life. I on the other hand, was of course told in various ways that porn is gross and for boys and girls never looked at that, and my friends were all PISSED if they found their boyfriend looked at any kind of porn etc. I was also warned extensively that any older male might possibly molest me and/or be a rapist or pedophile, so I should stay away from them and be disgusted by their sexuality. \n\nSo what good looking, in my age range, guys did I have? Boy bands. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Jo Koy explained this best. He was talking about how girls try to get backstage because they want status. But guys at a Madonna concert, when asked to go back stage would be like \"Why? There's a perfectly cute girl selling popcorn right there.\"\n\nIt's essentially biology. Guys want to pass on as much seed as possible, girls want their children to be taken care of, and more importantly obtain the \"best seed\" possible for their children. The \"best seed\" would come from those who have high status in the society.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I believe its called the sexy grandma hypothesis. Or something like that. If you have kids with bieber... Chances are your kids will inherit his traits. That means lots of people swooning over your kids. That means lots of grandkids. \n\nSo for a gal, theres a huge incentive to go for the popular guy (from an evolutionary standpoint). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because girls are allowed to like 'boy things' and 'girl things' but boys are only allowed to like 'boy things' because 'girl things' would be a step down because femininity is seen as weak and inferior.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "149920", "title": "Toy", "section": "Section::::Child development.:Age compression.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 613, "text": "Girls gravitate towards \"music, clothes, make-up, television talent shows and celebrities\". As young children are more exposed to and drawn to music intended for older children and teens, companies are having to rethink how they develop and market their products. Girls also demonstrate a longer loyalty to characters in toys and games marketed towards them. A variety of global toy companies have marketed themselves to this aspect of girls' development, for example, the Hello Kitty brand, and the Disney Princess franchise. Boys have shown an interest in computer games at an ever-younger age in recent years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33570472", "title": "Girls' toys and games", "section": "Section::::\"Age compression\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 613, "text": "Girls gravitate towards \"music, clothes, make-up, television talent shows and celebrities\". As young children are more exposed to and drawn to music intended for older children and teens, companies are having to rethink how they develop and market their products. Girls also demonstrate a longer loyalty to characters in toys and games marketed towards them. A variety of global toy companies have marketed themselves to this aspect of girls' development, for example, the Hello Kitty brand, and the Disney Princess franchise. Boys have shown an interest in computer games at an ever-younger age in recent years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39693193", "title": "Hookup culture", "section": "Section::::Adolescents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 632, "text": "Studies have shown that most high school girls are more interested in a relationship compared to high school boys, who are mostly interested in sex. Young women tend to be honest about their sexual encounters and experiences, while young men tend to lie more often about theirs. Another study shows that once a person has sex for their first time, it becomes less of an issue or big deal to future relationships or hook ups. During this study, it was shown that girls in high school do not care as much as boys do on having sex in a relationship. But, on the contrary, girls will have sex with their partner in order to match them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35025241", "title": "Media and American adolescent sexuality", "section": "Section::::Effects of the media on beliefs about sex.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 487, "text": "Some scholars feel that adolescents may turn to the media as a \"sexual super peer\" when seeking information about sexual norms and adult roles given the lack of information about sexuality readily available to them. For example, in one study of 13-and 14-year-olds, heavy exposure to sexually oriented television also increased acceptance of non-marital sex. Another study found that teens overestimate how many of their peers are sexually active, a problem contributed to by the media.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35025241", "title": "Media and American adolescent sexuality", "section": "Section::::Effects of the media on sexual behavior.:Early sexual activity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 571, "text": "Some studies have also found that adolescents whose media diet was rich in sexual content were more than twice as likely as others to have had sex by the time they were 16. In a Kaiser Family Foundation study, 76 percent of teens said that one reason young people have sex is because TV shows and movies make it seem normal for teens. In addition to higher likelihoods that an adolescent exposed to sexual content in the media will engage in sexual behaviors, they are also have higher levels of intending to have sex in the future and more positive expectations of sex.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3332155", "title": "Acting white", "section": "Section::::Case studies and research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 321, "text": "A fundamental drawback of much of the research so far is that the people studied have been asked to rate their own popularity in the eyes of others, which naturally brings those scores into question. Roland G. Fryer, Jr. has remarked, \"Asking teenagers whether they’re popular is like asking them if they’re having sex.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4015968", "title": "Generation Z", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Use of technology and social media.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 1194, "text": "One study has shown that teenagers in 2012 were more likely to share different types of information than teenagers in 2006 were. However, they will take certain steps to protect certain information that they do not want being shared. They are more likely to \"follow\" others on social media than \"share\" and use different types of social media for different purposes. Focus group testing found that while teens may be annoyed by many aspects of Facebook, they continue to use it because participation is important in terms of socializing with friends and peers. Twitter and Instagram are seen to be gaining popularity in member of Generation Z, with 24% (and growing) of teens with access to the Internet having Twitter accounts. This is, in part, due to parents not typically using these social networking sites. Snapchat is also seen to have gained attraction in Generation Z because videos, pictures, and messages send much faster on it than in regular messaging. Speed and reliability are important factors in members of Generation Z choice of social networking platform. This need for quick communication is presented in popular Generation Z apps like Vine and the prevalent use of emojis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's not clear from your question whether you mean new alleles (\"versions\" of genes) or whole new genetic loci (sections of the chromosome), but the answer is yes in both cases!\n\n[Crossing-over](_URL_0_) happens anywhere along the chromosome, both within and between genes. For this reason, after meiosis one gene can end up with its first section from one original chromosome and the rest from its [homologous chromosome](_URL_1_). If one allele has a mutation in the DNA code in the first half and the other has a mutation in the second half, meiosis can create a new pair of alleles: one with *both* mutations and the other with none.\n\nIn this way, brand new alleles can be created during crossing over by mixing up small DNA code changes that mutated independently in different ancestors. Cool!\n\nYou can also end up with entirely new genetic loci through [unequal crossing-over](_URL_3_). Normally homologous chromosomes line in the correct alignment, where each gene on one chromosome matches up with the same one on the other chromosome. But sometimes there are mistakes, especially if there are similar or repetitive DNA sequences on multiple locations on the chromosome. If this happens, you can get one chromosome to give up a chunk of DNA without getting the corresponding chunk back from its partner. This can cause [gene duplication](_URL_2_) in the recipient chromosome.\n\nA cell inheriting the chromosome that lost one or more genes is likely to have problems, but ones that got the extra gene will probably be just fine. In fact, having an extra copy of the gene can be really valuable for evolution, as one copy can be mutated to have a new function without losing the original functionality in the duplicate.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "364423", "title": "Genetic variation", "section": "Section::::Sources.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 217, "text": "Crossing over (genetic recombination) and random segregation during meiosis can result in the production of new alleles or new combinations of alleles. Furthermore, random fertilization also contributes to variation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9276466", "title": "Parthenogenesis", "section": "Section::::Types and mechanisms.:Automictic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 477, "text": "If \"terminal fusion\" (restitutional meiosis of anaphase II or the fusion of its products) occurs, a little over half the mother's genetic material is present in the offspring and the offspring are mostly homozygous. This is because at anaphase II the sister chromatids are separated and whatever heterozygosity is present is due to crossing over. In the case of endomitosis after meiosis, the offspring is completely homozygous and has only half the mother's genetic material.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2316934", "title": "Haplogroup", "section": "Section::::Haplogroup formation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 420, "text": "Other chromosomes, autosomes and X chromosomes in women, share their genetic material (called crossing over leading to recombination) during meiosis (a special type of cell division that occurs for the purposes of sexual reproduction). Effectively this means that the genetic material from these chromosomes gets mixed up in every generation, and so any new mutations are passed down randomly from parents to offspring.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29344406", "title": "Pseudolinkage", "section": "Section::::Not occur in translocation homozygote.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 403, "text": "During meiosis in a translocation homozygote, chromosomes segregate normally according to Mendelian principles. Even though the genes have been rearranged during crossover, both haploid sets of chromosomes in the individual have the same rearrangement. As a result, all chromosomes will find a single partner with which to pair at meiosis, and there will be no deleterious consequences for the progeny.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57546", "title": "Caenorhabditis elegans", "section": "Section::::Research use.:Notable findings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 929, "text": "Research into meiosis has been considerably simplified since every germ cell nucleus is at the same given position as it moves down the gonad, so is at the same stage in meiosis. In an early phase of meiosis, the oocytes become extremely resistant to radiation and this resistance depends on expression of genes \"rad51\" and \"atm\" that have key roles in recombinational repair. Gene \"mre-11\" also plays a crucial role in recombinational repair of DNA damage during meiosis. A study of the frequency of outcrossing in natural populations showed that selfing is the predominant mode of reproduction in \"C. elegans\", but that infrequent outcrossing events occur at a rate around 1%. Meioses that result in selfing are unlikely to contribute significantly to beneficial genetic variability, but these meioses may provide the adaptive benefit of recombinational repair of DNA damages that arise, especially under stressful conditions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4629978", "title": "Pseudoautosomal region", "section": "Section::::Pathology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 494, "text": "Pairing (synapsis) of the X and Y chromosomes and crossing over (recombination) between their pseudoautosomal regions appear to be necessary for the normal progression of male meiosis. Thus, those cells in which X-Y recombination does not occur will fail to complete meiosis. Structural and/or genetic dissimilarity (due to hybridization or mutation) between the pseudoautosomal regions of the X and Y chromosomes can disrupt pairing and recombination, and consequently cause male infertility.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7532297", "title": "Trichonympha", "section": "Section::::Description.:Life cycle.:Sexual reproduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 423, "text": "After fertilization the zygote undergoes meiosis. Meiosis I occurs a few hours after fertilization. During meiosis I the zygote’s chromosomes duplicate and the zygote divides. During meiosis I, the centromeres are not duplicated. After meiosis I, meiosis II occurs, during which the centromeres, but not the chromosomes, are duplicated, and the cell divides again. The overall result of meiosis is 4 haploid cells.        \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You can look at the fossil record and see periods of great diversity, many fossils , followed by periods of few fossils and little diversity with many of these species never reappearing , then anslow growth in diversity over millions of years you can infer extinction events took place.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your number is correct and we know different ways. \n\nI note that animals (and plants) go extinct all the time but in order to be a mass extinction event the extinctions have to be within a similar time frame (happen over the same span of time which isn't just instant but can cover thousands of years - such as the current one in which other plants and animals are becoming extinct because of the growing human population).\n \nWe know because of fossil records showing a massive number of some species then \"poof\" suddenly none.. \n\nAs well we can study DNA to note bottlenecks of populations.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[The answer to your first question is here.](_URL_0_) Although there is evidence for life 3 odd billion years ago it was very simple single cellular in nature and it took billions of years for life to evolve to a point where animals etc as we know then evolved. Evidence for first multi cellular life is 1000 million years ago with the first animals 500 million years ago.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The first animal fossils in the fossil record are the [Ediacaran biota](_URL_0_), which emerged 635 million years ago, shortly after the Earth emerged from a global ice age known as the [Cryogenian](_URL_1_). Almost the entire planet froze over during the Cryogenian, so it would certainly have been a mass extinction on an epic scale if there had been lots of plants and animals around to go extinct, but there weren't; that all came later, and before that Earth was dominated by microbial communities which are resilient and resistant to extinction events, don't tend to fossilise and when they do fossilise they tend to look alike so it's really hard to tell if there's been a mass extinction when the only thing around to go extinct are bacteria.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Fossil evidence from before the Cambrian is generally too sketchy to identify the sudden extinction of many species. But there are several good candidates for mass extinction events: 1, the Great Oxidation Event; 2, the Snowball Earth events, and 3, the turnover of the Ediacaran biota just prior to the Cambrian explosion, though to some extent that may be a more gradual replacement. There's also been some argument for a mid-Permian extinction event lately based on new geological evidence.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's actually been more than five, but those five are the big ones.\n\nFor instance, there was a mass extinction event about 70,000 years ago which is believed to have been caused by an eruption of Mt. Toba on what is now Sumatra. While nothing compared to any of the Big Five, it is important to us because it's the most likely reason why our genetic pool bottle necked.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2068726", "title": "History of Earth", "section": "Section::::Phanerozoic Eon.:Extinctions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 250, "text": "The first of five great mass extinctions was the Ordovician-Silurian extinction. Its possible cause was the intense glaciation of Gondwana, which eventually led to a snowball earth. 60% of marine invertebrates became extinct and 25% of all families.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49417", "title": "Extinction", "section": "Section::::Mass extinctions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 728, "text": "There have been at least five mass extinctions in the history of life on earth, and four in the last 350 million years in which many species have disappeared in a relatively short period of geological time. A massive eruptive event is considered to be one likely cause of the \"Permian–Triassic extinction event\" about 250 million years ago, which is estimated to have killed 90% of species then existing. There is also evidence to suggest that this event was preceded by another mass extinction, known as Olson's Extinction. The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (K-Pg) occurred 66 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period, and is best known for having wiped out non-avian dinosaurs, among many other species.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9813", "title": "Extinction event", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 797, "text": "The Great Oxygenation Event, which occurred around 2.45 billion years ago, was probably the first major extinction event. Since the Cambrian explosion five further major mass extinctions have significantly exceeded the background extinction rate. The most recent and arguably best-known, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which occurred approximately million years ago (Ma), was a large-scale mass extinction of animal and plant species in a geologically short period of time. In addition to the five major mass extinctions, there are numerous minor ones as well, and the ongoing mass extinction caused by human activity is sometimes called the sixth extinction. Mass extinctions seem to be a mainly Phanerozoic phenomenon, with extinction rates low before large complex organisms arose.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10029", "title": "Timeline of the evolutionary history of life", "section": "Section::::Extinction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 260, "text": "The first known mass extinction in earth's history was the Great Oxygenation Event 2.4 billion years ago. That event led to the loss of most of the planet's obligate anaerobes. Researchers have identified five major extinction events in earth's history since:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "162780", "title": "Megafauna", "section": "Section::::Megafaunal mass extinctions.:Timing and possible causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 582, "text": "A number of other mass extinctions occurred earlier in Earth's geologic history, in which some or all of the megafauna of the time also died out. Famously, in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event the non-avian dinosaurs and most other giant reptilians were eliminated. However, the earlier mass extinctions were more global and not so selective for megafauna; i.e., many species of other types, including plants, marine invertebrates and plankton, went extinct as well. Thus, the earlier events must have been caused by more generalized types of disturbances to the biosphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9813", "title": "Extinction event", "section": "Section::::Major extinction events.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 590, "text": "In a landmark paper published in 1982, Jack Sepkoski and David M. Raup identified five mass extinctions. They were originally identified as outliers to a general trend of decreasing extinction rates during the Phanerozoic, but as more stringent statistical tests have been applied to the accumulating data, it has been established that multicellular animal life has experienced five major and many minor mass extinctions. The \"Big Five\" cannot be so clearly defined, but rather appear to represent the largest (or some of the largest) of a relatively smooth continuum of extinction events.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9813", "title": "Extinction event", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 599, "text": "An extinction event (also known as a mass extinction or biotic crisis) is a widespread and rapid decrease in the biodiversity on Earth. Such an event is identified by a sharp change in the diversity and abundance of multicellular organisms. It occurs when the rate of extinction increases with respect to the rate of speciation. Estimates of the number of major mass extinctions in the last 540 million years range from as few as five to more than twenty. These differences stem from the threshold chosen for describing an extinction event as \"major\", and the data chosen to measure past diversity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Those guys are also not particularly transparent. Since Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy, the country's budget and state investment funds are also the royal family's own wallet, whereas \"conventional\" billionaires own far more easily detectable corporate assets.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are thousands of Saudi royals. Saudi Arabia is similar to Germany just after its formation where you have a lot of kingdoms and principalities. You even have outlying kingdoms that is not part of the empire. The \"emperor\" of Saudi Arabia does not have full control over all the kingdoms. There are different tax systems and different laws depending on where you are. Some have full Sharia and some are quite progressive. So the income from oil is distributed to all the royals in Saudi Arabia and there is no one super rich individual. In addition the top wealth lists are very open to speculation. When you are rich you might want to hide your real fortune or it might be locked up in less tangible assets that is hard to value. A Saudi prince might get a $2B loan from the bank based on his connections and future oil income but does that mean he have $2B even though that is all debt?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Many of the billionaire lists specifically exclude heads of state from being eligible for inclusion on their list. If heads of state are included, it can become very hard to assign what is the head of state's personal property, is it the whole nation, some proportion of the nation, how do they treat the Queen of England (who made an agreement with the nation of England to trade their personal holdings for their expenses being paid). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's difficult to determine what's owned by a Saudi royal himself, and what's owned by the state because is royal family is the state. Royalty can pull directly from the state's coffers. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3662894", "title": "Nasser Ibrahim Al-Rashid", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 369, "text": "Nasser Ibrahim Al-Rashid (born 1939) () is a Saudi businessman. He is reputedly an influential advisor to the Saudi royal family and a US dollar billionaire. However he is not included in the \"Forbes\" list of the world's richest people as his personal wealth, like that of many Saudi insiders, cannot be assessed with much accuracy from publicly available information.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "349303", "title": "Saudi Arabia", "section": "Section::::Politics.:Monarchy and royal family.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 474, "text": "The Saudi government and the royal family have often, over many years, been accused of corruption. In a country that is said to \"belong\" to the royal family and is named for them, the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred. The extent of corruption has been described as systemic and endemic, and its existence was acknowledged and defended by Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family) in an interview in 2001.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27272", "title": "Politics of Saudi Arabia", "section": "Section::::National government.:Corruption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 468, "text": "The Saudi government and the royal family have often, and over many years, been accused of corruption. In a country that is said to \"belong\" to the royal family and is named after it, the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred. The corruption has been described as systemic and endemic, and its existence was acknowledged and defended by Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family) in an interview in 2001.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17369261", "title": "List of Saudis by net worth", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 240, "text": "This is a list of Saudi Arabians by net worth. It was compiled by \"Forbes\" magazine and released in the year 2008. This is a partial list of the richest people in Saudi Arabia. Other comprehensive lists are published by \"Arabian Business\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5127518", "title": "Mohammed Hussein Al Amoudi", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 707, "text": "Mohammed Hussein Ali Al-'Amoudi (, ) is a Saudi billionaire businessman. He was born in Ethiopia in 1946 to a Yemeni father and an Ethiopian mother. In 2016, his net worth was estimated by \"Forbes\" at approximately $10.9 billion and a relative fall in net value was linked to the global fall in oil and gold prices at the time of estimation. He was also listed as Ethiopia's richest man, the second richest Saudi Arabian citizen in the world and the second richest black person in the world. Al Amoudi made his fortune in construction and real estate before branching out to buy oil refineries in Sweden and Morocco. He is the largest individual foreign investor in Ethiopia and a major investor in Sweden.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42320611", "title": "Petro-Islam", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 201, "text": "Saudi Arabians viewed their oil wealth not as an accident of geology or history, but connected to religion—a blessing by God of them, to \"be solemnly acknowledged and lived up to\" with pious behavior.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51682774", "title": "Abdulaziz bin Mohammed al-Rabban", "section": "Section::::Biography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 214, "text": "Al Rabban was born and raised in Doha, and is currently one of the wealthiest men in Qatar. Though he is not directly related to anyone in the royal family, he married the daughter of a member of the royal family.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Broadly speaking, young people not voting shows there is a lack of engagement. This can mean they don't feel like anything will change, or can change. \n \nThis matters because for democracy to function properly (i.e. have checks and balances, a knowledgable electorate etc.) people actually have to give a damn. And what many young people don't realize is, they can make a difference.\n\nMost places, 18 year olds can vote. These are people in university/college, or starting in the work force. Governments play a major role in their lives (i.e. setting tuition levels and stuff like that), so if they have a vested interest in the outcome of the elections.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Whether it matters or not depends on what party you are in favour of. Young people overwhelmingly identify as democrat. So if you are in favour of democrat policies / a democrat president, the fact that young people feel that way but don't vote should matter greatly to you.\n\nIf you are republican, young people voting isn't necessarily an advantage to you, but you might still be very much in favour of everybody getting involved in the democratic process that elects the government. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It turns old people into the ruling class, so laws and policies are created in favor of their interests and views. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26317569", "title": "Maturity (psychological)", "section": "Section::::Legal and political issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 937, "text": "One reason cited for why children and the mentally disabled are not permitted to vote in elections is that they are too intellectually immature to understand voting issues. This view is echoed in concerns about the adult voting population, with observers citing concern for a decrease in 'civic virtue' and 'social capital,' reflecting a generalized panic over the political intelligence of the voting population. Although critics have cited 'youth culture' as contributing to the malaise of modern mass media's shallow treatment of political issues, interviews with youth themselves about their political views have revealed a widespread sense of frustration in their political powerlessness as well as a strongly cynical view of the actions of politicians. Several researchers have attempted to explain this sense of cynicism as a way of rationalizing the sense of alienation and legal exclusion of youth in political decision-making.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20072937", "title": "Voter turnout in the United States presidential elections", "section": "Section::::Age, education, and income.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1531, "text": "Berman and Johnson's (2000) argument affirms that \"age is an important factor in understanding voting blocs and differences\" on various issues. Young people are typically \"plagued\" by political apathy and thus do not have strong political opinions (The Economist, 2014). As strong political opinions may be considered one of the reasons behind voting (Munsey, 2008), political apathy among young people is arguably a predictor for low voter turnout. Pomante and Schraufnagel's (2014) research demonstrated that potential young voters are more willing to commit to vote when they see pictures of younger candidates running for elections/office or voting for other candidates, surmising that young Americans are \"voting at higher and similar rates to other Americans when there is a candidate under the age of 35 years running\". As such, since most candidates running for office are pervasively over the age of 35 years (Struyk, 2017), youth may not be actively voting in these elections because of a lack of representation or visibility in the political process. \"Only 30 per cent of millennials think it's 'essential' to live in a democracy, compared to 72 percent of those born before World War II\" (Gershman, 2018). Considering that one of the critical tenets of liberal democracy is voting, the idea that millennials are denouncing the value of democracy is arguably an indicator of the loss of faith in the importance of voting. Thus, it can be surmised that those of younger ages may not be inclined to vote during elections.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1384039", "title": "Youth vote in the United States", "section": "Section::::Variables affecting the youth vote in the United States.:Lack of candidate contact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 727, "text": "Young people complain that those in politics do not communicate with them. Political candidates and their campaigns know, through past election data, that youth are not a reliable voting group and choose to spend their campaign dollars on those who are more likely to turn out to vote. For this reason, candidates tend to focus on issues that pertain to their targeted voters to gain their support, further discouraging youth voters. The discouraged youth complete the cycle of neglect by not turning out to vote, proving to candidates that the youth are not a reliable voting group. \"Elected officials respond to the preferences of voters, not non-voters,\" therefore ignoring the youth of America who do not turn out to vote.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30685435", "title": "Demeny voting", "section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 496, "text": "Some writers argue that, like marrying or making a will, voting is an exercise of the informed will and cannot legitimately be done by proxy. Others have argued that with the right to vote comes other obligations of citizenship, such as military service. Since children do not have those obligations, it is argued they should also not have such rights. Some people worry that the power of older votes will be diluted and the interests of children might be prioritised above those of the elderly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "549462", "title": "Voter turnout", "section": "Section::::International differences.:Institutional factors.:Voter pledges.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 97, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 97, "end_character": 295, "text": "A 2018 study found that \"young people who pledge to vote are more likely to turn out than those who are contacted using standard Get-Out-the-Vote materials. Overall, pledging to vote increased voter turnout by 3.7 points among all subjects and 5.6 points for people who had never voted before.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41609161", "title": "Voter suppression in the United States", "section": "Section::::Methods.:Limitations on early and absentee voting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 758, "text": "Early voting is important for voters who do not have flexible working hours and cannot take time off on a weekday to vote. The costs associated with voting include potential lost wages, transit fare and the cost of childcare.These factors inherently affect minorities and the poor more because of deep-rooted inequalities: for example, minority voters are likely to work salaried jobs and thus less likely to have paid time off to get to the voting polls, and they are also less likely to own a car. There are currently 23 states that do not have early voting available to all qualified voters. Of the those, 20 states require an excuse to mail an absentee ballot to voters. Since 2010, seven states have implemented additional restrictions on early voting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14511182", "title": "2008–09 Turkmen parliamentary election", "section": "Section::::Elections.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 303, "text": "Some residents reported being pressured to vote, or for whom to vote. There were also other issues, such as the use of pencils to mark votes, allowing single members of a family to vote for everyone else in the family, and that some people voted without needing to provide any identification documents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "^I'm ^not ^sure ^what ^you ^mean ^by ^\"examining ^Rome\". ^If ^you ^mean ^something ^like ^walking ^through ^the ^city ^of ^Rome, ^this ^would ^be ^my ^answer:\n\n & nbsp;\n\nRome has changed massively between the reign of Augustus (27 BCE - 14) and that of Constantine (306-337). Most major monuments are completely new to you. A short list of prominent examples:\n\n & nbsp;\n\n*First century* \n\n* The Colosseum would stand where houses stood during your time, it was built by the Flavian emperors (69-96)\n* Several new forums would have been added near the Forum Romanum and the already familiar forums of Caesar and Augustus\n* The Arch of Titus, celebrating Rome's victory in the Jewish Revolt\n\n*Second century*\n\n* The Pantheon would not be the one you know, built by Agrippa, but a completely different (and more impressive) building built by Hadrian. Surprisingly the original inscription remains\n* Trajan's Market\n* The Column of Trajan depicting victories in Dacia, an area that didn't yet belong to the Roman Empire in your time\n* The Column of Marcus Aurelius\n* The Temple of Faustina and Antoninus Pius on the Forum Romanum\n\n*Third century*\n\n* The Aurelian Wall, a new city wall\n* The enormous Baths of Diocletian\n* The likewise enormous Baths of Caracalla\n\n*Fourth century (up until the end of Constantine's reign)*\n\n* The Old St. Peter's Basilica would be under construction, a church being built by emperor Constantine for a religion you've never heard of\n* The Arch of Constantine, celebrating a victory in the civil war against Maxentius\n* The Basilica of Constantine and Maxentius on the Forum Romanum\n\n*Some other differences*\n\n* The coins have largely different names from the ones you knew, they're also heavily debased compared to the Augustan age\n* People from all over the empire are citizens now due to the Edict of Caracalla in 212\n\n*Some similarities*\n\nIt may surprise you to learn that some things would be very much recognizable to you. For example:\n\n* The number of people in Rome would be roughly the same, although Augustus' age was before the population reached a peak while Constantine reigns after it reached its peak. \n* The Circus Maximus has been improved upon, but has kept most of its original design\n* The Curia Julia, where the Senate debates on the Forum Romanum is pretty much the same building you know\n* The Theatre of Pompey\n* Emperors are still calling themselves \"Caesar\" and \"Augustus\", even though no-one of the Julio-Claudian family remains\n* The city of Ostia is probably still Rome's dominant harbour, although it is in heavy competition with Portus (which is entirely unfamiliar to you)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If I could ask a follow up, what would have been different *for the entire Empire*, rather than just for the city of Rome?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ok, first things first I am promoting you to Senator, because the Equestrian Order is a rather difficult group to define. In many ways it is essentially a tax bracket rather than a socio-political organization as such, and most of the stuff we have is about Senators and the associated social circles anyway, and I think that is what you are looking for. So congratulations!\n\nPerhaps the first thing you notice as you step into the Curia is that there is a much more diverse bunch inhabiting it. The ruling class of Augustus was by no means homogeneous, and one of his great policies was in using local elites rather than running roughshod over them, but he was at the beginning of a process and you are at the end. The current emperor is from Moesia, basically the modern Balkans, and he grew up in Britain. When you disappeared mysteriously Moesia was a semi-Roman region of barbarians and bandits, and Britain wasn't even Roman. In a very immediate way, the accent Constantine and his inner circle speaks with did not exist in your time, but even outside of that the Senate is thronged with Greeks, North Africans, Spanish, Gauls and Syrians--although still favoring the Latin West. On the other hand, these people would be much more similar to each other than an equivalent group would have been in Augustan time, because again, that is at the beginning of a process you are seeing the end of.\n\nFor government service, you will see immediately that things are more bureaucratized. The early Empire was essentially run through overlapping personal connections and the main job of, say, a provincial governor was to ensure that the conflict resulting from this would not erupt in violence, or at least would be pushed towards productive ends. The government now is much more concerned about centralization, and from that a new class of elite has arisen. In the Augustan period one could say that the Empire was run by traditional elites transformed by an Imperial culture, but now the highest officials are truly political and truly imperial. They are, in a sense, mandarins or literatti rather than *nobiles*.\n\nFor religion, to an extent the emperor and his inner circle follow a teaching that did not exist for you, but more importantly the nature of imperial religions had changed. In the Augustan period, worship was still dominated by local practices, but now those have been transformed by a large series of massive, Imperial wide cults. Neither Christ, nor Mithras, nor Sol Invictus existed in a substantial was in the Augustan period, but they are now a crucial part of imperial culture.\n\nThese are just three things, but I hope it gives you an idea of how society became more \"imperial.\" Greg Woolf is certainly the scholar to see for this, and I have heard his new *Rome: An Empire's Story* is intended for a more non-academic audience.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1273", "title": "Augustus", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 123, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 123, "end_character": 873, "text": "Many consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the Empire's life span and initiated the celebrated \"Pax Romana\" or \"Pax Augusta\". The Roman Senate wished subsequent emperors to \"be more fortunate than Augustus and better than Trajan\". Augustus was intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar and was influenced on occasion by Livia (sometimes for the worse). Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring. The city of Rome was utterly transformed under Augustus, with Rome's first institutionalized police force, fire fighting force, and the establishment of the municipal prefect as a permanent office. The police force was divided into cohorts of 500 men each, while the units of firemen ranged from 500 to 1,000 men each, with 7 units assigned to 14 divided city sectors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1273", "title": "Augustus", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 128, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 128, "end_character": 1517, "text": "The longevity of Augustus' reign and its legacy to the Roman world should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. As Tacitus wrote, the younger generations alive in AD 14 had never known any form of government other than the Principate. Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters might have turned out differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a de facto monarchy in these years. Augustus' own experience, his patience, his tact, and his political acumen also played their parts. He directed the future of the Empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus' ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the Empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor. Every Emperor of Rome adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, which gradually lost its character as a name and eventually became a title. The Augustan era poets Virgil and Horace praised Augustus as a defender of Rome, an upholder of moral justice, and an individual who bore the brunt of responsibility in maintaining the empire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4139048", "title": "Forum of Augustus", "section": "Section::::Statuary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 438, "text": "The statues in the forum provided excellent reasoning for Augustus to claim his restoration of the Republic. Not only were the great men of Rome's past being honored through their busts, but Augustus was also establishing his ancestry to these men, either by blood or by spirit. This provided Augustus with another connection between himself and the old Republic, an era of Roman history he continuously tried to invoke during his reign.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9843", "title": "Ephesus", "section": "Section::::History.:Roman period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 364, "text": "When Augustus became emperor in 27 BC, the most important change was when he made Ephesus the capital of proconsular Asia (which covered western Asia Minor) instead of Pergamum. Ephesus then entered an era of prosperity, becoming both the seat of the governor and a major centre of commerce. According to Strabo, it was second in importance and size only to Rome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "415574", "title": "Campus Martius", "section": "Section::::Augustus' rise to power through building on Campus Martius.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 1364, "text": "As this series of architectural changes occurred following Augustus’ defeat of Mark Antony, Augustus’ association with the new political buildings furthered his rise to political power and status in Rome. Years of civil war from The Great Roman Civil War (49-45 BC) to the Final War of the Roman Republic (32-30 BC) had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Augustus just yet. At the same time Augustus could not give up his authority without risking further civil wars among other Roman generals, and even if he desired no political position, it was his duty to look after the well-being of Rome and Roman Provinces. Augustus’ aims from this point forward was to return Rome to a state a stability and civility by lifting the political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections in name at least. Not only did Augustus return the Senate and popular assemblies to their former role, his new buildings on Campus Martius provided the Senate and assemblies with new political homes, all of which were closely associated with Augustus. By willingly restoring the Roman Senate and popular assemblies to their former role and building several monumental politically focused buildings throughout Campus Martius, Augustus permanently connected himself with Rome's political atmosphere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17998382", "title": "Augustus (Williams novel)", "section": "Section::::Major themes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 496, "text": "The major theme \"Augustus\" addresses is the ability of circumstances to change the personality and behavior of a person. The conditions that surrounded Augustus' rise to power plagued Ancient Rome with violence and contention, which led to Augustus working hard to implement a time of peace and cooperation in Rome, commonly referred to as the Pax Romana or the Pax Augusta. Other themes Williams writes on in his novel include coming of age and the difference between restraint and resignation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2648700", "title": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 363, "text": "He and Tiberius then returned to Rome, probably in the spring of 25 BC. His political career saw acceleration by Augustus, and he was thought to be Augustus' preferred successor by many contemporaries. He was married to his cousin Julia the Elder, who was Augustus' only daughter. The following year (24 BC) he was awarded extraordinary privileges by the Senate:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They probably adapted the real disease [kuru](_URL_0_). It's a prion disease, similar to Mad Cow disease. A prion is a protein that is folded up wrong. Besides not doing its normal job right, the prion makes other proteins become misfolded. The accumulation of these prions causes brain damage. In particular, kuru results in movement problems such as shaking and an inability to walk. \n\nKuru is spread by cannibalism, particularly of the brain. It was found in a Papua New Guinea tribe thay practiced cannibalism as part of funerary rites. It's pretty rare now that the practice has stopped, but it has an incubation period of up to 40 years so there could still crop up occasionally among people who used to practice funerary cannibalism. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Kuru is a real life disease caused by a prion transmitted through consumption of infectious brain matter.\n\nIt was first noted in Papua New Guinea in the 1950s and 60s and has largely remained only in that area due to endocannibalistic practices. They eat their dead.\n\nEating the flesh of a person who wasn't infected with the disease isn't harmful. At least no more harmful than eating most other meats.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "482629", "title": "Scavenger", "section": "Section::::In humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 413, "text": "In modern humans, necrophagy (eating of dead/decaying flesh) occurs rarely in most societies. This is likely an adaptation to the risk of disease, due to humans having lower levels of protective acids in the digestive tract, compared to species that are dedicated scavengers. Many instances have occurred in history, especially in times of war, where necrophagy and cannibalism can emerge as a survival behavior.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6171868", "title": "Regurgitation (digestion)", "section": "Section::::Humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 323, "text": "In humans it can be voluntary or involuntary, the latter being due to a small number of disorders. Regurgitation of a person's meals following ingestion is known as rumination syndrome, an uncommon and often misdiagnosed motility disorder that affects eating. It may be a symptom of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30882227", "title": "Meat hanging", "section": "Section::::Process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 428, "text": "Meat hanging allows processes to continue in the meat that would normally cease in dead animals. For example, the muscles in the meat continue to use the oxygen that is in the proteins of the blood. This normal biological process creates a chemical by-product known as lactic acid. Since the blood is no longer being circulated through the body, the lactic acid starts to break down the muscle and connective tissues around it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1027441", "title": "Jerk (cooking)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 535, "text": "Some historians believe it was originally developed by Maroons, African slaves who escaped into the wilds of Jamaica when the British captured the island from Spain in 1655. Adapting to their new surroundings, the former slaves made use of the natural food sources available to them, creating the spicy sauce and slowly cooking the meat over a smoking wood fire. Other historians argue the case for the practice of jerking originating with the Amerindians in Jamaica from the Arawak and Taino tribes who intermingled with the Maroons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53418", "title": "Easter Island", "section": "Section::::Ecology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 1013, "text": "According to Diamond, the oral traditions (the veracity of which has been questioned by Routledge, Lavachery, Mètraux, Peiser and others) of the current islanders seem obsessed with cannibalism, which he offers as evidence supporting a rapid collapse. For example, he states, to severely insult an enemy one would say, \"The flesh of your mother sticks between my teeth.\" This, Diamond asserts, means the food supply of the people ultimately ran out. Cannibalism, however, was widespread across Polynesian cultures. Human bones have not been found in earth ovens other than those behind the religious platforms, indicating that cannibalism in Easter Island was a ritualistic practice. Contemporary ethnographic research has proven there is scarcely any tangible evidence for widespread cannibalism anywhere and at any time on the island. The first scientific exploration of Easter Island (1914) recorded that the indigenous population strongly rejected allegations that they or their ancestors had been cannibals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "287543", "title": "Necrotizing fasciitis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 360, "text": "Necrotizing fasciitis (NF), commonly known as flesh-eating disease, is an infection that results in the death of parts of the body's soft tissue. It is a severe disease of sudden onset that spreads rapidly. Symptoms include red or purple skin in the affected area, severe pain, fever, and vomiting. The most commonly affected areas are the limbs and perineum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12634188", "title": "Exocannibalism", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 599, "text": "Exocannibalism (from Greek \"exo-\", \"from outside\" and cannibalism, \"to eat humans\"), as opposed to endocannibalism, is the consumption of flesh outside one's close social group—for example, eating one's enemy. When done ritually, it has been associated with being a means of imbibing valued qualities of the victim or as an act of final violence against the deceased in the case of sociopathy, as well as a symbolic expression of the domination of an enemy in warfare. Such practices have been documented in cultures including the Aztecs from Mexico, the Carib and the Tupinambá from South America.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "EE student bored at a huge family Thanksgiving meal, I'll give this a shot.\n\nThe sine function takes an angle, traditionally labeled 'theta', as its input, and spits out the corresponding ratio between the opposite and hypotenuse sides of a triangle. Specifically, using [this image](_URL_2_) as a reference, you can say that sin(theta) = opp/hyp. \n\nIf you were to plot the sine function as theta varies from 0 to 360 degrees (as theta is just an angle), you would get the classic \"sine wave\" - this is simply a plot of how the ratio between the sides of a triangle varies as you change theta.\n\n[This gif](_URL_4_) should help with the intuition a little bit, here's what's going on: if you watch as the circle (with radius 1) is traced out, really what you are seeing is a triangle with the ratio between sides varying as a function of the angle, the definition of the sine function. [Here](_URL_3_) is what you would see if you took a snapshot of the previous gif. As you let theta increase in the picture, if you reach 90 degrees (pointing straight up) you'll have hyp = 1 and opp = 1, so sin(90) = opp/hyp = 1, as expected. Similar reasoning will show that sine(180) = 0 (since opp = 0), and you can continue to move around the circle to find whatever sine value you are interested in. Understand - **asking for the sine of any number is just like asking \"what is the ratio between the opposite and hypotenuse of a triangle with this angle?\"**\n\nFollowing so far? Here's where it gets interesting.\n\nSine, described above, gives you the ratios between the opposite side and the hypotenuse. If hyp = 1, then sin(theta) = opp/hyp = opp. In other words, it is just the vertical component of the diagonal vector. [Visually](_URL_0_), if we say that the hypotenuse of the triangle represents force (labeled F), taking the sine of the angle will give you the vertical component of the force vector (labeled Fy in the image). Now, since sine is defined as sine(theta) = opp/hyp, we can say: hyp*sine(theta) = opp. In other words, given a vector we can find the vertical component using sine.\n\nBut what if we wanted to find the horizontal component of the vector? Well, cosine is defined as cosine(theta) = adj/hyp. It shouldn't be hard to convince yourself, using a similar argument, that the cosine simply spits out the horizontal component of a vector.\n\nEDIT: I messed this up, slight correction in the comments below. ~~Logically it follows that if you take the sine and cosine of the same angle and add them you will always get 1 - sine and cosine can be thought of as the \"percentage\" that the vertical and horizontal components respectively contribute to the vector of interest, 1 being 100%, which is why sin(90), a vertical line, is 1, while the cosine of the same angle is 0. This is why sin(45) = cos(45) = 1/2, both the vertical and horizontal components contribute equally to the vector pointing at a 45 degree angle.~~\n\nAs an aside, [if you plot the cosine and sine of an angle on the same graph](_URL_1_), you'll notice that the sine and cosine functions are related - specifically, cosine is just sine shifted over by 90 degrees, i.e. sin(theta + 90) = cos(theta). Interestingly, if you noted the \"slope\" at every point of the sine function and plotted it you would get the cosine function. This means, by definition, that the derivative of sine is cosine - I'll leave it at that to keep this in the context of ELI5, learn calculus for more detail.\n\nFinally, we can get into an amazing theorem devised by my main man Fourier - essentially, using the fact that sin (and by extension, cos) are the most fundamental way of mathematically expressing periodic (repetitive) motion, Fourier proved that any periodic motion, no matter how complicated, can be expressed as the sum of simple sin and cosine functions (a Fourier series). This is the heart of modern signals processing used in engineering and technology.\n\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[This GIF](_URL_0_) depicts it exactly.\n\nWhen moving around a circle, the sine function represents your vertical movement and the cosine function represents your horizontal movement.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here's one of the best ways of describing the point of trigonometric functions that I've ever seen:\n\n > **Motivation: Trig Is Anatomy**\n\n > Imagine Bob The Alien visits Earth to study our species.\n\n > Without new words, humans are hard to describe: “There’s a sphere at the top, which gets scratched occasionally” or “Two elongated cylinders appear to provide locomotion”.\n\n > After creating specific terms for anatomy, Bob might jot down typical body proportions:\n\n > * The armspan (fingertip to fingertip) is approximately the height\n* A head is 5 eye-widths wide\n* Adults are 8 head-heights tall\n\n > How is this helpful?\n\n > Well, when Bob finds a jacket, he can pick it up, stretch out the arms, and estimate the owner’s height. And head size. And eye width. One fact is linked to a variety of conclusions.\n\n > Even better, human biology explains human thinking. Tables have legs, organizations have heads, crime bosses have muscle. Our biology offers ready-made analogies that appear in man-made creations.\n\n > Now the plot twist: you are Bob the alien, studying creatures in math-land!\n\n > Generic words like “triangle” aren’t overly useful. But labeling sine, cosine, and hypotenuse helps us notice deeper connections. And scholars might study haversine, exsecant and gamsin, like biologists who find a link between your fibia and clavicle.\n\n > And because triangles show up in circles…\n\n > …and circles appear in cycles, our triangle terminology helps describe repeating patterns!\n\n > Trig is the anatomy book for “math-made” objects. If we can find a metaphorical triangle, we’ll get an armada of conclusions for free.\n\n[...snip...]\n\n > **Tip: Trig Values Are Percentages**\n\n > Nobody ever told me in my years of schooling: sine and cosine are percentages. They vary from +100% to 0 to -100%, or max positive to nothing to max negative.\n\n > Let’s say I paid $14 in tax. You have no idea if that’s expensive. But if I say I paid 95% in tax, you know I’m getting ripped off.\n\n > An absolute height isn’t helpful, but if your sine value is .95, I know you’re almost at the top of your dome. Pretty soon you’ll hit the max, then start coming down again.\n\nYou can read the whole post to better wrap your head around trigonometry here: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22952896", "title": "Zonal spherical harmonics", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 322, "text": "In the mathematical study of rotational symmetry, the zonal spherical harmonics are special spherical harmonics that are invariant under the rotation through a particular fixed axis. The zonal spherical functions are a broad extension of the notion of zonal spherical harmonics to allow for a more general symmetry group.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20646772", "title": "Vibration", "section": "Section::::Vibration analysis.:Forced vibration with damping.:Applying \"complex\" forces to the mass–spring–damper model.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 561, "text": "In the case of our square wave force, the first component is actually a constant force of 0.5 newton and is represented by a value at 0 Hz in the frequency spectrum. The next component is a 1 Hz sine wave with an amplitude of 0.64. This is shown by the line at 1 Hz. The remaining components are at odd frequencies and it takes an infinite amount of sine waves to generate the perfect square wave. Hence, the Fourier transform allows you to interpret the force as a sum of sinusoidal forces being applied instead of a more \"complex\" force (e.g. a square wave).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "203056", "title": "Spherical harmonics", "section": "Section::::Symmetry properties.:Rotations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 114, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 114, "end_character": 482, "text": "The rotational behavior of the spherical harmonics is perhaps their quintessential feature from the viewpoint of group theory. The formula_144's of degree formula_1 provide a basis set of functions for the irreducible representation of the group SO(3) of dimension formula_140. Many facts about spherical harmonics (such as the addition theorem) that are proved laboriously using the methods of analysis acquire simpler proofs and deeper significance using the methods of symmetry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6334535", "title": "Spin-weighted spherical harmonics", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1156, "text": "In special functions, a topic in mathematics, spin-weighted spherical harmonics are generalizations of the standard spherical harmonics and—like the usual spherical harmonics—are functions on the sphere. Unlike ordinary spherical harmonics, the spin-weighted harmonics are gauge fields rather than scalar fields: mathematically, they take values in a complex line bundle. The spin-weighted harmonics are organized by degree , just like ordinary spherical harmonics, but have an additional spin weight that reflects the additional symmetry. A special basis of harmonics can be derived from the Laplace spherical harmonics , and are typically denoted by , where and are the usual parameters familiar from the standard Laplace spherical harmonics. In this special basis, the spin-weighted spherical harmonics appear as actual functions, because the choice of a polar axis fixes the gauge ambiguity. The spin-weighted spherical harmonics can be obtained from the standard spherical harmonics by application of spin raising and lowering operators. In particular, the spin-weighted spherical harmonics of spin weight are simply the standard spherical harmonics:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39654522", "title": "Tensor operator", "section": "Section::::Rotations of quantum states.:Angular momentum eigenkets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 235, "text": "Spherical harmonics are functions of the polar and azimuthal angles, \"ϕ\" and \"θ\" respectively, which can be conveniently collected into a unit vector n(\"θ\", \"ϕ\") pointing in the direction of those angles, in the Cartesian basis it is:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39783039", "title": "Function of several real variables", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Examples of complex-valued functions of several real variables.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 147, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 147, "end_character": 246, "text": "The spherical harmonics occur in physics and engineering as the solution to Laplace's equation, as well as the eigenfunctions of the z-component angular momentum operator, which are complex-valued functions of real-valued spherical polar angles:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "203056", "title": "Spherical harmonics", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 347, "text": "Spherical harmonics were first investigated in connection with the Newtonian potential of Newton's law of universal gravitation in three dimensions. In 1782, Pierre-Simon de Laplace had, in his \"Mécanique Céleste\", determined that the gravitational potential at a point x associated with a set of point masses \"m\" located at points x was given by\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A very brief answer can come from looking at patterns of European colonialism. The Mississippi river, the St. Lawrence, the Columbia, the Fraser, all these are rivers that when they reach the ocean they come out in the middle of a political unit rather than as a boundary. This is largely because while rivers can represent borders, they more commonly represent the center of a drainage system, whose inhabitants move back and forth, and colonial powers tend to compete for control of the mouth of these systems, and to develop settlement around them. \n\nIn the case of the St. Lawrence, this meant that France brought settlers to the river, who settled it on both sides up the river, forming a political unit, and while later an international border was created along a portion of the river, it was largely undeveloped land further upstream than these communities that was able to be divided in such a way. This portion of the boundary was determined in 1783 at the treaty of Paris.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34970786", "title": "Moses-Saunders Power Dam", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1673, "text": "Development of the St. Lawrence River which serves as a border between Canada and the United States was in its early stages in 1871 when the Treaty of Washington was signed, which in part demarcated the St. Lawrence River as a boundary and offered Americans greater use of the Canadian side of the river for shipping. In 1895 the Deep Waterways Commission was established to explore expanded use of the river for navigation. International shipping on the river would have a positive impact on trade between the two countries. The early St. Lawrence Seaway was proposed but railway companies in the United States stopped its construction because they felt it would reduce their profits. The Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 further solidified cooperation between the U.S. and Canada on the river, allowing \"free and open\" navigation and establishing the International Joint Commission (IJC) to resolve disputes. In 1931, New York's Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Power Authority Act which allowed the development of the St. Lawrence River for power use. A primary site was just below the Long Sault Rapids. Despite the cooperation, the U.S. Federal Government was unable to open up the river for increased navigation and development due to political issues. Upset with this, Canada unilaterally passed two acts in 1951 which allowed projects on the St. Lawrence for power and navigation purposes. They pressured the U.S. to act and in 1952, President Dwight D. Eisenhower approved a hydroelectric dam on the river. The next year a proposal for a hydroelectric dam and navigation lock was submitted to the IJC for approval. In October 1952 the project was approved.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40389", "title": "Upper Canada", "section": "Section::::Establishment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 327, "text": "The 1795 Jay Treaty officially set the borders between British North America and the United States north to the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River. On 1 February 1796, the capital of Upper Canada was moved from Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake) to York (now Toronto), which was judged to be less vulnerable to attack by the US.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1330243", "title": "Capture of Fort Erie", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 418, "text": "The United States shared a long border with British North America (present-day Canada) in 1814. During the war, the Americans launched several invasions into Upper Canada (present-day Ontario). One section of the border where this was easiest (because of communications and locally available supplies) was along the Niagara River. Fort Erie was the British post at the head of the river, near its source in Lake Erie.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "447990", "title": "Upstate New York", "section": "Section::::History.:Post-revolutionary period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 512, "text": "After the American Revolution, the Treaty of Paris established the border between New York and British North America. The 45th Parallel became the border with Quebec or Lower Canada. The St. Lawrence River, Lake Ontario, the Niagara River and Lake Erie became the border with Upper Canada. Great Britain continued to occupy military installations along the American shores of the Great Lakes until 1794, including Fort Niagara at the mouth of the Niagara River and Fort Ontario at the mouth of the Oswego River.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7954867", "title": "Quebec", "section": "Section::::Geography.:Hydrography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 1105, "text": "The Saint Lawrence River has some of the world's largest sustaining inland Atlantic ports at Montreal (the province's largest city), Trois-Rivières, and Quebec City (the capital). Its access to the Atlantic Ocean and the interior of North America made it the base of early French exploration and settlement in the 17th and 18th centuries. Since 1959, the Saint Lawrence Seaway has provided a navigable link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes. Northeast of Quebec City, the river broadens into the world's largest estuary, the feeding site of numerous species of whales, fish, and seabirds. The river empties into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. This marine environment sustains fisheries and smaller ports in the Lower Saint Lawrence (\"Bas-Saint-Laurent\"), Lower North Shore (\"Côte-Nord\"), and Gaspé (\"Gaspésie\") regions of the province. The Saint Lawrence River with its estuary forms the basis of Quebec's development through the centuries. Other notable rivers include the Ashuapmushuan, Chaudière, Gatineau, Manicouagan, Ottawa, Richelieu, Rupert, Saguenay, Saint-François, and Saint-Maurice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "921638", "title": "Eastern Ontario", "section": "Section::::Geography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 296, "text": "The Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers do not actually converge in Ontario. A small portion of Quebec, Vaudreuil-Soulanges, lies between the Ontario-Quebec border and the river junction. The region has a land border with Ontario, but it is necessary to cross water to reach any other part of Quebec.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10942685", "title": "Red River Trails", "section": "Section::::Significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 774, "text": "Today, the international border is firmly established and peaceful; there is a greater sense of Canadian nationality, and fears of U.S. Manifest Destiny have all but disappeared. Canada and the U.S. have formalized their trading partnership with the North American Free Trade Agreement, leading to increased trade between the two nations. This trade now coursing up and down the valleys of the Red and Mississippi rivers more than fulfils Lord Selkirk's predictions made nearly two centuries ago; while he first sought access over U.S. territory for the succour of his nascent colony, now commerce in manufactures and commodities goes in both directions. The trade corridor once occupied by the long-gone Red River Trails continues to be employed for its historic purposes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A peasant levy was not often called upon but there does exists various folk wrestling and stick fighting traditions that may vary from region to region. \n\nPaulus Hector Mair collected fighting treatises of everything he could get his hands on in the 16th century and includes a number of 'exoctic' weapons in his manuscripts; they range from staffs, to flails, sickles and an amusing 'peasant staff' which resembles an uprooted sapling. _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Many of them would have access to spears, which would probably constitute the bulk of their weaponry. Also, depending on the time and place, many would also be equipped as archers. Many small villages had competitions for archery on a regular basis, especially in England. The spears, in particular, are easy and super-cheap to make. Swords and specialized weaponry were very expensive to create.\n\nBut that being said, the idea of a \"peasant levy\" as a regular feature of armies is not really accurate. There are notable examples (Hussites, various town militias, etc.), but the bulk would be a kind-of \"middle class\" or mercenaries. Most feudal societies had requirements for providing arms, armor, equipment, and men based on wealth/land size. (The term \"Knight's Fee\" is a good example, as it represents the amount of land necessary to support a knight and his retinue.). You don't really want to plop the raw labor force for your agriculture (and source of your income) into a situation where they are likely to all die. The feudal system was definitely propped-up by the creation of a military \"caste\" that protected it.\n\nThis also varies widely based on where and when you're looking for. \"Peasants\" don't necessarily exist everywhere. To use a different region, the warriors of most Steppe-based armies would be equipped to use Bows, Spears, and/or Lassos, particularly bows. On the counter, many of the militias bordering the Steppes would be focused on utilizing light cavalry, hiring other contingents of Steppe tribes, or trained in ranged weapons.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The majority of Anglo-Saxon soldiers, who served in a semi-professional militia called the fyrd, would have carried spears. Most would have also carried axes, as these were relatively cheap and easy to make in terms of the metal involved, and would also have non-military uses.\n\nProfessional household soldiers known as Huscarls traditionally carried long axes designed to cut a man in two and even stop horses. These can be seen in the Bayeux Tapestry. For an equivalent in popular culture, think Areoh Hotah in A Song of Ice and Fire.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3842527", "title": "Dry measure", "section": "Section::::Struck and heaped measurement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 378, "text": "As far back as medieval times, if not Biblical times, there was pressure from landowners to demand heaped bushels of commodities from their peasants, while at the same time peasants were obliged to purchase commodities from stricken containers. Rules outlawing this practice were circumvented through use of heavy round strickles, which would compress the contents of a bushel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23468036", "title": "History of weapons", "section": "Section::::Early-Modern Period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 793, "text": "Medieval weapons were still in service during the Renaissance and Civil war. Some of the medieval weapons that were still in use included Guisarme, the Halberd, the Mace and the partisan. The Halberd was a traditional weapon used by the Swiss, consisting of an axe-blade topped with a spike, with a hook or pick on the back, on top of a long pole. This weapon was mostly used by the foot soldiers against cavalry, Halberds became obsolete when improvised pikes started to be produced in huge numbers. Meanwhile, the Partisan was introduced in England in the 14th century and was used excessively and extensively in Europe and especially in France. Originally the Partisan used to be a spear with small wings added below it. The sword still remained the most popular weapon during Renaissance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13002738", "title": "History of crossbows", "section": "Section::::Europe.:Medieval.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 555, "text": "The crossbow superseded hand bows in many European armies during the 12th century, except in England, where the longbow was more popular. Along with polearm weapons made from farming equipment, the crossbow was also a weapon of choice for insurgent peasants such as the Taborites. Genoese crossbowmen were famous mercenaries hired throughout medieval Europe, while the crossbow also played an important role in anti-personnel defense of ships. Some 4,000 crossbowmen joined the Fifth Crusade and 5,000 under Louis IX of France during the Seventh Crusade.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4563479", "title": "War scythe", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 639, "text": "The scythe and pitchfork, farming tools, have frequently been used as a weapon by those who could not afford or did not have access to more expensive weapons such as pikes, swords, or later, guns. Scythes and pitchforks were stereotypically carried by angry mobs or gangs of enraged peasants. The process usually involved reforging the blade of a scythe at a 90 degree angle, strengthening the joint between the blade and the shaft with an additional metal pipe or bolts and reinforcing the shaft to better protect it against cuts from enemy blades. At times, instead of a scythe blade, a blade from a hand-operated chaff cutter was used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28677399", "title": "Basket-hilted sword", "section": "Section::::Morphology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 223, "text": "The basket-hilted sword is a development of the 16th century, rising to popularity in the 17th century and remaining in widespread use throughout the 18th century, used especially by heavy cavalry up to the Napoleonic era.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20816431", "title": "Gun law in the Czech Republic", "section": "Section::::History.:Firearms and religious freedom.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 889, "text": "Use of firearms as infantry weapons was pioneered in the Czech Crown lands in the early 15th century. In the 1420s and 1430s, the Czech Hussite army led by Žižka started using firearms and artillery effectively on the battlefield (it had previously been used only during sieges of towns and castles due to its heavy weight and cumbersome operation). Use of field artillery in the Battle of Kutná Hora was first such recorded utilization. Firearms, alongside wagon fort strategy, proved indispensable for the mostly peasant reformationist army in their war for religious freedom against professional well armed and trained Catholic Crusader invaders. The word used for one type of hand held firearm used by the Hussites, , later found its way through German and French into English as the term pistol. Name of a cannon used by the Hussites, the , gave rise to the English term, \"howitzer\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16612805", "title": "Infantry in the Middle Ages", "section": "Section::::Notable infantry of the Middle Ages.:The widespread use of the crossbow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 439, "text": "Some crossbows were operated by teams of a shooter with an assistant to help reloading. The assistant could be armed with a spear and a very large shield known as a pavise to provide cover for them. This created one of the typical Medieval mixed structures of crossbowmen and spearmen that was used with great success in the Hussite Wars and by Bertrand du Guesclin in his petty warfare reconquest of France during the Hundred Years' War.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I think Thornton's [American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492] (_URL_5_) would probably be a good resource for answering your question (it's at my work office atm, so I'm reluctant to give a more definitive answer to your question lest I answer it incorrectly.)\n\nClearly, the shift didn't take place all at once - it would have been somewhat gradual, from geographic region to geographic region, as peoples came into contact either with one another and got into it over land, or (as in the case of the Columbia River region) came into contact with diseases that decimated their populations before they ever even saw a non-Native. Lewis and Clark's journals report coming into contact with the [Clatsop] (_URL_2_) at the mouth of the Columbia in 1804 as an [already decimated people] (_URL_6_).\n\nThe Dakota *definitely* seemed to be aware of their being a population tipping point for them getting outnumbered, and that that was a very dangerous moment: [Thaóyate Dúta] (_URL_4_) repeatedly warned his people, other Dakota leaders, and non-Native leaders in Minnesota Territory, that the displacement of the Native population by White settlers and the subsequent loss of Native lands would lead to war. That's [exactly what happened] (_URL_0_), with dire consequences for the Dakota that have repercussions to this very day.\n\nThere are certainly [parts of the United States where it's still not true that Natives are outnumbered] (_URL_3_), but I understand that you mean the US as a whole. \n\nEdit: [Here's] (_URL_1_) a cartoon about this exact situation that's so relevant I had just assumed it was by Dine cartoonist Jack Ahasteen, but - nope, it's by non-Native cartoonist Matt Bors. I remember when this cartoon came out, it really struck a chord with all of us it was so on-point.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is a huge, and interesting, question. I'm afraid our current data can only go so far in providing an answer. What follows is an analysis of the data, and the pitfalls of trying to definitively answer this question due to everything from notions of identity, evolving racial categories, and lack of solid sources. I will first address the research surrounding Native North American population size at contact, then the issues with calculating the rate of decline until the numbers hit a nadir around 1900. I will then address historical census numbers for the European and African descent populations of the United States. Finally, I will emphasize how all of this is simply an educated guess, based on flawed sources, that reflects a dark history of our nation’s interaction with Native Americans.\n\nFirst, gallons of ink have been spilled debating Native American population size at the time of contact. There are two main camps, “high counters” and “low counters”. In the early 1900s scholars like Kroeber and Mooney looked at the Native American population size during their time, and assumed little changed in Native American lifeways between contact and 1900. They didn’t factor in mortality from disease, warfare, and famine. Kroeber estimated 900,000 people lived in North America, and 8.4 million lived in the entire New World. That is a population density of less than 1 person for every six miles. Other scholars, like Dobyns, formed a group called “high counters”. The high counters held the New World was richly populated at contact, but catastrophic disease spread ahead of colonists, decimating the population, and rendering any colonial-period estimates of population size grossly inaccurate. Dobyns estimated over 112 million people lived in the New World at the time of contact. For reference, only 11 countries today boast a population larger than 112 million.\n\nToday the popular perception has inherited the legacy of the high counters, and their catastrophic, apocalyptic population decline due to infectious disease after contact. In academic circles we are stepping back from the assumption of epidemic disease decimation without concrete evidence of that disease mortality. For example, ten to twenty years ago we might look at a Mississippian site abandoned around 1525 and assume disease carried off all, or at least most, of the inhabitants. However, we now know for many people in North America geographic mobility was a regular means of dealing with resource scarcity, or territorial encroachment, or changes in the political structure. The interpretations of the evidence have changed, and with that change we must modify how we reconstruct the past. All that said, current best evidence suggest the Native North American population size at contact was between 2 and 7 million people. \n\nAs you can see, there are a host of issues and assumptions that go into calculating the Native North American population in 1492, and those issues are only magnified in the years following contact. Native American population size, and subsequent decline or rebound, varied based on geographic location and time. Centuries of warfare, population displacement, epidemic disease mortality, famine, territory restriction, and identity erasure wreaked havoc on Native North Americas. Calculating raw numbers is next to impossible. Native Americans were not included in the U.S. Census until 1860. An attempt at a total count of Native Americans throughout the U.S. was not realized until 1890. Compiling first hand estimates given by those traveling into Native American lands can only tell us so much from their limited perspective. Scholars generally agree the Native American populations hit their nadir (lowest point) by 1900 when the U.S. Census total for American Indian, Eskimo and Aleut was 237,196 (roughly 0.3% of the U.S. population). Since the population decline debate is so contentious, I’m just going to focus on when the “White” population of the United States passed the upper bound of the best estimates of Native American population size at contact. \n\nContinued below...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52447", "title": "European colonization of the Americas", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 201, "text": "Henry F. Dobyns estimates that immediately before European colonization of the Americas there were between 90 and 112 million people in the Americas; a larger population than Europe at the same time. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3434750", "title": "United States", "section": "Section::::History.:European settlements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 1259, "text": "With the advancement of European colonization in the territories of the contemporary United States, the Native Americans were often conquered and displaced. The first Europeans to arrive in the territory of the modern United States were Spanish conquistadors such as Juan Ponce de León, who made his first visit to Florida in 1513; however, if unincorporated territories are accounted for, then credit would go to Christopher Columbus who landed in Puerto Rico on his 1493 voyage. The Spanish set up the first settlements in Florida and New Mexico such as Saint Augustine and Santa Fe. The French established their own as well along the Mississippi River. Successful English settlement on the eastern coast of North America began with the Virginia Colony in 1607 at Jamestown and the Pilgrims' Plymouth Colony in 1620. Many settlers were dissenting Christian groups who came seeking religious freedom. The continent's first elected legislative assembly, Virginia's House of Burgesses created in 1619, the Mayflower Compact, signed by the Pilgrims before disembarking, and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, established precedents for the pattern of representative self-government and constitutionalism that would develop throughout the American colonies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3434750", "title": "United States", "section": "Section::::History.:Effects on and interaction with native populations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 857, "text": "While estimating the original native population of North America at the time of European contact is difficult, an attempt was made in the early part of the twentieth century by James Mooney using historic records to estimate the indigenous population north of Mexico in 1600. In more recent years, Douglas H. Ubelaker of the Smithsonian Institution has updated these figures. While Ubelaker estimated that there was a population of 92,916 in the south Atlantic states and a population of 473,616 in the Gulf states, most academics regard the figure as too low. Anthropologist Henry F. Dobyns believed that the populations were much higher, suggesting 1,100,000 along the shores of the gulf of Mexico, 2,211,000 people living between Florida and Massachusetts, 5,250,000 in the Mississippi Valley and tributaries and 697,000 people in the Florida peninsula.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39108393", "title": "History of Native Americans in the United States", "section": "Section::::European exploration and colonization.:Impact on native populations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 615, "text": "Estimating the number of Native Americans living in what is today the United States of America before the arrival of the European explorers and settlers has been the subject of much debate. While it is difficult to determine exactly how many Natives lived in North America before Columbus, estimates range from a low of 2.1 million (Ubelaker 1976) to 7 million people (Russell Thornton) to a high of 18 million (Dobyns 1983). A low estimate of around 1 million was first posited by the anthropologist James Mooney in the 1890s, by calculating population density of each culture area based on its carrying capacity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19792942", "title": "Americans", "section": "Section::::Racial and ethnic groups.:American Indians and Alaska Natives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 813, "text": "Native Americans, whose ancestry is indigenous to the Americas, originally migrated to the two continents between 10,000-45,000 years ago. These Paleoamericans spread throughout the two continents and evolved into hundreds of distinct cultures during the pre-Columbian era. Following the first voyage of Christopher Columbus, the European colonization of the Americas began, with St. Augustine, Florida becoming the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States. From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the population of Native Americans declined in the following ways: epidemic diseases brought from Europe; genocide and warfare at the hands of European explorers and colonists, as well as between tribes; displacement from their lands; internal warfare, enslavement; and intermarriage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52447", "title": "European colonization of the Americas", "section": "Section::::Early state-sponsored colonists.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 228, "text": "Over the 1st century and a half after Columbus's voyages, the native population of the Americas plummeted by an estimated 80% (from around 50 million in 1492 to eight million in 1650), mostly by outbreaks of Old World diseases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1989580", "title": "Louisiana (New France)", "section": "Section::::Colonial society.:Native Americans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 95, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 95, "end_character": 862, "text": "According to the demographer Russel Thornton, North America contained approximately seven million native inhabitants in 1500. The population plummeted from the 16th century onward, primarily because of the new infectious diseases carried by Europeans, to which the Native Americans had no acquired immunity. At the end of the 17th century, there were likely no more than 100,000 to 200,000 Native Americans in Lower Louisiana. French colonists forced a small number of Native Americans into slavery, in spite of official prohibition. These slaves were persons who had been captured by rival tribes during raids and in battle, and sold to French colonists. At the time, many were sent to Saint Domingue in the West Indies for sale as slaves, or to Canada. In Louisiana, planters generally preferred using African slaves, though some had Native American servants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The actual answer is a bit more complicated than that. What cells actually use for fuel is ATP, which is an energetic protein that we make using carbohydrates, fats, and other things as a fuel source.\n\nATP is mostly produced by mitochondria, organelles inside cells, and muscle cells have a lot of mitochondria.\n\nAt any given time, we have a little bit of liberated sugar, glucose mostly, which is floating around in the blood, being taken up by cells that need to produce more ATP, and being used by them to make ATP. When we start to exercise or burn a lot of calories, the amount of free glucose we have in the blood goes down, so we start liberating it by making more out of molecules we have stored.\n\nThe big ways we store energy are as glycogen, a long-chain sugar in the liver, and fat. It is pretty easy to separate glucose from glycogen, so that is the first form of reserve energy we go to. It is a more time-consuming process to make glucose from fats, and there are more bad by products produced. So we don't start burning fats until our bodies know we are in it for the long haul.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Fat is designed for long term storage in case food becomes scarce. It holds significantly more energy than carbs. A little over twice the amount per gram, actually. So your body wants to only expend what it needs to, as carbs are a weaker energy source, they are the first to go, while it tries to hold on to fat for as long as possible in case of food insecurity.\n\nRemember your body evolved in a comparatively unstable environment with predators still hunting us. Food was a lot more scarce so it is good to have long term energy storage (fat) in case of drought, famine, or any other reason why a food source would dry up. So it created these systems to keep you alive long enough to make babies. Burn the carbs first- keep the fat until you have no food.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The short answer I learned is, carbs are an easier and faster source of energy\nFat takes more effort to get energy from.\n\nAnd the body doesn't really plan ahead in the same way you do, your body has no idea if you are going to be running for 5 seconds, or 40 minutes. Your body just knows \"oh your running, better fill up on energy\"\n\nIt'll go with the easy solution first.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "41120920", "title": "Central nervous system fatigue", "section": "Section::::Manipulation.:Carbohydrates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 852, "text": "Carbohydrates are the main source of energy in organisms for metabolism. They are an important source of fuel in exercise. A study conducted by the Institute of Food, Nutrition, and Human Health at Massey University investigated the effect of consuming a carbohydrate and electrolyte solution on muscle glycogen use and running capacity on subjects that were on a high carbohydrate diet. The group that consumed the carbohydrate and electrolyte solution before and during exercise experienced greater endurance capacity. This could not be explained by the varying levels of muscle glycogen; however, higher plasma glucose concentration may have led to this result. Dr. Stephen Bailey posits that the central nervous system can sense the influx of carbohydrates and reduces the perceived effort of the exercise, allowing for greater endurance capacity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8460", "title": "Dieting", "section": "Section::::How the body eliminates fat.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 903, "text": "When the body is expending more energy than it is consuming (e.g. when exercising), the body's cells rely on internally stored energy sources, such as complex carbohydrates and fats, for energy. The first source to which the body turns is glycogen (by glycogenolysis). Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate, 65% of which is stored in skeletal muscles and the remainder in the liver (totaling about 2,000 kcal in the whole body). It is created from the excess of ingested macronutrients, mainly carbohydrates. When glycogen is nearly depleted, the body begins lipolysis, the mobilization and catabolism of fat stores for energy. In this process fats, obtained from adipose tissue, or fat cells, are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids, which can be used to generate energy. The primary by-products of metabolism are carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide is expelled through the respiratory system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "93827", "title": "Human nutrition", "section": "Section::::Nutrition for special populations.:Sports nutrition.:Carbohydrates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 132, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 132, "end_character": 421, "text": "The main fuel used by the body during exercise is carbohydrates, which is stored in muscle as glycogen – a form of sugar. During exercise, muscle glycogen reserves can be used up, especially when activities last longer than 90 min. Because the amount of glycogen stored in the body is limited, it is important for athletes participating in endurance sports such as marathons to consume carbohydrates during their events.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "791546", "title": "Ketogenic diet", "section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.:Seizure control.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 91, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 91, "end_character": 951, "text": "On the ketogenic diet, carbohydrates are restricted and so cannot provide for all the metabolic needs of the body. Instead, fatty acids are used as the major source of fuel. These are used through fatty-acid oxidation in the cell's mitochondria (the energy-producing parts of the cell). Humans can convert some amino acids into glucose by a process called gluconeogenesis, but cannot do this by using fatty acids. Since amino acids are needed to make proteins, which are essential for growth and repair of body tissues, these cannot be used only to produce glucose. This could pose a problem for the brain, since it is normally fuelled solely by glucose, and most fatty acids do not cross the blood–brain barrier. However, the liver can use long-chain fatty acids to synthesise the three ketone bodies β-hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate and acetone. These ketone bodies enter the brain and \"partially\" substitute for blood glucose as a source of energy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21933440", "title": "Fatty-acid metabolism disorder", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 408, "text": "The body's primary source of energy is glucose; however, when all the glucose in the body has been expended, a normal body digests fats. Individuals with a fatty-acid metabolism disorder are unable to metabolize this fat source for energy, halting bodily processes. Most individuals with a fatty-acid metabolism disorder are able to live a normal active life with simple adjustments to diet and medications.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3757348", "title": "GLUT4", "section": "Section::::Tissue distribution.:Adipose tissue.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 261, "text": "Adipose tissue, commonly known as fat, is a depository for energy in order to conserve metabolic homeostasis. As the body takes in energy in the form of glucose, some is expended, and the rest is stored as glycogen primarily in the liver, muscle cells, or fat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21479285", "title": "Urine test strip", "section": "Section::::Diseases Identified with a Urine Test Strip.:Carbohydrate metabolism disorders.:Ketone test.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 201, "text": "An increase in fat metabolism can be the result of starvation or malabsorption, the inability to metabolize carbohydrates (as occurs, for example, in diabetes) or due to losses from frequent vomiting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It would be better described as creaking rather than cracking. When a door creaks, the hinges aren't cracking, there's just resistance that builds up until friction can no longer stop the hinge from moving. The same applies to the beams in your house as some parts of the wood heat & expand faster than others.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most likely you are hearing a snapping sound resulting from the friction of slight movements of the nails in the wood, due to expansion and contraction from various physical changes in and around the house, like temperature, pressure, humidity...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It depends what you mean by hearing it crack. If you mean randomly with no movement, it's the heating and cooling causing expansion of the wood, which ends up pressing against another piece of wood that's tight until it \"pops\" slightly and juts to another position. Think how earthquakes happen on super small scale. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Assuming your house is relatively new, the timbers in your house are drying out and shrinking, but they shrink inconsistently and, yes, are actually forming new cracks. This is called checking. When these new cracks form, they can actually sound like gunshots. And timber frame builders expect this checking; it's nothing to worry about.\n\nTimbers dry fairly slowly, at a rate of about one inch of thickness per year, so a 10\" by 10\" timber will completely dry in about 5 years. If your house is older in years than half the thickness in inches of its biggest timber, this is probably not what you're hearing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "37091624", "title": "1902 Ibrox disaster", "section": "Section::::Events.:Match and stand collapse.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 342, "text": "An investigation of the scene afterwards found that seventeen joints had given way causing a hole approximately long to open up in the stand. Several witnesses in the crowd reported hearing loud cracking noises prior to the collapse and one witness, who worked as a joiner, claimed to have seen the wooden boards split prior to the collapse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57640003", "title": "Llanarth (house)", "section": "Section::::History.:Llanarth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 346, "text": "BULLET::::- Significant cracking on the east end of the ground floor verandah on the northern wall of the house; other cracking near windows along wall; No cracks on the northern end of the west wall of the house; cracking near chimney and first and ground floor windows; top of northern chimney has been removed; minor cracking to kitchen wing;\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5446558", "title": "Crack in the Wall", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 352, "text": "Crack in the Wall is an EP by The Panics, released on April 5, 2004 by littleBIGMAN Records. The EP was recorded in the summer of 2003/2004 at Kingdom Studio (an old converted Masonic hall in Perth). The rear cover of the EP and inside photographs are of the band recording the EP, taken in the recording room of the studio, where the record was made.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13425816", "title": "The Flintstone House", "section": "Section::::History.:Disrepair, restoration and remodeling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 236, "text": "By the mid-1980s the house had fallen into disrepair, as water runoff from higher on the mountainside damaged the foundation, causing the walls to crack. After failed attempts at sealing the cracks, it was extensively restored in 1987.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59399", "title": "Lumber", "section": "Section::::Defects in lumber.:Natural forces.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 95, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 95, "end_character": 881, "text": "There are two main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber: abnormal growth and rupture of tissues. Rupture of tissue includes cracks or splits in the wood called \"shakes\". \"Ring shake\", \"wind shake\", or \"ring failure\" is when the wood grain separates around the growth rings either while standing or during felling. Shakes may reduce the strength of a timber and the appearance thus reduce lumber grade and may capture moisture, promoting decay. Eastern hemlock is known for having ring shake. A \"check\" is a crack on the surface of the wood caused by the outside of a timber shrinking as it seasons. Checks may extend to the pith and follow the grain. Like shakes, checks can hold water promoting rot. A \"split\" goes all the way through a timber. Checks and splits occur more frequently at the ends of lumber because of the more rapid drying in these locations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26509465", "title": "Chee Kung Tong Society Building", "section": "Section::::Collapse.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 327, "text": "On April 17, 1996, the derelict wood building collapsed due to damage caused by wood rot, termites, and gravity. Before the collapse, Society Elders had planned to meet to discuss the fate of the building. Certain elements of the building were to have been recovered, and possibly reused in the reconstruction of the building.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49815710", "title": "Shakes (timber)", "section": "Section::::Thunder shake or upset.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 212, "text": "Thunder shake is across the grain, and hard to detect until the boards are being planed. It is caused by shock to the wood, such as thunder, or concussion during felling. This fault seriously weakens the timber.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It can.\n\nImagine you have a job at a convenience store where they give you a 50% discount on baseball cards. You don’t care for them much, but your friend does. He regularly buys them from you for 90% of list. You never buy anything from him.\n\nYour friend has a trade deficit with you. The trade, though, is beneficial for both of you and you’ll keep doing it as long as it works out for both of you. And you’re not living outside your means to do it. \n\nYour teacher may have been talking about a budget deficit, which is a whole different thing. That is living outside your means. \n\n*edit: I had the trade deficit backwards. Macro at 7am never safe. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "55551", "title": "Tariff", "section": "Section::::Arguments in favor of tariffs.:Criticism of the theory of comparative advantage.:Using labour and capital to their full potential.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 119, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 119, "end_character": 577, "text": "If a country's resources were not fully utilized, production and consumption could be increased at the national level without participating in international trade. The whole raison d'être of international trade would disappear, as would the possible gains. In this case, a State could even earn more by refraining from participating in international trade and stimulating domestic production, as this would allow it to employ more labour and capital and increase national income. Moreover, any adjustment mechanism underlying the theory no longer works if unemployment exists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "62018", "title": "Comparative advantage", "section": "Section::::Criticism.:Unrealistic assumption 7: labour or capital is used to its full potential.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 97, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 97, "end_character": 577, "text": "If a country's resources were not fully utilized, production and consumption could be increased at the national level without participating in international trade. The whole raison d'être of international trade would disappear, as would the possible gains. In this case, a State could even earn more by refraining from participating in international trade and stimulating domestic production, as this would allow it to employ more labour and capital and increase national income. Moreover, any adjustment mechanism underlying the theory no longer works if unemployment exists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15382", "title": "Invisible balance", "section": "Section::::Balance of payments and invisibles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 402, "text": "In a similar way, a nation may also have a surplus 'balance of trade' because it exports more than it imports but a negative (or deficit) 'balance of payments' because, it has a much greater shortfall in transfers of capital. And, just as easily, a deficit in the 'balance of trade' may be offset by a larger surplus in capital transfers from overseas to produce a balance of payments surplus overall.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26152387", "title": "European debt crisis", "section": "Section::::Economic reforms and recovery proposals.:Address current account imbalances.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 174, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 174, "end_character": 645, "text": "A country with a large trade surplus would generally see the value of its currency appreciate relative to other currencies, which would reduce the imbalance as the relative price of its exports increases. This currency appreciation occurs as the importing country sells its currency to buy the exporting country's currency used to purchase the goods. Alternatively, trade imbalances can be reduced if a country encouraged domestic saving by restricting or penalising the flow of capital across borders, or by raising interest rates, although this benefit is likely offset by slowing down the economy and increasing government interest payments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38394281", "title": "Economic reforms and recovery proposals regarding the Eurozone crisis", "section": "Section::::Address current account imbalances.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 645, "text": "A country with a large trade surplus would generally see the value of its currency appreciate relative to other currencies, which would reduce the imbalance as the relative price of its exports increases. This currency appreciation occurs as the importing country sells its currency to buy the exporting country's currency used to purchase the goods. Alternatively, trade imbalances can be reduced if a country encouraged domestic saving by restricting or penalizing the flow of capital across borders, or by raising interest rates, although this benefit is likely offset by slowing down the economy and increasing government interest payments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28946427", "title": "United States balance of trade", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 313, "text": "Over the long run, nations with trade surpluses tend also to have a savings surplus. The U.S. generally has developed lower savings rates than its trading partners, which have tended to have trade surpluses. Germany, France, Japan, and Canada have maintained higher savings rates than the U.S. over the long run.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23794617", "title": "Foreign trade of the United States", "section": "Section::::Trade policy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 313, "text": "Over the long run, nations with trade surpluses tend also to have a savings surplus. The U.S. generally has developed lower savings rates than its trading partners, which have tended to have trade surpluses. Germany, France, Japan, and Canada have maintained higher savings rates than the U.S. over the long run.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "**Current:** Immigrants and Emigrants\n\n**On Deck:** Trauma\n\n**In the Hole:** The Balkans\n\nRemember to ask theme-related questions in [a new thread!](_URL_1_)! If your submission doesn't get automatically flaired, [send us a modmail](_URL_0_) with a link!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "132022", "title": "Emmaboda Municipality", "section": "Section::::Culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 517, "text": "\"The Emigrants\", the works about the Swedish emigration to North America, written by Vilhelm Moberg that have spread around the world have put a focus on many places in the municipality mentioned in the novels. Moberg himself was born on a farm just north-west of the town Emmaboda in 1898, where a monument stone now stands since 1970. Nearby is also a small museum about the author. , the village where Karl Oskar and Kristina, the fictional main characters of the novels live, is also located in the municipality.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12989381", "title": "Oberalben", "section": "Section::::Culture and sightseeing.:Museums.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 1359, "text": "The Oberalben Emigrants’ Museum (\"Auswanderermuseum Oberalben\") at Hauptstraße 3b in the middle of the village shows visitors emigrants’ backgrounds, travels and settlement. For more than 300 years, many local people emigrated, particularly to North America, among them baseball legend Babe Ruth’s forebears. The museum’s whole concept is to use exhibits and display boards to track those who wanted to emigrate through the process of getting approval from the authorities, to the journey over to the chosen new land and finally to their arrival and settlement there. This process took most of the emigrants to North America. The museum is supposed to help the visitor understand the manifold issues, with a special focus on human beings’ fates. Technical advice is given the museum by the historians and museologists Dr. Ulrich Wagner and Stefan Knobloch, who work at the \"Historisches Museum Bremerhaven\", as well as Roland Paul from the \"Institut für Pfälzische Geschichte und Volkskunde\" (Institute for Palatine History and Folklore) in Kaiserslautern. Since the museum is tended by volunteer helpers, it is only ever open on the first and third Sunday in every month. By mutual agreement, though, visitors can make other arrangements to see the museum. Events of regional importance, particularly concerts, are staged sporadically in the museum’s rooms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15051", "title": "Immigration to the United States", "section": "Section::::Immigration in popular culture.:Immigration in literature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 225, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 225, "end_character": 205, "text": "\"The Immigrant\" is a musical by Steven Alper, Sarah Knapp, and Mark Harelik. The show is based on the story of Harelik's grandparents, Matleh and Haskell Harelik, who traveled to Galveston, Texas in 1909.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6079771", "title": "A Fonsagrada", "section": "Section::::Carnivals and festivals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 265, "text": "The \"Feria del emigrantes,\" or \"Fair of Emigrants\" in English, is held in early or mid-August and has replaced the importance of the \"Feria de septiembre.\" It is celebrated as a reunion with those that left and never came back but return to the area for vacations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5950493", "title": "Poggio Picenze", "section": "Section::::Festivals and events.:Sagra Degli Spizzichi E Della Pecora Alla Chiaranese (Festival of the Sheep to Chiaranese).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 382, "text": "This festival is held annually on Friday Saturday and Sunday in the first week of August. Its advent was in the early 1970s and was devoted primarily to those who have migrated out but are still devoted to Poggio Picenze, it is sometimes referred to as \"\"The Emigrant's Week\".\" It celebrates being connected to those who have migrated throughout the world and to welcome them back.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9753319", "title": "Ulster American Folk Park", "section": "Section::::Theme.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 295, "text": "The museum's visitor centre houses a cafe and shop as well as the permanent exhibition \"Emigrants\" that introduces the story of emigration from Ireland to America, before visitors embark on their journey around the outdoor museum and along the emigrant trail. Free parking is available on site.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4115106", "title": "The Emigrants (Sebald novel)", "section": "Section::::Themes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 890, "text": "\"The Emigrants\" is largely concerned with memory, trauma, and feelings of foreignness. For example, Dr. Selwyn dwells on the story of a man he met in Switzerland in the time immediately prior to World War I, and explains how he felt a deeper companionship with this man than he ever did his wife. He also divulges how his family emigrated from Lithuania as a young boy, and tries to get the narrator to reveal how he feels being an emigrant from Germany living in England. In acknowledgement of this motif, Lisa Cohen of the Boston Review points out that \"The Emigrants\"' section-title characters \"suffer[ ] from memory and from the compulsion to obliterate it; from a mourning and melancholia so deep that it is almost unnamable; from the knowledge that he has survived while those he loved have not; from problems distinguishing dream and reality; from a profound sense of displacement.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's really more popular with people in the movie industry. It doesn't normally top the list of general audiences.\nIt's partly revered because it's kind of a film making clinic. So many techniques used in the various aspects of cinema are used, and used very very well.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's less about being the pinnacle of movie-making and more about being the _start_ of modern movie-making. \n\nIn _Citizen Kane_, director Orson Welles revolutionized how films were shot. There are a number of cinematic techniques that were introduced in _Citizen Kane_ including low angle shots, multiple dissolves, deep focus, non-linear storytelling (in particular supported by the film editing), people talking over one another (most films were shot then as back-and-forth dialogue), full sets with four walls and a ceiling (most films then were shot on sets like stage plays -- 3 walls, no ceiling), incorporation of fake documentary/news reels (which Welles had pioneered on radio with _War of the Worlds_), expressionistic lighting, and more. \n\nAll of these things are so commonplace today that you'll see them in many 30-second commercials, never mind feature films. But in 1941 they were all almost entirely new innovations that people had never seen until _Citizen Kane_. \n\nWatching _Citizen Kane_ today, you'd think \"What's the big deal?\" But the *reason* you think \"What's the big deal\" is because of all the techniques that _Citizen Kane_ introduced to cinema. \n\nPossible recent analogy: think about how the special effects of something like _Jurassic Park_ or _The Matrix_ in the 90's or maybe _Avatar_ in 2009 changed the way that people thought about how films could be made. _Citizen Kane_ had _ten times_ the impact that those films had in people's thinking about how films could be made. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you look at the silents or early talkies, they are almost like theatrical plays. Static stage, camera, and lighting. The story is usually pretty linear, and told exclusively through dialogue (and maybe a bit of action)\n\nIn Citizen Kane, most of the locations are filmed through several different cameras, some at some fairly unusual angles. And a great deal of care is taken with the lighting. All this gives a much greater sense of the locations being actual places instead of a stage with the curtains hidden from view. It also was pretty innovative with the narrative frame - there are flashbacks, montages, and so on. Citizen Kane wasn't necessarily the first movie to use any one of these techniques, but it did so many of them, and executed them so well that it has come to be seen as kind of a master class in how to use the unique properties of cinema to create artwork that wouldn't be possible in any other medium. And the acting, dialogue, cinematography and all that is very well done.\n\nIt also probably acquired a certain amount of mystique because Orson Welles was such a young and unknown quantity in Hollywood when he made it, and then never really lived up to that early promise. It was also very controversial when it came out, because the incredibly powerful newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst (whom Kane was based on) tried to bury it during production. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Besides its innovations, the performances are amazing, and the guts the unknown Welles demonstrated to take on William Randolph Hearst at the time is testimony to the power of art itself.\n\nThe storytelling is so strong in certain scenes, also. Check out the dialogue-free scene in which Kane and his first wife grow older through a montage of eating breakfast over the years. She is shown reading his newspaper every day until the end when she picks up the rival paper, showing the rift that has grown between them. \n\nAnd the always phenomenal Joseph Cotton is the quintessential \"best supporting actor\".\n\nWatch the movie RKO 281 with Liev schreiber to learn more about what it took to make this film and why it's so important.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are a lot of reasons for Citizen Kane being highly regarded outside of its historical significance. As /u/DoctorOddfellow explained:\n\n > In Citizen Kane, director Orson Welles revolutionized how films were shot. There are a number of cinematic techniques that were introduced in Citizen Kane including low angle shots, multiple dissolves, deep focus, non-linear storytelling (in particular supported by the film editing), people talking over one another (most films were shot then as back-and-forth dialogue), full sets with four walls and a ceiling (most films then were shot on sets like stage plays -- 3 walls, no ceiling), incorporation of fake documentary/news reels (which Welles had pioneered on radio with War of the Worlds), expressionistic lighting, and more.\n\nBut it's important to note that it's not just that Welles used these techniques, but *how* he used him. And in fact, many of the innovative things he did where already done in previous films (deep focus is used heavily in The Rules of the Game, 1939), but he was the first to do them all in a single movie. The final chapter of one film textbook I read was dedicated to explaining why Citizen Kane is so great, and it opened by stating something along the lines of, \"Every shot in the movie contains meaning, and the worst of the shots are merely very good.\"\n\nSo to give you an idea, [here's a famous shot that students typically look at in film school.](_URL_0_)\n\nHere are some things to look at:\n\n* Single shot once we enter the house/cabin. Creating continuity in time, and also means that the blocking in this shot is all related\n* Contrast between how the mother is dressed (formal) vs the father (casual)\n* The camera moves away from the window with the mother in the foreground and father in the background, suggesting further that she has control over the scene\n* They sit down. The characters are arranged so that the father is the only one standing. Usually a character standing suggests strength, but since he is still in the background and his dressed casually, this blocking convention is somewhat subverted, just as this scene subverts gender dynamics as a whole. Also, as they debate over the fate of a young Charles Foster Kane, he is scene in the background, between the two parents, playing in the snow. (This all being visible to the audience is an example of his use of deep focus).\n* As the drama in the scene escalates, the father moves to the foreground and the camera tilts up (still the same shot). The shot goes from a wide to a medium-wide, low-angle. The continuity in movement further articulates the rise in drama, and suggests a last ditch effort by the father. He now appears more menacing than before. Maybe there is more to his relationship with his wife and son? \"Anybody doesn't think I've been a good husband, or father...\"(we find out a few moments later that he is not a good father) Note: Charlie is still in the center, background. \n* As the mother signs, the camera tilts back down, excluding the father from the frame, indicating that he has no agency in this scene, or this moment. The mother owns the scene, the mother has \"won\" the scene\n* After the papers are signed, the camera rises, and the father moves back to the window and shuts it. The closing of the window following the signing of the papers, suggests that these documents have actually ended the boy's blissful childhood, a major theme of the movie.\n* They are all standing now and move towards the window, and the mother actually opens in one last time. The dialogue in the following closeup, with her action of opening the window reveals that she may not be as cold as we were previously lead to believe, that she does care about her son's well-being, and this is what she thinks is right for him.\n\nAnd that's just one shot in the movie. That's not even going into the overall structure of it and the depth of the narrative. There's a lot going on in Citizen Kane, and it's acclaim is not unwarranted. Roger Ebert did a commentary track for it, which is supposed to be fantastic. That can explain in more detail why it's a near perfect movie. \n\nEdit: Words", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This doesn't answer your question, but it's one thing that adds to its mystique. Orson Welles co-wrote, produced and directed *Citizen Kane* when he was only 25 years old.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well, for one it was highly innovative. Pioneering most, if not all, modern filmaking techniques. Even down to things like story structure, abstract concepts, location filming and more.\n\nSecond, it is a really really good movie. Like brilliantly so. Tells a huge story in concept, but it's also cerebral, sensational, funny and deals with real human flaws. That is also super modern.\n\nA lot of stories in film beforehand were like, fantasies. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Apart from technical reasons another factor that plays into its fame was its opposition by William Randolph Hearst - the media mogul that feel that Kane was too much of an autobiography about him that didn’t put him in the most favorable light. He was notorious in exhibiting a lot of pressure to not getting it made. RKO (I believe) defied him and released it anyway.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5224", "title": "Citizen Kane", "section": "Section::::Legacy.:Re-evaluation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 207, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 207, "end_character": 704, "text": "In the decades since, its critical status as the greatest film ever made has grown, with numerous essays and books on it including Peter Cowie's \"The Cinema of Orson Welles\", Ronald Gottesman's \"Focus on Citizen Kane\", a collection of significant reviews and background pieces, and most notably Kael's essay, \"Raising Kane\", which promoted the value of the film to a much wider audience than it had reached before. Despite its criticism of Welles, it further popularized the notion of \"Citizen Kane\" as the great American film. The rise of art house and film society circuits also aided in the film's rediscovery. David Thomson said that the film 'grows with every year as America comes to resemble it.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5224", "title": "Citizen Kane", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 836, "text": "Citizen Kane is a 1941 American mystery drama film by Orson Welles, its producer, co-screenwriter, director and star. The picture was Welles's first feature film. Nominated for Academy Awards in nine categories, it won an Academy Award for Best Writing (Original Screenplay) by Herman J. Mankiewicz and Welles. Considered by many critics, filmmakers, and fans to be the greatest film ever made, \"Citizen Kane\" was voted as such in five consecutive British Film Institute \"Sight & Sound\" polls of critics, and it topped the American Film Institute's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list in 1998, as well as its 2007 update. \"Citizen Kane\" is particularly praised for Gregg Toland's cinematography, Robert Wise's editing, Bernard Herrmann's music, and its narrative structure, all of which have been considered innovative and precedent-setting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5224", "title": "Citizen Kane", "section": "Section::::Reception.:Contemporary responses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 175, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 175, "end_character": 1111, "text": "\"Citizen Kane\" received good reviews from several critics. \"New York Daily News\" critic Kate Cameron called it \"one of the most interesting and technically superior films that has ever come out of a Hollywood studio\". \"New York World-Telegram\" critic William Boehnel said that the film was \"staggering and belongs at once among the greatest screen achievements\". \"Time\" magazine wrote that \"it has found important new techniques in picture-making and story-telling.\" \"Life\" magazine's review said that \"few movies have ever come from Hollywood with such powerful narrative, such original technique, such exciting photography.\" John C. Mosher of \"The New Yorker\" called the film's style \"like fresh air\" and raved \"Something new has come to the movie world at last.\" Anthony Bower of \"The Nation\" called it \"brilliant\" and praised the cinematography and performances by Welles, Comingore and Cotten. John O'Hara's \"Newsweek\" review called it the best picture he'd ever seen and said Welles was \"the best actor in the history of acting.\" Welles called O'Hara's review \"the greatest review that anybody ever had.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1416847", "title": "The Power and the Glory (1933 film)", "section": "Section::::Temporarily lost film.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 385, "text": "When film critic Pauline Kael wrote \"Raising Kane\", her 1971 \"New Yorker\" article on the genesis of \"Citizen Kane\", \"The Power and the Glory\" was virtually a \"lost film\". After writing about how Hollywood had praised the movie back in 1933 by putting up a bronze plaque on the New York movie theater where it had its premiere, she chided the movie industry for failing to preserve it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5224", "title": "Citizen Kane", "section": "Section::::Legacy.:Influence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 217, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 217, "end_character": 600, "text": "\"Citizen Kane\" has been called the most influential film of all time. Richard Corliss has asserted that Jules Dassin's 1941 film \"The Tell-Tale Heart\" was the first example of its influence and the first pop culture reference to the film occurred later in 1941 when the spoof comedy \"Hellzapoppin'\" featured a \"Rosebud\" sled. The film's cinematography was almost immediately influential and in 1942 \"American Cinematographer\" wrote \"without a doubt the most immediately noticeable trend in cinematography methods during the year was the trend toward crisper definition and increased depth of field.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38072707", "title": "May 1915", "section": "Section::::May 6, 1915 (Thursday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 323, "text": "BULLET::::- Born: Orson Welles, American actor and director, directed and produced \"Citizen Kane\", considered by most film critics as one of the all-time greatest films, as well as acclaimed films \"The Magnificent Ambersons\" and \"Touch of Evil\", and roles in \"The Third Man\" and \"Catch-22\", in Kenosha, Wisconsin (d. 1985)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36437899", "title": "RKO Pictures", "section": "Section::::Golden Age studio.:\"Kane\" and Schaefer's troubles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 1440, "text": "That May, having granted twenty-five-year-old star and director Orson Welles virtually complete creative control over the film, RKO released \"Citizen Kane\". While it opened to strong reviews and would go on to be hailed as one of the greatest movies ever made, it lost money at the time and brought down the wrath of the Hearst newspaper chain on RKO. The next year saw the commercial failure of Welles's \"The Magnificent Ambersons\"—like \"Kane\", critically lauded and overbudget—and the expensive embarrassment of his aborted documentary \"It's All True\". The three Welles productions combined to drain $2 million from the RKO coffers, major money for a corporation that had reported an overall deficit of $1 million in 1940 and a nominal profit of a bit more than $500,000 in 1941. Many of RKO's other artistically ambitious pictures were also dying at the box office and it was losing its last exclusive deal with a major star as well. Rogers, after winning an Oscar in 1941 for her performance in the previous year's \"Kitty Foyle\", held out for a freelance contract like Grant's; after 1943, she would appear in just one more RKO production, thirteen years later. On June 17, 1942, Schaefer tendered his resignation. He departed a weakened and troubled studio, but RKO was about to turn the corner. Propelled by the box-office boom of World War II and guided by new management, RKO would make a strong comeback over the next half-decade.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The debt is issued through the use of US Treasury securities. The government sells a bond, and the money collected from the bond buyer increases the debt until the bond is paid back.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "469008", "title": "United States Treasury security", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 377, "text": "Treasury securities are backed by the full faith and credit of the United States, meaning that the government has promised to raise money from any available source to repay them. Although the United States is a sovereign power and may default on its debt, its strong record of repayment has given Treasury securities a reputation as one of the world's lowest-risk investments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "322221", "title": "National debt of the United States", "section": "Section::::Debt holdings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 460, "text": "Because a large variety of people own the notes, bills, and bonds in the \"public\" portion of the debt, Treasury also publishes information that groups the types of holders by general categories to portray who owns United States debt. In this data set, some of the public portion is moved and combined with the total government portion, because this amount is owned by the Federal Reserve as part of United States monetary policy. (See Federal Reserve System.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "164391", "title": "Monetary policy of the United States", "section": "Section::::Significant effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 646, "text": "In 2005, the Federal Reserve held approximately 9% of the national debt as assets against the liability of printed money. In previous periods, the Federal Reserve has used other debt instruments, such as debt securities issued by private corporations. During periods when the national debt of the United States has declined significantly (such as happened in fiscal years 1999 and 2000), monetary policy and financial markets experts have studied the practical implications of having \"too little\" government debt: both the Federal Reserve and financial markets use the price information, yield curve and the so-called risk free rate extensively.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "322221", "title": "National debt of the United States", "section": "Section::::Valuation and measurement.:Public and government accounts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 396, "text": "The national debt can also be classified into marketable or non-marketable securities. Most of the marketable securities are Treasury notes, bills, and bonds held by investors and governments globally. The non-marketable securities are mainly the \"government account series\" owed to certain government trust funds such as the Social Security Trust Fund, which represented $2.82 trillion in 2017.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3874731", "title": "United States federal budget", "section": "Section::::Understanding deficits and debt.:Debt categories.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 1020, "text": "The total federal debt is divided into \"debt held by the public\" and \"intra-governmental debt.\" The debt held by the public refers to U.S. government securities or other obligations held by investors (e.g., bonds, bills and notes), while Social Security and other federal trust funds are part of the intra-governmental debt. As of September 30, 2012 the total debt was $16.1 trillion, with debt held by the public of $11.3 trillion and intragovernmental debt of $4.8 trillion. Debt held by the public as a percentage of GDP rose from 34.7% in 2000 to 40.3% in 2008 and 70.0% in 2012. U.S. GDP was approximately $15 trillion during 2011 and an estimated $15.6 trillion for 2012 based on activity during the first two quarters. This means the total debt is roughly the size of GDP. Economists debate the level of debt relative to GDP that signals a \"red line\" or dangerous level, or if any such level exists. By comparison, China's budget deficit was 1.6% of its $10 trillion GDP in 2010, with a debt to GDP ratio of 16%.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "322221", "title": "National debt of the United States", "section": "Section::::Appendix.:Statistics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 119, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 119, "end_character": 375, "text": "BULLET::::- According to the U.S. Department of Treasury Preliminary 2014 Annual Report on U.S. Holdings of Foreign Securities, the United States valued its foreign treasury securities portfolio at $2.7 trillion. The largest debtors are Canada, the United Kingdom, Cayman Islands, and Australia, whom account for $1.2 trillion of sovereign debt owed to residents of the U.S.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "322221", "title": "National debt of the United States", "section": "Section::::Debt holdings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 316, "text": "As is apparent from the chart, a little less than half of the total national debt is owed to the \"Federal Reserve and intragovernmental holdings\". The foreign and international holders of the debt are also put together from the notes, bills, and bonds sections. To the right is a chart for the data as of June 2008:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Ok, so: semen contains very little actual spermatozoa and a lot of other components, one of which are alkaloids produced by prostate to - basically - neutralize the acidity in a vagina, so that the spermatozoa survive long enough to reach the egg.\n\nThe alkaline stuff oxidises when it contacts the oxygen in air, which makes it change colour.\n\n^(source: high school biology, I guess?)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\nIt shoots out runny so it'll come out easily, but it has stuff in it that turns the semen hard almost straight away so it'll stick in the vagina. The stuff that turns it hard it changes the shape of proteins in your semen which makes the colour change (think about cooking an egg white). When the effect of that stuff wears off it turns runny again so the sperm be able to move up towards the egg. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It shouldn't if you squirt a little lemon juice on it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I just wanna start out by saying....okay, 23 comments but only 9 are readable? Thats pretty horrible.\n\nThe color of the semen is caused by the types of cells and molecules that are all mixed together when travelling from the testes, through the Vas Deferens, and coming together with the alkaloids from the prostate (as /u/thehollowjester has said). \n\nOne thing that causes the Viscosity and color of your semen to change, actually is largely affected by your sperm count. The thicker and whiter your semen is, the higher your sperm count. You would notice that, if you ejactulated multiple times in a row, your semen will get clearer and clearer. That is because your ejaculating faster than your testes can produce. Ever seen precum before you actually ejactulate? Its got a super almost nondiscernable amount of sperm, which gives it its clear color and very watery texture.\n\nSo in conclusion, what is causing your semen to turn white, not only is the oxidation of the molecules, but also your sperm dying off within your own semen and degrading. Which in turn, actually turns them clear.\n\nSource: Phlebotomist/Nursing student", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I have to ask. What situation are you in where you ejaculate and you haven't cleaned it up after five minutes?\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9999924", "title": "Semen analysis", "section": "Section::::Parameters.:Color.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 376, "text": "Semen that has a deep yellow color or is greenish in appearance may be due to medication. Brown semen is mainly a result of infection and inflammation of the prostate gland, urethra, epididymis and seminal vesicles. Other causes of unusual semen color include sexually transmitted infections such as gonorrhea and chlamydia, genital surgery and injury to the male sex organs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9999924", "title": "Semen analysis", "section": "Section::::Parameters.:Color.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 355, "text": "Semen normally has a whitish-gray color. It tends to get a yellowish tint as a man ages. Semen color is also influenced by the food we eat: foods that are high in sulfur, such as garlic, may result in a man producing yellow semen. Presence of blood in semen (hematospermia) leads to a brownish or red colored ejaculate. Hematospermia is a rare condition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25439126", "title": "Vulva", "section": "Section::::Development.:Pregnancy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 457, "text": "In pregnancy the vulva and vagina take on a bluish colouring due to venous congestion. This appears between the eighth and twelfth week and continues to darken as the pregnancy continues. Estrogen is produced in large quantities during pregnancy and this causes the external genitals to become enlarged. The vaginal opening and the vagina are also enlarged. After childbirth a vaginal discharge known as lochia is produced and continues for about ten days.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18842168", "title": "Semen", "section": "Section::::Physiology.:Human semen.:Appearance and consistency.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 251, "text": "Semen is typically translucent with white, grey or even yellowish tint. Blood in the semen can cause a pink or reddish colour, known as \"hematospermia\", and may indicate a medical problem which should be evaluated by a doctor if the symptom persists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19719185", "title": "Pus", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 606, "text": "Although pus is normally of a whitish-yellow hue, changes in the color can be observed under certain circumstances. Pus is sometimes green because of the presence of myeloperoxidase, an intensely green antibacterial protein produced by some types of white blood cells. Green, foul-smelling pus is found in certain infections of \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\". The greenish color is a result of the bacterial pigment pyocyanin that it produces. Amoebic abscesses of the liver produce brownish pus, which is described as looking like \"anchovy paste\". Pus from anaerobic infections can more often have a foul odor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "270445", "title": "Human hair color", "section": "Section::::Genetics and biochemistry of hair color.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 380, "text": "Pheomelanin is more bio-chemically stable than black eumelanin, but less bio-chemically stable than brown eumelanin, so it breaks down more slowly when oxidized. This is why bleach gives darker hair a reddish tinge during the artificial coloring process. As the pheomelanin continues to break down, the hair will gradually become red, then orange, then yellow, and finally white.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2076669", "title": "Leukorrhea", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 489, "text": "Leukorrhea or (leucorrhoea British English) is a thick, whitish or yellowish vaginal discharge. There are many causes of leukorrhea, the usual one being estrogen imbalance. The amount of discharge may increase due to vaginal infection, and it may disappear and reappear from time to time. This discharge can keep occurring for years, in which case it becomes more yellow and foul-smelling. It is usually a non-pathological symptom secondary to inflammatory conditions of vagina or cervix.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "More importantly... why can't my girlfriend taste anything anymore?? Some kind of sinus infection that's lasted weeks ;_;", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Sinuses are hollow cavities in the skull to lighten the bone structure. They are lined with mucous tissue, and can be subjected to allergens, causing the mucous to swell and produce mucus. This can plug up the sinus cavities and cause pressure and pain. Why your throat swells up and goes numb really has nothing to do with your sinuses. It probably has more to do with histamine release that caused the sneeze in the first place. Here is a good pic of sinuses. _URL_0_ \n\nAs far as not tasting, it's probably because her sense of smell is diminished from sinusitis. \n\nShe needs to see a doctor. I suffer from sinusitis, and it's horrible. There have been cases where the sinusitis has been caused by nasal polyps, which can be removed fairly easily if they are small. Most sinus problems are allergic or viral/bacterial. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1227347", "title": "Carotid sinus", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 470, "text": "In human anatomy, the carotid sinus is a dilated area at the base of the internal carotid artery just superior to the bifurcation of the internal carotid and external carotid at the level of the superior border of thyroid cartilage. The carotid sinus extends from the bifurcation to the \"true\" internal carotid artery. The carotid sinus is sensitive to pressure changes in the arterial blood at this level. It is the major baroreception site in humans and most mammals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9639798", "title": "Sinus (anatomy)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 366, "text": "A sinus is a sac or cavity in any organ or tissue, or an abnormal cavity or passage caused by the destruction of tissue. In common usage, \"sinus\" usually refers to the paranasal sinuses, which are air cavities in the cranial bones, especially those near the nose and connecting to it. Most individuals have four paired cavities located in the cranial bone or skull.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2357579", "title": "Maxillary sinus", "section": "Section::::Structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 416, "text": "The sinus is lined with mucoperiosteum, with cilia that beat toward the ostia. This membrane is also referred to as the \"Schneiderian Membrane\", which is histologically a bilaminar membrane with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells on the internal (or cavernous) side and periosteum on the osseous side. The size of the sinuses varies in different skulls, and even on the two sides of the same skull.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4469841", "title": "Transverse sinuses", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 212, "text": "The transverse sinuses are of large size and begin at the internal occipital protuberance; one, generally the right, being the direct continuation of the superior sagittal sinus, the other of the straight sinus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9387918", "title": "Human nose", "section": "Section::::Structure.:Internal nose.:Drainage into nasal cavity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 679, "text": "The respiratory epithelium that lines the sinuses is closely adhered to the membrane of the underlying bone. A narrow opening called a sinus ostium from each of the paranasal sinuses allows drainage into the nasal cavity. The maxillary sinus is the largest of the sinuses and drains into the middle meatus. Adults have a high concentration of cilia in the ostia. The increased cilia and the narrowness of the sinus openings allow for an increased time for moisturising, and warming. The cilia in the sinuses beat towards the openings into the nasal cavity. Most of the ostia open into the middle meatus and the anterior ethmoid, that together are termed the ostiomeatal complex.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35409232", "title": "Mahdi Hasan", "section": "Section::::Scientific research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 255, "text": "Different morphological types of occipital sinuses were described which formed the basis of a hypothesis proposed by D Falk and G C Conray, tracing the evolution of venous sinuses. Also, Gray's Anatomy has cited Hasan's description of the falx cerebelli.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12765060", "title": "Sinus (botany)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 307, "text": "In botany, a sinus is a space or indentation between two lobes or teeth, usually on a leaf. The term is also used in mycology. For example, one of the defining characteristics of North American species in the \"Morchella elata\" clade of morels is the presence of a sinus where the cap attaches to the stipe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Your brain notices that there's nothing of interest going on at the moment, and tries to shut down to conserve energy. Your studying might be important to you in a higher-function way, but at a core animal level, it's not food, sex, stimulation, or entertainment, and so you're just wasting energy and calories (and therefore dangerously wandering towards starvation and death) by being alert and awake. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In this case, your brain can be compared to a car with a bad idle. When you're interested and engaged, your brain has it's pedal on the accelerator and it runs fine. When you are doing things that are not as interesting to you the brain loses engagement and starts to idle. It has trouble maintaining the idle and starts to shut down against your will. Generally, the idle state can be maintained in normal people, but some have issues with it.\n\nThis is actually a sign of mild narcolepsy and you should get tested at a sleep center. I had the same symptoms and that was my diagnosis.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I had a buddy who had this issue. So he comes over one day and he's like, \"Man I just don't know what's up, I can't stay awake in class. It's like an 8 am'er but I get a good night's sleep before hand and I grab a giant 32oz coke on my way so I'm loaded with caffeine. The next thing I know I'm waking up and the class is leaving. I don't know why I can't stay awake, it's not even that boring\" So this goes on for several weeks, and finally he decides it's bad enough to hit up the campus clinic.\n\nTurns out the dude is a minor diabetic. He was basically sending himself into a diabetic coma every morning in his attempt to stay awake! Made a few life changes like cutting out soda, getting some exercise, and switching to Miller Lite and walla, drops 35 pounds, and gains a ton of energy. \n\nI don't necessarily think this is your issue, but your story reminded me of it.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I was taking night classes a few years ago. I was working, married, kids, mortgage, yadda, yadda. I could not stay away during my Calculus class. I found out that if I took a 15 min nap in my car before class -- that I would wake up automatically. And, I would be completely refreshed for my class. I have since learned that it is called a \"power nap\" and I use it all the time.\n\nBut, it is KEY ... to wake up after 15 mins.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Basically, your brain is like:\n\n\"okay, I'm safe, I'm well-fed, and there's nothing too interesting going on...might as well sleep to save energy\"\n\nThat's basically it. Happens to me too; I get really tired if I'm bored and have nothing to do.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If this happens in the morning it could be you just feeling sleepy because your body dips in energy. A little caffeine could fix it. If it'sat night you might just need sleep. Otherwise if it's boring do caffeine. If you're worried about sugar you can do coffee. Tea works if you just need a small amount and don'tlike coffee or espresso.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is going to get buried, but... It might be your eye sight. If your eyes have a hard time focusing on near objects, it may cause your brain to go into overdrive trying to make sense of what the eyes are reporting. Causes one to become tired after maybe 5 - 10 minutes of reading. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Fun fact: if you find yourself singing or humming on a regulaor basic, that means that the job is too easy and its not taking any effort. So if your mind is needing to preoccupy yourself, you'll find yourself humming/ singing (Depending on the person obviously). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ozzy and drix aren't too happy with your decision making. They think there's better things to be done.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I was dozing off at the drop of a hat ... no amount of red bull, pro-plus or double/triple espressos could keep me awake ... turned out I had a B12 deficiency.\n\nNow whilst I don't doze at the drop of a hat I do have issues with exhaustion and have not had a restful nights sleep of more than two-three hours for over ten years. I've been diagnosed with CFS/ME now!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "i have the same issue but i wake up more tired than i went to sleep. it doesnt matter when i go to bed ill sleep 11+ hours if i set no alarm. \n\ncould sleep right now at 9pm and id wake up at 9am late for work", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is me. I fall asleep all the time. In lectures, in talks, in meetings. I once got myself tested for sleep apnea, they said that nothing was wrong. Not overweight or anything either. I've had this \"problem\" ever since I was in Grade 10 or so.\n\nIt doesn't really negatively affect me, except that other people see me sleeping, so in that way it does affect me negatively. The interesting thing is that people don't understand that it's unconscious - it's not like I choose to go to sleep. I am awake, and then the next moment I'm not. The discipline I'm trying now is that as soon as I find myself nodding off, I have to struggle to regain consciousness and force myself to get up or something instead of doing the constant head-bobbing thing that people who are falling asleep do.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2891803", "title": "Automatic behavior", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 326, "text": "Automatic behavior can also be exhibited whilst in the REM state—subjects can hold conversations, sit up and even open their eyes. Those acts are considered sub-conscious as most of the time the events cannot be recalled by the subject. It is most common when the subject has had under 10 hours sleep within a 36-hour period.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4793251", "title": "Morita therapy", "section": "Section::::Morita's four stages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 593, "text": "The first stage, seclusion-and-rest, lasts from four to seven days. It is a period of learning to separate oneself from the minute-by-minute barrage of the constant assault on one’s senses and thought processes by a loud and intrusive world. The patient learns to turn off the television, close the door temporarily to demanding work, well-meaning friends, and even family. The patient is ordered to stay on absolute bed rest, even to take meals, only rising to use the restroom. When the patient expresses boredom and wishes to rise and be productive, then they may move to the second stage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2741068", "title": "Declarative learning", "section": "Section::::Empirical evidence.:Adults.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 1605, "text": "Declarative learning is not solely affected by sleeping but can also be affected by levels of stress as well as hormones. In a study conducted by Espin et al. stress, hormones and menstrual cycle phases in women, were tested for their effect on declarative learning in young adults. Participants were asked to participate in a Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) where they were asked to give a speech to a simulated committee about why they deserved the position for their dream job. If the participant did not finish their speech in five minutes the committee would then ask standardized questions the researchers had provided. After the speech the participant was asked to complete a five-minute arithmetic task. The TSST was set up to induce stress in the participants before they proceeded to the declarative learning task. For the Declarative Learning task the participants were asked to complete a Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Task (RAVLT), which has the participants look over a set of words and then asks them to recall as many as they can. The study showed that if women were not exposed to the TSST task before the RAVLT there was an increase of declarative learning and recall when compared to the men. However, when the participants were exposed to the TSST task before the RAVLT then declarative learning and recall were equal for both men and women. Women during the study that were menstruating and exposed to the TSST task showed lower levels of stress than women not menstruating, they also had an increase of declarative learning and recall when compared to men and women not menstruating \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2351973", "title": "Study skills", "section": "Section::::Types.:Time management, organization and lifestyle changes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 540, "text": "In addition to time management and sleep, emotional state of mind can matter when a student is studying.If an individual is calm or nervous in class; replicating that emotion can assist in studying. With replicating the emotion an individual is more likely to recall more information if they are in the same state of mind when in class. This also goes the other direction; if one is upset but normally calm in class it’s much better to wait until they are feeling calmer to study. At the time of the test or class they will remember more. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17454635", "title": "Sleep onset latency", "section": "Section::::Sleep latency studies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 631, "text": "When they initially developed the MSLT, Dement and others put subjects in a quiet, dark room with a bed and asked them to lie down, close their eyes and relax. They noted the number of minutes, ranging from 0 to 20, that it took a subject to fall asleep. If a volunteer was still awake after 20 minutes, the experiment was ended and the subject given a maximal alertness/minimal sleepiness rating. When scientists deprived subjects of sleep, they found sleep latency levels could drop below 1, i.e., subjects could fall asleep in less than a minute. The amount of sleep loss was directly linked to changes in sleep latency scores.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39218390", "title": "Start School Later movement", "section": "Section::::Impact on School Performance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 932, "text": "Sleep deprivation can result in low motivation, difficulty concentrating, restlessness, slowed reaction times, lack of energy, frequent errors, forgetfulness, and impaired decision-making skills. Studies, many spearheaded by Kyla Wahlstrom and her research team at University of Minnesota's Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement (CAREI), have tied these effects to early school start times, which, in turn, have repeatedly been linked to increased rates of tardiness, truancy, absenteeism, and dropping out. In 2012 a study using data from Wake County, North Carolina, showed that delaying middle school start times by one hour, from roughly 7:30 to 8:30, increases standardized test scores by at least two percentile points in math and one percentile point in reading. The effect was largest for students with below-average test scores, suggesting that later start times would narrow gaps in student achievement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "776322", "title": "Non-rapid eye movement sleep", "section": "Section::::Slow-wave sleep.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 448, "text": "The highest arousal thresholds (e.g. difficulty of awakening, such as by a sound of a particular volume) are observed in stage 3. A person will typically feel groggy when awakened from this stage, and indeed, cognitive tests administered after awakening from stage 3 indicate that mental performance is somewhat impaired for periods up to 30 minutes or so, relative to awakenings from other stages. This phenomenon has been called \"sleep inertia.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Numerous factors- \n\n1 Store size. Different stores are different sizes, and shapes depending on the area they are situated and the availble space/ planned market.. What works for one floor plan doesn't neccesarily work for another.\n\n2 customers. Customers in different areas like different things, so different branches carry different products, and or different stock levels. This means certain types of product need more space in some stores then others.\n\n3 There's more then one possible arrangement that works well.\n\n4 They do tend to have LOTS of things in common. Walk into any supermarket. Fresh Fruit and Veg is almost always the first thing you come to. Dairy products are always kept together. Dental and medical supplies are in the same isle, sweets biscuits and crisps are next to one another. And so on.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In addition to other answes, the customer base is also factored in.\n\nFor example, when you walk into a Target, whose demographic is women, you see things women are drawn to (in general): women's clothing, jewelry, foundations, shoes, gift cards. \n\nMove to the opposite corner of the store for 'guy' things like electronics, sports gear, tools, fixit things you can't even see from the entrance.\n\nThen there is the hard-flooring racetrack around the store for getting at grab-and-go things like branded foods, detergents, personal care where no decisions are involved. You always buy Crest toothpaste and Tide detergent, so it's easy to find and grab just off the racetrack. If you get deep off the racetrack, you find things where you will need to stop and think and choose, like clothing, toys, small appliances and baby items. Clothing areas are carpeted because it reflects a higher end experience that customers prefer when shopping clothes. \n\nA different big store like Walmart has a different customer base (lower income, with younger kids) so you will see loss-leaders and seasonal stuff like school supplies by the entrance, but a similar racetrack for common items and carpeted clothing areas.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "51862", "title": "Supermarket", "section": "Section::::Layout strategies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 422, "text": "Supermarkets are designed to \"give each product section a sense of individual difference and this is evident in the design of what is called the anchor departments; fresh produce, dairy, delicatessen, meat and the bakery\". Each section has different floor coverings, style, lighting and sometimes even individual services counters to allow shoppers to feel as if there are a number of markets within this one supermarket.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51862", "title": "Supermarket", "section": "Section::::Layout strategies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 664, "text": "Every aspect of the store is mapped out and attention is paid to color, wording and even surface texture. The overall layout of a supermarket is a visual merchandising project that plays a major role. Stores can creatively use a layout to alter customers’ perceptions of the atmosphere. Alternatively, they can enhance the store’s atmospherics through visual communications (signs and graphics), lighting, colors, and even scents. For example, to give a sense of the supermarket being healthy, fresh produce is deliberately located at the front of the store. In terms of bakery items, supermarkets usually dedicate 30 to 40 feet of store space to the bread aisle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "183515", "title": "Retail", "section": "Section::::Retail format: types of retail outlet.:Retail types by marketing strategy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 235, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 235, "end_character": 883, "text": "A speciality (AE: specialty) store has a narrow marketing focus  – either specializing on specific merchandise, such as toys, footwear, or clothing, or on a target audience, such as children, tourists, or plus-size women. Size of store varies  – some speciality stores might be retail giants such as Toys \"R\" Us, Foot Locker, and The Body Shop, while others might be small, individual shops such as Nutters of Savile Row. Such stores, regardless of size, tend to have a greater depth of the specialist stock than general stores, and generally offer specialist product knowledge valued by the consumer. Pricing is usually not the priority when consumers are deciding upon a speciality store; factors such as branding image, selection choice, and purchasing assistance are seen as important. They differ from department stores and supermarkets which carry a wide range of merchandise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4944575", "title": "Grocery Outlet", "section": "Section::::Products.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 404, "text": "Inventory comes primarily from overstocks and closeouts of name brand groceries, as well as private label groceries. Grocery Outlets buy mostly closeout or seasonal merchandise, so particular brand names change often. The company’s stores also carry food staples such as fresh meat, dairy and bread. All products sold by Grocery Outlet are purchased directly from manufacturers, not other retail stores.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "183515", "title": "Retail", "section": "Section::::Retail format: types of retail outlet.:Retail types by marketing strategy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 197, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 197, "end_character": 601, "text": "Concept stores are similar to speciality stores in that they are very small in size, and only stock a limited range of brands or a single brand. They are typically operated by the brand that controls them. Example: L'OCCITANE en Provence. The limited size and offering of L'OCCITANE's stores is too small to be considered a speciality store. However, a concept store goes beyond merely selling products, and instead offers an immersive customer experience built around the way that a brand fits with the customer's lifestyle. Examples include Apple's concept stores, Kit Kat's concept store in Japan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "239196", "title": "Grocery store", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 494, "text": "Some groceries specialize in the foods of a certain nationality or culture, such as Chinese, Italian, Middle-Eastern, or Polish. These stores are known as ethnic markets and may also serve as gathering places for immigrants. In many cases, the wide range of products carried by larger supermarkets has reduced the need for such specialty stores. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing season.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "876132", "title": "Private label", "section": "Section::::Prevalence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 622, "text": "A Food Marketing Institute study found that store brands account for an average of 14.5 percent of in store sales with some stores projecting they will soon reach as high as 20 percent of all sales. Store branding is a mature industry; consequently, some store brands have been able to position themselves as premium brands. Sometimes store-branded goods mimic the shape, packaging, and labeling of national brands, or get premium display treatment from retailers. (For example, \"Dr. Thunder\" and \"Mountain Lightning\" are the names of the Sam's Choice store brand equivalents of Dr Pepper and Mountain Dew, respectively.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Generally I would say that people who are millionaires tend to have a high performance drive. They desire to always perform better. This is what made them wealthy in the first place, and this is what makes them desire ever more wealth. You can always do better.\n\nFurthermore, once you reach the level of being a millionaire, you'll move to a new level of wealth. You'll have all these people around you who are wealthier than you are and can do and buy things you can't. So compared to them, what used to be enough all of a sudden isn't enough anymore.\n\nThat is my take on it anyway.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To me it seems like addiction. You play a game and you enjoy it, then what's enough isn't a question and you only want more. Other reason is selfishness which is basicly root to all evil deeds in humanity.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You could live off the interest, potentially. \n\nBut that would be if you're willing to just live off of the monthly income. Emergencies happen. Some purchases require more money. Plus, if you're making enough to have a million in the bank, you're probably used to living a lifestyle a bit above the interest income. Is that income based on the stock market? Then its going to be up and down as that roller coaster goes. Keep in mind once you're no longer employed that you'll have to buy your own medical insurance (if you're in the US). Its not cheap compared to what you pay if you have one through an employer, since they pick up part of it, usually.\n\nMe personally, I'm going to continue working. But then again, I plan to retire from my main job (owning part of a small business) around age 45. What I have in the bank plus my secondary business (rental properties) is going to have to carry me the rest of my life. I'm not counting on social security.\n\nAnd I live semi-frugally. I could probably survive on the interest. Especially once I get the house I'm living in paid off.\n\nSource: I do have a million in the bank. It did, however, take me 11 years to get to that point, its not like I did it overnight. I'm going to work another 10 years or so before I semi-retire. And to accomplish that, I had to put 40% of my income after taxes into the bank/other investments. So, after taxes, figure I'm living off about 40% of my income as well. That, and running my small business consumes 60-80 hours a week of time as well as being on call all the time. Is it worth it? Sure. But I'm going to make sure I'm able to sustain myself the rest of my life too, comfortably.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "644912", "title": "Certificate of deposit", "section": "Section::::Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 240, "text": "Author Ric Edelman writes: \"You don't make any money in bank accounts (in real economic terms), simply because you're not supposed to.\" On the other hand, he says, bank accounts and CDs are fine for holding cash for a short amount of time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2096831", "title": "Edward Aveling", "section": "Section::::Biography.:Later life, death, and legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 237, "text": "It is not uncommon to come across individuals from whose company and a small sum of money one simultaneously parts. This compulsion to borrow is not easy to explain in those who are neither on their beam ends nor aspire to high living.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43545389", "title": "Secular stagnation", "section": "Section::::Post-2009.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 309, "text": "A third is that there is a \"persistent and disturbing reluctance of businesses to invest and consumers to spend\", perhaps in part because so much of the recent gains have gone to the people at the top, and they tend to save more of their money than people—ordinary working people who can't afford to do that.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5660960", "title": "Economic stagnation", "section": "Section::::Stagnation in the United States.:Post-2008 period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 309, "text": "A third is that there is a \"persistent and disturbing reluctance of businesses to invest and consumers to spend\", perhaps in part because so much of the recent gains have gone to the people at the top, and they tend to save more of their money than people—ordinary working people who can't afford to do that.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14507404", "title": "Wealth inequality in the United States", "section": "Section::::Causes of wealth inequality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 851, "text": "Corresponding to financial resources, the wealthy strategically organize their money so that it will produce profit. Affluent people are more likely to allocate their money to financial assets such as stocks, bonds, and other investments which hold the possibility of capital appreciation. Those who are not wealthy are more likely to have their money in savings accounts and home ownership. This difference comprises the largest reason for the continuation of wealth inequality in America: the rich are accumulating more assets while the middle and working classes are just getting by. As of 2007, the richest 1% held about 38% of all privately held wealth in the United States. while the bottom 90% held 73.2% of all debt. According to \"The New York Times\", the richest 1 percent in the United States now own more wealth than the bottom 90 percent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1103799", "title": "Distribution of wealth", "section": "Section::::Inequality.:Wealth distribution pyramid.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 1003, "text": "Personal wealth varies across adults for many reasons. Some individuals with little wealth may be at early stages in their careers, with little chance or motivation to accumulate assets. Others may have suffered business setbacks or personal misfortunes, or live in parts of the world where opportunities for wealth creation are severely limited. At the other end of the spectrum, there are individuals who have acquired a large wealth through different ways. In Western countries, the most typical way of becoming wealthy is entrepreneurship (estimated three quarters of new millionaires). Other typical way (covering most of the remaining quarter) is pursuing a career with the end goal of becoming a C-level executive, a leading professional in a specific field (such as a doctor, lawyer, engineer) or a top corporate sales person. Only around 1% of new millionaires acquire their wealth via other means such as professional sports, show business, art, inventions, investing, inheritance or lottery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14507404", "title": "Wealth inequality in the United States", "section": "Section::::Causes of wealth inequality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 829, "text": "Essentially, the wealthy possess greater financial opportunities that allow their money to make more money. Earnings from the stock market or mutual funds are reinvested to produce a larger return. Over time, the sum that is invested becomes progressively more substantial. Those who are not wealthy, however, do not have the resources to enhance their opportunities and improve their economic position. Rather, \"after debt payments, poor families are constrained to spend the remaining income on items that will not produce wealth and will depreciate over time.\" Scholar David B. Grusky notes that \"62 percent of households headed by single parents are without savings or other financial assets.\" Net indebtedness generally prevents the poor from having any opportunity to accumulate wealth and thereby better their conditions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Japan has the oldest continuous, hereditary monarchy in the world -- and would, I believe, even qualify as oldest if we included non-hereditary or interrupted-hereditary successions. The Japanese royal family is still in the Yamato Dynasty, which took over the Japanese throne (according to legend) in about 660 BC under Emperor Jimmu. This means there has been a continuous line of descendants (traditionally, Japanese emperors must be male, but there have been several empresses in Japanese history -- though these generally succeeded in extraordinary circumstances) for nearly 2700 years. \n\nHowever, evidence for the first two dozen or so emperors in the Yamato Dynasty is scanty by modern, empirical history standards, and the first emperors are semi-legendary in status. Therefore, the Japanese royal line is often dated back to the time when we have solid evidence in line with modern standards of historicity -- which takes us back to about 500 AD with the birth of [Emperor Kinmei](_URL_0_). \n\nThat said, even discounting that first 900+ years of semi-dubious imperial lineage, the Japanese monarchy would still be about 1500 years old, the longest continuous dynasty in the world by a significant margin. To give a historical context, the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus Agustulus, was (probably) still alive about the time Emperor Kinmei was born, and Kinmei's dynasty is still on the throne today.\n\nSources: \n\n* Packard, Jerrold: *Sons of Heaven: A Portrait of the Japanese Monarchy (1987)*\n\n* Hoye, Timothy *Japanese Politics: Fixed and Floating Worlds* (1999)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Now I don't know if it is the longest, but the Chola dynasty had a clear, tracable family tree and record of succession from Vijayala Chola circa 840 AD to Rajendra III circa 1250 AD, that is 410 years of unbroken succession.\n\nNow, the Chola dynasty itself is recorded in Sangam literature and mentioned in the edicts of Ashoka which itself dates back to 300 BCE, however we do not have any clear records of it is the same branch that went from 300 BCE to 1250 AD which would put it at a stellar 1,000 years.\n\nThe Pandyans, another major dynasty in South India trace their lineage back to the same Sangam era literature and have a recorded lineage / succession tree running from approx 300 BCE to ~ 350 AD (roughly 650 years). There is an interegnum and the second group of Pandyans run from ~ 500 AD to ~1250 AD and then the line switches briefly to a matrilineal one when the Pandyan empire was taken over by the son of Lilavati, a Sri Lankan Queen and then it runs continously till the Pandyan empire fell sometime in 1400 AD.\n\nIn essence, the Pandyan Dynasty per se was in recorded existence from ~ 500 BCE to 1,400 AD. They were contemporaries to Darius I and his Achmaemenid Empire and Rome when it was still a kingdom till the Pandyan dynasty / empire fell after the fall of Byzantium. The lineage though is broken up into 3 distinct lines, but their subjects and rivals as well as modern day historians consider the Pandyan dynasty as one entity. \n\nSource - Cholas by Nilakanta Sastri and An Illustrated history of South India by the same author.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Follow-up: How about the current European monarchs? I know that Queen Elizabeth II goes back to the 10th century via Theodoric (since I'm related to her myself!), do any European monarchs go back further?\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27324924", "title": "List of current longest-ruling non-royal national leaders", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 244, "text": "This list of current longest ruling non-royal national leaders is a list of the current living longest ruling heads of nation-states or national governments, who are not royalty, and have served ten years or longer, sorted by length of tenure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "603336", "title": "Sobhuza II", "section": "Section::::Later life and death.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 351, "text": "Sobhuza's official incumbency of 82 years and 254 days is the longest precisely dated monarchical reign on record and the world's longest documented reign of any sovereign since antiquity. Only Pepi II Neferkare of Ancient Egypt and Taejo of the ancient Korean kingdom of Goguryeo are claimed to have reigned longer, though these claims are disputed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17085106", "title": "House of France", "section": "Section::::The House of France under the monarchy.:The direct Capetians.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 853, "text": "In 987, Hugh Capet inaugurates the third race of the kings of France, the one which will reign longest. The first Capetians associated their heirs to the crown while they still lived; the dynasty established its legitimacy and the principle of election, through which its founder attained the throne, is substituted by the hereditary principle already present in earlier dynasties. The extraordinary father-to-son succession ended in 1316 with the death of the child-king John I. His uncle and regent Philip V took the throne for himself, then his younger brother succeeded him briefly. These last two reigns allowed time for the royal court to consolidate the principle of agnatic succession by giving the throne to the Count of Valois, the nearest male in the male line, against Edward III of England and Joan II of Navarre, heirs in the female line.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55762336", "title": "Jethwa dynasty", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 337, "text": "The last Rana and ruler of Jethwa dynasty of Porbandar, Shri Natwarsinhji died in 1979. Before him in 1977, the successor to his throne the crown-prince Udaybhansinhji Natwarsinhji Jethwa died, leaving the throne of more than 2000 year old dynasty vacant and uncertain, perhaps the longest continuous ruling dynasty of Indian Peninsula.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "387605", "title": "Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 219, "text": "Immediately prior to his death, he was the fourth longest-reigning living monarch in the world after Kings Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand, Abdul Halim of Kedah of Malaysia and Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11931603", "title": "Records of heads of state", "section": "Section::::Shortest serving.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 516, "text": "The shortest serving monarch of all time is believed to be Louis XIX of France. After his father's abdication during the July Revolution on August 2, 1830, he ascended to the throne, but abdicated around 19 minutes later. This reign is disputed, as some historians believe this reign is too short to be valid. The next contender is the unnamed daughter of Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei who was appointed by her grandmother, Empress Dowager Hu. She reigned for a matter of hours until being replaced by Yuan Zhou.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11933039", "title": "List of British monarchy records", "section": "Section::::Longevity.:Monarchs.:Longest-lived.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 347, "text": "The longest-lived queen consort and overall consort was Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, later known as the Queen Mother, consort to George VI, and mother of the current longest-lived British monarch, who was 101 years 238 days at the time of her death on 30 March 2002. Prince Philip would pass her as longest-lived overall consort in 4 February 2023.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It depends on what that source has to offer. Most leafy plants commonly eaten are considered \"greens\" like Kale, Spinach, Arugula, etc., and are eaten for the vitamin and mineral content. \"Greens\" are an essentially non-caloric or low calorie, nutrient dense source of minerals that would be difficult to consume through another source. Minerals such as Magnesium, and Potassium are key to your health and leafy \"greens\" offer massive quantities of these nutrients. \n\n*Note: Not all greens are actually green.*\n\nThat's not to say you couldn't sustain yourself on things like fern. There are numerous amounts of wild flowered plants you can boil and pop in your mouth as a snack, but it would require a larger amount to be consumed since they aren't necessarily packed with minerals and/or nutrients.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We could never be sustained on grass, for example, because grass has a lot of cellulose in its cell walls. Humans can't digest cellulose very well, so we wouldn't be able to get any nutrients from grass. \n\nThe key is also a balance of different plant sources. Some plants have higher amounts of some nutrients, while others don't. Chickpeas are a great source of protein but they don't have enough methionine (an essential amino acid), while corn has enough methionine but not enough lysine and tryptophan (also essential amino acids). If you eat a diet that is balanced in these two crops, then you could potentially meet your amino acid requirements (although not necessarily, I'm oversimplifying here to answer your question). You probably wouldn't get very far if you only ate spinach and nothing else. It's the variety that produces a complete diet.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36324045", "title": "Celosia argentea var. cristata", "section": "Section::::Cultivation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 410, "text": "The plants are relatively easy to grow and care for, having few insects that feed on them. Mites, though, are known to feed on the plants. The plants are also susceptible to leaf spotting, root rot and root strangulation. However the former two can be prevented by avoiding a damp soil and the latter by frequent weeding. Also wetting the leaf and flowers should be avoided as they can lead to fungal diseases\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33720888", "title": "On the Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants", "section": "Section::::Conclusions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 967, "text": "The spontaneous revolving habit of stems and tips has evolved in many plant groups in order to obtain light and/or support. Darwin in his conclusion explores the reasons for why these adaptations might have taken place, in what ways they may have been advantageous. For instance, an increased ability to hold on to support (by twining) will be beneficial in windy environments. In tall and dense forests, twining plants would probably succeed better with minor expenditure of organic matter. All this evolved due to an inherent ability to respond to their ‘wants’ by moving. (p. 202). Darwin states: \"It has often been vaguely asserted that plants are distinguished from animals by not having the power of movement. It should rather be said that plants acquire and display this power only when it is of some advantage to them; this being of comparatively rare occurrence, as they are affixed to the ground, and food is brought to them by the air and rain.\" (p. 206).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2254387", "title": "Edible plant stem", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 498, "text": "Edible plant stems are one part of plants that are eaten by humans. Most plants are made up of stems, roots, leaves, flowers, and produce fruits containing seeds. Humans most commonly eat the seeds (e.g. maize, wheat), fruit (e.g. tomato, avocado, banana), flowers (e.g. broccoli), leaves (e.g. lettuce, spinach, and cabbage), roots (e.g. carrots, beets), and stems (e.g. asparagus, ginger) of many plants. There are also a few edible petioles (also known as leaf stems) such as celery or rhubarb.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17820756", "title": "Tussock (grass)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 553, "text": "Many species have long roots that may reach or more into the soil, which can aid slope stabilization, erosion control, and soil porosity for precipitation absorption. Also, their roots can reach moisture more deeply than other grasses and annual plants during seasonal or climatic droughts. The plants provide habitat and food for insects (including Lepidoptera), birds, small animals and larger herbivores, and support beneficial soil mycorrhiza. The leaves supply material, such as for basket weaving, for indigenous peoples and contemporary artists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "177793", "title": "Great chain of being", "section": "Section::::The Chain.:Plants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 640, "text": "Plants, like other living creatures, possess the ability to grow in size and reproduce. However, they lack mental attributes and possess no sensory organs. Instead, their gifts include the ability to eat soil, air, and \"heat.\" Plants did have greater tolerances for heat and cold, and immunity to the pain that afflicts most animals. At the very bottom of the botanical hierarchy, fungi and mosses, lacking leaf and blossom, are so limited in form that Renaissance thinkers thought them scarcely above the level of minerals. However, each plant was also thought to be gifted with various edible or medicinal virtues unique to its own type.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7652313", "title": "Leaf angle distribution", "section": "Section::::Examples of Leaf Angle Distributions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 746, "text": "Different plant canopies exhibit different LADs: For instance, grasses and willows have their leaves largely hanging vertically (such plants are said to have an erectophile LAD), while oaks tend to maintain their leaves more or less horizontally (these species are known as having a planophile LAD). In some tree species, leaves near the top of the canopy follow an erectophile LAD while those at the bottom of the canopy are more planophile. This may be interpreted as a strategy by that plant species to maximize exposure to light, an important constraint to growth and development. Yet other species (notably sunflower) are capable of reorienting their leaves throughout the day to optimize exposure to the Sun: this is known as heliotropism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11008314", "title": "Evolutionary history of plants", "section": "Section::::Evolution of plant morphology.:Roots.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 430, "text": "A vascular system is indispensable to rooted plants, as non-photosynthesising roots need a supply of sugars, and a vascular system is required to transport water and nutrients from the roots to the rest of the plant. Rooted plants are little more advanced than their Silurian forebears, without a dedicated root system; however, the flat-lying axes can be clearly seen to have growths similar to the rhizoids of bryophytes today.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The lasers that read the barcode hit it from many angles and scan it very quickly. Also barcodes have something like a checksum, where it's easy to recognize if the data that was read is garbage and needs to be read again. That's why when using hand scanners, like at the grocery store, sometimes it scans a valid item very quickly, and somtimes it takes a while. \n\nThe built-in scanners in the checkout lanes have lasers that shot from the sides and from the bottom.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The barcodes is designed in such a way that they are easy to read in different conditions. For example the very common UPC-A barcode used to encode almost all retail products all have the same number of bars and only differentiaties in the width of the bars in relation to each other. The barcode is not valid in reverse but can easily be detected as being in reverse allowing the scanner to reverse its scan direction if you scan something upside down.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It depends on the scanner for many of those to be true. A very simple barcode scanner will simply read one direction (allowing some but not much tilt) while others will use various techniques to account for these challenges.\n\nIn most cases, a beam of light is fired at a thin foil that is extremely sensitive to current change, allowing a rapid low current to be pulsed in to control the angle of the beam. Some, such as grocery store checkout lanes, supply multiple beams and reflectors allowing any angle to be scanned. \n\nThe reflection of the beam is sent back to the scanner when a reflection is possible, toggling an internal state between 1 and 0. During this, either the duty cycle - the time between “reads” of that 0/1 state, is constantly slowed and sped up, or the pulse rate to the reflectors is variated, changing the sampling rate very rapidly. This allows for distance to be much less of an issue. Basically, there’s always a beam of light and the hardware is asking repeatedly “Do you see the emitted IR light?”\n\nThat data is pushed into a cyclical buffer, and each read triggers a checksum calculation. Since the length of the code(s) are known, it allows the assertion “If these are the numbers, their sum should calculate to the check digit.” - if the checksum for example is just a basic digital root, and the numbers read as 6,4,8,3,7, then 6+4+8+3+7=28, 2+8=10, 1+0=1, so the check digit must be a 1.\n\nTo detect the start and end of a barcode, a specific character is often used - since were dealing with binary, it’s often a non-numeral character such as * or a,b,c - this extra data not only serves the purpose of telling a scanner where a start of a barcode is so it knows it can use more processing power to actually read the code, but the kind of code it is so it knows what checksum formula to use and how long to expect the barcode. These little details allow them to be extremely fast as it’s quick to tell, “If my buffer doesn’t start with *, it’s not a barcode, keep reading”\n\nYou can act see the effects of that on much older scanners, they’ll start flickering at a certain rate, quickly ramp up and down, then shut off when it hits that known character, often pausing for 1-2 seconds before the register receives a barcode.\n\ntl;dr, you can take a piece of paper and put a series of dots in a Braille fashion, 1 dot for one, 2 for off. Start a metronome and “read” whatever is under your finger, even if it’s the same dots or 3 dots apart, moving your finger at a constant rate, counting on/off, and grouping every 4 dots. Convert from binary to numbers. Repeat adjusting the metronome up or down until your finger hits each dot once per tick. That’s all it’s doing just using light.\n\n(I don’t expect you to actually do that but if you do - props - it also illustrates how much faster computers are at “thinking” than we are.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "33130852", "title": "Barcode Scanner (application)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 273, "text": "This application supports many different types of barcodes, including those used to identify products in commerce. The Barcode Scanner can automatically search the Web to identify a product with a barcode and use, for example, price-comparison information between vendors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3121621", "title": "International Article Number", "section": "Section::::Binary encoding of data digits into EAN-13 barcode.:Decoding.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 243, "text": "By using the barcode center marker, it is possible for a barcode scanner to scan just one half of the barcode at a time. This allows reconstruction of the code by means of a helical scan of the barcode by an angle of approximately 45 degrees.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40502046", "title": "Autocoding", "section": "Section::::System elements.:1D and 2D barcode scanning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 524, "text": "The shop-floor touch screen device is linked to barcode scanners deployed to scan the code on each piece of packaging, including promotional labels and sleeves. Originally the bar codes scanned were based on standard 1D codes but to avoid mistakes 2D bar codes were introduced in 2004 so that each packaging type could hold a unique identity. To checks that the scanners are operational Autocoding solutions include two way communications with all hardware devices, or prevent the lines starting if links are not available.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23315269", "title": "Forms processing", "section": "Section::::Automated forms processing.:Components.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 220, "text": "Barcode Recognition can read more than 20 industry 1D and 2D barcodes including Code39, CODABAR, Interleaved 2 of 5, Code93 and more. It automatically detects all barcodes in an image or specified area within the image.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "309457", "title": "Barcode reader", "section": "Section::::Types of barcode scanners.:Technology.:Omnidirectional barcode scanners.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 575, "text": "Omnidirectional scanners are most familiar through the horizontal scanners in supermarkets, where packages are slid over a glass or sapphire window. There are a range of different omnidirectional units available which can be used for differing scanning applications, ranging from retail type applications with the barcodes read only a few centimetres away from the scanner to industrial conveyor scanning where the unit can be a couple of metres away or more from the code. Omnidirectional scanners are also better at reading poorly printed, wrinkled, or even torn barcodes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "309457", "title": "Barcode reader", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 503, "text": "A barcode reader (or barcode scanner) is an optical scanner that can read printed barcodes, decode the data contained in the barcode and send the data to a computer. Like a flatbed scanner, it consists of a light source, a lens and a light sensor translating for optical impulses into electrical signals. Additionally, nearly all barcode readers contain \"decoder\" circuitry that can analyze the barcode's image data provided by the sensor and sending the barcode's content to the scanner's output port.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28399034", "title": "Inventory management software", "section": "Section::::Features.:Product identification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 335, "text": "Barcodes are often the means whereby data on products and orders are inputted into inventory management software. A barcode reader is used to read barcodes and look up information on the products they represent. Radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags and wireless methods of product identification are also growing in popularity. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's not official, it is military slang, and is used purely because it is easier to say.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "488745", "title": "Gook", "section": "Section::::Etymology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 274, "text": "BULLET::::- That when American servicemen heard the term during the Korean War, they heard the word as 'gook\" instead of k(g)uk which means \"national\" (maybe, thus, interpreted as nationalist) \"goo-goo\" (also \"gugu\"), a term used by the U.S. military to describe Filipinos.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36496309", "title": "Scientific wild-ass guess", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 912, "text": "The slang term \"SWAG\" is generally thought to have originated in the US military, either the Army or the Air Force. Journalist Melvin J. Lasky wrote that it was first used casually by US Army General William Westmoreland during the Vietnam War. Westmoreland would sometimes reply \"SWAG\" to reporters' questions about American failure to neutralize the enemy. Westmoreland's use of the term was affirmed in court by Colonel John Frank Stewart in November 1984 during witness testimony for the lawsuit initiated by Westmoreland against CBS for their TV documentary \"The Uncounted Enemy: A Vietnam Deception\". On the witness stand, Stewart explained that in Vietnam, the military intelligence branch that he commanded would deliver numbers of enemy strength to Westmoreland, the numbers derived from \"the SWAG principle\". There was laughter in the court when Stewart explained what was meant by the acronym \"SWAG\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1821956", "title": "Military parlance", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 351, "text": "The military has developed its own slang, partly as means of self-identification. This slang is also used to reinforce the (usually friendly) interservice rivalries. Some terms are derogatory to varying degrees and many service personnel take some pleasure in the sense of shared hardships which they endure and which is reflected in the slang terms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40429", "title": "Waltzing Matilda", "section": "Section::::Status.:Military units.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 160, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 160, "end_character": 363, "text": "It is used as the quick march of the 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment and as the official song of the US 1st Marine Division, commemorating the time the unit spent in Australia during the Second World War. Partly also used in the British Royal Tank Regiment's slow march of \"Royal Tank Regiment\", because an early British tank model was called \"Matilda\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8135420", "title": "Khuy Voyne!", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 277, "text": "The documentary \"Anatomy of t.A.T.u.\" states that when the slogan was being created, Shapovalov said that it is a Russian slang way to say \"No to War\" (Нет войне!), however the slang translations may vary to \"Dick to War\" (word-by-word) or a creative way of saying \"Fuck War\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "722328", "title": "Police action", "section": "Section::::Appropriate use of the term.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 279, "text": "Use of the term does not appear to have gained currency outside of the limited arena of justification of military action: for example, the U.S. Navy refers to the Korean conflict as the Korean War, and when they refer to police action, they surround the term in quotation marks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "145517", "title": "Military slang", "section": "Section::::Acronym slang in US Military.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 283, "text": "A number of military slang terms are acronyms. Rick Atkinson ascribes the origin of SNAFU (Situation Normal, All Fucked Up), FUBAR (Fucked Up Beyond Any Repair or \"All Recognition\"), and a bevy of other terms to cynical GIs ridiculing the United States Army's penchant for acronyms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Convention.\n\n\nThere is no technical strength to doing so. Users who will use insecure passwords without the restrictions will use insecure passwords with the restrictions, and cracking these cases isn't all that much more demanding. Meanwhile, increasing password length does substantially increase security. It would be far better practice to have, say, 10 characters minimum and no maximum than is currently common. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Fuck forced password security.\n\nI have memorized 6 sets of 8-digit random strings of numbers and used them for passwords since I was a kid. I've never been hacked, had my password guessed or anything, etc. I have never written them down and have never forgotten them.\n\nNow I have websites telling me I need one upper case, one lower case, AND one \"special character.\" Now I forget my passwords all the fucking time or I HAVE to write them down. Fuck. \n\nForced password strength is dumb. Now I need to use shittier annoying passwords so whatever website can protect dumb people who use their pets' names as passwords from getting hacked.\n\nEDIT: And ESPECIALLY fuck websites that make you change it after a certain amount of time. If it hasn't been hacked why the fuck do I need to change it? Does someone have my password and they're like \"eh I won't bother for a couple weeks\" and you intend for me to foil them by simply changing it? Can't they get the new one the same way anyway??", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'd be ok with it if they would just say what those restrictions are when signing in - the same info it says when registering. Like:\n\nUsername:\n\nPassword (must have one capital and a number):\n\nSince every site is slightly different, I have a ton of variations of my usual passwords. This would help me remember which one I used on a particular site.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the past there were multiple ways to store passwords and were acceptable for some time. The oldest way was encryption, then hashing, now salt and hashing. \n\nWith encryption, your password is converted to characters and symbols. The problem? Your encrypted password can be run through a similar conversion process in reverse, known as decryption.\n\nThe method after decryption was hashing. Hashing is one way, meaning that it goes through a conversion process like encryption, except there is no \"reverse\" process to unhash a password. The only way a \"hackor\" could get your hashed password using is guessing your password over and over until they find a hash that matches your hashed password. The problem? It's relatively easy to figure out hashes today. You can typed some hashes into Google and get the original text. \n\nToday we still use hashes, but now add a bit of salt. Salt is random text that gets added to your password before your password is hashed. This way if a hair hackor gets your password, they can't easily crack it. If there was a rogue employee they would also have a hard time getting your original password. \n\nWhen a hackor guesses passwords, the longer the password is and more variety of characters, the longer it takes to crack (at least for hashing). Salting passwords makes these extra password requirements less effective today, but still would be helpful if your password was ever compromised. \n\nThis video does a great job explaining: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Most people building websites nowadays have internalized that special characters and password length are necessary for strong passwords. The special characters is a lesson that's well learned (I know, \"correct battery horse staple\", but password generators/managers are IMHO even better). \n\nUnfortunately, many also seem to think that a standard password is somewhere around 8 characters, and therefore they believe that doubling this to 16 is a huge step. They are mistaken and a maximum of 16 characters is still quite short for several types of serious attacks. \n\nAs for why having character limits at all: character limits are included to make sure that user input does not exceed any arbitrary but technical limits of the user or server platform. For example, if a common browser would not be able to send more than 255 characters as the value of the password field, then it makes sense to have a certain limit that's below this known technical limit to avoid weird undefined behaviour. \n\nThe problem is when websites have a very low limit. It's unnecessary on a technical level: no current server or browser platform has technical limits this low. So 16 characters is really a stupidly implemented restriction and also a hint that the security people don't know how to do their job properly. Beter character limits should be much closer to e.g. 100 characters. Arbitrary, I know, but almost nobody will hit this limit and for now, it's good enough. And it has negligable impact on website performance. \n\nNOTE: it is also not a matter of reserving a column length in your storage layer! This is an appallingly bad reason for limiting password lengths and if a developer suggests this, this developer should not be let anywhere near any security feature (or be fired completely!) At no point should the platform attempt to store your password in plain text; instead it should store a derivative that reveals \"nothing\" about your password, not even the length. This is done by (amongst other things) applying a certain type of \"hash\" function. From the hash result, you're not able to derive the password, but the same password always results in the same hash. What you do is store the hash result, and when the user logs in, apply the hash to the password entered, and if the results are the same, the password authenticates. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It has to do with the limitations of the hashing algorithms used to encrypt passwords.\n\nIf your password for a website is \"password1\" the website does not store it as \"password1\" but rather puts it through an algorithm that turns \"password1\" into something that looks like gibberish (e.g. \"@#FV$GSDG%%G#H^\"). This is called a hash. Though it looks like gibberish, only when fed \"password1\" will the algorithm return that exact hash. All other passwords will yield different gibberish. At least this is the ideal case.\n\nThe algorithms that are out there do to this are very complex are hard to create (the good ones are). One of the limitations of these algorithms is that if the password becomes too long, the hash becomes non-unique. Such that \"password1\" and \"areallylongpasswordthatdoesntreallymakesenseforanyonetouse\" might lead to the same hash. This means someone could log into your account with either password. To eliminate this issue they limit the length of the password.\n\nMost modern day hashing algorithms can handle more than 16 characters uniquely. If a website only allows 16 characters they are either using a old algorithm (not good) or they just haven't updated the password validation algorithm (means they are lazy). In either case, it means that they aren't serious about their security. It's ok to use these sites just don't reuse the username or password with a site you are serious about keeping private.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Short answer: you're right, longer passwords are more secure than more complex ones. \n\nImportant note: **if a website puts a character limit on your password, it is NOT a secure website and you should not trust it with any important information... Especially not a password that you use anywhere else!**\n\nLong answer: this has to do with how websites store your password. See, storing passwords in plain text is a big security risk, since any security breach would immediately be a breach of EVERYONE'S account. So instead we use a technique called \"one-way hashing\" so a computer can verify your password without ever knowing what it is. Basically, you develop a consistent system for encrypting text, such that it can't (practically) ever be decrypted. With this kind of encryption, every time you encrypt the same text, you'll get the same encrypted output. So you actually don't have to store someone's password; you just store the encrypted version, and try encrypting whatever gets typed into the login screen to see if it matches. This technique was pioneered in the 1960's, and has been a basic security practice for decades.\n\nThat encrypted string of characters is called a hash. In the last 15 years or so, we've started using systems that make fixed length hashes - that is to say, no matter how long your password is, the hash will be the same length. For example, I use 32 character long hashes in one of my applications. Your password could be \"12345\", or it could be the entire script of Space Balls, but the hash will always be 32 characters long. \n\nAny system that uses a reasonable hashing function doesn't care how long your password is, because the hashed version will always be the same length. Therefore, the systems that do limit how long your password is, are not hashing your password. Note that password minimums are important to protect against automated guessing systems. Password maximums are the sign of incompetence.\n\nTL;DR: any website that limits the length of your password is telling you that they don't implement the most basic security practices that have been around for almost 50 fucking years. If that's their system for storing your password, consider it compromised as soon as you've entered it. And if that's their approach to protecting your data, consider your data pretty fucking poorly protected with them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Longer passwords aren't going to be better if they're easier to predict because of having frequent words, frequent word combinations and so on. This is precisely what common password rules try to defend against.\n\nSome commenters have brought up a famous XKCD strip that argues for using common words in passwords. That strip has a big flaw: **it only works if users cannot choose their own password**. If they can the security plummets because users will pick more frequent words and predictable word sequences.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It all useless if the site stores the password as plain text. Tip, if a site emails your password when you forget it, run, run away.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes. Most websites are programmed by people who don't understand the fundamentals of security. That's why all these hacks are such big news.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Even a well written site that stores passwords safely as fixed length hashes and uses a type safe programming language that protects against buffer overflow attacks will still have a maximum password length. This is to protect against denial of service attacks where an attacker gets lots of computers to submit passwords that are, say, several megabytes in size all at once. This would stress the servers being attacked by overloading their network bandwidth while these very long passwords are being sent to the server, increasing the memory they require to store all these passwords while their hashes are being computed, and slowing down the calculation of the hashes by requiring the hash algorithm to calculate results on values that are a million times larger than usual. Even if the server doesn't crash it is in for a long period of extremely bad performance where regular users won't be able to log in.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1256189", "title": "Password policy", "section": "Section::::Aspects.:Password length and formation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 229, "text": "Many policies require a minimum password length. Eight characters is typical but may not be appropriate. Longer passwords are generally more secure, but some systems impose a maximum length for compatibility with legacy systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4459886", "title": "Password strength", "section": "Section::::Password guess validation.:Human-generated passwords.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 1042, "text": "The full strength associated with using the entire ASCII character set (numerals, mixed case letters and special characters) is only achieved if each possible password is equally likely. This seems to suggest that all passwords must contain characters from each of several character classes, perhaps upper and lower case letters, numbers, and non-alphanumeric characters. In fact, such a requirement is a pattern in password choice and can be expected to reduce an attacker's \"work factor\" (in Claude Shannon's terms). This is a reduction in password \"strength\". A better requirement would be to require a password NOT to contain any word in an online dictionary, or list of names, or any license plate pattern from any state (in the US) or country (as in the EU). If patterned choices are required, humans are likely to use them in predictable ways, such a capitalizing a letter, adding one or two numbers, and a special character. This predictability means that the increase in password strength is minor when compared to random passwords.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24304", "title": "Password", "section": "Section::::Factors in the security of a password system.:Password security architecture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 272, "text": "BULLET::::- Some systems require characters from various character classes in a password—for example, \"must have at least one uppercase and at least one lowercase letter\". However, all-lowercase passwords are more secure per keystroke than mixed capitalization passwords.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "152420", "title": "Passphrase", "section": "Section::::Compared to passwords.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 980, "text": "But passwords are typically not safe to use as keys for standalone security systems (e.g., encryption systems) that expose data to enable offline password guessing by an attacker. Passphrases are theoretically stronger, and so should make a better choice in these cases. First, they usually are (and always should be) much longer—20 to 30 characters or more is typical—making some kinds of brute force attacks entirely impractical. Second, if well chosen, they will not be found in any phrase or quote dictionary, so such dictionary attacks will be almost impossible. Third, they can be structured to be more easily memorable than passwords without being written down, reducing the risk of hardcopy theft. However, if a passphrase is not protected appropriately by the authenticator and the clear-text passphrase is revealed its use is no better than other passwords. For this reason it is recommended that passphrases not be reused across different or unique sites and services.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1123994", "title": "LAN Manager", "section": "Section::::Cryptanalysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 512, "text": "BULLET::::3. A 14-character password is broken into 7+7 characters and the hash is calculated for the two halves separately. This way of calculating the hash makes it exponentially easier to crack, as the attacker needs to brute force 7 characters twice instead of 14 characters. This makes the effective strength of a 14-characters password equal to only formula_1, or twice that of a 7-character password, which is significantly less complex than the formula_2 theoretical strength of a 14-character password.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "625125", "title": "Letter case", "section": "Section::::Case folding and case conversion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 403, "text": "Whether or not the case variants are treated as equivalent to each other varies depending on the computer system and context. For example, user passwords are generally case sensitive in order to allow more diversity and make them more difficult to break. On the other hand, when performing a keyword search, differentiating between the upper and lower case might narrow down the search result too much.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1123994", "title": "LAN Manager", "section": "Section::::Security weaknesses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 629, "text": "Secondly, passwords longer than 7 characters are divided into two pieces and each piece is hashed separately; this weakness allows each half of the password to be attacked separately at exponentially lower cost than the whole, as only formula_4 different 7-character password pieces are possible with the same character set. By mounting a brute-force attack on each half separately, modern desktop machines can crack alphanumeric LM hashes in a few hours. In addition, all lower case letters in the password are changed to upper case before the password is hashed, which further reduces the key space for each half to formula_5.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The centripetal force points toward the axis of rotation, and the centrifugal force points away from the axis of rotation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Its often taught in PHY 101 courses that the centripetal force is \"real\" while the centrifugal force isn't. In a purely inertial sense, this is true, however it oversimplifies how we often times approach a lot of real problems in physics. A lot of the confusion comes from the fact that they both describe the same phenomenon in a rotating body.\n\nThe **centripetal force** is the force required to keep an object moving on a circular path while traveling at some tangential velocity. It points directly in towards the center of rotation.\n\nThe **centrifugal force** only exists in rotating reference frames, though it's important to recognize that this doesn't mean it's incorrect to talk about! It is mathematically valid, you just need to be careful about when discussing/using it. It is the experienced \"reaction force\" when an object is traveling in a circular path. It points \"away\" from the center of rotation.\n\nSo if you have a ball on a string and you start spinning it around in a circle faster and faster, eventually the string will break. From an inertial reference frame, this is because the string can only apply a limited amount of force before it breaks (this is its tensile strength). And when the ball is moving fast enough, in order to keep it moving in a circular path at its speed, requires a greater centripetal force than the string can supply. \n\nFrom the strings perspective though, if you were rotating with it, you'd watch the string continue to be stretched more and more as if being pulled on by some outward pointing force. This is what we call the centrifugal force. While it isn't \"real\", it is useful when dealing with rotating reference frames. \n\nNote:\n**Inertial Reference Frame:** a non rotating and non-accelerating reference frame where Newton's laws hold. That is, objects at rest stay at rest and objects in motion stay in motion.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "19265670", "title": "Centrifugal force", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 452, "text": "In Newtonian mechanics, the centrifugal force is an inertial force (also called a \"fictitious\" or \"pseudo\" force) that appears to act on all objects when viewed in a rotating frame of reference. It is directed away from an axis passing through the coordinate system's origin and parallel to the axis of rotation. If the axis of rotation passes through the coordinate system's origin, the centrifugal force is directed radially outwards from that axis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1209823", "title": "Rotating reference frame", "section": "Section::::Centrifugal force.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 456, "text": "In classical mechanics, centrifugal force is an outward force associated with rotation. Centrifugal force is one of several so-called pseudo-forces (also known as inertial forces), so named because, unlike real forces, they do not originate in interactions with other bodies situated in the environment of the particle upon which they act. Instead, centrifugal force originates in the rotation of the frame of reference within which observations are made.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1082841", "title": "Fictitious force", "section": "Section::::Mathematical derivation of fictitious forces.:Orbiting and rotating.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 952, "text": "it is a natural extension of standard terminology (although there is no standard terminology for this case) to call this term the \"centrifugal force\". Applying this terminology to the example of a tube in a centrifuge, if the tube is far enough from the center of rotation, |X| = \"R\" ≫ |x|, all the matter in the test tube sees the same acceleration (the same centrifugal force). Thus, in this case, the fictitious force is primarily a uniform centrifugal force along the axis of the tube, away from the center of rotation, with a value |F| = ω \"R\", where \"R\" is the distance of the matter in the tube from the center of the centrifuge. It is standard specification of a centrifuge to use the \"effective\" radius of the centrifuge to estimate its ability to provide centrifugal force. Thus, a first estimate of centrifugal force in a centrifuge can be based upon the distance of the tubes from the center of rotation, and corrections applied if needed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1082841", "title": "Fictitious force", "section": "Section::::Mathematical derivation of fictitious forces.:Orbiting coordinate systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 530, "text": "Notice that this \"centrifugal force\" has differences from the case of a rotating frame. In the rotating frame the centrifugal force is related to the distance of the object from the origin of frame \"B\", while in the case of an orbiting frame, the centrifugal force is independent of the distance of the object from the origin of frame \"B\", but instead depends upon the distance of the origin of frame \"B\" from \"its\" center of rotation, resulting in the \"same\" centrifugal fictitious force for \"all\" objects observed in frame \"B\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3721845", "title": "Rotational–vibrational coupling", "section": "Section::::Mathematical derivation.:Discussion using vector notation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 489, "text": "Both the centripetal force and the centrifugal term in the equation of motion are proportional to \"r\". The angular velocity of the rotating coordinate system is adjusted to have the same period of revolution as the object following an ellipse-shaped trajectory. Hence the vector of the centripetal force and the vector of the centrifugal term are at every distance to the center equal to each other in magnitude and opposite in direction, so those two terms drop away against each other. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1032998", "title": "Gas centrifuge", "section": "Section::::Centrifugal process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 946, "text": "The centrifuge relies on the force resulting from centripetal acceleration to separate molecules according to their mass, and can be applied to most fluids. The dense (heavier) molecules move towards the wall and the lighter ones remain close to the center. The centrifuge consists of a rigid body rotor rotating at full period at high speed. Concentric gas tubes located on the axis of the rotor are used to introduce feed gas into the rotor and extract the heavier and lighter separated streams. For U production, the heavier stream is the waste stream and the lighter stream is the product stream. Modern Zippe-type centrifuges are tall cylinders spinning on a vertical axis, with a vertical temperature gradient applied to create a convective circulation rising in the center and descending at the periphery of the centrifuge. Diffusion between these opposing flows increases the separation by the principle of countercurrent multiplication.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "106284", "title": "Centrifuge", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 636, "text": "A centrifuge is a piece of equipment that puts an object in rotation around a fixed axis (spins it in a circle), applying a force perpendicular to the axis of spin (outward) that can be very strong. The centrifuge works using the sedimentation principle, where the centrifugal acceleration causes denser substances and particles to move outward in the radial direction. At the same time, objects that are less dense are displaced and move to the center. In a laboratory centrifuge that uses sample tubes, the radial acceleration causes denser particles to settle to the bottom of the tube, while low-density substances rise to the top.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's not just a figure of speech. Your stomach can physically expand/stretch. [Competitive eaters expand their stomachs for competition using water](_URL_0_). It really is like a balloon in a way. The size of the actual organ doesn't change, but it's elasticity and response to food can.\n\nThe opposite is not true however. You cannot shrink you stomach. It is an organ and does not change size. What is happening when your stomach \"shrinks\" from not eating is you appetite resets. You stomach has nerves around the outside that indicate when your stomach is \"full\". Those may begin signaling earlier if you have not eaten in a while.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12128133", "title": "Gastroparesis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 414, "text": "Gastroparesis (gastro- from Ancient Greek γαστήρ - gaster, \"stomach\"; and -paresis, πάρεσις - \"partial paralysis\"), also called delayed gastric emptying, is a medical disorder consisting of weak muscular contractions (peristalsis) of the stomach, resulting in food and liquid remaining in the stomach for a prolonged period of time. Stomach contents thus exit more slowly into the duodenum of the digestive tract.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "964888", "title": "Domperidone", "section": "Section::::Medical uses.:Gastroparesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 388, "text": "Gastroparesis is a medical condition characterised by delayed emptying of the stomach when there is no mechanical gastric outlet obstruction. Its cause is most commonly idiopathic, a diabetic complication or a result of abdominal surgery. The condition causes nausea, vomiting, fullness after eating, early satiety (feeling full before the meal is finished), abdominal pain and bloating.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3452977", "title": "Abdominal distension", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 899, "text": "Abdominal distension occurs when substances, such as air (gas) or fluid, accumulate in the abdomen causing its expansion. It is typically a symptom of an underlying disease or dysfunction in the body, rather than an illness in its own right. People suffering from this condition often describe it as \"feeling bloated\". Sufferers often experience a sensation of fullness, abdominal pressure and possibly nausea, pain or cramping. In the most extreme cases, upward pressure on the diaphragm and lungs can also cause shortness of breath. Through a variety of causes (see below), bloating is most commonly due to buildup of gas in the stomach, small intestine or colon. The pressure sensation is often relieved, or at least lessened, by belching or flatulence. Medications that settle gas in the stomach and intestines are also commonly used to treat the discomfort and lessen the abdominal distension.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24538531", "title": "Food drunk", "section": "Section::::State of being food drunk.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 477, "text": "When people overeat, their bodies have the tendency to chemically change, including metabolic shifts. There are also electrolyte imbalances due to the process of digestion that occur once the massive amounts of food have been deposited into the body. This can also cause a feeling of depression, emotional attachment to food, fatigue, and also boredom. This is hypothesized to be partially due to dopamine and endorphin release after food consumption (especially spicy foods).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2200874", "title": "Bloating", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Constipation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 731, "text": "A common gastrointestinal problem is constipation—infrequent bowel movements, hard stools, or strain during the movements—which causes serious cases of bloating. Since most cases of constipation are temporary, simple lifestyle changes, such as getting more exercise and increasing one's intake of fiber, can go a long way toward alleviating constipation. Some cases of constipation will continue to worsen and require unconventional methods to release the feces and reduce the amount of stomach bloating. Blood in the stool, intense pain in the abdomen, rectal pain, and unexplained weight loss should be reported to a doctor. Bloating consistently accompanies constipation, and they will not develop without an underlying cause. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2200874", "title": "Bloating", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 394, "text": "Abdominal bloating is a symptom that can appear at any age, generally associated with functional gastrointestinal disorders or organic diseases, but can also appear alone. The person feels a full and tight abdomen. Although this term is usually used interchangeably with abdominal distension, these symptoms probably have different pathophysiological processes, which are not fully understood.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11240", "title": "Flatulence", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Bloating and pain.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 639, "text": "Patients who complain of bloating frequently can be shown to have objective increases in abdominal girth, often increased throughout the day and then resolving during sleep. The increase in girth combined with the fact that the total volume of flatus is not increased led to studies aiming to image the distribution of intestinal gas in patients with bloating. They found that gas was not distributed normally in these patients: there was segmental gas pooling and focal distension. In conclusion, abdominal distension, pain and bloating symptoms are the result of abnormal intestinal gas dynamics rather than increased flatus production.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "When on vacation I had a mid-sized cheap car reserved for me. They tried to get me to get a much more fancy and expensive car. My insurance alone would not have covered the full value of the vehicle. I stuck with the cheapo.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I called my insurance company to make sure that my policy is the same whether I'm driving my car or a rental. It does except for what they call \"loss of use.\" The way I understand it, if you crash the rental, insurance will cover damages to it, but the rental company can claim losses because it would have been making them money if it had not been crashed. \n\nI didn't ask the rental company if loss of use was covered with their insurance, but I'm assuming it is. \n\nSo, for me, the answer is not really, unless you're planning to really fuck up the rental. YMMV. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The purpose of travel and location are also factors. \n\nMy personal insurance would cover rental cars for pleasure trips into the US but not if my trip was business. However, I was covered for any trip (domestic) in Canada.\n\nI tried to purchase additional coverage to cover American cars on business trips but the rental car policies were far cheaper for the same coverage.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If it's a business trip, and the cost of the rental is picked up by your company, by all means get the additional insurance.\n\nRegarding personal use, I asked my sister who used to be an insurance underwriter. (Most of the time, an insurance agent just looks at charts to see whether you qualify and what to charge you. If the charts don't answer the question, the decision goes to an underwriter at the insurance company.) She never gets the additional insurance.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Also keep in mind, that your credit card may also include insurance when used for a rental car. I know VISA has a policy. It's included as a member, is automatic and costs nothing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31576870", "title": "Vehicle insurance in the United States", "section": "Section::::Coverage generally.:Liability coverage.:Rental coverage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 394, "text": "Most rental car companies offer insurance to cover damage to the rental vehicle. These policies may be unnecessary for many customers as credit card companies, such as Visa and MasterCard, now provide supplemental collision damage coverage to rental cars if the rental transaction is processed using one of their cards. These benefits are restrictive in terms of the types of vehicles covered.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5131785", "title": "Damage waiver", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 393, "text": "In many countries, it is a legal requirement to have CDW insurance included in the basic car rental rate. It covers the rented car. Some rental companies also offer liability insurance and coverage of towing charges. Terms and prices vary. Alternatives to the CDW include other car insurance policies, some coverage from credit card issuers (Visa, MasterCard, etc.) and some travel insurance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5131785", "title": "Damage waiver", "section": "Section::::Insurance or not?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 420, "text": "CDW meets the basic definition of insurance, since it transfers some risk from the car renter to the rental company. However rental companies do not call it insurance, since it is a waiver between the renter and the company. Rental companies are not licensed or regulated as insurers. There are also no claims made. Rental companies treat CDW as a waiver of their right to make the renter pay for damage to the vehicle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43505094", "title": "Agency Rent-a-Car", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 557, "text": "Agency Rent-a-Car was founded in Solon, Ohio (a suburb of Cleveland) as the nation's first \"Insurance Replacement\" car rental company by Sam J Frankino in 1969. Agency Rent-a-Car specialized in delivering cars to people whose personal vehicles had been in an accident and needed a temporary replacement, usually paid for by their insurance company. The company eventually grew to have offices nationwide and a fleet of 40,000 cars until being sold to Avis. The company also opened wholly owned subsidiaries known as Amerex Rent-a-Car and Altra Auto Rental.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5539662", "title": "Car rental", "section": "Section::::Insurance/waivers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 646, "text": "Although frequently not explicitly stated, US car rental companies are required by respective state law to provide minimum liability coverage, except in California and Arizona, where the driver is solely responsible. This covers costs to a third party in the event of an accident. In most states, it is illegal to drive a car without liability coverage. The rental car companies maintain liability insurance on their vehicles; however, some companies will charge for this, should you not provide your own insurance. As an example, in Maryland, the minimal level of liability coverage is $20,000 for bodily injury and $15,000 for property damage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5131785", "title": "Damage waiver", "section": "Section::::Risks addressed.:Liability.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 340, "text": "Within Canada, all auto rentals are required by law to include a minimum of $200,000 in third-party liability insurance, regardless of whether the renter has their own auto insurance or not. Most rental agencies thus do not provide a third-party liability insurance option, and simply factor in the premium as part of fixed cost of rental.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5539662", "title": "Car rental", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 244, "text": "Alongside the basic rental of a vehicle, car rental agencies typically also offer extra products such as insurance, global positioning system (GPS) navigation systems, entertainment systems, mobile phones, portable WiFi and child safety seats.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If the planetary system was completely face on and if we assume that it's an Earth like planet orbiting at 1 AU, then it would appear approximately 4x10^-4 degrees wide. That's about 0.012 arc minutes, and a quick wiki check says that the best a human eye could do is around 1 arc minute. So no way you'll see it.\n\nNote that Alpha Cen is probably not a good target since it's a binary (well, technically a triple) star system.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "51313762", "title": "Proxima Centauri b", "section": "Section::::View from Proxima Centauri b.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 1044, "text": "Viewed from near the Alpha Centauri system, the sky would appear much as it does for an observer on Earth, except that Centaurus would be missing its brightest star. The Sun would be a yellow star of an apparent magnitude of +0.5 in eastern Cassiopeia, at the antipodal point of Alpha Centauri's current right ascension and declination, at (2000). This place is close to the 3.4-magnitude star ε Cassiopeiae. Because of the placement of the Sun, an interstellar or alien observer would find the \\/\\/ of Cassiopeia had become a /\\/\\/ shape nearly in front of the Heart Nebula in Cassiopeia. Sirius lies less than a degree from Betelgeuse in the otherwise unmodified Orion and with a magnitude of −1.2 is a little fainter than from Earth but still the brightest star in the Alpha Centauri sky. Procyon is also displaced into the middle of Gemini, outshining Pollux, whereas both Vega and Altair are shifted northwestward relative to Deneb (which barely moves, due to its great distance), giving the Summer Triangle a more equilateral appearance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3615656", "title": "Iota Horologii b", "section": "Section::::Detection and discovery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 444, "text": "It revolves around the host star in a somewhat elongated orbit. If it were located in the Solar System, this orbit would stretch from just outside the orbit of Venus (at 117 million km or 0.78 astronomical unit [AU] from the Sun) to just outside the orbit of the Earth (at 162 million km or 1.08 AU). Because the planet is at least 720 times more massive than the Earth, it is predicted that Iota Horologii b is more similar to planet Jupiter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1979", "title": "Alpha Centauri", "section": "Section::::Observation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 599, "text": "To the naked eye, Alpha Centauri AB appears to be a single star, the brightest in the southern constellation of Centaurus. Their apparent angular separation varies over about 80 years between 2 and 22 arcsec (the naked eye has a resolution of 60 arcsec), but through much of the orbit, both are easily resolved in binoculars or small telescopes. At −0.27 apparent magnitude (combined for A and B magnitudes), Alpha Centauri is fainter only than Sirius and Canopus. It forms the outer star of \"The Pointers\" or \"The Southern Pointers\", so called because the line through Beta Centauri (Hadar/Agena),\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6234266", "title": "Alpha Centauri in fiction", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 889, "text": "Alpha Centauri, a double star system with the binary designation Alpha Centauri AB, is the brightest visible object in the southern constellation Centaurus. Its component stars are Alpha Centauri A (the primary—somewhat larger and brighter than the Sun) and Alpha Centauri B (the secondary—slightly smaller and dimmer). These stars are of spectral classes G2V (as is the Sun) and K1V, respectively; in the former case there is an obvious model and potential for planets capable of supporting complex biospheres, and in the latter, as it turns out, an even stronger probability of a stable habitable zone that is well suited for life. (Proxima Centauri—a late-discovered red dwarf, and the closest known star to the Solar System) appears to be gravitationally bound to the AB system although at a considerable distance. The collection of three stars together is called Alpha Centauri AB-C.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1211914", "title": "HD 82943", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 339, "text": "HD 82943 (164 G. Hydrae) is a yellow dwarf star approximately 89 light-years away in the constellation of Hydra. Two extrasolar planets have been confirmed to be orbiting it, and it is thought that the system had more giant planets that were \"swallowed\" by the parent star. HD 82943 is estimated at roughly 1.15 times the mass of the Sun.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11887599", "title": "Epsilon Tauri b", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 241, "text": "The planet orbits one of the four giant stars in the Hyades cluster that is 2.7 times the mass of our Sun, making it the most massive planet-harboring star. This provides evidence that it was an A-type star when it was on the main-sequence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1615585", "title": "HD 210277", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 420, "text": "The star has a extrasolar planet that has a minimum mass greater than Jupiters orbiting it in 442 days. Claims were made in 1999 that a dust disk around the star HD 210277, similar to that produced by the Kuiper Belt had been imaged, lying between 30 and 62 AU from the star. However, observations with the Spitzer Space Telescope failed to detect any infrared excess at 70 micrometres or at 24 micrometres wavelengths.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Forgive me, I am not certain what you mean by 'undercover regions'. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu's travel writings on Turkey and other countries are used as primary sources. Her relish in appealing to her audiences means her writing isn't always reliable as verbatim records of events, but is insightful for us for a range of reasons. Including for understanding then prevailing views of some English people of the Occident and Orient.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's lots of sources that could be considered travelogues, and some have of course attracted more scholarly attention than others. A few that I'd particularly recommend:\n\n* For the early medieval north (Vikings, Slavs, Bulgars, Khazars, etc., from an Islamic perspective), there's a great collection in Ibn Fadlan, et al., [*Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness*](_URL_1_) (Penguin, 2012) [$10-12].\n\n* I'd also recommend reading up on two Norse (aka \"Viking\") traders who visited Anglo-Saxon kings in England: [Othere and Wulfstan](_URL_0_).\n\n* For more recent accounts (which are better covered by scholars, but still very interesting), I'd look at Olaudah Equiano's autobiography. Equiano was sold into slavery from Africa, but eventually purchased his freedom and became an abolitionist working against slavery in London. In between, he traveled through the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, the Atlantic, and the Arctic. Here's an online collection of sources on [Olaudah Equiano](_URL_3_).\n\n* And another brilliant narrative of the early modern slave trade is Robert Harms' [*The Diligent*](_URL_2_), which uses an officer's journal to track the journey of a slave ship in 1731. Harms is a great writer, and he's provides an excellent example of what all we can learn from a travelogue like a ship's log. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8981398", "title": "Great Britain Historical GIS", "section": "Section::::New GB Historical GIS (2000-).:Expanded content.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 583, "text": "BULLET::::- Travel Writing: The text of most of the best known historical British travel writers, including James Boswell, William Camden, William Cobbett, Daniel Defoe, Celia Fiennes, Charles Wesley and Arthur Young. The earliest source included in the GB Historical GIS is a survey of Wales written by Giraldus Cambrensis in 1188. Place-names are identified within these texts using XML tags defined by the Text Encoding Initiative. This is believed to be the largest collection of British historical travel literature on the web, and is unique in that it is fully geo-referenced.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1393859", "title": "Travel literature", "section": "Section::::Travel journals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 564, "text": "A British traveller, Mrs Alec Tweedie, published a number of travelogues, ranging from Denmark (1895) and Finland (1897), to the U.S. (1913), several on Mexico (1901, 1906, 1917), and one on Russia, Siberia, and China (1926). A more recent example is Che Guevara's \"The Motorcycle Diaries\". A travelogue is a film, book written up from a travel diary, or illustrated talk describing the experiences of and places visited by traveller. American writer Paul Theroux has published many works of travel literature, the first success being \"The Great Railway Bazaar\". \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2860138", "title": "François de La Boullaye-Le Gouz", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 299, "text": "He published a French-language travelogue, enriched with firsthand accounts of India, Persia, Greece, the Middle East, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, England, Ireland, and Italy. It is considered one of the very first true travel books, in that it contains useful information for actual travellers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13211867", "title": "Travel documentary", "section": "Section::::History.:Travelogues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 826, "text": "Travelogues stem from the work of American writer and lecturer, John Lawson Stoddard who began traveling around the world in 1874. He went on to publish books about his adventures and gave lectures across North America. The original lectures were accompanied by black and white lantern slides printed from his photographs. In 1892, John Lawson Stoddard recruited Burton Holmes as his junior associate. When Stoddard was ready to retire in 1897, he arranged for Holmes to take over the rest of his speaking arrangements. Holmes went on to become the premier travel lecturer of his day and coined the term, \"travelogues,\" in 1904 when he introduced film clips to lecture series making them wildly popular. After World War II, Lowell Thomas created popular Movietone News Reel travelogues shown in movie theaters across the U.S.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41724043", "title": "Charles Boileau Elliott", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 432, "text": "Charles Boileau Elliott (1803–1875) was an English travel writer. He published 3 travel diaries in his lifetime. His best known works are Letters from the North of Europe, Travels in the Three Great Empires, and Travels in the Archipelago. All 3 books provide a unique historical account of life in those areas during the mid 1800's just prior to the wars and industrial achievements that would be coming later in the 20th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17263671", "title": "Richard Robert Madden", "section": "Section::::Published works.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 220, "text": "Besides several travel diaries (Travels in Turkey, Egypt etc. in 1824–27, 1829, and others (1833)), his works include the historically significant book \"The United Irishmen, their lives and times\" (1842-1860, 11 Vols.),\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "693135", "title": "Tourism in Indonesia", "section": "Section::::Guide books.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 228, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 228, "end_character": 747, "text": "Guide books and travel accounts with details of the country and people have had a long history – some books from the 19th century and early 20th century being classics with description of places that were perceived as \"things to see\". Both private authors and government publications (such as the 1920s \"Come to Java\" books produced in Batavia by the government tourist bureau of the time) have been made each decade through to the present. There were restrictions to tourism during World War II and the mid-to-late 1960s – other than those two periods – travel accounts and guide books have been produced regularly. James Rush's and Adrian Vickers' texts mentioned below are excellent introductions to the range of writing that has been created.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The case of Ex Parte Quirin is of note here, if only to show how inept German sabotage was for the time. A handful of covert German operatives deposited by submarine on the American eastern coast landed in uniform, to comply with the laws of war, buried their uniform, to get around the laws of war, and then started to get busy- only to all be captured within a month or so of their arrival. The issue of whether or not they should be afforded Geneva Conventions is the one the Court takes up in Quirin. Worth your time to read.\n\nThe Japanese also launched a series of incendiary hot-air balloons bound for America, but as far as I know, they caused no significant damage to property or persons in the continental United States.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "647287", "title": "Horseshoe Curve (Pennsylvania)", "section": "Section::::History.:World War II and post-war.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 619, "text": "During World War II PRR carried troops and matériel for the Allied war effort, and the Curve was under armed guard. The military intelligence arm of Nazi Germany, the \"Abwehr\", plotted to sabotage important industrial assets in the United States in a project code-named Operation Pastorius. In June 1942 four men were brought by submarine and landed on Long Island, planning to destroy such sites as the Curve, Hell Gate Bridge, Alcoa aluminum factories and locks on the Ohio River. The would-be saboteurs were quickly apprehended by the Federal Bureau of Investigation after one, George John Dasch, turned himself in.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3056939", "title": "Colleferro", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 207, "text": "During World War II, the Allies repeatedly bombarded Colleferro to destroy the explosives factory. During the attacks, citizens found shelter in a series of caves and tunnels built under the \"BPD Village\". \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1556322", "title": "Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida", "section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 561, "text": "During World War II the German submarine U-584 debarked four saboteurs at Ponte Vedra as part of the failed Operation Pastorius. The four German spies, all of whom had previously lived in the United States, came ashore on the night of June 16, 1942 carrying explosives and American money. After landing they strolled up the beach to Jacksonville Beach, where they caught a city bus to Jacksonville and departed by train for Cincinnati and Chicago. The invaders were captured before they could do any damage. They were tried by a military tribunal and executed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7619181", "title": "Torture and the United States", "section": "Section::::Historical practices of torture.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 270, "text": "During World War II, the U.S. military interrogated high-level Nazis at a secret camp, \"P. O. Box 1142,\" outside Washington D.C. The interrogators did not use physical torture, but did use psychological tricks, like threatening to turn the prisoner over to the Soviets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4877471", "title": "Military dummy", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 539, "text": "During World War II, dummy airfields and even towns were used in England to divert German bombers from the real targets. At the Battle of La Ciotat in 1944, American aircraft dropped hundreds of dummy paratroopers (Paradummies) just north of La Ciotat, France. The goal of this operation was to divert German troops away from the main landing zones of Operation Dragoon. Additionally, during World War II, Operation Quicksilver was an attempt to mislead the Germans as to the location of the D-Day invasion using dummy military equipment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "127243", "title": "Amagansett, New York", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 312, "text": "During Operation Pastorius, a failed Nazi attack on the United States staged in June 1942, during World War II, four German spies were dropped off from a submarine on Atlantic Avenue beach in Amagansett, where they made their way to the village's Long Island Rail Road station and boarded a train for New York. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3069598", "title": "Stamsund", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 600, "text": "During World War II, the first successful raid on Nazi-held territory, Operation Claymore, was conducted here. After a successful operation they returned with some 228 German prisoners, 314 loyal Norwegian volunteers, a number of Quisling regime collaborators, and code books and wheels for the Enigma machine. Also, a telegram was sent to Adolf Hitler describing how ineffective the German forces were. Hitler's response was to send an SS unit to conduct future operations. The mountain above Stamsund still has the bunker complex and viewing port overlooking the village and the ocean to the west.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Can we make sure the rules do more to encourage searching for answers first? Especially around big news events, the old classics of '3d printing' and 'schrodingers cat' come up constantly too. A giant red bar that flashes up when you mouse over submit like on askscience or TIL might help.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3201413", "title": "Mod DB", "section": "Section::::Purpose.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 801, "text": "The purpose of Mod DB is to list the mods, files, tutorials and information of any games that are capable of being modded with user-made content. Community involvement is strongly encouraged, and any game mod with a website is allowed to post a screenshot gallery, news, and requests for help. Scott's intentions, from the beginning, were to get the community heavily involved in the creation and development of the website. To this end, the most active members were chosen as moderators and administrators. The core staff generally remain the same, while lower positions are heavily rotated among trainee moderators, and administrator candidates. The site's staff mostly act as chaperones or librarians, keeping appropriate content available to the public and featuring the more exceptional content.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48581597", "title": "Star Wars: Galaxy of Heroes", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Mods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 464, "text": "Mods (short for modifications) are an optional upgrade for characters within the game. Once the player's account reaches level 50, Mods become available to any of their characters that are level 50 or above. There are different categories of mods, each of which yields a different primary effect on the stats of the character that has equipped it. This effect allows players to increase statistical areas of their characters to yield better performance in battle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "407326", "title": "Mod (video gaming)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 294, "text": "A mod (short for \"modification\") is an alteration by players or fans of a video game that changes one or more aspects of a video game, such as how it looks or behaves. Mods may range from small changes and tweaks to complete overhauls, and can extend the replay value and interest of the game.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36690993", "title": "Europa Universalis IV", "section": "Section::::Expansions and mods.:Mods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 433, "text": "Aside from the official expansion packs, third-party mods are available on sites such as the Steam Workshop. The mods can change the game's setting, add or remove features and game mechanics, and make graphical improvements. Popular mods include \"Extended Timeline\", which expands the game's scope from 2 AD to the year 9999, the \"Game of Thrones\" adaptation \"A Song of Ice and Fire,\" and complete overhauls such as \"MEIOU & Taxes\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3201413", "title": "Mod DB", "section": "Section::::Mod of the Year.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 409, "text": "Mod DB's Mod of the Year competition, the 'Golden Spanner' awards, aim to set the industry standard in awarding inventive and high-quality mods. Mods are chosen via a community vote and are then reviewed by staff to produce the final list of winners. The competition aims to encourage all fields of modding, with different categories such as graphics and gameplay, as well as a traditional 'best mod' winner.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49390570", "title": "Minecraft mods", "section": "Section::::Mod content.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 704, "text": "Some mods mainly focus on technology, and add an assortment of machines that can help the player to automate the production of certain in-game materials. Examples of technology-oriented mods include \"Extra Utilities\", a mod that introduces various machines that can be used to generate power, and a random assortment of other blocks and items; \"BuildCraft\", a classic mod known for its many variants of machines, pumps, and pipes (also most likely named for the fact that, according to the developer, the mod's machines can build (and destroy) in the world); \"IndustrialCraft\", a mod which adds metals, electric tools, generators, including nuclear reactors., jetpacks, powered armor, and nuclear items.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37424746", "title": "The Dark Mod", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 565, "text": "The mod was originally developed as a toolkit. It includes models, sounds, , art, tools, and a specialised editor for users to create custom missions. The development of the mod started in 2004, and the first Beta was released in 2008, along with its first mission. In October 2009, v 1.0 was released. In October 2013 version 2.0 was released as a standalone game that included two missions created by the development team. The current version is v 2.07, with over 100 fan-made missions available, and a lengthy campaign titled \"Crucible of Omens\" in development.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "What are the assumptions concerning non-white people in medieval Europe? Please outline the specific assumptions you feel are being made by the blog.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So, for the record there was [this conversation last week](_URL_0_) which examines some underlying assumptions in using 'race' as any sort of measuring stick of human descriptions before our epoch.\n\n'Non-white', the same as 'black', or 'asian', or any other modern race definition are just that, modern which is what /u/telkanuru is referring to as a 'sociological construct' in the linked answer. So, we are faced with two problems when we look backwards into Medieval Europe.\n\n\\1. The first is the problem of whether the verbal or visual language we receive from the past actually conforms to our indicators of race. The first hurdle is translation, and the second is idiomatic expression. Did a reference to someone being 'black' in Latin actually mean a 'black' person, or did it mean someone with black hair in a culture where black hair was unusual? Or even further, did reference to 'black' actually mean some local idiom which referred to an aspect of character or of origin lost to us now?\n\nThis first point is important because, from examples within my field - the medieval period - we are not going to find chroniclers referring to 'some black guy from nigeria' or some such thing. We have references to Moors, or Moslems, but they might look 'Latino' or 'Middle Eastern' to modern 'scales of race'. Is that a separate race? We might have a reference to someone from Egypt. Or Africa. How are we to establish the race of the referent under these terms?\n\nWhen it comes to visual depictions like we frequently see in MedievalPOC blog, we don't know if the manuscript, painting or fresco coloration is always actually a reflection of a racial difference or if it holds some other meaning. This is not to discredit the blog's intent or assertions entirely, but merely to problematize the assumptions to the point where we return to the same question.\nWhat we can say is that pre-modern western sources did not care to establish race according to what we think is now important. Consider this inversion for a moment: in place of whites and blacks, were are more likely to have heard prior to 1000 a discussion of the natures of the 'race' of Angles, Saxons, Franks, Germans. How are we to reconcile our modern notions of race with these terms?\n\n\\2. The second problem is depth of evidence. If we take some written or visual depictions as actual reflections of skin colour, and therefore of modern race (and I hope you already see the massive problems just getting us to these assumptions) are these 'frequent enough' to make broader assumptions about 'people of colour' in the medieval world? Again, we just don't know because again pre-modern sources didn't use race the way we use race. In medieval society it was apparently far more important to establish whether someone was Christian, or not Christian: that was worth noting.\n\nAll of the above can pretty much stop us from answering a well-intentioned question about modern notions of representation of race so important in many modern discourses. So, that said, I'd like to answer your question on its own terms, whether those we classify as 'non-white' (according to, say, an American census form) were visible in daily life in Western Europe. Realzing of course the depending who you ask today non white may or may not include 'latinos' (Spain) or 'arabs' (again Spain, and many other parts of Mediterranean Europe).\n\nHere's a lot of ifs and mights for you:\n\n* Vikings were exceptionally well travelled 800 -1000 and they may have encountered 'black' people in lower Spain, or southern Italy, or Constantinople, or in the Holy Lands. It is possible that they might have slave-traded 'blacks' or 'middle easterns' and some may have returned to northern ports.\n\n* The Moors of Spain were established through the Moslem invasions of the Iberian peninsula.Those Moslems had come across from north western Africa and so may have included 'blacks' and certainly 'middle easterns'. Those same moors travelled up into southern France and established themselves in colonies and cities from Toulouse to Narbonne to Provence. They established forts and castles in Provence. Beyond the incursions and wars, Moslems travelled up and down the Rhone river trading slaves to 1100. Moslems also frequented ports of Southern France like Montpellier and Nice.\n\n* Of course the various crusades brought Western Europeans in contact with peoples of the middle east which definitely included 'arabs' but might also have included 'blacks' and 'asians'.\n\n* There is some evidence of Irish contact with Mediterranean peoples in the early middle ages - some of those people might have been 'non-white'.\n\n* And of course throughout the medieval period, from late antiquity through to renaissance, we have the travelling merchant; he might have been from northern Europe, or he might have been from southern Europe; he might have encountered 'non-whites' or he might have been 'non-white' himself.\n\nSo we can gather from above that some inhabitants of some towns and some cities in medieval Europe all the way up to parts of Scandanavia encountered 'non-white' peoples, whether they be described by modern terms as Arabic, Middle Eastern, Black.\n\nHow many and how far afield into the very rural landscape of medieval Europe? Who knows. And anyone who makes generalist claims for or against is not arguing about the past but arguing politics of today. It holds something of a lesson if we care to look at it: race is constructed, not eternal.\n\nWhatever we aren't sure of, we can be certain of one thing: there was no such thing as 'white society' in the European medieval period.\n\nnote: this was moved from response to top level in hopes of people reading it and discussing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16786571", "title": "Digital Medievalist", "section": "Section::::Activities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 372, "text": "Digital Medievalist sees it as its mission to provide a framework to enable members of its community to share information. These activities include an electronic mailing list, the participation in and organisation of conference sessions or other events, and a website containing an open-access academic journal of record, a wiki/FAQ, and a facility to post news releases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "105118", "title": "Georges Duby", "section": "Section::::Impact of the Mâconnais book.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 609, "text": "Duby's intensive and rigorous examination of a local society based on archival sources and a broad understanding of the social, environmental and economic bases of daily life became a standard model for medieval historical research in France for decades after the appearance of \"La société\". Throughout the 1970s and 80's, French doctoral students investigated their own corners of medieval France, Italy and Spain in a similar way, hoping to compare and contrast their own results with those of Duby's Mâconnais and its thesis about the transformation of European society at the end of the first millennium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31976053", "title": "Robert Fossier", "section": "Section::::Historian of the Middle Ages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 360, "text": "In his latest book, \"Ces gens du Moyen Age\" (translated as \"The Axe and the Oath: Ordinary Life in the Middle Ages\"), Robert Fossier deemphasises the aspect of medieval society which we are most familiar, the aristocracy, in order to concentrate on that less spoken-of aspect, the people. In his own words of summary, \"I am persuaded that medieval man is us\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2838885", "title": "Jean-Claude Schmitt", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 943, "text": "Jean-Claude Schmitt (born 4 March 1946 in Colmar) is a prominent French medievalist, the former student of Jacques Le Goff, associated with the work of the Annales School. He studies the socio-cultural aspects of medieval history in Western Europe and has made important contributions in his use of anthropological and art historical methods to interpret history. His most significant work has dealt with the relationships among elites and laymen in medieval life, particularly in the realm of religious culture, where he has focused on ideas and topics such as superstition, the occult and heresy in order to flesh out the differing world-views of the lay peasantry and the clerical elites who attempted to define religious practice. He has contributed numerous books, articles and encyclopedia entries on these and related topics. He has also written widely on the cult of saints, the idea of adolescence, visions and dreams, and preaching.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42869706", "title": "Tomáš Petráček", "section": "Section::::Work.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 481, "text": "In the third with the title Man, Values and the Dynamics of Medieval Society. Anthropological Concepts of the Middle Ages in a Transcultural Perspective, the author analyses how Medieval culture and civilization in Europe was able to come to terms with cultural, social and religious plurality and diversity without posing a threat to solidarity, openness, dynamism and the actual functioning of society using selected phenomena such as Inquisition, Canon Law, Cult of Relics etc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44788381", "title": "Guy Halsall", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 441, "text": "Guy Halsall (born 1964) is an English historian of Early Medieval Europe. He is currently based at the University of York, and has published a number of books, essays, and articles on the subject of early medieval history and archeology. Halsall's current research focuses on western Europe in the important period of change around AD 600 and on the application of continental philosophy (especially the work of Jacques Derrida) to history.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29153287", "title": "York City Levy", "section": "Section::::Membership.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 424, "text": "There are around twenty people involved with the group. Membership is open to anyone with an interest in medieval history. The group prides itself on its inclusive nature, and offers children, women and men an equally important role in realistically portraying life in a medieval town. New members can obtain loan clothing and equipment and are provided with substantial help and advice on how to become a great re-enactor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Although English is a Germanic language, approximately 30% of English vocabulary comes from French in one form or another. This is largely caused by an event called the Norman Conquest, in which a group of people called Normans, who inhabited Northern France and had a degree of Scandinavian ancestry, invaded and conquered England. The Old English-speaking aristocracy was mostly replaced by Norman French-speaking aristocracy, and for at least a hundred years, the nobility of England were primarily Norman French speakers. As a result, many words in English, particularly ones related to politics, warfare, and social class come from French. Many of these Norman French words are different from their modern French words, such as the word castle, from Norman French castel, in comparison to Modern French Château (which had evolved from Chasteau as indicated by the circumflex accent). Eventually, likely around the early or mid 13th century, the Norman/Angevin aristocracy of England lost most of their titles within the Kingdom of France and began to transition to English, which by this point was now full of French words. The higher nobility and Kings of England continued to speak French as their first language until sometime in the 14th or 15th century.\n\nFrench words continued to enter the English language after England and France became more distinctly separate entities, as France and England were still geographic neighbors (there are quite a few Dutch and German words of French origin as well), and because for a long time French was the dominant language of European courts and was therefore a prestige language that many nobles of various countries learned. Frederick the Great of Prussia, for example, spoke French natively and may have preferred it to German, and the multi-ethnic and multi-lingual Austrian army often used French as a common language. Most of the English words and expressions that remain distinctly and obviously \"French\" come from these more recent vocabulary exchanges.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "266242", "title": "Wisconsin River", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1064, "text": "As American soldiers and officials traveled through the area for the first time following the War of 1812, they initially used the French spelling. But when large numbers of lead miners streamed into the country south of the river in the 1820s, the U.S. government began to refer to it differently in debates and legislation. These legal documents created by the government in Washington sometimes used the French spelling, but they gradually introduced the uniquely American, \"Wisconsin.\" The U.S. House of Representatives Journal was the first to print it (in the entry for February 1, 1830), during discussion of \"laying out a town at Helena, on the Wisconsin river, in the Territory of Michigan …\" In the five years that followed, the modern spelling was used with increasing frequency in government publications as well as in commercially published books and maps. In 1836, when territorial status was authorized on July 4, the name became officially \"Wisconsin\" (though Canadian and French writers often used \"Ouisconsin\" until the end of the 19th century).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "161405", "title": "Lieutenant", "section": "Section::::Etymology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 490, "text": "In the 19th century, British writers who considered this word either an imposition on the English language, or difficult for common soldiers and sailors, argued for it to be replaced by the calque \"steadholder\". However, their efforts failed, and the French word is still used, along with its many variations (e.g. lieutenant colonel, lieutenant general, lieutenant commander, flight lieutenant, second lieutenant and many non-English language examples), in both the Old and the New World.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59114506", "title": "Influence of French on English", "section": "Section::::Contribution of the French lexicon to English.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 254, "text": "BULLET::::- Some words borrowed in the 19th and 20th centuries (such as \"chic\") still considered foreign words, French words, are generally used by educated English people or by the press and other media and are seen as part of a distinguished language.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2068724", "title": "Quapaw", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 359, "text": "English speakers tried to adapt French names to English phonetics: ' (French for \"covered way or road\") was gradually converted to \"Smackover\" by Anglo-Americans. They used this name for a local creek. Founded by the French, ' was translated into English and renamed by Americans as Little Rock after the United States acquired the territory in the Purchase.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "640729", "title": "Massachusett language", "section": "Section::::Vocabulary.:Massachusett influences in the English language.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 189, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 189, "end_character": 1538, "text": "Many of the common words such as 'papoose,' 'squash' and 'moccasin' were popularized in 1643, even back in England, with the publication of Roger Williams' \"A Key into the Language of America\" and as a result, are often given a Narragansett etymology. Most words were likely borrowed independently until a common form won out, or re-enforced each other through similarity. For example, New Englanders used 'wauregan' to mean 'handsome' and 'showy' until the end of the nineteenth century from an SNEA R-dialect, most likely from Quiripi wauregan, but the first settlers in Massachusetts were already familiar with the older cognate form 'wunnegin' from Massachusett wunnégan (wuneekan) from N-dialect Massachusett. Furthermore, the English settlers of the failed Popham Colony, and later settlements in what is now Maine and New Hampshire encountered mos from Eastern Abenakian, whilst settlers in the rest of New England encountered mꝏs from the SNEA languages, ultimately coalescing into English, 'moose.' Other forms were shorted beyond recognition, with 'squash' a shortened slang form of original borrowings 'isquontersquash' or 'squantersquash' from Massachusett askꝏtasquash (ashk8tasqash) or Narragansett askútasquash. Many of these 'Narragansett' terms were already known to the English settlers of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth, with William Wood recording pappousse and mawcus sinnus from Pawtucket speakers of Massachusett and published in his 1634 \"New Englands Prospect\" nine years before Williams' papoòs and mocússinass.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18130", "title": "Louisiana", "section": "Section::::Culture.:Languages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 244, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 244, "end_character": 882, "text": "During the 19th century after the Louisiana Purchase by the United States, English gradually gained prominence for business and government due to the shift in population with settlement by numerous Americans who were English speakers. Many ethnic French families continued to use French in private. Slaves and some free people of color also spoke Louisiana Creole French. The State Constitution of 1812 gave English official status in legal proceedings, but use of French remained widespread. Subsequent state constitutions reflect the diminishing importance of French. The 1868 constitution, passed during the Reconstruction era before Louisiana was re-admitted to the Union, banned laws requiring the publication of legal proceedings in languages other than English. Subsequently, the legal status of French recovered somewhat, but it never regained its pre-Civil War prominence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32559", "title": "Vocative case", "section": "Section::::Indo-European languages.:Romance languages.:French.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 122, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 122, "end_character": 300, "text": "Like English, French sometimes uses (or historically used) a particle \"Ô\" to mark vocative phrases rather than by change to the form of the noun. A famous example is the title and first line of the Canadian national anthem, \"O Canada\" (French title: \"Ô Canada\"), a vocative phrase addressing Canada.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "People talk about doing something like this: \n\nThe mass driver, which is similar to some designs for high-speed trains.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIn most cases it's not practical to launch from Earth's surface to orbit with one of these, since you have to launch at high speed through the atmosphere, and your capsule would be burning up when it left the launch track. \n\nThe exception is building the track so that your capsule launches at high altitudes - on high mountains or supported on some sort of very high artificial support. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Lot of misconceptions...only focusing on few. \n\n > So you would have a magnet on top of which you would have people or items then another magnet floating above\n\nIn this configuration, all of the weight is still resting on the bottom magnet. Weight doesn't \"magically\" have zero weight, it is simply being pushed up by the magnet (which pushes the magnet down).\n\nIt doesn't take very much weight to either simply overcome the repelling nature so it stops levitating, or if that was somehow stopped, it wouldn't be long before the bottom magnet was simply crushed because the material couldn't support that much weight.\n\n > could I have an electro magnet on the ground at a launch site, a package that needs to go into space attached to a magnet or inside an electro magnetic container, and an electro magnet is space and use these to transfer materials back and forth?\n\nNo, the magnetic force drops off exponentially with distance. Just like when you get magnets simply a foot apart there is practically no interaction, this drops even more at larger distances. it is simply impossible to create a magnet strong enough to lift human sized objects from space.\n\nBuilding a tube or any other macro structure into space is equally impossible. Space elevators (another alternative idea to launch to space) are made from carbon nanotubes, and have a small payload.\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "626196", "title": "Electromagnetic propulsion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 558, "text": "The science of electromagnetic propulsion does not have origins with any one individual and has application in many different fields. The thought of using magnets for propulsion continues to this day and has been dreamed of since at least 1897 when John Munro published his fictional story \"A Trip to Venus\". Current applications can be seen in maglev trains and military railguns. Other applications that remain not widely used or still in development include ion thruster for low orbiting satellites and magnetohydrodynamic drive for ships and submarines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "182734", "title": "Magnetohydrodynamic drive", "section": "Section::::Typology.:Spacecraft propulsion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 263, "text": "A number of experimental methods of spacecraft propulsion are based on magnetohydrodynamics. As this kind of MHD propulsion involves compressible fluids in the form of plasmas (ionized gases) it is also referred to as magnetogasdynamics or magnetoplasmadynamics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "390906", "title": "Ufology", "section": "Section::::Studies, panels, and conferences.:Project Magnet, Project Second Story (Canada, 1950–1954).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 501, "text": "Project Magnet, led by senior radio engineer Wilbert B. Smith from the Department of Transport, had the goal of studying magnetic phenomena, specifically geomagnetism, as a potential propulsion method for vehicles. Smith believed UFOs were using this method to achieve flight. The final report of the project, however, contained no mention of geomagnetism. It discussed twenty-five UFO sightings reported during 1952, and concluded with the notion that \"extraterrestrial space vehicles\" are probable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33565171", "title": "Magnetic levitation", "section": "Section::::Lift.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 232, "text": "Essentially all types of magnets have been used to generate lift for magnetic levitation; permanent magnets, electromagnets, ferromagnetism, diamagnetism, superconducting magnets and magnetism due to induced currents in conductors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25494798", "title": "Magnetorquer", "section": "Section::::Advantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 354, "text": "Magnetorquers are lightweight, reliable, and energy-efficient. Unlike thrusters, they do not require expendable propellant either, so they could in theory work indefinitely as long as sufficient power is available to match the resistive load of the coils. In Earth orbit, sunlight is one such practically inexhaustible energy source, using solar panels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25494798", "title": "Magnetorquer", "section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 653, "text": "The main disadvantage of magnetorquers is that very high magnetic flux densities are needed if large craft have to be turned very fast. This either necessitates a very high current in the coils, or much higher ambient flux densities than are available in Earth orbit. Consequently, the torques provided are very limited and only serve to accelerate or decelerate the change in a spacecraft's attitude by minute amounts. Over time active control can produce very fast spinning even here, but for accurate attitude control and stabilization the torques provided often aren't enough. To overcome this, magnetorquer are often combined with reaction wheels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37845", "title": "Magnetic sail", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 322, "text": "A magnetic sail or magsail is a proposed method of spacecraft propulsion which would use a static magnetic field to deflect charged particles radiated by the Sun as a plasma wind, and thus impart momentum to accelerate the spacecraft. A magnetic sail could also thrust directly against planetary and solar magnetospheres.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The eternal battle of scientific evidence vs. \"common sense\" dieting vs. weight loss vs. ethical diets", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We have the technology to make whatever we want and the resources to get whatever we want. We have a lot more choices than an animal does. It also helps that we're omnivores and able to make any type of food digestible and tasty, while many other animals are stuck being unable to digest one thing or the other.\n\nAnimals don't have as many choices, so they stick with what they know and have access to. An animal won't be able to get its hands on much refined sugar or MSG, but if it did, it would eat it until sick.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Think of literally every food you have ever eaten, smelled, saw, or heard about.\n\nOther animals get to choose between Dead Thing and Other Dead Thing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Animals generally just eat whatever they can find. They rarely have a surplus of food, so there isn't much of a choice in the matter. If their diet is unhealthy, so be it. Unhealthy is better than starvation.\n\nHumans have the luxury of sitting on their butts and debating endlessly about what food is best to eat because we've got so much of it to choose from. We decide (or tell ourselves we should, at least) what we eat based on what will keep us the most healthy rather than just whatever we can get our hands on.\n\nAdditionally, it's worth noting that most diet-related health conditions people in first-world countries deal with are related to *too much* food. Obesity, diabetes, and heart disease are all caused or worsened by an overabundance of food or parts of food. Animals in the wild rarely have that problem, and usually have the opposite one.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25487049", "title": "Eating Animals", "section": "Section::::Themes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1039, "text": "Ultimately, \"Eating Animals\" discusses the ethics of food. It suggests that our food choices directly reflect the ethical values we stand for. When people eat meat, Foer claims, they are implying that satisfying their desire for meat is more important than letting animals live well, or even live at all. This can be a conscious or unconscious process, but its implications, for Foer, are always real. When one supports factory farming, one is relinquishing the importance of certain moral behavior to animals, and in turn, to humans as well. For example, if one denies the importance of the suffering of an animal, one denies the importance of the ability to suffer in and of itself, so it follows that one denies the importance of suffering for humans. In a similar chain of logic, Foer connects our treatment of animals to our treatment of humans―we dichotomize between those who matter and those who do not. Consequently, each food choice an individual makes is an ethical one that profoundly impacts both human and non-human animals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6405285", "title": "Dietary indiscretion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 647, "text": "Dietary indiscretion is the tendency of certain animal of eating unusual items. These are frequently relatively small items not encountered in a natural habitat and thus sampled because of mistaken identity, a familiar flavor, or simple curiosity. This includes modern manufactured items such as shiny metal foil or plastic objects, as well as foods harmful to health. Domesticated animals such as dogs and goats, and even circus animals like Ostriches are even more prone to the effect due to their contact with people. The dietary indiscretion of fish, especially Sharks, may occur when the mouth is the major organ of detection and processing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "682482", "title": "Human", "section": "Section::::Biology.:Diet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 648, "text": "Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material. Varying with available food sources in regions of habitation, and also varying with cultural and religious norms, human groups have adopted a range of diets, from purely vegan to primarily carnivorous. In some cases, dietary restrictions in humans can lead to deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources. The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of food science.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39193418", "title": "Carnism", "section": "Section::::Features.:Justification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 425, "text": "The argument holds that people are conditioned to believe that humans evolved to eat meat, that it is expected of them, and that they need it to survive or be strong. These beliefs are said to be reinforced by various institutions, including religion, family and the media. Although scientists have shown that humans get more than enough protein in their diets without eating meat, the belief that meat is required persists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15760517", "title": "Sociology of food", "section": "Section::::Food Distribution.:Early History and Culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 377, "text": "Since the beginning of mankind, food was important simply for the purpose of nourishment. As primates walked the Earth, they solely consumed food for a source of energy as they had to hunt and forage because food was not easily on hand. By early humans fending for themselves, they had figured out that they needed a high energy diet to keep going on a daily basis to survive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47442082", "title": "Psychology of eating meat", "section": "Section::::Meat paradox.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 569, "text": "One question examined in the psychology of eating meat has been termed the meat paradox: how can individuals care about animals, but also eat them? Internal dissonance can be created if people's beliefs and emotions about animal treatment do not match their eating behavior, although it may not always be subjectively perceived as a conflict. This apparent conflict associated with a near-universal dietary practice provides a useful case study for investigating the ways people may change their moral thinking to minimize discomfort associated with ethical conflicts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14339058", "title": "Man-eater", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 473, "text": "Man-eater is a colloquial term for an individual animal that preys on humans as a pattern of hunting behavior. This does not include the scavenging of corpses, a single attack born of opportunity or desperate hunger, or the incidental eating of a human that the animal has killed in self-defense. However, all three cases (especially the last two) may habituate an animal to eating human flesh or to attacking humans, and may foster the development of man-eating behavior.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is not to prevent anyone from writing you a full, new answer, but you may be interested in these two answers of mine:\n\n[Why are people today fascinated with the Victorian era?](_URL_0_)\n\n[Dang kids! Or: Why does each generation have such an exaggerated view of fashion in previous ones?](_URL_1_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "171302", "title": "Nostalgia", "section": "Section::::Other aspects.:As a medical condition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 795, "text": "In the eighteenth century, scientists were looking for a locus of nostalgia, a nostalgic bone. By the 1850s nostalgia was losing its status as a particular disease and coming to be seen rather as a symptom or stage of a pathological process. It was considered as a form of melancholia and a predisposing condition among suicides. Nostalgia was, however, still diagnosed among soldiers as late as the American Civil War. By the 1870s interest in nostalgia as a medical category had almost completely vanished. Nostalgia was still being recognized in both the First and Second World Wars, especially by the American armed forces. Great lengths were taken to study and understand the condition to stem the tide of troops leaving the front in droves (see the BBC documentary \"Century of the Self\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3662104", "title": "American modernism", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 428, "text": "The Great Depression at the end of the '20s and during the '30s disillusioned people about the economic stability of the country and eroded utopianist thinking. The outbreak and the terrors of World War II caused further changes in mentality. The Post-war period that followed was termed Late Modernism. The \"Postmodernist\" era was generally considered characteristic of the art of the late 20th century beginning in the 1980s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "90143", "title": "A Night to Remember (book)", "section": "Section::::Critical commentaries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 742, "text": "Lord's invocation of an era of confidence and certainty was also a relevant theme at the height of the Cold War. The University of California sociologist Fred Davis comments that nostalgia \"thrives ... on the rude transitions wrought by such phenomena as war, depression, civil disturbance, and cataclysmic natural disasters – in short, those events that cause masses of people to feel uneasy and to wonder whether the world and their being are quite what they always took them to be.\" The turmoil and uncertainty of the early Atomic Age and the onset of profound social changes made the old concepts of the nuclear family and traditional gender roles, reflected in the behaviour of \"Titanic\"s passengers, resonate with a mid-1950s audience.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34201614", "title": "Cars in the 1920s", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1132, "text": "From 1919 to 1923, primarily North America and parts of Europe experienced the rise of the Roaring Twenties. Social and economic circumstances underwent dramatic changes. The economic power and high employment of the United States allowed Americans to spend more extravagantly on entertainment. War veterans returned home seeking relaxation and comfort, instead of returning to their factory or agricultural duties. Watching movies and listening to the newly invented radio became increasingly popular during this period, which further encouraged the desires of people for Hollywood style lives of indulgence and ease. This extravagance was ignited by the introduction of Henry Ford's Model T, a car affectionately known as the \"Tin Lizzie.\" Cars became a major source of freedom and adventure as well as travel, and greatly altered the standard of living and social patterns, urban planning and differentiated suburban and urban living purposes. In addition, the rise of cars led to the creation of new leisure activities and businesses. The car became the center of middle and working class life, until the start of World War II.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "160575", "title": "Will Rogers", "section": "Section::::Philosophy and style.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 1054, "text": "In the 1920s, the United States was happy and prosperous in various ways (leading to the nickname \"Roaring Twenties\"), but it also suffered from rapid change and social tensions. Some people were disenchanted by, and alienated from, the outside world. Many common people believed that World War I had resulted in extensive and largely senseless carnage, and they supported isolationism for the US. According to scholar Peter Rollins (1976), Rogers appeared to be an anchor of stability; his conventional home life and traditional moral code reminded people of a recent past. His newspaper column, which ran from 1922 to 1935, expressed his traditional morality and his belief that political problems were not as serious as they sounded. In his films, Rogers began by playing a simple cowboy; his characters evolved to explore the meaning of innocence in ordinary life. In his last movies, Rogers explores a society fracturing into competing classes from economic pressures. Throughout his career, Rogers was a link to a better, more comprehensible past.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17666394", "title": "Millennium '73", "section": "Section::::Before the event.:Millenarian appeal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 525, "text": "In the late 1960s and early 1970s, many people in the US, especially hippies, believed that the world was on the verge of a new era, the Age of Aquarius. This new age was expected to be characterized by peace and love, harmony and understanding. By the late autumn of 1973 there was an \"apocalyptic chill in the air\", as headlines dealt with the Vietnam war, the Watergate scandal, the Agnew resignation, a war in the Middle East, an energy crisis, mass murders in Houston and California, and UFO sightings across the South.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "172479", "title": "Americana", "section": "Section::::Americana as nostalgia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 459, "text": "From the mid to late 20th century, Americana was largely conceptualized as a nostalgia for an idealized life in small towns and cities in the United States around the turn of the century, roughly in the period between 1880 and the First World War, popularly considered \"The Good Old Days\". It was believed that much of the structure of 20th-century American life and culture had been cemented in that time and place. American author Henry Seidel Canby wrote:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "One of the first things you need to think about is why the Germans came over to the US. The vast majority of immigrants came after the failed Democratic revolutions in the 1890s, so they wanted to live in Republican state. That being said while these Germans hated the Kaiser they didn't want war between the US and Germany, simply due to connections back home. This produced huge strains which would impact how they were treated and how these Germans would act in WWII. Anti-German sentiment was so bad that 16 US states banned speaking German in public some states even required that people change their German names to American ones (Smicht to Smith), thousands of beer halls in the US were shutdown or even burned down, Germans were banned from having certain jobs (strategic/Gov't), internment camps were also set up, there were numerous cases of Germans being killed to seriously maimed due to 'Not being patriotic'. For example a man was tarred and feathered for not buying War Bonds, another man was lynched for 'not being American/Patriotic', and a pregnant woman was reportedly nearly beaten to death for speaking German with a local priest ( Although I have read this mentioned in numerous books I haven't hit any primary sources on it). President Woodrow Wilson even called German-Americans 'Alien citizens'. This caused two things 1) Need/Desire for German Americans to prove their loyalty, 2) complete erasure of German Culture. Point one can best be seen in the case of Henry Gunther a German-American who was killed 15 seconds before the Armistice charging a German machine gun, his death was so controversial that it caused a investigation as to why nobody stopped him and why he did it. As to point two close to fifth of the US population (60 Million people) have German ancestry but despite this less than 5 million have German names and less than two million can speak German. So by the time that WWII came along most German-Americans were so disenfranchised with their culture that they no longer saw them selves as Germans but where in stead were Americans.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4042584", "title": "Germany–United States relations", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 246, "text": "Before 1900, the main factors in German-American relations were very large movements of immigrants from Germany to American states (especially Pennsylvania, the Midwestern United States, and central Texas) throughout the 18th and 19th centuries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "94625", "title": "Lafayette County, Missouri", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 354, "text": "But immigrants from Germany, as well as German Americans from St. Louis, began arriving shortly before the war, with many more to come afterwards. Many of the Germans were sympathetic to the Union and opposed slavery. They eventually made up a large part of the populations of Concordia, Emma, Wellington, Napoleon, Higginsville, Mayview, and Lexington.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "290327", "title": "German Americans", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 529, "text": "None of the German states had American colonies. In the 1670s, the first significant groups of German immigrants arrived in the British colonies, settling primarily in Pennsylvania, New York, and Virginia. Immigration continued in very large numbers during the 19th century, with eight million arrivals from Germany. Between 1820 and 1870 over seven and a half million German immigrants came to the United States. By 2010, their population grew to 49.8 million German Americans, reflecting a jump of 6 million people since 2000.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "290327", "title": "German Americans", "section": "Section::::History.:World Wars.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 1022, "text": "Between 1931 and 1940, 114,000 Germans moved to the United States, many of whom—including Nobel prize winner Albert Einstein and author Erich Maria Remarque—were Jewish Germans or anti-Nazis fleeing government oppression. About 25,000 people became paying members of the pro-Nazi German American Bund during the years before the war. German aliens were the subject of suspicion and discrimination during the war, although prejudice and sheer numbers meant they suffered as a group generally less than Japanese Americans. The Alien Registration Act of 1940 required 300,000 German-born resident aliens who had German citizenship to register with the Federal government and restricted their travel and property ownership rights. Under the still active Alien Enemy Act of 1798, the United States government interned nearly 11,000 German citizens between 1940 and 1948. Civil rights violations occurred. An unknown number of \"voluntary internees\" joined their spouses and parents in the camps and were not permitted to leave.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14599622", "title": "History of immigration to the United States", "section": "Section::::1850 to 1930.:Demography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 396, "text": "Between 1850 and 1930, about 5 million Germans migrated to the United States, peaking between 1881 and 1885 when a million Germans settled primarily in the Midwest. Between 1820 and 1930, 3.5 million British and 4.5 million Irish entered America. Before 1845 most Irish immigrants were Protestants. After 1845, Irish Catholics began arriving in large numbers, largely driven by the Great Famine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "290327", "title": "German Americans", "section": "Section::::History.:19th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 491, "text": "The largest flow of German immigration to America occurred between 1820 and World War I, during which time nearly six million Germans immigrated to the United States. From 1840 to 1880, they were the largest group of immigrants. Following the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, a wave of political refugees fled to America, who became known as Forty-Eighters. They included professionals, journalists, and politicians. Prominent Forty-Eighters included Carl Schurz and Henry Villard.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12617410", "title": "New York City ethnic enclaves", "section": "Section::::European.:German.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 282, "text": "Germans starting immigrating to the United States in the 17th century, and until the late 19th century, when Germany was the country of origin for the largest number of immigrants to the United States. In fact, Over one million Germans entered the United States in the 1850s alone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In actuality it may improve taste perception.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nHowever, it may be different for some tastes vs. others (e.g., NaCl vs. citric).\n\n[1](_URL_0_)\n\n[2](_URL_2_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Dentist here.\n\nTo answer your question about tongue brushing and potential damage to our taste receptors. Yes and No.\n\nLet's start with how it would be a Yes, and work in to the final answer of No:\n\nIf you are using a hard bristled toothbrush, highly corrosive toothpaste (usually whitening toothpaste or something with a thick paste of baking powder mixture), then Yes, you can erode the taste buds on your tongue away.\n\nBut is this a permanent change to your tongue?\n\nNo. And to explain this, I'm going to explain the make-up of our tongue's dorsal surface (the part that contains our \"taste buds\").\n\nOur tongue is a muscular instrument which is used to not only taste food, but also to recognize poisons/toxins (partially through taste), to determine the quality of food by texture, and to help you not only hold on to your food during mastication, but to also chew and swallow your food by acting as a muscular plunge. \n\nIt contains specialized structures called \"papillae\" which are outcroppings of the epithelium making up the tongue and are often confused with just \"taste buds.\" There are several type of papillae, and each has their own function.\n\nThe most numerous type of papilla is the filiform papilla. It is shaped like a little finger that comes off the surface of your tongue and actually does not really involve itself with taste sensation. They are the the part of your tongue that allows you to hold on to food and determine texture. They are also what make your tongue feel rough when it is dry. If they grow too long or their growth is altered by certain anti-biotics, peroxide-based chemicals, or unusual chemical reactions, then they act negatively to hold on to bacteria or fungus to give you a minor case of something called \"hairy tongue.\" I can explain that more if you like, but it's a bit outside the realm of your question. Overall, if you brush too hard, you're more likely to scrape some of these guys away, so your taste won't really be affected directly. What will be affected is how well your tongue can hold on to food and water (which is absolutely necessary to \"taste\") so your taste will be indirectly involved. As a neat experiment, try completely drying your tongue off with a dry towel and then put some sugar or salt on it. If you dried it off thoroughly, you won't be able to taste either!\n\nThe taste buds actually involved in taste are the fungiform papillae. They are little, mushroom-shaped bumps (as their name suggests) on your tongue interspersed throughout. Their histologic structure actually shows that they're like little caverns with centralized \"bulbs\" that are connected to the cranial nerves in charge of distributing taste reception. These are very tough to brush away or damage with toothpaste or a toothbrush because of how they are formed and shaped. So brushing them will not affect taste. (This is how we overall come to the answer of \"No\").\n\nThe other types of taste buds are a bit more boring and are located on the sides and back of the tongue. Brushing them would be very hard to do and even if you did, nothing would happen. If you're interested in learning about them further, feel free to read about the Circumvallate Papillae and the Foliate Papillae. They are also involved with taste, but act mostly as a defensive feature where something very bitter or toxic tasting will be ejected just prior to being swallowed. I'm simplifying a bit, but it's close enough to reality to get the point :)\n\nNow, let's say that you did somehow manage to rub off the top layer of your tongue and damage the papillae somewhat. Well, in a little over a week, that'll clear right up as their average turnover is 10-14 days :)\n\nSo, now you can see how the answer is both a Yes and No, depending on how you want to perceive it.\n\nBut because I really doubt you're going to grind away the top layer of your tongue, rest easy, my friend, and continue to brush your tongue, your teeth, and even the roof of your mouth! Keep your mouth clean and take care of it, because we only get one!\n\nAlso, mandatory dentist reminder: Floss!\n\n\nEDIT: Thanks for the Gold! That was unexpected! :D", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15184417", "title": "Tongue cleaner", "section": "Section::::Side effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 297, "text": "Tongue cleaning can cause discomfort. Improper use of a tongue cleaner may induce the gag reflex and/or vomiting. Overuse of a tongue cleaner may also cause damage to the taste buds. Some people have inappropriately used the tongue cleaner to scrape or brush the lingual tonsils (tongue tonsils).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14878724", "title": "Oral hygiene", "section": "Section::::Preventative care.:Tongue scrapers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 494, "text": "The tongue contains numerous bacteria which causes bad breath. Tongue cleaners are designed to remove the debris built up on the tongue. Using a toothbrush to clean the tongue is another possibility, however it might be hard to reach the back of the tongue and the bristles of the toothbrush may be too soft to remove the debris. Some may find it easier to use a tongue scraper instead because it does not tend to cause a gag reflex as readily as a toothbrush. Steps of using a tongue scraper:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25100731", "title": "Oculolinctus", "section": "Section::::Risks of licking an eyeball.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 386, "text": "The practice is associated with significant health risks, as tongues are coated with a film of microorganisms, which may cause infections in the eye, such as conjunctivitis, herpes and chlamydia. It also carries the risk of corneal abrasion and corneal ulcers. Oral bacteria on the tongue can potentially enter corneal scratches caused by licking the eye, which then lead to infection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "414280", "title": "Bad breath", "section": "Section::::Management.:Mechanical measures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 101, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 101, "end_character": 262, "text": "Brushing the teeth may help. While there is evidence of tentative benefit from tongue cleaning it is insufficient to draw clear conclusions. A 2006 Cochrane review found tentative evidence that it might decrease levels of odor molecules. Flossing may be useful.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17844308", "title": "Tongue disease", "section": "Section::::Acquired.:Unknown.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 365, "text": "BULLET::::- Tongue coating - food debris, desquamated epithelial cells and bacteria often form a visible tongue coating. This coating has been identified as a major contributing factor in bad breath (halitosis), which can be managed by brushing the tongue gently with a toothbrush or using special oral hygiene instruments such as tongue scrapers or mouth brushes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55999", "title": "Tongue", "section": "Section::::In humans.:Clinical significance.:Disease.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 260, "text": "The tongue is prone to several pathologies including glossitis and other inflammations such as geographic tongue, and median rhomboid glossitis; burning mouth syndrome, oral hairy leukoplakia, oral candidiasis (thrush), black hairy tongue and fissured tongue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2382764", "title": "Black hairy tongue", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 326, "text": "Transient surface discoloration of the tongue and other soft tissues in the mouth can occur in the absence of hairy tongue. Causes include smoking (or betel chewing), some foods and beverages (e.g., coffee, tea or liquorice), and certain medications (e.g., chlorhexidine, iron salts, or bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol)).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Actually, that law suit (for $13.5 million) was not because of the tagline \"give you wings\" (which is clearly understood as humor).\n\nThe law suit was over the fact that Red Bull oversold the drink's ability to improve concentration and energy, specifically, it did not provide any scientific evidence to support their claim that the drink is \"able to boost energy better than a cup of regular coffee\"--considering that a 8 oz of Red Bull contains less caffeine than 8 oz of coffee, their claim is blatantly false.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In Canada there is a verbal disclaimer saying Red Bull does not actually give you wings. Apparently Canadians are not all that bright.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21396796", "title": "GEICO advertising campaigns", "section": "Section::::Animated advertisements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 680, "text": "In 1999, animated advertisements were part of the early GEICO Direct ads as well as the \"Dumb Things\" campaign. The 15-second long commercials, animated by Bill Plympton, featured a curious little man walking up to an object and eventually getting hurt due to his curiosity about the object. One of the commercials, for example, involved him finding a cannon and pressing a button, causing a resulting cannonball to fire out and stick to his face. The original saying in the commercial was \"You could still save money on car insurance. Even if you made a few mistakes.\"; later modified to \"We all do dumb things. Paying too much for car insurance doesn't have to be one of them.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7291878", "title": "R&R Partners", "section": "Section::::History.:2004-present: After \"What Happens\" and expansion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 513, "text": "In 2006, the LVCVA attempted to sell the rights to the \"What Happens Here, Stays Here\" slogan to R&R for only one dollar. This was done as a measure to allow R&R to seek lawsuits against any entity that unlawfully used or profited off of the slogan. A federal judge nullified the trademark sale in 2006. A lawsuit against a California businesswoman who had used a variation of the slogan was successful for the LVCVA and R&R. Also in 2006, R&R began creating LGBT-inclusive ads for Paris Las Vegas and the LVCVA.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1820525", "title": "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday", "section": "Section::::Release and reception.:Controversy.:Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 590, "text": "The scene was inspired by real-life Super Bowl commercials in which, according to Scully, \"you don't know what the product is\" because there is \"so much going on\" in Super Bowl commercials. It was also based on the music video for the American rock band ZZ Top's 1983 song \"Legs\". Although they had come up with the commercial's premise, they were not sure of what its tagline would be. Eventually, Martin, one of the episode writers, suggested \"The Catholic Church... we've made a few changes.\" It got the biggest laugh from the other writers and was subsequently included in the episode.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1518566", "title": "Terry Tate: Office Linebacker", "section": "Section::::Spoof of Nike ad.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 363, "text": "In February, 2003, Reebok released a commercial featuring Tate that parodies a Nike, Inc. commercial; in the original a streaker disrupts a British football match; in the Reebok ad, Tate tackles the streaker then proclaims, \"You just did it, so I had to hit it\". The advertisement was one of several competitive and deliberate spoofs between the rival companies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14533827", "title": "I Like It, I Love It", "section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 221, "text": "The song was featured in an Applebee's commercial in 2018, to promote their Big Bolder Combos. It was also used for an Applebee's commercial in 2005, with lyrics changed to \"Don't know how they do it down at Applebee's\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "182532", "title": "Alec Baldwin", "section": "Section::::Personal life.:Runway incident.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 605, "text": "A 2012 commercial for Capital One credit cards, for which Baldwin was a spokesperson, made a humorous reference to the event: a Viking character from the ad series asks about the phone Baldwin is using, to which Baldwin facetiously replies that it is not to be used on the runway, ending with a chiding \"No!\" A 2012 Super Bowl commercial for Best Buy also humorously referenced the event. In the commercial, \"Words With Friends\" co-creators Paul Bettner and David Bettner are on a plane, and are interrupted by a flight attendant who loudly clears her throat to indicate to them to put their phones away.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11166419", "title": "The Future's So Bright, I Gotta Wear Shades", "section": "Section::::Rejection of commercial licensing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 203, "text": "The former members of Timbuk 3 have refused to license the song for commercials, including a $900,000 offer from AT&T and offers from Ford, the U.S. Army, and Bausch & Lomb for their Ray-Ban sunglasses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A few of the most famous examples of Roman religious syncretism are the cults of Isis, Mithras, and Sulis.\n\nIsis was an Egyptian goddess of magic and mother of Horus, God of the Pharaoh. She was an incredibly important figure in the Egyptian pantheon so it's no small wonder that her cult thrived under the rule of the Ptolemies after Egypt was conquered by Alexander of Macedon in the 4th century BCE. When Cleopatra died and Octavian claimed Roman conquest over Egypt, slowly the cult of Isis began to take hold. Her cult would later become wildly popular amongst the Romans in Egypt, who would spread it far and wide. A large temple to Isis was even found as far north as Londinium, thousands of miles from her original home on the banks of the Nile.\n\nSpeaking of Roman Britain, one of the Romans most effective methods of conquest was extremely passive, that is to say they imposed no religious doctrine on their recently conquered peoples. Rather, they attempted to find common grounds between the native deities and their own. A god called Sulis had a large following within the north of Roman Britain, near what is currently the city of Bath. Sulis shared many properties with the Roman goddess of war and wisdom Minerva, so the Romans stuck them together and called the deity Sulis Minerva. In this way not only did the Romans assuage any fears of Roman imposition of religious practice, but they also helped introduce those practices passively. Scholars have argued this was almost a more effective tactic than military might for ensuring conquered peoples stayed Roman (although the issue is far more complicated than that).\n\nSpeaking of the military, the cult of Mithras was hugely popular with them, and with the military being found in all corners of the Empire, it's no surprise that cults to Mithras are also found everywhere in the Empire. Mithras was originally a Zoroastrian deity from the near East who was implanted throughout the empire by those same soldiers, and the cult spread from there. Mithraism is a highly structured religion, with seven levels of religious initiation. This highly rigid rank structure mirrored the rank structure the soldiers were already familiar with in the Army and provided yet more incentive for promotion (one has to wonder if an experienced Mithraic infantryman had the potential to exercise power over his newly initiated commanding officer). Mithras was also a warrior and sun deity, the symbolism and significance of which also mirrored the desires and lifestyles of the Roman military. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15388", "title": "Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia", "section": "Section::::By geography.:Eastern Arabia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 344, "text": "In the subsequent Greco-Roman period, there is evidence that the worship of non-indigenous deities was brought to the region by merchants and visitors. These included Bel, a god popular in the Syrian city of Palmyra, the Mesopotamian deities Nabu and Shamash, the Greek deities Poseidon and Artemis and the west Arabian deities Kahl and Manat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1752698", "title": "Exclusivism", "section": "Section::::In Ancient Greece.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 492, "text": "According to Herodotus the Caunians, a Greek people who claimed to have originated in Crete and settled in Asia Minor, worshiped the Olympian Gods exclusively. \"They determined that they would no longer make use of the foreign temples which had been established among them, but would worship their own old ancestral Gods alone. Then their whole youth took arms, and striking the air with their spears, marched to the Calyndic frontier, declaring that they were driving out the foreign Gods.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "103787", "title": "Aventine Hill", "section": "Section::::History.:Roman.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 384, "text": "Rome absorbed many more foreign deities via the Aventine: \"No other location approaches [its] concentration of foreign cults\". In 392 BC, Camillus established a temple there to Juno Regina. Later introductions include Summanus, c. 278, Vortumnus c. 264, and at some time before the end of the 3rd century, Minerva. The Aventine was also the site of the Baths of Decius, built in 252.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28957716", "title": "Roman mythology", "section": "Section::::Religion and myth.:Foreign gods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 784, "text": "The absorption of neighboring local gods took place as the Roman state conquered neighboring territories. The Romans commonly granted the local gods of a conquered territory the same honors as the earlier gods of the Roman state religion. In addition to Castor and Pollux, the conquered settlements in Italy seem to have contributed to the Roman pantheon Diana, Minerva, Hercules, Venus, and deities of lesser rank, some of whom were Italic divinities, others originally derived from the Greek culture of Magna Graecia. In 203 BC, Rome imported the cult object embodying Cybele from Pessinus in Phrygia and welcomed its arrival with due ceremony. Both Lucretius and Catullus, poets contemporary in the mid-1st century BC, offer disapproving glimpses of Cybele's wildly ecstatic cult.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "274099", "title": "Ancient Greek religion", "section": "Section::::Beliefs.:Theology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 368, "text": "Some gods were specifically associated with a certain city. Athena was associated with the city of Athens, Apollo with Delphi and Delos, Zeus with Olympia and Aphrodite with Corinth. But other gods were also worshipped in these cities. Other deities were associated with nations outside of Greece; Poseidon was associated with Ethiopia and Troy, and Ares with Thrace.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "214954", "title": "Religion in ancient Rome", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 841, "text": "The presence of Greeks on the Italian peninsula from the beginning of the historical period influenced Roman culture, introducing some religious practices that became as fundamental as the cult of Apollo. The Romans looked for common ground between their major gods and those of the Greeks (\"interpretatio graeca\"), adapting Greek myths and iconography for Latin literature and Roman art, as the Etruscans had. Etruscan religion was also a major influence, particularly on the practice of augury. According to legends, most of Rome's religious institutions could be traced to its founders, particularly Numa Pompilius, the Sabine second king of Rome, who negotiated directly with the gods. This archaic religion was the foundation of the \"mos maiorum\", \"the way of the ancestors\" or simply \"tradition\", viewed as central to Roman identity. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9500294", "title": "Ancient Egyptian deities", "section": "Section::::Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 529, "text": "Through contact with neighboring civilizations, the Egyptians also adopted foreign deities. Dedun, who is first mentioned in the Old Kingdom, may have come from Nubia, and Baal, Anat, and Astarte, among others, were adopted from Canaanite religion during the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC). In Greek and Roman times, from 332 BC to the early centuries AD, deities from across the Mediterranean world were revered in Egypt, but the native gods remained, and they often absorbed the cults of these newcomers into their own worship.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Perhaps briefly (on a geological timescale), when the atmosphere cooled enough for the first rains to fall, the resultant bodies of water may have been pure enough to be considered freshwater with less than 500ppm of dissolved salts. There were almost surely multiple phases of the early Earth's surface water inventory condensing and then being boiled into the atmosphere again by the next major impactor, which would have left salt-flats behind that could be buried by lava and debris before the water recondensed, so that the salt left behind would have been cut off from the surface and wouldn't have quickly redissolved into the recondensing oceans.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "255244", "title": "Seawater", "section": "Section::::Origin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 519, "text": "Scientific theories behind the origins of sea salt started with Sir Edmond Halley in 1715, who proposed that salt and other minerals were carried into the sea by rivers after rainfall washed it out of the ground. Upon reaching the ocean, these salts concentrated as more salt arrived over time (see Hydrologic cycle). Halley noted that most lakes that don't have ocean outlets (such as the Dead Sea and the Caspian Sea, see endorheic basin), have high salt content. Halley termed this process \"continental weathering\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "717001", "title": "Lake Alexandrina (South Australia)", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 570, "text": "Though connected to the ocean historically the fresh and salt water flows mixed very little, with the lake area remaining fresh over 95% of the time with normal river inflow. Salt water inflows from the ocean would result in relatively little mixing of fresh and salt water, either vertically in the water column or laterally across the flow stream. Hindmarsh Island is reputed to be the largest island in the world with salt water on one side and fresh water on the other. Lake Alexandrina is connected by a narrow channel to the smaller Lake Albert to the south-east.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2625126", "title": "Lake Assal (Djibouti)", "section": "Section::::Geology.:Evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 368, "text": "Two interpretations have been considered for the evolution of the present highly saline lake over the rock salt layers. One view, by Degoutin, is that the lake was flooded by the sea from the Ghoubbet el Kharâb and the second view is by Dreyfuss who attributes it to the rise in sea level resulting in subterranean flows that got established to the lake from the sea.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4639367", "title": "Terrigenous sediment", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 351, "text": "Terrigenous sediments are responsible for a significant amount of the salt in today's oceans. Over time rivers continue to carry minerals to the ocean but when water evaporates, it leaves the minerals behind. Since chlorine and sodium are not consumed by biological processes, these two elements constitute the greatest portion of dissolved minerals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "440359", "title": "Salton Sea", "section": "Section::::Increasing salinity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 1358, "text": "The lack of an outflow means the Salton Sea does not have a natural stabilization system; it is very dynamic. Fluctuations in the water level caused by variations in agricultural runoff, the ancient salt deposits in the lake bed, and the relatively high salinity of the inflow feeding the sea are all causing increasing salinity. The body was initially a freshwater lake, but by the 1960s, its rising salinity had begun to jeopardize some of its species. With a salinity now exceeding 5.0% w/v (saltier than seawater), most species of fish can no longer survive. A freshwater fish notable for its ability to withstand the rising salinity of the Salton Sea, the desert pupfish, can survive salinities ranging from 0.0% to 7.0%. Fertilizer runoffs have resulted in eutrophication, with large algal blooms and elevated bacterial levels. Both the hypersalinity and presence of contaminants in the Salton Sea triggered massive die-offs in the fish and avian populations; Salt water carries less oxygen than fresh water, which was further depleted by algal blooms and by extreme temperatures during the summer period, and the contamination promoted the outbreak and spread of diseases such as avian cholera. In turn, the loss of several species of fish that the avian population depended on for food increased their risk of starvation, exacerbating their decline.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21559527", "title": "Mare Australe quadrangle", "section": "Section::::Proof for ocean.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 589, "text": "Strong evidence for a one time ancient ocean was found from data gathered from the north and south poles. In March 2015, a team of scientists published results showing that this region was highly enriched with deuterium, heavy hydrogen, by seven times as much as the Earth. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times what is stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time would have formed an ocean in the low-lying Mare Boreum. The amount of water could have covered the planet about 140 meters, but was probably in an ocean that in places would be almost 1 mile deep.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21549741", "title": "Mare Boreum quadrangle", "section": "Section::::Proof for ocean.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 602, "text": "Strong evidence for a one time ancient ocean was found in Mare Boreum near the north pole (as well as the south pole). In March 2015, a team of scientists published results showing that this region was highly enriched with deuterium, heavy hydrogen, by seven times as much as the Earth. This means that Mars has lost a volume of water 6.5 times what is stored in today's polar caps. The water for a time would have formed an ocean in the low-lying Mare Boreum. The amount of water could have covered the planet about 140 meters, but was probably in an ocean that in places would be almost 1 mile deep.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Salt changes the electrochemical reactions that happen in the chemoreceptors on your tongue (taste buds). The effect is different for different types of receptors; bitter receptors are inhibited, while sweet receptors have their sensitivity enhanced. Sweet becomes sweeter and bitter becomes less bitter (but only up to a point; too much salt and you'll taste brine).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It has to do with the vast amount of taste buds your tongue has. On these taste buds are different receptors, which only respond to certain ingredients. There is a receptor that was discovered a few years ago that moves sugar into the sweet receptor only if sodium is present (which is half of what common table salt is made of).\n\nSo since you have a pinch of salt, it activates these receptors and helps more taste buds register the \"sweet\" sensation of sugar.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7976", "title": "Dessert", "section": "Section::::Ingredients.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 332, "text": "Desserts can contain many spices and extracts to add a variety of flavors. Salt and acids are added to desserts to balance sweet flavors and create a contrast in flavors. Some desserts are coffee-flavored, for example an iced coffee soufflé or coffee biscuits. Alcohol can also be used as an ingredient, to make alcoholic desserts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10591", "title": "Flavor", "section": "Section::::Flavorants or flavorings.:Taste.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 285, "text": "While salt and sugar can technically be considered flavorants that enhance salty and sweet tastes, usually only compounds that enhance umami, as well as other secondary flavors, are considered and referred to as taste flavorants. Artificial sweeteners are also technically flavorants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60492138", "title": "Soul food health trends", "section": "Section::::Modifying soul food to fit within health trends.:Soul food with low sugar.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 583, "text": "Desserts with high sugar are commonly consumed for hedonistic rewards, especially among women. However, high sugar intake tends to increase risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, cardio-metabolic diseases and compromised oral health. Instead, research showed that honey is beneficial to health with its \"gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, reproductive, hypoglycemic, antioxidant, antihypertensive, antibacterial, anti-fungal and anti-inflammatory. Under that circumstance, honey can be replaced to add sweet flavor, such as dressing on smoothies, spreading on bread, etc. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1781797", "title": "Sweetness", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 520, "text": "Sweetness is a basic taste most commonly perceived when eating foods rich in sugars. Sweet tastes are generally regarded as pleasurable, except when in excess. In addition to sugars like sucrose, many other chemical compounds are sweet, including aldehydes, ketones, and sugar alcohols. Some are sweet at very low concentrations, allowing their use as non-caloric sugar substitutes. Such non-sugar sweeteners include saccharin and aspartame. Other compounds, such as miraculin, may alter perception of sweetness itself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7976", "title": "Dessert", "section": "Section::::Ingredients.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 557, "text": "Sweet desserts usually contain cane sugar, palm sugar, honey or some types of syrup such as molasses, maple syrup, treacle, or corn syrup. Other common ingredients in Western-style desserts are flour or other starches, Cooking fats such as butter or lard, dairy, eggs, salt, acidic ingredients such as lemon juice, and spices and other flavoring agents such as chocolate, peanut butter, fruits, and nuts. The proportions of these ingredients, along with the preparation methods, play a major part in the consistency, texture, and flavor of the end product.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "562526", "title": "Sugar alcohol", "section": "Section::::Sugar alcohols as food additives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 375, "text": "As a group, sugar alcohols are not as sweet as sucrose, and they have slightly less food energy than sucrose. Their flavor is like sucrose, and they can be used to mask the unpleasant aftertastes of some high intensity sweeteners. Sugar alcohols are not metabolized by oral bacteria, and so they do not contribute to tooth decay. They do not brown or caramelize when heated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50337", "title": "Fructose", "section": "Section::::Physical and functional properties.:Fructose solubility and crystallization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 307, "text": "Fructose has higher water solubility than other sugars, as well as other sugar alcohols. Fructose is, therefore, difficult to crystallize from an aqueous solution. Sugar mixes containing fructose, such as candies, are softer than those containing other sugars because of the greater solubility of fructose.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is how I understand it. Can someone please fill in the details or correct me on this?\n\nPart of the reason is because, technically, a lot of what they were doing wasn't \"insider\" trading. Typically, insider trading happens (e.g.) when you work for a company or are someway involved in a company and you happen to know that your company did something good, so you and your buddies buy up a bunch of stock in advance of that public knowledge. There are other ways, but basically it's when you or someone you know has knowledge \"inside\" of a company.\n\nThere's plenty of that that went on in Congress as well, and still will. But what was happening was that Congress itself was the \"insider\". It knew it was about to pass a law that, say, hurt companies X, Y, and Z. So they took that knowledge and sold their shares or \"shorted\" them to make a profit off this knowledge.\n\nTechnically, this didn't have anything to do with having \"inside knowledge\" of a company's performance, financials, etc, so it was legal. It's still wrong, though, because it gives lawmakers a financial incentive to make laws one way or another that benefit them financially.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15368", "title": "Insider trading", "section": "Section::::United States law.:Statutory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 386, "text": "U.S. insider trading prohibitions are based on English and American common law prohibitions against fraud. In 1909, well before the Securities Exchange Act was passed, the United States Supreme Court ruled that a corporate director who bought that company's stock when he knew the stock's price was about to increase committed fraud by buying but not disclosing his inside information.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49643627", "title": "Robert J. Jackson Jr.", "section": "Section::::Securities and Exchange Commission.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 454, "text": "Jackson commissioned a panel to reform insider trading laws with former US Attorney Preet Bharara, arguing that the US lacks a law that expressly bans insider trading, and instead, “the government brings insider-trading cases under a Depression-era law that generally prohibits ‘fraud’ in the securities markets. As a result, what we now understand as the laws against insider trading have been written by federal judges…the result is a legal haziness…”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "963718", "title": "Louise Slaughter", "section": "Section::::U.S. House of Representatives.:Tenure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 429, "text": "During the 112th Congress, the Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge Act, or STOCK Act, which Slaughter first authored and introduced into Congress in 2006 – was passed into law. The law prohibits the use of non-public information for private profit, including insider trading by members of Congress and other government employees, and requires many financial transactions by members of Congress to be reported within 45 days.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15368", "title": "Insider trading", "section": "Section::::United States law.:By members of Congress.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 1165, "text": "Members of the US Congress are exempt from the laws that ban insider trading. Because they generally do not have a confidential relationship with the source of the information they receive, however, they do not meet the usual definition of an \"insider.\" House of Representatives rules may however consider congressional insider trading unethical. A 2004 study found that stock sales and purchases by Senators outperformed the market by 12.3% per year. Peter Schweizer points out several examples of insider trading by members of Congress, including action taken by Spencer Bachus following a private, behind-the-doors meeting on the evening of September 18, 2008 when Hank Paulson and Ben Bernanke informed members of Congress about the imminent financial crisis, Bachus then shorted stocks the next morning and cashed in his profits within a week. Also attending the same meeting were Senator Dick Durbin and John Boehner; the same day (trade effective the next day), Durbin sold mutual-fund shares worth $42,696, and reinvested it all with Warren Buffett. Also the same day (trade effective the next day), Congressman Boehner cashed out of an equity mutual fund.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35337618", "title": "STOCK Act", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 447, "text": "The Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge (STOCK) Act () is an Act of Congress designed to combat insider trading. It was signed into law by President Barack Obama on April 4, 2012. The bill prohibits the use of non-public information for private profit, including insider trading by members of Congress and other government employees. It confirms changes to the Commodity Exchange Act, specifies reporting intervals for financial transactions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15368", "title": "Insider trading", "section": "Section::::United States law.:By members of Congress.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 389, "text": "In May 2007, a bill entitled the \"Stop Trading on Congressional Knowledge Act, or STOCK Act\" was introduced that would hold congressional and federal employees liable for stock trades they made using information they gained through their jobs and also regulate analysts or \"Political Intelligence\" firms that research government activities. The 2012 STOCK Act was passed on April 4, 2012.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15368", "title": "Insider trading", "section": "Section::::Illegal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1018, "text": "Rules prohibiting or criminalizing insider trading on material non-public information exist in most jurisdictions around the world (Bhattacharya and Daouk, 2002), but the details and the efforts to enforce them vary considerably. In the United States, Sections 16(b) and 10(b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 directly and indirectly address insider trading. The U.S. Congress enacted this law after the stock market crash of 1929. While the United States is generally viewed as making the most serious efforts to enforce its insider trading laws, the broader scope of the European model legislation provides a stricter framework against illegal insider trading. In the European Union and the United Kingdom all trading on non-public information is, under the rubric of market abuse, subject at a minimum to civil penalties and to possible criminal penalties as well. UK's Financial Conduct Authority has the responsibility to investigate and prosecute insider dealing, defined by the Criminal Justice Act 1993.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There is a mathematical limit to how much data can be compressed, and there's an entire field of math (called Information Theory) dedicated to studying it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So far, capacity has kept increasing rapidly. You used to buy the biggest drive you could afford, knowing that it was going to be filled up all too soon anyway, but that you'd be able to get a bigger one in a few years.\n\nThese days, the capacity of a hard drive tends to be much larger than anyone needs, especially with the offloading of capacity to the Internet. You can get your movies and songs online, so they're not eating your disk space.\n\nFiles are more typically compressed to reduce bandwidth, now, so they don't eat too much of your data line, although it's also still handy to reduce storage space. There's always this trade-off with compression, is the problem. It takes time to compress and decompress data.\n\nI'd bet on drives getting larger and cheaper for the next decade or so. Barring a massive improvement in computer speed (unlikely) or cool new developments in compression algorithms (also unlikely), \"more space\" is still relatively easy at the moment.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8013", "title": "Data compression", "section": "Section::::Outlook and currently unused potential.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 458, "text": "It is estimated that the total amount of data that is stored on the world's storage devices could be further compressed with existing compression algorithms by a remaining average factor of 4.5:1. It is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300 exabytes of hardware digits in 2007, but when the corresponding content is optimally compressed, this only represents 295 exabytes of Shannon information.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3364", "title": "Bit", "section": "Section::::Information capacity and information compression.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 418, "text": "For example, it is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300 exabytes of hardware digits in 2007. However, when this storage space is filled and the corresponding content is optimally compressed, this only represents 295 exabytes of information. When optimally compressed, the resulting carrying capacity approaches Shannon information or information entropy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15950012", "title": "Timeline of binary prefixes", "section": "Section::::1960s.:1961.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 343, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Additional core storage provides two methods of using main storage: (1) The 65K mode—the computer program is enabled to address both of the main storage units, and (2) the 32K mode—the computer program is able to address only one storage unit, so that main storage capacity available to that program is effectively 32,768 words.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "727476", "title": "Page replacement algorithm", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 235, "text": "BULLET::::- Size of primary storage has increased by multiple orders of magnitude. With several gigabytes of primary memory, algorithms that require a periodic check of each and every memory frame are becoming less and less practical.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48916027", "title": "2016 in science", "section": "Section::::Events.:May.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 135, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 135, "end_character": 297, "text": "BULLET::::- Scientists at IBM Research announce a storage memory breakthrough by reliably storing three bits of data per cell using a new memory technology known as phase-change memory (PCM). The results could provide fast and easy storage to capture the exponential growth of data in the future.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25076961", "title": "Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development", "section": "Section::::The theory of Robbie Case.:Executive control structures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 393, "text": "According to Case, this expansion of the capacity of short-term storage space is caused by increasing operational efficiency. That is, the command of the operations that define each kind of executive control structures improves, thereby freeing space for the representation of goals and objectives. For example, counting becomes faster with age enabling children to keep more numbers in mind.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5300", "title": "Computer data storage", "section": "Section::::Hierarchy of storage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 251, "text": "Generally, the lower a storage is in the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and the greater its access latency is from the CPU. This traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is also guided by cost per bit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Purely from Newtonian gravity - i.e., the gravity you learn about in high school - there's no decay under ideal conditions. But we've known that picture of gravity is wrong for nearly a century. The more modern theory, Einstein's theory of general relativity, allows for gravitational radiation, and any orbit will radiate away energy in the form of gravitational waves, slowly decaying over time. This resulted in one of the most impressive tests of general relativity, a [binary pulsar](_URL_0_) whose orbital decay was timed very accurately and found to be in precise agreement with the predictions for energy loss to gravitational radiation, winning its discoverers a very well deserved Nobel Prize.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "angular momentum is important here. Just like regular (lineair) momentum or energy, this is conserved quantity, so it can't increase or decrease on its own. It can only change when it is transferred between objects.\n\nSo how do orbiting astronomical objects exchange angular momentum? Through tidal forces. Because the earth is rotating around its axis much faster than the moons orbital period, the earth is dragging away the tidal bulge (high tide) from the moon. This causes transfer of angular momentum from the earths rotation to the moons orbit and as a result the earth rotation is slowing down, while the moon is moving into a higher orbit (by about 3 cm per year). In addition there is a substantial amount of heat dissipation from the friction (3.5 terawatt according to wikipedia). This should satisfy your concerns about the second law of thermodynamics.\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1553480", "title": "AfriStar", "section": "Section::::Satellites.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 442, "text": "Each satellite has a design life of twelve years, with an orbital maneuver life of 15 years, which means that each satellite has been designed and fueled to maintain its assigned orbital position (within 0.1 degrees) for 15 years. After that point, the satellite must be decommissioned. The AfriStar satellite has developed a defect in its solar panels. As a result of this defect, the energy collected by those panels is less than intended.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8453893", "title": "Claimed moons of Earth", "section": "Section::::Temporary satellites.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 537, "text": "Computer models by astrophysicists Mikael Granvik, Jeremie Vaubaillon, and Robert Jedicke suggest that these \"temporary satellites\" should be quite common; and that \"At any given time, there should be at least one natural Earth satellite of 1 meter diameter orbiting the Earth.\" Such objects would remain in orbit for ten months on average, before returning to solar orbit once more, and so would make relatively easy targets for manned space exploration. \"Mini-moons\" were further examined in a study published in the journal \"Icarus\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28506", "title": "Spacecraft propulsion", "section": "Section::::Requirements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 818, "text": "Artificial satellites are first launched into the desired altitude by conventional liquid/solid propelled rockets after which the satellite may use onboard propulsion systems for orbital stationkeeping. Once in the desired orbit, they often need some form of attitude control so that they are correctly pointed with respect to the Earth, the Sun, and possibly some astronomical object of interest. They are also subject to drag from the thin atmosphere, so that to stay in orbit for a long period of time some form of propulsion is occasionally necessary to make small corrections (orbital station-keeping). Many satellites need to be moved from one orbit to another from time to time, and this also requires propulsion. A satellite's useful life is usually over once it has exhausted its ability to adjust its orbit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40239", "title": "Geosynchronous orbit", "section": "Section::::Geostationary orbit.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 383, "text": "A perfectly stable geostationary orbit is an ideal that can only be approximated. In practice the satellite drifts out of this orbit because of perturbations such as the solar wind, radiation pressure, variations in the Earth's gravitational field, and the gravitational effect of the Moon and Sun, and thrusters are used to maintain the orbit in a process known as station-keeping.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36727085", "title": "Active redundancy", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 232, "text": "Satellites placed into orbit around the earth must include massive active redundancy to ensure operation will continue for a decade or longer despite failures induced by normal failure, radiation-induced failure, and thermal shock.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35539811", "title": "Orbit modeling", "section": "Section::::Models of perturbing forces.:Drag.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 646, "text": "Orbits with an altitude below 120 km generally have such high drag that the orbits decay too rapidly to give a satellite a sufficient lifetime to accomplish any practical mission. On the other hand, orbits with an altitude above 600 km have relatively small drag so that the orbit decays slow enough that it has no real impact on the satellite over its useful life. Density of air can vary significantly in the thermosphere where most low Earth orbiting satellites reside. The variation is primarily due to solar activity, and thus solar activity can greatly influence the force of drag on a spacecraft and complicate long-term orbit simulation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27683", "title": "Satellite", "section": "Section::::End of life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 114, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 114, "end_character": 604, "text": "When satellites reach the end of their mission (this normally occurs within 3 or 4 years after launch), satellite operators have the option of de-orbiting the satellite, leaving the satellite in its current orbit or moving the satellite to a graveyard orbit. Historically, due to budgetary constraints at the beginning of satellite missions, satellites were rarely designed to be de-orbited. One example of this practice is the satellite Vanguard 1. Launched in 1958, Vanguard 1, the 4th artificial satellite put in Geocentric orbit, was still in orbit , as well as the upper stage of its launch rocket.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Most satellites are in prograde orbits, meaning that they orbit in the same direction that the earth rotates. This is because retrograde orbits, which orbit opposite the direction of the earth's rotation, require more fuel to launch. \nThink of it like this. If you're in a car going 5 mph and you want to get a projectile going 100 mph you can either throw it forward at 95 mph, or backwards at 105 mph. Obviously forward it easier. That 5 mph car is like the earth's rotation, and the 100 mph projectile (forward or backward, doesn't matter), is like orbital speed. \n\nSo unless you have specific launch requirements or orbits in mind, it's simply cheaper and more efficient to launch satellites into prograde orbits. \n\nThere are a handful of satellites on [retrograde orbits.](_URL_0_) Israeli satellites, for example, are launched westward so that launch debris would land in the Mediterranean rather than neighboring countries. This comes at the expense of a maximum payload that's [30% less](_URL_1_) than it would if it launched eastward- that weight is needed for fuel. Additionally, earth-observing satellites may be launched to be slightly retrograde so that they are on a sun-synchronous orbit. This enables them to have constant illumination from the sun when observing the earth. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's worth mentioning orbits are a great deal more complicated than [\"both ways\"](_URL_0_)\n\nNot to mention, there are [a few ways](_URL_1_) to follow the earth without ever traveling around it (with respect to the sun)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "No one has mentioned [geosynchronous satellites](_URL_0_) yet. They travel with the Earth's rotation such that they are always above one point on the Earth. That orbital period requires that they orbit at a much higher altitude than most satellites. And they are directly above the equator. That's why your satellite dish is pointed southward if you live in the northern hemisphere.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just to clarify: Apart from the fact it's nice to *launch* satellites the same direction as the Earth rotates, it doesn't otherwise affect the satellite in orbit, which only cares about the Earth's mass (and distance).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hoping I can ask this question here. How exact do you need to be when sending a satellite into orbit? For example, if a company sends a satellite company into orbit, do they have to be exact down to the millimeter or risk having their satellite shoot off toward Uranus? Or do they \"just get it up high enough that it will stay in orbit on its own\"?\nI feel like if they are not exactly in the right \"plane\", the satellite/space station will either crash or shoot off into space, but I'm wondering how tight of a window they have.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I see this question has already been answered correctly, mentioning the difference between Earth's surface and center of mass. A detail you might be interested in is reference frames:\n\nThe Earth-Centered Inertial (ECI) frame has the X axis pointing to the vernal equinox, the Z axis pointing to the North along Earth's rotation axis, and the Y axis at 90º from X along the equatorial plane. It doesn't rotate with the Earth, that's why we call it inertial (though it's not truly inertial, thus inappropriate for interplanetary trajectories). Alternatively, you can use the celestial-equatorial coordinate system to get spherical coordinates - it's just as inertial as ECI.\n\nThe WGS84 coordinate system, basically latitude and longitude, rotates with the Earth instead. It's clearly not inertial. GPS uses this coordinate system.\n\nNow here's the fun fact: if one satellite is in a prograde orbit and another one in a retrograde orbit at the same altitude, they will travel at the same speed in the ECI frame, just opposite sign. But in WGS84 their speeds will be different due to the rotation of the Earth.\n\nThe problem is not negligible since most satellites in low orbits have a GPS receiver onboard. Never trust your GPS to know if you've achieved orbital speed! (Fortunately it's the launcher who takes care of that.)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Whether going east to west or west to east satellites at the same altitude are going the same speed. Still, from the perspective of an observer at the equator watching the satellites the ones heading eastward will be going slower than the westward ones.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10261692", "title": "Ground track", "section": "Section::::Satellite ground tracks.:Direct and retrograde motion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 331, "text": "Because a satellite in an eccentric orbit moves faster near perigee and slower near apogee, it is possible for a satellite to track eastward during part of its orbit and westward during another part. This phenomenon allows for ground tracks which cross over themselves, as in the geosynchronous and Molniya orbits discussed below.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24053883", "title": "Electronics World", "section": "Section::::Notable articles.:Geosynchronous satellites.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 440, "text": "In his \"Wireless World\" article Clarke suggested that three satellites placed in the equatorial plane orbit at an altitude of 36,000 km, spaced 120 degrees apart, could provide global communications. The altitude is specifically important as here satellites rotate at the same angular velocity as the surface of the Earth, relative to the centre of the Earth, appearing to be fixed at the same point above its surface, hence geostationary.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "179174", "title": "Spaceport", "section": "Section::::Placement considerations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 329, "text": "Rockets can most easily reach satellite orbits if launched near the equator in an easterly direction, as this maximizes use of the Earth's rotational speed (465 m/s at the equator). Such launches also provide a desirable orientation for arriving at a geostationary orbit. For polar orbits and Molniya orbits this does not apply.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3071186", "title": "Gravitational acceleration", "section": "Section::::Gravity model for Earth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 432, "text": "Note that for satellites, orbits are decoupled from the rotation of the Earth so the orbital period is not necessarily one day, but also that errors can accumulate over multiple orbits so that accuracy is important. For such problems, the rotation of the Earth would be immaterial unless variations with longitude are modeled. Also, the variation in gravity with altitude becomes important, especially for highly elliptical orbits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4917686", "title": "N-body simulation", "section": "Section::::Calculation optimizations.:Special-case optimizations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 285, "text": "The path of a satellite closely orbiting the Earth can be accurately modeled starting from the 2-body elliptical orbit around the center of the Earth, and adding small corrections due to the oblateness of the Earth, gravitational attraction of the Sun and Moon, atmospheric drag, etc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18952422", "title": "North American DC-3", "section": "Section::::History.:End of DC-3.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 574, "text": "Satellites orbit around the center of the Earth, not the surface. If a spacecraft were launched due East from the equator into a 90-minute low-Earth orbit, it will circle the Earth and return to the spot where it was launched 90 minutes later. However, the launch site will have moved due to the Earth's rotation. Over the 90 minute period, the Earth would rotate to the east, escaping from the spacecraft it as it returns. Given the orbital speed about , simply starting the re-entry some five minutes later than the complete 90 minute orbit would make up this difference.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15757169", "title": "Satellite watching", "section": "Section::::Spotting satellites.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 874, "text": "Although to the observer low Earth orbit satellites move at about the same apparent speed as aircraft, individual satellites can be faster or slower; they do not all move at the same speed. Individual satellites never deviate in their velocity (speed and direction). They can be distinguished from aircraft because satellites do not leave contrails. They are lit solely by the reflection of sunlight from solar panels or other surfaces. A satellite's brightness sometimes changes as it moves across the sky. Occasionally a satellite will 'flare' as its orientation changes relative to the viewer, suddenly increasing in reflectivity. Satellites often grow dimmer and are more difficult to see toward the horizons. Because reflected sunlight is necessary to see satellites, the best viewing times are for a few hours immediately after nightfall and a few hours before dawn. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I suppose one of the cool things would be [retrotransposons](_URL_0_). from wiki \" Like DNA transposable elements (class II transposons), retrotransposons can induce mutations by inserting near or within genes. \"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can make a big list actually, of moments I just had to stop and take a moment to digest that. Some of them:\n\n1. The first time I saw the first division of a C. elegans embryo under a microscope. Its quite big so you can see all the aspects of cell division happening with your own eyes and its the most magical thing I've ever seen with mine. \n\n2. The mechanisms with which chromosomes segregate, during mitosis. Especially once all the chromosomes are aligned up at the center of the cell, what the cell does is release a signal that will say, \"all microtubules, DISSOLVE!\". But the problem: the microtubules are what thats holding up the chromosomes there in the center and they can dissolve only in one direction. And the chromosomes need to keep attached to their ends. So as their ends dissolve, the chromosomes will follow them to seperate sides and the new cells form. \n\n3. This [video](_URL_0_). I know I posted it elsewhere just today, but you can spend an entire degree just learning all the phenomena that are portrayed in every single frame of this video.\n\nCould go on, actually.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Someone's discovered the trick to get a million responses on askscience. Just let everyone talk about their pet projects and interests ;-)\n\nDon't mind if I do: For me science was about how everything \"works.\" And the science at the base of all of that is physics, and the very basic explanation in physics is 2 (or 3 or 1 or 4 depending on how you count) fundamental forces. Strong Nuclear force and the Electroweak force. Every interaction between everything comes out of these two concepts, and some general relativity to account for \"gravity.\" We know electroweak pretty well, it's the merger of electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces. (hence the count of 3 \"total\" forces at common energy scales) \n\nBut the strong force is still so.... crazy. We really are doing our best to understand it, but it's insane how complex it is. For instance light transmits electromagnetism, but light itself is uncharged. The thing that transmits the strong force (gluons) carries \"strong\" charges. Thus the strong force carriers must account for carrying the strong force among themselves as well. It'd be as if light was attracted to itself... crazyness. Then the Strong charge doesn't just come in + and -, but 3 charges and their anti-charges, often called red green and blue (and anti-red,green,blue; because of this naming convention it's often referred to as color). If moving electric charges create magnetic fields, moving color charges create color-magnetic fields. I can't even begin to comprehend what that last sentence even *means* aside from the math. \n\nAs it stands right now my field isn't elegant. It's messy as fuck. And that's why I love it. We're really out on one of the far frontiers of science. We know just enough to know how little we actually know.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just a random fact I found amazing. The power released in gravitational waves in the merger of two stellar mass black holes is greater than the luminosity produced by all the stars in the visible universe.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Photons carry momentum. When an atom absorbs a photon, it receives that momentum. Further more, atoms are very selective about what wavelengths of light they can absorb.\n\nThis means you can use light to slow down and cool atomic gases to a few microkelvin.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I am a somewhat frustrated cosmologist. There was a time when I had to stop and say wow, that totally changes how I see ______ on a weekly basis. The feeling got old, I got used to the most bizarre things in physics and now I feel like I know the universe like the back of my hand and literally nothing about it at the same time, whereas in reality I probably am somewhere inbetween. It's depressing.\n\nSo on one hand I could give you a list with 50 items and I wouldn't know where to start, but on the other hand... well one amazing fact just isn't that amazing anymore when it comes with 49 equally amazing facts. The inflation of amazement made me numb.\n\n\nEdit: OK I just thought of something, haha. I'll just share my \"wow\"-moment of the week:\n_URL_0_\n\nI have seen that before a couple years ago when Simon White spoke at my school, but I watched the videos again a couple days ago and it's beautiful. Everyday science is a lot less exciting though.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Noether's Theorem](_URL_0_). This means, for example, that the trivially obvious fact of translational invariance of experiments (if I do an experiment on a system at point X in space, then move the whole system to point Y in space, I will get the same results) implies conservation of momentum. Even better, *any* continuous symmetry of spacetime (translational invariance is a type of continuous symmetry) has a corresponding conservation law, here are a few:\n\n* Translational invariance -- > Conservation of momentum\n* Rotational invariance -- > Conservation of *angular* momentum\n* Time invariance -- > Conservation of energy\n* Gauge invariance of the EM field -- > Conservation of charge\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The single most interesting fact I learned was in 9th grade when I learned that bacterial cells outnumber human cells in the human body. The idea that I am a scaffold for a bacteria super community really changed my perspective. The most amazing moment was the first time I dove in a coral reef. I really enjoyed thinking about all the influences that went into shaping this living mountain, tides, light, inter and intra species competition. The evolutionary and ecological balance really helped me appreciate what Dawkins calls \"the greatest show on earth\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I had a few serendipity moments which were pretty cool.\n\nI do DNA microinjection into cultured [Aplysia](_URL_0_) neurons. I was injecting a previously unstudied (in Aplysia) PKC isoform. When I imaged the fluorescent protein I saw a pattern that we couldn't explain.\n\nI spent 3 months trying to figure out what I did wrong, running all kinds of control experiments, only to have a long conversation with my supervisor where we figured out that it was actually physiologically relevant. \n\nIt got me my first publication :)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Parasitism is totally rad - from viruses to multicellular parasites. \n\n[*Ascaris lumbricoides*](_URL_0_) comes in to the body via ingesting contaminated food. It develops in the intestinal mucosa, then invades the bloodstream where it travels to the lungs for further development. Then it's swallowed again, where it lays eggs in the intestines to be excreted in feces - and contaminate more food. Sometimes on its way out from the lungs, [problems can occur](_URL_4_). That image is NSFL.\n\n[*Ancylostoma duodenale*](_URL_2_) gets in to your body through your skin - most often through the soles of your feet when walking barefoot. It too will travel around the body to develop into mature parasites.\n\n[*Enterobias vermicularis*](_URL_1_) is probably known by most parents. Horrifyingly, the \"females migrate nocturnally outside the anus and oviposit while crawling on the skin of the perianal area.\" So yes, at night, the worms crawl out of your ass to deposit eggs. \n\nI could go on and on - and I haven't even started on my true passion for viruses. The amazing thing is that from an immunological standpoint, your body will know a) where the parasite is, b) the best way to fight fight it. You will get a totally different response depending on whether the bug does its dirty work inside our outside of the cell. This is all coordinated through [cytokines](_URL_3_) and protein-protein interactions at the intra- and extracellular level. The scope of the interactions, gene transcription, and coordinated responses required to fight pathogens is simply breathtaking. It gets even more complex when you consider that each pathogen has its own way of subverting the immune system. It's a nano-scale arms race. \n\nFor reals, man - it's totally rad.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30732309", "title": "Head Rush (TV series)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 355, "text": "Described by Discovery as a \"commercial free hour of \"MythBusters\" mashups, hosted by Kari Byron\", the show features about ten minutes of new material—experiments and quizzes presented by Kari, as well as TV celebrity and scientist appearances, pitching the idea that \"science is cool\"—interwoven in fifty minutes of material from \"MythBusters\" episodes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44507855", "title": "Božidar Liščić", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 704, "text": "His greatest scientific achievement is the invention of Temperature Gradient Method for quenching intensity measuring, recording and evaluation. Soon afterwards, an appropriate software package was developed with the aim of recording the quenching intensity for different quenchants and working conditions. This is enabled by measuring the heat flux density from a surface of a special probe developed earlier in a cooperation with the American company NANMAC, known as Liscic/NANMAC probe. The relevant computer program enables also to calculate the cooling curves at every arbitrary point of the round bar cross-section, as well as to predict the resulting microstructure and hardness after quenching.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32097", "title": "University of Utah", "section": "Section::::Notable alumni and faculty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 103, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 103, "end_character": 883, "text": "Notable faculty in science and engineering include David Evans and Ivan Sutherland, founders of Evans and Sutherland; Bui Tuong Phong, pioneer of computer graphics; Henry Eyring, known for studying chemical reaction rates; Stephen Jacobsen, founder of Sarcos; Jindřich Kopeček and Sung Wan Kim, pioneers of polymeric drug delivery and gene delivery; Suhas Patil, founder of Cirrus Logic; Stanley Pons, who claimed to have discovered \"cold fusion\" in 1989; Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, later co-winner of the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry; and Thomas Stockham, founder of Soundstream. In medicine, notable faculty include Mario Capecchi, the co-winner of the 2007 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; Willem Johan Kolff; and Russell M. Nelson. Biologist Ralph Vary Chamberlin, founding dean of the Medical School, professor, and later historian of the University, was also an alumnus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3860899", "title": "Sikh music", "section": "Section::::Ragas.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 124, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 124, "end_character": 375, "text": "42. Raag Mali Gaura (ਮਾਲੀ ਗਉੜਾ) – Mali Gaura conveys the confidence of an expert, whose knowledge is self-evident in both their outlook and actions. This knowledge is learned through experience and therefore creates an air of ‘coolness’. However, this sense of ‘coolness’ is an aspect of true happiness because you have learned how to manage things with expertise and skill.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6873479", "title": "Ragas in the Guru Granth Sahib", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 375, "text": "42. Raag Mali Gaura (ਮਾਲੀ ਗਉੜਾ) – Mali Gaura conveys the confidence of an expert, whose knowledge is self-evident in both their outlook and actions. This knowledge is learned through experience and therefore creates an air of ‘coolness’. However, this sense of ‘coolness’ is an aspect of true happiness because you have learned how to manage things with expertise and skill.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8434790", "title": "St. Clair County Community College", "section": "Section::::Clubs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 202, "text": "NerdzRUs - students interested in Dungeons & Dragons, World of Warcraft, and the arcana of English Literature meet twice weekly for socializing, heated arguments, and helpful hints on how to be \"cool.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28848171", "title": "Konstantin Novoselov", "section": "Section::::Awards and honours.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 222, "text": "BULLET::::- 2014 included in a list of the most highly cited researchers. He was also named among the 17 hottest researchers worldwide – \"individuals who have published the greatest number of hot papers during 2012–2013\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's a very difficult skill to learn well, and much much harder than holding a steady pitch, at least to do it with smooth even control. Having said that it's an aesthetic choice, people do it because they like it, and because it's a bit showy to use a difficult to achieve skill in a prominent way.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Long notes can sound boring. Vibrato is intended to add some colour and variety during the course of the note.\n\nVibrato is a skill... but an equally important skill is knowing when and how to use it. It probably shouldn't be used in every note, or for the whole length of the note. The speed and the intensity of the vibrato can and should be varied, between as well as during notes. Basically, it shouldn't be predictable or boring, or else it defeats the point of using it in the first place. \n\nEverything I've said here applies to pretty much all instruments on which vibrato is possible, by the way, not just voice.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3626310", "title": "Violin technique", "section": "Section::::Left hand: producing pitch.:Vibrato.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 417, "text": "Vibrato is often perceived to create a more emotional sound, and it is employed heavily in music of the Romantic era. The acoustic effect of vibrato has largely to do with adding interest and warmth to the sound, in the form of a shimmer created by the variations in projection of strongest sound. A well-made violin virtually points its sound pattern in different directions depending on slight variations in pitch.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "162707", "title": "Singing", "section": "Section::::Vocal pedagogy.:Vibrato.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 697, "text": "Vibrato is a technique in which a sustained note wavers very quickly and consistently between a higher and a lower pitch, giving the note a slight quaver. Vibrato is the pulse or wave in a sustained tone. Vibrato occurs naturally and is the result of proper breath support and a relaxed vocal apparatus. Some studies have shown that vibrato is the result of a neuromuscular tremor in the vocal folds. In 1922 Max Schoen was the first to make the comparison of vibrato to a tremor due to change in amplitude, lack of automatic control and it being half the rate of normal muscular discharge. Some singers use vibrato as a means of expression. Many successful artists can sing a deep, rich vibrato.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "65723", "title": "Vibrato", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 377, "text": "Vibrato (Italian, from past participle of \"vibrare\", to vibrate) is a musical effect consisting of a regular, pulsating change of pitch. It is used to add expression to vocal and instrumental music. Vibrato is typically characterised in terms of two factors: the amount of pitch variation (\"extent of vibrato\") and the speed with which the pitch is varied (\"rate of vibrato\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "65723", "title": "Vibrato", "section": "Section::::Acoustic basis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 467, "text": "The use of vibrato is intended to add warmth to a note. In the case of many string instruments the sound emitted is strongly directional, particularly at high frequencies, and the slight variations in pitch typical of vibrato playing can cause large changes in the directional patterns of the radiated sound. This can add a shimmer to the sound; with a well-made instrument it may also help a solo player to be heard more clearly when playing with a large orchestra.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "361425", "title": "Historically informed performance", "section": "Section::::Singing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 536, "text": "As with instrumental technique, the approach to historically informed performance practice for singers has been shaped by musicological research and academic debate. In particular, there was debate around the use of the technique of vibrato at the height of the Early music revival, and many advocates of HIP aimed to eliminate vibrato in favour of the \"pure\" sound of straight-tone singing. The difference in style may be demonstrated by the sound of a boy treble in contrast to the sound of a Grand opera singer such as Maria Callas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32427", "title": "Violin", "section": "Section::::Playing.:Left hand and pitch production.:Vibrato.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 88, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 88, "end_character": 1214, "text": "Vibrato is a technique of the left hand and arm in which the pitch of a note varies subtly in a pulsating rhythm. While various parts of the hand or arm may be involved in the motion, the end result is a movement of the fingertip bringing about a slight change in vibrating string length, which causes an undulation in pitch. Some violinists oscillate backwards, or lower in pitch from the actual note when using vibrato, since it is believed that perception favors the highest pitch in a varying sound. Vibrato does little, if anything, to disguise an out-of-tune note; in other words, misapplied vibrato is a poor substitute for good intonation. Scales and other exercises meant to work on intonation are typically played without vibrato to make the work easier and more effective. Music students are often taught that unless otherwise marked in music, vibrato is assumed. However, it has to be noted that this is only a trend; there is nothing on the sheet music that compels violinists to add vibrato. This can be an obstacle to a classically trained violinist wishing to play in a style that uses little or no vibrato at all, such as baroque music played in period style and many traditional fiddling styles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "65723", "title": "Vibrato", "section": "Section::::Vibrato's use in various musical genres.:In folk.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 497, "text": "Folk music singers and instrumentalists in the North American and Western European traditions rarely or never use vibrato. It tends to be used only by performers of transcriptions or reworkings of folk music that have been made by composers from a classical, music-school background such as Benjamin Britten or Percy Grainger. Vibrato of varying widths and speeds may be used in folk music traditions from other regions, such as Eastern Europe, the Balkans, the Middle East, East Asia, or India. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's hard to say definitively whether or not every desert was once under a body of water, but desertification of once arable land is possible with poor land management, such as what happened with Africa after the Romans cut down all the trees. Sand is kind of always there, it's the vegetation and bio-mass that gets carried off by the wind due to the lack of moisture/life which makes the sand visible. It is therefore reasonable to assume that not all sand/deserts are made up of microscopic shell fragments such as those which could be found on beaches. One would assume it's mostly granulated rock, but it's also possible that the land was once underwater and the currents deposited a sediment bed before the land rose above the sea floor.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Deserts are generally not created by drying up bodies of water. They're just areas where rainfall is small enough to hold back plant growth and prevent the formation of fertile soil. Deserts are also not always sandy: very often the surface is gravel, cobblestones, or bedrock like [this](_URL_0_). Where sand does occur, it's not formed of microscopic shell fragments, it's just fragments of stone that have been broken down by wind, water, and chemical action. You can find plenty of this kind of sand everywhere, it's just that in your backyard, it's probably mixed with lots of decaying plant matter to form topsoil.\n\nIn most parts of the world, beach sand is also mostly made of weathered fragments of rock from land. It's only in a few areas (usually near tropical reefs) that it's made mostly of fragments of sea creatures.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8104", "title": "Desertification", "section": "Section::::Causes by loss.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 375, "text": "Scientists agree that the existence of a desert in the place where the Sahara desert is now located is due to a natural climate cycle; this cycle often causes a lack of water in the area from time to time. There is a suggestion that the last time that the Sahara was converted from savanna to desert it was partially due to overgrazing by the cattle of the local population.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28967", "title": "Simpson Desert", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 440, "text": "The desert is underlain by the Great Artesian Basin, one of the largest inland drainage areas in the world. Water from the basin rises to the surface at numerous natural springs, including Dalhousie Springs, and at bores drilled along stock routes, or during petroleum exploration. As a result of exploitation by such bores, the flow of water to springs has been steadily decreasing in recent years. It is also part of the Lake Eyre basin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1178938", "title": "Last Glacial Maximum", "section": "Section::::Glacial climate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 346, "text": "Most of the world's deserts expanded. Exceptions were in what is now the western United States, where changes in the jet stream brought heavy rain to areas that are now desert and large pluvial lakes formed, the best known being Lake Bonneville in Utah. This also occurred in Afghanistan and Iran, where a major lake formed in the Dasht-e Kavir.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46797", "title": "Death Valley", "section": "Section::::Geology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 225, "text": "As the area turned to desert, the water evaporated, leaving the abundance of evaporitic salts such as common sodium salts and borax, which were later exploited during the modern history of the region, primarily 1883 to 1907.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1197234", "title": "Dakhla Oasis", "section": "Section::::History.:Prehistory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 423, "text": "In fact, the drier climate didn't mean that there was more water than today in what is now known as the Western Desert. The south of the Libyan Desert has the most important supply of subterranean water in the world through the Nubian Aquifer, and the first inhabitants of the Dakhla Oasis had access to surface water sources. In the third millennium BC the probably nomadic people of the Sheikh Muftah culture lived here.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17964574", "title": "List of ecoregions in North America (CEC)", "section": "Section::::North American Deserts.:Topography, geology, and soils.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 519, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 519, "end_character": 456, "text": "The Great Basin Desert is the only Cold desert, bordered by the Rocky Mountain range to the east, and the Sierra Nevada – Cascade to the west. The northernmost part of the desert lies above sea level, and due to high summer temperatures, not all of the fallen precipitation is fully absorbed into the soil, resulting in a high sodium concentration. In other areas, mountain erosion has caused deep soils of fine particles, which allows for standing lakes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17165", "title": "Kalahari Desert", "section": "Section::::Geography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 428, "text": "Drainage of the desert is by dry valleys, seasonally inundated pans and the large salt pans of the Makgadikgadi Pan in Botswana and Etosha Pan in Namibia. The only permanent river, the Okavango, flows into a delta in the northwest, forming marshes that are rich in wildlife. Ancient dry riverbeds—called omuramba—traverse the central northern reaches of the Kalahari and provide standing pools of water during the rainy season.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Depending on where in the gut you're looking at, it may change. During starvation, your stomach acid may become more concentrated, and stronger - thus a small amount of bacteria in the proximal duodenum (small bowel coming right off the stomach) may be killed. This would be very minimal, since there are glands in the proximal duodenum that release bicarbonate and neutralize the strong stomach acid.\n\nFurther along, in the distal jejunum and ileum, and the colon let's say, I can imagine the flora there start to die off, since the job of this flora is to help break down various macronutrients (which for them is food), and during starvation, there is no more food reaching that far. Hope that answers your question", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The flora actually begin to change. In children, the bacteria actually fail to differentiate as they normally would (compared to healthy children in the same culture). Because normal flora help in our food digestion, these children have a hard time fully digesting the food they do eat and food given to help nutrition. \nBelieve it or not, it's actually pretty complicated. There's no simple answer like they all die etc. if you're interested, look into the human microbiome project going on right now. SOURCE: I worked at NIH and had the chance to see a lot of talks about this subject and the human microbiome project. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2281037", "title": "Emaciation", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 664, "text": "The underlying starvation, malnourishment, and usually dehydration, associated with emaciation, affect and are harmful to organ systems throughout the body. The emaciated individual experiences disturbances of the blood, circulatory, and urinary systems; these include hyponatremia and/or hypokalemia (low sodium and/or potassium in the blood, respectively), anemia (low hemoglobin), improper function of lymph (immune system-related white blood matter) and the lymphatic system, and pleurisy (fluid in the pleural cavity surrounding the lungs) and edema (swelling in general) caused by poor or improper function of the kidneys to eliminate wastes from the blood.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3135637", "title": "Human gastrointestinal microbiota", "section": "Section::::Functions.:Metabolism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 653, "text": "Without gut flora, the human body would be unable to utilize some of the undigested carbohydrates it consumes, because some types of gut flora have enzymes that human cells lack for breaking down certain polysaccharides. Rodents raised in a sterile environment and lacking in gut flora need to eat 30% more calories just to remain the same weight as their normal counterparts. Carbohydrates that humans cannot digest without bacterial help include certain starches, fiber, oligosaccharides, and sugars that the body failed to digest and absorb like lactose in the case of lactose intolerance and sugar alcohols, mucus produced by the gut, and proteins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "258979", "title": "Malnutrition", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Diseases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 289, "text": "People may become malnourished due to abnormal nutrient loss (due to diarrhea or chronic illness affecting the small bowel). This conditions may include Crohn's disease or untreated coeliac disease. Malnutrition may also occur due to increased energy expenditure (secondary malnutrition).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17615699", "title": "Stomach disease", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 750, "text": "Many stomach diseases are associated with infection. Historically, it was widely believed that the highly acidic environment of the stomach would keep the stomach immune from infection. However, a large number of studies have indicated that most cases of stomach ulcers, gastritis, and stomach cancer are caused by \"Helicobacter pylori\" infection. One of the ways it is able to survive in the stomach involves its urease enzymes which metabolize urea (which is normally secreted into the stomach) to ammonia and carbon dioxide which neutralises gastric acid and thus prevents its digestion. In recent years, it has been discovered that other \"Helicobacter\" bacteria are also capable of colonising the stomach and have been associated with gastritis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14403502", "title": "Catabolysis", "section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 393, "text": "Due to the normal metabolic rate of humans catabolysis becomes life-threatening only after 1–2 months from the cessation of nutrition going into the body. After this time, the damage to muscles and organs can be permanent and can also eventually cause death, if left untreated. Catabolysis is the last metabolic resort for the body to keep itself — particularly the nervous system—functional.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2099428", "title": "Saprobiontic", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 349, "text": "Saprobiontic organisms feed off dead and or decaying matter, to digest this they excrete digestive enzymes which breaks down the cell tissues allowing the organism to extract the nutrients it needs to survive while leaving the indigestible waste. This is called extracellular digestion. This is very important in ecosystems, for the nutrient cycle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3135637", "title": "Human gastrointestinal microbiota", "section": "Section::::Composition.:Anatomy.:Intestines.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 883, "text": "Research suggests that the relationship between gut flora and humans is not merely commensal (a non-harmful coexistence), but rather is a mutualistic, symbiotic relationship. Though people can survive with no gut flora, the microorganisms perform a host of useful functions, such as fermenting unused energy substrates, training the immune system via end products of metabolism like propionate and acetate, preventing growth of harmful species, regulating the development of the gut, producing vitamins for the host (such as biotin and vitamin K), and producing hormones to direct the host to store fats. Extensive modification and imbalances of the gut microbiota and its microbiome or gene collection are associated with obesity. However, in certain conditions, some species are thought to be capable of causing disease by causing infection or increasing cancer risk for the host.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The short answer was, they didn't. Standards varied heavily from region to region. Keep in mind, back then, travel/trade was *a lot* harder, so the effects were much less noticeable.\n\nIn some cases, once things were more developed, they would have a standard- then they'd copy that standard and ship them around the world. But usually they were just really inaccurate.\n\nIf things were really really off, someone might call you on it, but slight variations, how would they know?It wasn't really until the industrial revolution and standards started being really important did things really start to kick in- largely driven because that's when it mattered", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44863957", "title": "Algerian units of measurement", "section": "Section::::Length.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 242, "text": "Before the 1843 changeover, different units were used to measure length. One pic (dzera à torky) was equal either to 0.64 m or 0.623 m), while a different pic (dzera à rabry) was equal to 0.48 m or 0.467 m). Some other units are given below:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38889765", "title": "Coherence (units of measurement)", "section": "Section::::Before the metric system.:Relating quantities of the same kind.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 846, "text": "The history of the measurement of length dates back to the early civilisations of the Middle East (10000 BC – 8000 BC). Archeologists have been able to reconstruct the units of measure in use in Mesopotamia, India, the Jewish culture and many others. Archeological and other evidence shows that in many civilisations, the ratios between different units for the same quantity of measure were adjusted so that they were integer numbers. In many early cultures such as Ancient Egypt, multiples of 2, 3 and 5 were not always used—the Egyptian royal cubit being 28 fingers of 7 hands. In 2150 BC, the Akkadian emperor Naram-Sin rationalised the Babylonian system of measure, adjusting the ratios of many units of measure to multiples of 2, 3 or 5, for example there were 6 \"she\" (barleycorns) in a \"shu-si\" (finger) and 30 shu-si in a \"kush\" (cubit).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42709", "title": "Pendulum", "section": "Section::::Standard of length.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 124, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 124, "end_character": 1134, "text": "Until the 19th century, countries based their systems of length measurement on prototypes, metal bar primary standards, such as the standard yard in Britain kept at the Houses of Parliament, and the standard \"toise\" in France, kept at Paris. These were vulnerable to damage or destruction over the years, and because of the difficulty of comparing prototypes, the same unit often had different lengths in distant towns, creating opportunities for fraud. During the Enlightenment scientists argued for a length standard that was based on some property of nature that could be determined by measurement, creating an indestructible, universal standard. The period of pendulums could be measured very precisely by timing them with clocks that were set by the stars. A pendulum standard amounted to defining the unit of length by the gravitational force of the Earth, for all intents constant, and the second, which was defined by the rotation rate of the Earth, also constant. The idea was that anyone, anywhere on Earth, could recreate the standard by constructing a pendulum that swung with the defined period and measuring its length.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "697181", "title": "Length scale", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 593, "text": "In physics, length scale is a particular length or distance determined with the precision of one order of magnitude. The concept of length scale is particularly important because physical phenomena of different length scales cannot affect each other and are said to decouple. The decoupling of different length scales makes it possible to have a self-consistent theory that only describes the relevant length scales for a given problem. Scientific reductionism says that the physical laws on the shortest length scales can be used to derive the effective description at larger length scales. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18542", "title": "Length", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 223, "text": "Many units of length have been used throughout history and in different civilisations and cultures: until quite recently it was common for length units to be differently defined even between neighbouring towns and cities. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1283865", "title": "Hyperbolic triangle", "section": "Section::::Standardized Gaussian curvature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 247, "text": "The length scale is most convenient if the lengths are measured in terms of the absolute length (a special unit of length analogous to a relations between distances in spherical geometry). This choice for this length scale makes formulas simpler.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45332363", "title": "Paraguayan units of measurement", "section": "Section::::System before metric system.:Length.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 311, "text": "A number of units were used to measure length. According to legal equivalents, one vara (old) was 0.838 56 m. One cuerda or One cordel was 83 1/3 vara or 69.88 m, according to legal equivalents. One vara was 0.866 m, according to legal equivalents. Some other units and their legal equivalents are given below:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "\"Taming\" isn't all-or-nothing. There's a range of behaviors that includes whether the animal attacks humans, runs away from humans, tolerates being touched, tolerates various medical examinations and procedures, responds to commands, actively seeks human company, and so on.\n\nThe zebras at the San Francisco Zoo will do all of the things I just listed (with the possible exception of the last one) because of diligent training and regular reinforcement by their keepers.\n\nBut for safety's sake responsible zoos never describe their zebras as \"tame\". That would give a false sense of safety to the public. They may still attack an unfamiliar human. And this is true of horses as well. When working with even the tamest horse you never run up behind it and startle it because there's a good chance you'll take a hoof to the knee, or worse.\n\nSource: I'm a long-time horse owner and friend of San Francisco Zoo keepers.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34460", "title": "Zebra", "section": "Section::::Physical attributes.:Gaits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 322, "text": "Zebras have four gaits: walk, trot, canter and gallop. They are generally slower than horses, but their great stamina helps them outrun predators. When chased, a zebra will zig-zag from side to side, making it more difficult for the predator to attack. When cornered, the zebra will rear up and kick or bite its attacker.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "701610", "title": "Zebroid", "section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 589, "text": "Zebroids are preferred over zebras for practical uses, such as riding, because the zebra has a different body shape from a horse or donkey, and consequently it is difficult to find tack to fit a zebra. However, a zebroid is usually more inclined to be temperamental than a purebred horse and can be difficult to handle. Zebras, being wild animals, and not domesticated like horses and donkeys, pass on their wild animal traits to their offspring. Zebras, while not usually very large, are extremely strong and aggressive. Similarly, zorses have a strong temperament and can be aggressive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34460", "title": "Zebra", "section": "Section::::Interaction with humans.:Domestication.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 411, "text": "Attempts have been made to train zebras for riding, since they have better resistance than horses to African diseases. While occasionally successful, most of these attempts failed due to the zebra's more unpredictable nature and tendency to panic under stress. For this reason, zebra-mules or zebroids (crosses between any species of zebra and a horse, pony, donkey or ass) are preferred over purebred zebras. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41370922", "title": "Zebra (chess)", "section": "Section::::Value.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 546, "text": "The zebra by itself is worth just below two pawns (appreciably less than a knight), due to its restricted freedom of movement on an 8×8 board. Its larger move is the main reason why it is weaker than a camel on an 8×8 board, even though the camel is colorbound and the zebra is not. A zebra and a bishop and a king can force checkmate on a bare king; while a zebra, a knight and a king cannot; and a zebra, a camel, and a king cannot. The rook versus zebra endgame is a win for the rook. (All endgame statistics mentioned are for the 8×8 board.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "533563", "title": "Pearls Before Swine (comics)", "section": "Section::::Characters.:\"Zebra\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 400, "text": "Zebra (debut: February 4, 2002), also known as \"zeeba neighba\" (zebra neighbor) by the crocodiles, is a zebra who is often seen trying to patch up relations between his herd back home and its predators. Pastis has stated that the Zebra's only goal is to avoid being eaten by his inarticulate next-door neighbors, the crocodiles. Jokes involving Zebra usually involve his interactions with predators.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51683120", "title": "Equid hybrid", "section": "Section::::History.:Nature of the animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 276, "text": "Zebras are usually wild animals, but when they are raised with other domestic horses, they are tame enough to be ridden draught. Mules are smaller, more resistant to heat and exhaustion and much stronger. Horses are much larger, but likely to suffer from exhaustion and heat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1260420", "title": "Anti-predator adaptation", "section": "Section::::Safety in numbers.:Predator confusion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 727, "text": "Individuals living in large groups may be safer from attack because the predator may be confused by the large group size. As the group moves, the predator has greater difficulty targeting an individual prey animal. The zebra has been suggested by the zoologist Martin Stevens and his colleagues as an example of this. When stationary, a single zebra stands out because of its large size. To reduce the risk of attack, zebras often travel in herds. The striped patterns of all the zebras in the herd may confuse the predator, making it harder for the predator to focus in on an individual zebra. Furthermore, when moving rapidly, the zebra stripes create a confusing, flickering motion dazzle effect in the eye of the predator.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes. The ozone holes are generally around the poles and move around over time. There are some lovely maps here showing changes over time _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well, the ozone layer is ubiquitous through the stratosphere. In fact, the predominant sources of ozone are in the tropics, and it's overturning circulations like the Brewer-Dobson that transport ozone to the poles through the year - at least until the polar vortex develops, which cuts off that transport.\n\nYou don't really get \"ozone holes\" over cities in the same sense as the famous ozone hole at the South Pole. That's because the primary mechanism for thorough ozone depletion - polar stratospheric clouds - do not occur anywhere except for in the Antarctic during their winter, and *occasionally* in the Arctic in its respective winter. \n\nSo no - it's not possible for a polluter to \"create an ozone hole\" in a local sense and have it move around to impact a non-polluter. Ironically, a bigger air-quality issue is the generation of ozone or ozone-precursors itself! For instance, polluters that emit PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate) create non-local ozone pollution. PAN is relatively stable, and can be transported long distances before it breaks down to release NOx; that NOx can react in chemical families with volatile organic compounds to produce ozone as a byproduct of oxidation of the organic species. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44183", "title": "Ozone depletion", "section": "Section::::Observations on ozone layer depletion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 455, "text": "The ozone hole is usually measured by reduction in the total \"column ozone\" above a point on the Earth's surface. This is normally expressed in Dobson units; abbreviated as \"DU\". The most prominent decrease in ozone has been in the lower stratosphere. Marked decreases in column ozone in the Antarctic spring and early summer compared to the early 1970s and before have been observed using instruments such as the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "215051", "title": "Tropospheric ozone", "section": "Section::::Measurement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 821, "text": "Ozone in the atmosphere can be measured by remote sensing technology, or by \"in-situ\" monitoring technology. Because ozone absorbs light in the UV spectrum, the most common way to measure ozone is to measure how much of this light spectrum is absorbed in the atmosphere. Because the stratosphere has higher ozone concentration than the troposphere, it is important for remote sensing instruments to be able to determine altitude along with the concentration measurements. The TOMS-EP instrument aboard a satellite from NASA is an example of an ozone layer measuring satellite, and TES is an example of an ozone measuring satellite that is specifically for the troposphere. Lidar is a common ground based remote sensing technique to measure ozone. TOLnet is the network of ozone observing lidars across the United States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22834", "title": "Ozone layer", "section": "Section::::Depletion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 673, "text": "The breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere results in reduced absorption of ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, unabsorbed and dangerous ultraviolet radiation is able to reach the Earth's surface at a higher intensity. Ozone levels have dropped by a worldwide average of about 4 percent since the late 1970s. For approximately 5 percent of the Earth's surface, around the north and south poles, much larger seasonal declines have been seen, and are described as \"ozone holes\". The discovery of the annual depletion of ozone above the Antarctic was first announced by Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner and Jonathan Shanklin, in a paper which appeared in \"Nature\" on May 16, 1985.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31973253", "title": "SAGE III on ISS", "section": "Section::::Atmospheric components studied by SAGE III on ISS.:Ozone.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 335, "text": "Ozone research has remained at the forefront of atmospheric science for many years because stratospheric ozone shields the Earth's surface (and its inhabitants) from harmful ultraviolet radiation. Since recent declines in stratospheric ozone have been linked to human activity, accurate long-term measurements of ozone remain crucial.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44183", "title": "Ozone depletion", "section": "Section::::Research history.:Antarctic ozone hole.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 95, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 95, "end_character": 461, "text": "Meanwhile, analysis of ozone measurements from the worldwide network of ground-based Dobson spectrophotometers led an international panel to conclude that the ozone layer was in fact being depleted, at all latitudes outside of the tropics. These trends were confirmed by satellite measurements. As a consequence, the major halocarbon-producing nations agreed to phase out production of CFCs, halons, and related compounds, a process that was completed in 1996.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "390949", "title": "Nimbus program", "section": "Section::::Contributions.:Ozone layer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 599, "text": "Even before the Nimbus satellites began collecting their observations of Earth's ozone layer, scientists had some understanding of the processes that maintained or destroyed it. They were pretty sure they understood how the layer formed, and they knew from laboratory experiments that halogens could destroy ozone. Finally, weather balloons had revealed that the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere changed over time, and scientists suspected weather phenomena or seasonal change were responsible. But how all of these pieces of information worked together on a global scale was still unclear.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20073116", "title": "Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 517, "text": "Ozone Mapping and Profiler Suite (OMPS), is an suite of instruments built by Ball Aerospace that measure the global distribution of ozone and, less frequently, how it is distributed vertically within the stratosphere. The suite flies on the Suomi NPP and NOAA-20 (formerly JPSS-1) satellites along with several other instruments. It had been intended to also fly on the NPOESS, for which the NPP was a preparatory project, but the dissolution of that project was announced in 2010. OMPS launched on October 28, 2011.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you sell something on Paypal, you have to pay a certain percentage of the transaction to Paypal.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you are a merchant selling something through them they take a 2.9% + $0.30 cut of your profit.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It takes a number of days to get your cash out of paypal and into your back account.\n\nDuring these days paypal deposits the money into an account which earns interest. Imagine the quantity of money they process and you get the picture ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "While I doubt this is how they make most of their money, getting your money back if there's something wrong with your account can take ages..\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "195809", "title": "PayPal", "section": "Section::::Services.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 484, "text": "PayPal's services allow people to make financial transactions online by granting the ability to transfer funds electronically between individuals and businesses. Through PayPal, users can send or receive payments for online auctions on websites like eBay, purchase or sell goods and services, or donate money or receive donations. It is not necessary to have a PayPal account to use the company's services. PayPal account users can set currency conversion option in account settings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "195809", "title": "PayPal", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 525, "text": "PayPal Holdings, Inc. is an American company operating a worldwide online payments system that supports online money transfers and serves as an electronic alternative to traditional paper methods like checks and money orders. The company operates as a payment processor for online vendors, auction sites, and many other commercial users, for which it charges a fee in exchange for benefits such as one-click transactions and password memory. PayPal's payment system, also called PayPal, is considered a type of payment rail.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1623227", "title": "E-commerce payment system", "section": "Section::::Methods of online payment.:PayPal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 533, "text": "PayPal is an acquirer, a performing payment processing for online vendors, auction sites, and other commercial users, for which it charges a fee. It may also charge a fee for receiving money, proportional to the amount received. The fees depend on the currency used, the payment option used, the country of the sender, the country of the recipient, the amount sent and the recipient's account type. In addition, eBay purchases made by credit card through PayPal may incur extra fees if the buyer and seller use different currencies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1623227", "title": "E-commerce payment system", "section": "Section::::Methods of online payment.:PayPal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 358, "text": "PayPal is a global e-commerce business allowing payments and money transfers to be made through the Internet. Online money transfers serve as electronic alternatives to paying with traditional paper methods, such as cheques and money orders. It is subject to the US economic sanction list and other rules and interventions required by US laws or government.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "195809", "title": "PayPal", "section": "Section::::Digital marketing with PayPal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 298, "text": "PayPal cooperates with \"Synchrony Financial\" and provides a financial service to PayPal Cashback Mastercard, which offers 2% return cash to customers who are shopping online or on the physical stores by using PayPal. PayPal’s cash back financial service promotes the number of potential customers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "195809", "title": "PayPal", "section": "Section::::Digital marketing with PayPal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 322, "text": "Apple allows PayPal as a mode of payment for App Store, Apple Music, iTunes, and iBooks. PayPal can increase usage by the platform of Apple. In addition, PayPal gets revenue from Apple services especially from App Store. Customers can use PayPal to purchase by connecting their PayPal payment system to Apple ID accounts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "195809", "title": "PayPal", "section": "Section::::Regulation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 86, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 86, "end_character": 1579, "text": "In the United States, PayPal is licensed as a money transmitter, on a state-by-state basis. But state laws vary, as do their definitions of banks, narrow banks, money services businesses, and money transmitters. Although PayPal is not classified as a bank, the company is subject to some of the rules and regulations governing the financial industry including Regulation E consumer protections and the USA PATRIOT Act. The most analogous regulatory source of law for PayPal transactions comes from peer-to-peer (P2P) payments using credit and debit cards. Ordinarily, a credit card transaction, specifically the relationship between the issuing bank and the cardholder, is governed by the Truth in Lending Act (TILA) 15 U.S.C. §§ 1601-1667f as implemented by Regulation Z, 12 C.F.R. 226, (TILA/Z). TILA/Z requires specific procedures for billing errors, dispute resolution, and limits cardholder liability for unauthorized charges. Similarly, the legal relationship between a debit cardholder and the issuing bank is regulated by the Electronic Funds Transfer Act (EFTA) 15 U.S.C. §§ 1693-1693r, as implemented by Regulation E, 12 C.F.R. 205, (EFTA/E). EFTA/E is directed at consumer protection and provides strict error resolution procedures. However, because PayPal is a \"payment intermediary\" and not otherwise regulated directly, TILA/Z and EFTA/E do not operate exactly as written once the credit/debit card transaction occurs via PayPal. Basically, unless a PayPal transaction is funded with a credit card, the consumer has no recourse in the event of fraud by the seller.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "During a campaign, an officer was generally allowed a small Wagon to carry personal effects and anything necessary for his work in the field. This would range from a tent and necessary notes to liquor and personal reading. Naturally the higher the rank the more you'd be able to have bit the more you'll also need for your own command (maps, rosters, etc). \n\nThe main people to have a Wagon would be *chief De batalion* whom commanded a battalion (the smallest unit of independent command) on up. High ranking commanders would get a larger baggage train as they'd be allowed more personal effects and need more things relevant to their command.\n\nHowever one thjng that officers were not allowed to have was wives. While this wasn't allowed, this didn't mean that it did not happen. Generally wives never accompanied commanders, commanders would take mistresses (such as Marshals Soult and Massena during their command of the Pininsular campaign).\n\nAs for horses, generally officers would be on horseback while moving but leading from the front (if that was their choice as not all commanders were the ideal leaders like Lannes or Oudinot) on foot. The reason of not being on horse has more to do with being a larger target for sharpshooters and the chance of having a horse (expensive for a lower ranking officer) dying and even falling on you if you're on it when it dies.\n\nI hoped this helped, for more information on the organization of the French Army I'd recommend looking at Swords Around A Throne by John Elting, a very accessable and cheap book.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "308084", "title": "Grande Armée", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 240, "text": "Napoleon led a new army to the Battle of the Nations at Leipzig in 1813, in the defence of France in 1814 and in the Waterloo Campaign in 1815, but the Napoleonic French army would never regain the heights of the Grande Armée of June 1812.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "611740", "title": "French Army", "section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 727, "text": "Under Napoleon I, the French Army conquered most of Europe during the Napoleonic Wars. Professionalising again from the Revolutionary forces and using columns of attack with heavy artillery support and swarms of pursuit cavalry the French army under Napoleon and his marshals was able to outmanoeuvre and destroy the allied armies repeatedly until 1812. Napoleon introduced the concept of all arms Corps, each one a traditional army 'in miniature', permitting the field force to be split across several lines of march and rejoin or to operate independently. The \"Grande Armée\" operated by seeking a decisive battle with each enemy army and then destroying them in detail before rapidly occupying territory and forcing a peace.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1126912", "title": "Waterloo Campaign", "section": "Section::::Deployments.:French forces.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 670, "text": "Napoleon placed some corps of his armed forces at various strategic locations as armies of observations. Napoleon split his forces into three main armies; First, he placed an army in the south near the alps. This army was to stop Austrian advances in Italy. Second, there was an army on the French/Prussian border where he hoped to defeat any Prussians attacks. Last, the L'Armee du Nord was placed on the border with the United Netherlands to defeat the British, Dutch and Prussian forces if they dared to attack. (see Military mobilisation during the Hundred Days)Lamarque led the small Army of the West into La Vendée to quell a Royalist insurrection in that region.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1673711", "title": "History of the British Army", "section": "Section::::Napoleonic Wars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 553, "text": "The British Army during the Napoleonic Wars experienced a time of rapid change. At the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793, the army was a small, awkwardly administered force of barely 40,000 men. By the end of the period, the army had been through a series of structural, recruitment, tactical and training reforms and its manpower had vastly increased. At its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. The British infantry was \"the only military force not to suffer a major reverse at the hands of Napoleonic France.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28419612", "title": "19th century", "section": "Section::::Wars.:Napoleonic Wars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 371, "text": "The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the United Kingdom. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and its resultant conflict.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17743855", "title": "British Army during the Napoleonic Wars", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 455, "text": "The British Army during the Napoleonic Wars experienced a time of rapid change. At the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793, the army was a small, awkwardly administered force of barely 40,000 men. By the end of the period, the numbers had vastly increased. At its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. The British infantry was \"the only military force not to suffer a major reverse at the hands of Napoleonic France.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45420", "title": "Napoleonic Wars", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 581, "text": "The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the United Kingdom. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and its resultant conflict. The wars are often categorised into five conflicts, each termed after the coalition that fought Napoleon: the Third Coalition (1805), the Fourth (1806–07), the Fifth (1809), the Sixth (1813), and the Seventh (1815).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is a somewhat controversial topic within the Syriac christian community. Basically there are two main schools of thought: those who identify as Assyrians and descendants from the ancient Assyrians and those who identify as Arameans and their descendants. I will let someone with the 'Assyrian' origin point of view post that since I'm not as well versed in their various arguments but I will provide you with the basic 'Aramean' origin arguments, however first I'm going to go on a slight tangent that is necessary for this topic. Up till the 20th century, the Syriac Christians called themselves in Arabic 'Suryani' which originally meant 'Syrian'. Suryani was not only a term exclusive to Christians but also exclusive to those Christians not of Arab ancestry (the arabs christians were usually Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, or Maronite). During the 20th century however, nationalist ideals started among the Arab Christians of 'Al-Sham'(the Arab term for the Levant meaning \"land of the North\"), and at the helm of this nationalist movement was Antun Saddeh, a Greek Orthodox arab christian. In his movement, the arab christians who identified as 'al-shami' (meaning arab of al-sham), started to adopt the name 'suri' an invented term that was equated with Syrian in English therefore causing great confusion. The 'Suryani' response was to change the translation from Syrian to Syriac. So for the purposes of this post I will be using Syriac, and take in mind that it means 'Suryani', unless I specify that I mean the Syriac language.\n\nThe main idea of the Aramean origin argument goes as this: The Syriac christians, are descendants of the people called Arameans, a group of northwestern semites closely related to the Hebrew and Phoenicians, who during the bronze age collapse settled the land they called Aram. Later on, due to outside influences, namely Greek confusion on the matters of the people they saw as barbarians as they saw all non-Greeks, the name 'Syria' was invented either from a)the Coptic word for Hurrians translated to Greek or b)the Luwian-Hittite word for Assyrians translated to Greek (note that despite there being a greek word for Syrian, the Greeks also had a word for Assyrian, therefore complicating the matter even further). During this confusion the Greeks and later on the Romans would use the name 'Syria' without any solid meaning to refer to people of the near east/fertile crescent region who spoke aramaic. However, during that time, the Arameans continued to identify as Arameans until a gradual process started that was most likely in tandem with the rise of Christianity(which was after all spread by Hellenized Jews who spoke Greek), where they started to called themselves 'Syriac' in their native Aramaic. Eventually, the term 'Syriac' would be used to apply exclusively to the people of Aramean ancestry. So the name Syria would be applied to the former lands of Aram, which makes sense since the Syriac Church was based in Antioch, a city nowhere near ancient Assyria. So due to the fact that Arameans adopted the name 'Syriac', anyone who identified as such was an Aramean whether or not they came from areas like Mosul or Nineveh which thousands of years earlier were considered the Assyrian heartland. They back this up with evidence that during the Iron Age, Arameans settled in large numbers in the Levant and a region of Mesopotamia called Aram-Nahrain (Nahrain meaning \"of the rivers\", possibly a callback to the bronze age kingdom of Mitanni which was from the same area of Mesopotamia, that was called Nahrain by some peoples), which was just north of the Assyrians. The Assyrians on several occasions held massive deportations of Arameans (as well as other peoples such as Jews), not out of the empire, but into its capital. It is claimed that Aramean numbers grew so large that Aramaic replaced Akkadian, and Arameans grew to outnumber the native Assyrians. The origin of the modern Assyrian identity would be in the works of 17th/18th(not sure which one) century western missionaries who upon finding the Syriac christian communities of Iraq, claimed based on archeological grounds that they must be the descendants of the ancient Assyrian, confusing the meaning of 'Suryani'.\n\nLet me know if anything needs clarification, however, I will restate that I expect someone else to post the Assyrian side of this, as I do not want to misrepresent my post as one sided.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's a mod on here that supports the continuation of the modern Assyrians from the ancient Assyrians: /u/Daeres \n\nHere are some of his excellent posts:\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_4_\n\nHere's a quote from the last thread:\n\n > \"One thing to bear in mind is that even before Assyria became an Empire, it was the largest state in the Near East. Many of its capitals were destroyed when the Empire was toppled, but several of its major centres continued to be active. Even reduced in size and strength, and without political control, there were still a lot of Assyrians- it was a state capable of raising a standing army of 80,000 Assyrians by about 900-800 BC. We know that worship of Ashur at the city of Assur was still going on before the Arab conquest. That means that the Assyrian identity had survived for 1200 years after the fall of their Empire. It's now about 1400 years since then.\n > \n > Given how many cultures have assimilated or vanished in that 2600 years, I'm just grateful that Assyrians aren't gone from the world.\"\n > \n\nAnd here's a great post about the Arameans from another historian:\n\n_URL_1_\n\nShort post about \"Syrian vs. Assyrian\":\n\n_URL_0_\n\nEdit: Fixing a link.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10806068", "title": "History of the Assyrian people", "section": "Section::::Early Christian period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 314, "text": "In Church tradition, the Assyrians are descended from Abraham's grandson (Dedan son of Jokshan), progenitor of the ancient Assyrians. Along with the Arameans, Phoenicians, Armenians, Greeks and Nabateans, they were among the first people to convert to Christianity and spread Eastern Christianity to the Far East.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "72243", "title": "Surname", "section": "Section::::Common surnames by ethnic group.:Assyrian.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 123, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 123, "end_character": 244, "text": "The Assyrian people are a distinct ethnic group, descendant largely from the population of ancient Assyria, indigenous to Mesopotamia with roots in the Middle East, mainly present-day Iraq, northwest Iran, northeast Syria and southeast Turkey.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16696142", "title": "Archaeogenetics of the Near East", "section": "Section::::Iraq (Mesopotamia).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 293, "text": "In the 1995 book \"The History and Geography of Human Genes\" the authors wrote that: \"The Assyrians are a fairly homogeneous group of people, believed to originate from the land of old Assyria in northern Iraq [..] they are Christians and are bona fide descendants of their ancient namesakes.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10806068", "title": "History of the Assyrian people", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 262, "text": "The Assyrians are culturally, linguistically, genetically and ethnically distinct from their neighbours in the Middle East – the Arabs, Syrians, Persians/Iranians, Kurds, Jews, Turks, Israelis, Azeris, Greeks, Shabaks, Yezidis, Kawliya, Mandeans and Armenians. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3888605", "title": "Iraqi-Assyrians", "section": "Section::::Background.:Ancient History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 501, "text": "The Assyrians are typically Syriac-speaking Christians who claim descent from Assyria, one of the oldest civilizations in the world, dating back to 2500 BC in ancient Mesopotamia. Assyria itself existed as an independent state (and often imperial power) in what is today northern Iraq, north eastern Syria, south eastern Turkey and the north western fringe of Iran from the 25th century BC to the beginning of the sixth century BC, and remained a geopolitical entity until the mid seventh century AD.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7672567", "title": "Assyrian Americans", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 397, "text": "The Assyrians are an indigenous ethnic group native to the historical region of Assyria that spans northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northwest Iran, and northeastern Syria), ethnically, historically and linguistically distinct from neighboring Arab, Turkish, Iranian and Kurdish populations and whose native tongue is various dialects of Eastern Aramaic that is referred to commonly as Syriac. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10806068", "title": "History of the Assyrian people", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 340, "text": "The Assyrians are indigenous to modern northern Iraq, southeast Turkey, northwest Iran and northeast Syria. These modern areas encompassed ancient Assyria between the 21st century BC and 7th century AD. Much of this land is now also inhabited by much later arriving Kurds, Arabs, Turks, Yezidis, Armenians, Shabakis, Turcomans and others. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I tried to read up on this, and also asked my doctor about it, and it seems to not be totally known, in part because there can be a lot of different reasons depending on the person and circumstances.\n\nI think these are usually technically muscle spasms rather than cramps, although they're similar.\n\nSome possible causes:\n - Dehydration\n - Electrolyte depletion (usually salt, sometimes potassium and maybe magnesium)\n - Muscle overload\n\nThat last one is probably what's going on -- it seems like it is most likely to happen with highly underused muscles (or overused muscles in people who work out a lot)\n\nOf course there are also (a zillion) medical conditions that can cause cramps or spasms.\n\nGoogling found this page that looks ok at first glance:\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "410401", "title": "Cramp", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 643, "text": "A cramp is a sudden, involuntary muscle contraction or over-shortening; while generally temporary and non-damaging, they can cause significant pain, and a paralysis-like immobility of the affected muscle. Onset is usually sudden, and it resolves on its own over a period of several seconds, minutes or hours. Cramps may occur in a skeletal muscle or smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle cramps may be caused by muscle fatigue or a lack of electrolytes such as sodium (a condition called hyponatremia), potassium (called hypokalemia), or magnesium (called magnesium deficiency). Cramps of smooth muscle may be due to menstruation or gastroenteritis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "410401", "title": "Cramp", "section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 640, "text": "Cramps can occur when muscles are unable to relax properly due to myosin proteins not fully detaching from actin filaments. In skeletal muscle, ATP levels must be large enough to bind to the myosin heads for them to attach or detach from the actin and allow contraction or relaxation; the absence of enough levels of ATP means that the myosin heads remains attached to actin. The muscle must be allowed to recover (resynthesize ATP), before the myosin proteins can detach and allow the muscle to relax. Skeletal muscles work as antagonistic pairs. Contracting one skeletal muscle requires the relaxation of the opposing muscle in the pair.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "410401", "title": "Cramp", "section": "Section::::Differential diagnosis.:Skeletal muscle cramps.:Nocturnal leg cramps.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 518, "text": "A lactic acid buildup around muscles can trigger cramps; however, these happen during anaerobic respiration when a person is exercising or engaging in an activity where the heartbeat speeds up. Medical conditions associated with leg cramps are cardiovascular disease, hemodialysis, cirrhosis, pregnancy, and lumbar canal stenosis. Differential diagnoses include restless legs syndrome, claudication, myositis, peripheral neuropathy. All of these can be differentiated through careful history and physical examination.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38712998", "title": "Exercise-associated muscle cramps", "section": "Section::::Treatment and prevention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 476, "text": "Medication has not been found to help reduce or prevent muscle cramping. To prevent or treat, athletes are recommended to stretch, stop movement and rest, massaging the area that is cramping, or drink fluids. Stretching helps to calm down spindles by lengthening the muscle fibers and increase firing duration to slow down the firing rate of the muscle. Recommended fluids during cramping are water or fluids that are high in electrolytes to replenish the system with sodium.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "159670", "title": "Adenosine monophosphate deaminase deficiency type 1", "section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 246, "text": "BULLET::::- The cause of cramping is unknown, but may be related to elevated lactate, increased calcium signaling across the sarcoplasmic reticulum caused by membrane instability from reduced levels of ATP, or increased levels of free adenosine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "410401", "title": "Cramp", "section": "Section::::Differential diagnosis.:Skeletal muscle cramps.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 696, "text": "Under normal circumstances, skeletal muscles can be voluntarily controlled. Skeletal muscles that cramp the most often are the calves, thighs, and arches of the foot, and are sometimes called a \"Charley horse\" or a \"corky\". Such cramping is associated with strenuous physical activity and can be intensely painful; however, they can even occur while inactive and relaxed. Around 40% of people who experience skeletal cramps are likely to endure extreme muscle pain, and may be unable to use the entire limb that contains the \"locked-up\" muscle group. It may take up to a week for the muscle to return to a pain-free state, depending on the person's fitness level, age, and several other factors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1697643", "title": "Muscle tone", "section": "Section::::Purpose.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 452, "text": "If a sudden pull or stretch occurs, the body responds by automatically increasing the muscle's tension, a reflex which helps guard against danger as well as helping maintain balance. Such near-continuous innervation can be thought of as a \"default\" or \"steady state\" condition for muscles. Both the extensor and flexor muscles are involved in the maintenance of a constant tone while at rest. In skeletal muscles, this helps maintain a normal posture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It does not take a continuous exposure but rather multiple exposures that are then stitched together.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Don't forget that while the Hubble is moving around the Earth, Earth is moving around the Sun. And Sol is moving around the Galaxy. And the Milky Way is moving around inside Laniakea, and....\n\nNothing involved here is staying still, or in the same spot.\n\nBecause it seems like your question is based on the assumption that Earth would obscure the lens of the Hubble for half of that time every 97 minutes, imagine that the Hubble orbited around the equator and was looking North with respect to Earth. From this orientation, Earth would never obscure the image or disrupt the long exposure.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The objects it points at are so far away, that the rotation around the Earth is negligible.\n\nFor instance, Andromeda is 1.49196325 × 10^19 miles away. The Hubble telescope is at an altitude of 347 miles, so as it moves around the Earth is moves roughly 8620 miles from one side of the orbit to another.\n\nUsing trigonometry, we know that if Hubble looks at Andromeda, that means it's angle changes roughly 3.3116961 x 10^-14 degrees (arctan of ((8620/2)/1.49*10^19). \n\nWritten out, that is 0.000000000000033116961 degrees, or basically negligible in this case.\n\nMy hand moves more degrees than that when I take a selfie in the bathroom, but it doesn't distort the image because the change is so small.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hubble uses six gyroscopes to know exactly where it's pointing. These are devices that act a bit like a compass, and always point in the same direction even when the telescope is orbiting.\n\nNext it has four reaction wheels which actually move the telescope. These just use Newton's 3rd law of motion; if the wheel spins one way then the telescope spins the other.\n\nFinally when it's observing, an instrument called the Fine Guidance Sensor will lock on to nearby stars, and make sure the telescope stays precisely pointed in the same direction/orientation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you're thinking of images like the [Hubble Deep Field](_URL_0_) then that was actually made by combining 340 pictures of the same point in the sky rather than a single long exposure.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just in case you weren't asking about the earth obscuring the image cause it's in the way for about 1/2 of the time - pick up a pen and make a fist, point the pen at something in the room then orbit the pen around your fit so the pen is always pointing at the object. This is how things orbit naturally, their own spin is independent of the object they are orbiting. Yes, the earth obscures the images, but the shutter isn't open the entire time - it'll close and reopen later on when the earth is out of the way but still be pointed at the same spot. Also - each exposure may only be a few minutes long but there will be many exposures and each image is stitched together with computers so they all line up.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5260112", "title": "Fine guidance sensor", "section": "Section::::Hubble Space Telescope FGS.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 334, "text": "The Hubble Space Telescope has three fine guidance sensors (FGSs). Two are used to point and lock the telescope onto the target, and the third can be used for position measurements - also known as astrometry. Because the FGSs are so accurate, they can be used to measure stellar distances and also to investigate binary star systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53370737", "title": "Fine Guidance Sensor (HST)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 790, "text": "Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS) for the Hubble Space Telescope is a system of three instruments used for pointing the telescope in space, and also for astrometry and its related sciences. Each FGS uses a combination of optics and electronics to provide for pointing the telescope at a certain location in the sky. There are three Hubble FGS, and they have been upgraded over the lifetime of the telescope by manned Space Shuttle missions. The instruments can support pointing of 2 milli-arc seconds (units of degree). The three FGS are part of the Hubble Space Telescope's \"Pointing Control System\", aka PCS. The FGS function in combination with the Hubble main computer and gyroscopes, with the FGS providing data to the computer as sensors which enables the HST to track astronomical targets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44163394", "title": "(486958) 2014 MU69", "section": "Section::::Observation.:2017 occultations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 828, "text": "On 17 July 2017, the Hubble Space Telescope was used to check for debris around , setting constraints on rings and debris within the Hill sphere of at distances of up to from the main body. For the third and final occultation, team members set up another ground-based \"fence line\" of 24 mobile telescopes along the predicted ground track of the occultation shadow in southern Argentina (Chubut and Santa Cruz provinces) to better constrain the size of . The average spacing between these telescopes was around . Using the latest observations from Hubble, the position of was known with much better precision than for the June 3 occultation, and this time the shadow of was successfully observed by at least five of the mobile telescopes. Combined with the SOFIA observations, this will put constraints on possible debris near .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1211349", "title": "Wow! signal", "section": "Section::::Signal measurement.:Time variation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 730, "text": "At the time of the observation, the Big Ear radio telescope was only adjustable for altitude (or height above the horizon), and relied instead on the rotation of the Earth to scan across the sky. Given the speed of Earth's rotation and the spatial width of the telescope's observation window, the Big Ear could observe any given point for just 72 seconds. A continuous extraterrestrial signal, therefore, would be expected to register for exactly 72 seconds, and the recorded intensity of such signal would display a gradual increase for the first 36 seconds—peaking at the center of the observation window—and then a gradual decrease as the telescope moved away from it. All these characteristics are present in the Wow! signal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2227535", "title": "Infinity focus", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 303, "text": "In a simple, two lens system such as a refractor telescope, the object at infinity forms an image at the focal point of the objective lens, which is subsequently magnified by the eyepiece. The magnification is equal to the focal length of the objective lens divided by the focal length of the eyepiece.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10201642", "title": "Polar alignment", "section": "Section::::Alignment methods.:Plate Solving.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 597, "text": "For telescopes combined with an imaging camera connected to a computer it is possible to achieve very accurate polar alignment (within 0.1 minute of arc) by approximately aligning it, then identifying the exact field of view when aimed at stars near the pole - 'plate solving'. The telescope is then rotated ninety degrees around its right ascension axis and a new 'plate solve' carried out. The error in the point around which the images rotate compared to the true pole is calculated automatically and the operator can be given simple instructions to adjust the mount for close polar alignment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3391863", "title": "Meridian circle", "section": "Section::::Basic instrument.:Operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 826, "text": "The telescope was next brought up to the approximate declination of the target star by watching the finder circle. The instrument was provided with a clamping apparatus, by which the observer, after having set the approximate declination, could clamp the axis so the telescope could not be moved in declination, except very slowly by a fine screw. By this slow motion, the telescope was adjusted until the star moved along the horizontal wire (or if there were two, in the middle between them), from the east side of the field of view to the west. Following this, the circles were read by the microscopes for a measurement of the apparent altitude of the star. The difference between this measurement and the nadir point was the \"nadir distance\" of the star. A movable horizontal wire or declination-micrometer was also used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sporting events mostly. A lot of minor league baseball teams have displays at the end of weekend games. Same with other sports as well. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8336474", "title": "Fireworks Entertainment", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 441, "text": "Fireworks Entertainment was an independent studio founded by Jay Firestone in 1996 to produce, distribute and finance television shows and feature films. Fireworks was acquired by Canwest Global in May 1998, and was later sold to ContentFilm (production company of The Cooler), a British company, in April 2005. Over the years Fireworks has amassed a significant catalogue of television shows and movies (Under the Fireworks Pictures label)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40277999", "title": "Star Fireworks", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 358, "text": "Star Fireworks is a British company that stages professional fireworks displays and special effects for events. It specializes in providing choreographed firework sequences for film and television use. It was formed in 1971. It was known as Bracknell Fireworks until the name of the company was changed in 2005. Its main offices are in Bracknell, Berkshire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "798323", "title": "Ala Moana Beach Park", "section": "Section::::Events.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 323, "text": "July 4 fireworks - Sponsored by the Ala Moana Shopping Center, fireworks are launched from three locations on Magic Island to create a great show. It starts at 8:30 p.m. Approximately 50,000 people attend, so walking, biking, or using public transportation is highly encouraged. There is a big traffic jam after the event.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59493", "title": "Fireworks", "section": "Section::::Clubs.:PGI annual convention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 729, "text": "Amateur and professional members can come to the convention to purchase fireworks, paper goods, novelty items, non-explosive chemical components and much more at the PGI trade show. Before the nightly fireworks displays and competitions, club members have a chance to enjoy open shooting of any and all legal consumer or professional grade fireworks, as well as testing and display of hand-built fireworks. The week ends with the Grand Public Display on Friday night, which gives the chosen display company a chance to strut their stuff in front of some of the world's biggest fireworks aficionados. The stakes are high and much planning is put into the show. In 1994 a shell of in diameter was fired during the convention, more\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59493", "title": "Fireworks", "section": "Section::::Uses other than public displays.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 280, "text": "In addition to large public displays, people often buy small amounts of fireworks for their own celebrations. Fireworks on general sale are usually less powerful than professional fireworks. Types include firecrackers, rockets, cakes (multishot aerial fireworks) and smoke balls.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5674470", "title": "Fireworks by Grucci", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 284, "text": "Fireworks by Grucci is a fireworks company headquartered in Bellport on New York's Long Island. It has been a family run business since 1850. The company's main fireworks office and operations are in Bellport, NY with a manufacturing and government work factory in Radford, Virginia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11717115", "title": "Jay Firestone", "section": "Section::::Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 393, "text": "A year later, Fireworks neared $100 million in production through television series \"La Femme Nikita\", \"\" and \"Pacific Blue\". In Fall 1997, he took Fireworks public, then sold to CanWest Global Communications for over $60 million, making CanWest the sole shareholder and Firestone the chairman and CEO of Canwest Entertainment. He was a finalist for the 1998 Ontario Entrepreneur of the Year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Until the end of the last ice age (10-12,000 years ago ish), there were a lot of really, really large mammals. Things like mammoths, mastodons, giant ground sloths, glyptodons, titanotheres, short-faced bears, multiple species of giant bison... They weren't as large as the largest dinosaurs but they were as big as many of the dinosaurs we commonly think of. They went extinct in large part because of human stresses (i.e., overhunting). On each continent, one of the first things that happened after human colonization was the extinction of the endemic megafauna. Climate may have played some role, but humans were the major driver. \n \nI don't know if the oxygen content argument works as well for animals with closed circulatory systems. Usually that's a hypothesis that's applied specifically to insects. Insects don't have lungs and their 'blood' (=hemolymph) isn't used for transporting oxygen like ours. Instead, they have this system of branching tubes that open to the outside. The tubes branch and branch and branch until the endings allow for gas exchange on a cellular level. This system works well for small things, but it does place limits on how large they can get. Having a higher concentration of oxygen alleviates that. But that argument breaks down for things like mammals and dinosaurs that have lungs and efficient means of oxygen transport. \n\n**Edit:** [Here](_URL_0_) is an article that actually looked at the distribution of body sizes in dinosaurs versus other groups. Though we see a biased distribution of mammal body sizes currently (because most of the large ones died out recently (on an evolutionary scale)), several groups of dinosaurs were skewed towards larger body sizes. The author's hypothesis is that this was due to predator-prey interactions: herbivore species grew larger as a defense to predation and predators responded by getting larger too. Then the prey species grew larger. Then the predators. And so on.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "First, dinosaurs had a huge size range, from the crow sized compsagnathus and mussaurus to the enormous shangtungosaurus. Most dinosaurs (at least from statistical distribution of fossils) fell in the 100-1000 kg range, so there are plenty of contemporary animals in this range. However, there were numerous evolutionary pressures (fast food feeding, that led to gigantism in the sauropods, the group that included the largest land dinosaurs (_URL_0_). But remember that these evolutionary pressures had over 165 million years (until the extinction event 65 million years ago) to work on species. The earliest known sauropod appeared about 200 million years ago and was only 8-10 meters long (_URL_1_). Gigantism emerges from a number of factors including limited predation, abundant resources all of which interact over long time scales to increase the size of the animal. After the K-T extinction event, damage to the environment (including the other organisms that made up food) put severe pressure on larger animals, letting smaller more behaviorally flexible and environmentally tolerant species prosper. There have been gigantic land species since, but both environmental change (ice ages) and human predation has put serious pressure on them, again, limiting the number of larger animals. In another 100 million years, who knows? We might see other gigantic species if both environment and human resource management improve.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'd like to follow up this initial question with a semi related one. Whilst not dinosaur size, we still have very large land and sea animals, but why do we not have any large birds? I know we have birds with huge wingspans, but not any particularly large birds of equivalent size to an elephant or whale.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "From our [FAQ](_URL_5_) (which I wrote, hence the copypasta):\n\nThere have been much larger terrestrial mammals in the past. [*Paraceratherium*](_URL_6_) is an example. There are also mammals alive today that are as large or larger than the largest dinosaurs (blue whales!). However, the fact remains that some dinosaurs - particularly sauropods - were absolutely monstrous. They may not have been blue whale-sized, but they were surprisingly close, and they were terrestrial. It's hard to know exactly what allowed some dinosaurs to grow so big. Sauropods, the largest dinosaurs. had a few adaptations that seemed to [give them a a size advantage](_URL_2_):\n\n- Their long necks were effective for eating lots of plant material with minimal energy expenditure. \n- They almost certainly had a [unidirectional airflow system](_URL_10_) in their lungs because both birds (theropod dinosaurs) and crocodylians (the only other living archosaurs) both have that. This uses countercurrent flow to bring oxygen into the circulatory system. It's part of why birds are so successful as well. \n- They had heavily pneumatized skeletons that made them relatively lightweight for their massive size (something mammals don't have). \n\nIn contrast, terrestrial mammals seem to have both a [limit to how quickly they can increase their body size](_URL_8_) and a [maximum body size](_URL_7_). What causes these constraints is hard to say. The study on maximum body size found that the largest mammals evolved when during periods of global cooling and when there was more terrestrial land area. There seems to be physiological and ecological constraints on their maximum size, because several herbivore groups independently evolved to similar maximum sizes, as did several carnivore groups.\n\nAs for why terrestrial animals are generally smaller today, there was an extinction event at the end of the [Pleistocene](_URL_3_) that [disproportionally affected the terrestrial megafauna](_URL_4_). Nearly 2/3 of animals larger that 44 kilograms that were present 50,000 years ago were extinct by 10,000 years ago. \n\nIt took millions of years for terrestrial animals to have that huge increase in size after the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction, but terrestrial mammals largely filled that role. Given how geologically recent these extinctions are, it's extremely unlikely that anything would have been able to fill the gaps left by the loss of megafaunal mammals. In that sense it's completely expected that a recent extinction event would leave a gap in body size. \n\nOne thing that does *not* explain maximum body size is atmospheric oxygen levels. There were already large sauropods by around 190 million years ago, around where [this graph](_URL_9_) bottoms out. One example is [*Barapasaurus*](_URL_0_), a 14-meter-long early sauropod from the Early Jurassic. So [whatever led to their gigantism](_URL_1_) was present when oxygen levels were lower than today, not higher. The study looking at body size in mammals also found no relationship to atmospheric oxygen levels. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think you are thinking about it backwards.\n\nIts not \"why didn't they evolve to be dino-sized again\", but rather \"*why would they* become dino-sized again?\"\n\nAnimals are going to evolve because (usually) its a beneficial trait. If land animals after the dinosaurs didn't become huge, its because they were perfectly content to eat and breed and stay away from predators the size they were. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "45249020", "title": "Timeline of Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event research", "section": "Section::::20th century.:1990s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 231, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 231, "end_character": 277, "text": "BULLET::::- Archibald argued that the withdrawal of shallow seas from Earth's continents during the Late Cretaceous reduced the size of and fragmented the coastal plain habitats preferred by large dinosaur species and that this fragmentation may have driven some taxa extinct.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30600763", "title": "Evolution of reptiles", "section": "Section::::Rise of dinosaurs.:Role reversal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 488, "text": "After the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event wiped out all of the non-avian dinosaurs (birds are generally regarded as the surviving dinosaurs) and several mammalian groups, placental and marsupial mammals diversified into many new forms and ecological niches throughout the Paleogene and Neogene eras. Some reached enormous sizes and almost as wide a variation as the dinosaurs once did. Nevertheless, mammalian megafauna never quite reached the skyscraper heights of some sauropods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4085430", "title": "Dinosaur size", "section": "Section::::Record sizes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 358, "text": "Recent theories propose that theropod body size shrank continuously over the past 50 million years, from an average of down to , as they eventually evolved into modern birds. This is based on evidence that theropods were the only dinosaurs to get continuously smaller, and that their skeletons changed four times faster than those of other dinosaur species.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9813", "title": "Extinction event", "section": "Section::::Evolutionary importance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 533, "text": "For example, mammaliformes (\"almost mammals\") and then mammals existed throughout the reign of the dinosaurs, but could not compete for the large terrestrial vertebrate niches which dinosaurs monopolized. The end-Cretaceous mass extinction removed the non-avian dinosaurs and made it possible for mammals to expand into the large terrestrial vertebrate niches. Ironically, the dinosaurs themselves had been beneficiaries of a previous mass extinction, the end-Triassic, which eliminated most of their chief rivals, the crurotarsans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "300664", "title": "Theropoda", "section": "Section::::Biology.:Size.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 354, "text": "Recent theories propose that theropod body size shrank continuously over a period of 50 million years, from an average of down to , eventually evolving into modern birds. This was based on evidence that theropods were the only dinosaurs to get continuously smaller, and that their skeletons changed four times as fast as those of other dinosaur species.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24749", "title": "Permian–Triassic extinction event", "section": "Section::::Biotic recovery.:Land vertebrates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 327, "text": "Land vertebrates took an unusually long time to recover from the P–Tr extinction; Palaeontologist Michael Benton estimated the recovery was not complete until after the extinction, i.e. not until the Late Triassic, in which dinosaurs, pterosaurs, crocodiles, archosaurs, amphibians, and mammaliforms were abundant and diverse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2068726", "title": "History of Earth", "section": "Section::::Phanerozoic Eon.:Evolution of tetrapods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 100, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 100, "end_character": 403, "text": "After yet another, the most severe extinction of the period (251~250 Ma), around 230 Ma, dinosaurs split off from their reptilian ancestors. The Triassic–Jurassic extinction event at 200 Ma spared many of the dinosaurs, and they soon became dominant among the vertebrates. Though some mammalian lines began to separate during this period, existing mammals were probably small animals resembling shrews.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "When computers were first built and people came to realize how powerful they were, they needed people to figure out how to make them work and how to make them better. The original designers tended to be mathematicians, physicists, engineers, etc. but no one field could really do it all. Computer science is sort of the catch all term for the people who ended up working on computers, both more theoretical and also applied.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So, this rundown is my own, and the idea here is to have a pseudo-historical list running in descending order of abstraction. Basically, I'll start with the most abstract and general ideas of the field, and work down towards nitty gritty practical bits that emerged.\n\nBut anyway, the main idea of computer science is to deal with processes, and specifically, unlike mathematics, processes that have extra limitation that you need to be able to perform them in a finite amount of time and space. Because, you know, humans have only limited amount of time to wait for computation to finish, and there's only finite amount of the universe we have access to.\n\nSo, in computer science specifically, what was a rather important point was that sometimes you have these processes be in the form of step-by-step lists of instructions(hereby called \"algorithms\") that even the stupidest could follow. So we built the stupidest thing, and we called it artifical computer(as opposed to computer of the old, who were humans, mostly women, performing calculations as required for some fields of science and engineering and such), and tried seeing what we can do with this concept. So now the question of study became, what can these artifical computers actually do. Some major results were achieved in 1940's, specifically Alan Turing was helpful, where he managed to prove some key things about things that can be computed, and perhaps more importantly, that there were some things that couldn't.\n\nAnd as computer technology advanced, computers itself started to become more complex, and the programs running on them started to require more and more sophisticated thinking, and computer science basically absorbed things like software engineering to itself, taking it further away from pure math world. Things like, what sort of tradeoffs you'd have when designing operating system fit neatly in this world of questions that more or less deal with what can and cannot be done with computers.\n\nBut much of the discussion is still well within confines of pure math as well. Say, computational complexity is a measure of algorithms ability to use fewer steps to arrive at the right answer. You don't need to ever even have seen a computer to be able to answer questions about those kinds of things, and it's ultimately about processes and algorithms rather than this physical device, although limitations of this physical device did end up sparking interest in these types of questions. Likewise, \"formal language theory\" is basically mathematics, but that theory is the main way to understand programming languages, and the theoretical foundation for their existence. So the line gets blurred. I'm unsure but I believe linguistics also makes an appearance here in this multi-dispiclinary mess. Another field that I want to highlight for math'iness is artifical intelligence. Also, worth noting that encryption basically is just taking mathematical problems we can prove are hard in one way but easy in another.\n\nAnd then you also have fields that are more specifically about using computers, like user interface design, or user experience design, which start invoking psychology and such things.\n\nAnd obviously, physical design of computing devices with its electrical engineering, physics and chemistry connections has to be mentioned.\n\nBasically, it started out with a rather simple premise of \"what this box do?\" and then when the box turned out to be very powerful, the field just exploded to cover everything the box touched.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2701254", "title": "Bachelor of Computer Science", "section": "Section::::Studying Computer Engineering.:Education:.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 319, "text": "Computer science is known by its near synonyms, like Information Technology (IT) and Computing. At the beginning, only a few students can get computer science education, but as time passes, it’s popular in ordinary people. In UK, in 1981, only A level students can get it, but in 2014, even common pupils can study it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "169633", "title": "Outline of computer science", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 347, "text": "Computer science (also called computing science) is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their implementation and application in computer systems. One well known subject classification system for computer science is the ACM Computing Classification System devised by the Association for Computing Machinery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5323", "title": "Computer science", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 458, "text": "Computer science (sometimes called computation science or computing science, but not to be confused with computational science or software engineering) is the study of processes that interact with data and that can be represented as data in the form of programs. It enables the use of algorithms to manipulate, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist studies the theory of computation and the practice of designing software systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57143357", "title": "Glossary of computer science", "section": "Section::::C.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 333, "text": "BULLET::::- Computer science – is the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. It involves the study of algorithms that process, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50336055", "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence", "section": "Section::::C.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 97, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 97, "end_character": 333, "text": "BULLET::::- Computer science – is the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. It involves the study of algorithms that process, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27010", "title": "Software engineering", "section": "Section::::Related fields.:Computer Science.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 433, "text": "Computer science focuses on the high-level aspects of computing and computer systems, such as the study of algorithms that process, store, and communicate digital information. Its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines, which include the study of fundamental properties of computational and intractable problems, and the application of software development techniques to real-world situations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5323", "title": "Computer science", "section": "Section::::Fields.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 211, "text": "As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing computing systems in hardware and software.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There is no maximum or minimum wavelength, any wavelength can be transformed into another one with the right choice of reference frame. A possible exception to this is if quantum gravity breaks Lorentz symmetry, and then there will be some minimum Planck-scale wavelength.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24476128", "title": "Acoustic metamaterial", "section": "Section::::Basic principles.:Electromagnetic field vs acoustic field.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 493, "text": "The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below frequencies used for modern radio to gamma radiation at the short-wavelength end, covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom. That would be wavelengths from 10 to 10 kilometers. The long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55543734", "title": "Habitable Exoplanet Imaging Mission", "section": "Section::::Preliminary desired specifications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 217, "text": "An absolute minimum continuous wavelength range is 0.4 to 1 μm, with possible short wavelength extensions down below 0.3 μm and near infrared extensions to 1.7 μm or even 2.5 μm, depending on the cost and complexity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27022640", "title": "Superluminescent diode", "section": "Section::::Main characteristics.:Coherence length.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 211, "text": "where formula_2 is the central wavelength of the emitted radiation. As an example, an SLED operating around 1300 nm and with an optical bandwidth of 100 nm is expected to have a coherence length of about 17 µm.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "98132", "title": "Radio wave", "section": "Section::::Speed, wavelength, and frequency.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 332, "text": "The wavelength is the distance from one peak of the wave's electric field (wave's peak/crest) to the next, and is inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave. The distance a radio wave travels in one second, in a vacuum, is which is the wavelength of a 1 hertz radio signal. A 1 megahertz radio signal has a wavelength of .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "191123", "title": "Planck's law", "section": "Section::::Properties.:Percentiles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 112, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 112, "end_character": 596, "text": "That is, 0.01% of the radiation is at a wavelength below  µm, 20% below  µm, etc. The wavelength and frequency peaks are in bold and occur at 25.0% and 64.6% respectively. The 41.8% point is the wavelength-frequency-neutral peak. These are the points at which the respective Planck-law functions , and divided by attain their maxima. The much smaller gap in ratio of wavelengths between 0.1% and 0.01% (1110 is 22% more than 910) than between 99.9% and 99.99% (113374 is 120% more than 51613) reflects the exponential decay of energy at short wavelengths (left end) and polynomial decay at long.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "541499", "title": "Indoor tanning", "section": "Section::::Background.:Ultraviolet radiation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 344, "text": "Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, just beyond visible light. Ultraviolet wavelengths are 100 to 400 nanometres (nm, billionths of a metre) and are divided into three bands: A, B and C. UVA wavelengths are the longest, 315 to 400 nm; UVB are 280 to 315 nm, and UVC wavelengths are the shortest, 100 to 280 nm.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7990890", "title": "Long wavelength limit", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 227, "text": "In electricity and magnetism, the long wavelength limit is the limiting case when the wavelength is much larger than the system size. This corresponds to the quasi-static case, and reduces to electrostatics and magnetostatics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Your brain has this thing called a circadian rhythm. What it's designed to do is make you sleepy at night time and wakeful during the day. Unfortunately, your body doesn't have a clock inside of it so it has to rely on cues outside of you to know when it's night and when it's day. One of the cues your body uses is light. When you see a bright light at night (awesome sentence) it confuses your brain and makes you more awake. \n\nNote: This is a big simplification but you get the idea.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "331155", "title": "Nocturnal enuresis", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 100, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 100, "end_character": 290, "text": "\"Urinating in bed is frequently predisposed by deep sleep: when urine begins to flow, its inner nature and hidden will (resembling the will to breathe) drives urine out before the child awakes. When children become stronger and more robust, their sleep is lighter and they stop urinating.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "292906", "title": "Biofeedback", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Urinary incontinence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 443, "text": "Mowrer detailed the use of a bedwetting alarm that sounds when children urinate while asleep. This simple biofeedback device can quickly teach children to wake up when their bladders are full and to contract the urinary sphincter and relax the detrusor muscle, preventing further urine release. Through classical conditioning, sensory feedback from a full bladder replaces the alarm and allows children to continue sleeping without urinating.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4014799", "title": "Bedwetting alarm", "section": "Section::::Conditioning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 244, "text": "The enuresis alarm utilizes both classical and operant conditioning to provide a means of causing the sleeping individual to be regularly awakened immediately after the onset of urination so they can void in the toilet and prevent bed wetting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54205", "title": "Diaper", "section": "Section::::Usage.:Children.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 592, "text": "Most children continue to wear diapers at night for a period of time following daytime continence. Older children may have problems with bladder control (primarily at night) and may wear diapers while sleeping to control bedwetting. Approximately 16% of children in the U.S. over the age of 5 wet the bed. If bedwetting becomes a concern, the current recommendation is to consider forgoing the use of a diaper at night as they may prevent the child from wanting to get out of bed, although this is not a primary cause of bedwetting. This is particularly the case for children over the age 8.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19283589", "title": "Urinal (health care)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 213, "text": "Generally, patients who are able to are encouraged to walk to the toilet or use a bedside commode as opposed to a urinal. The prolonged use of a urinal has been shown to lead to constipation or trouble urinating.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "331556", "title": "Enuresis", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Diurnal enuresis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 449, "text": "Daytime incontinence that is not associated with urinary infection or anatomic abnormalities is less common than nighttime incontinence and tends to disappear much earlier than the nighttime versions. One possible cause of daytime incontinence is an overactive bladder. Many children with daytime incontinence have abnormal voiding habits, the most common being infrequent voiding. This form of incontinence occurs more often in girls than in boys.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4014799", "title": "Bedwetting alarm", "section": "Section::::Treatment process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 518, "text": "The individual places the sensor (usually located in briefs or underwear) and turns the alarm device on (there are various types of alarms) before going to sleep. The enuresis alarm is triggered when a sensor in the sheets or night clothes becomes wet with urine, setting off an auditory signal with the intention of causing the individual to wake, cease voiding, and arise to void. Parents are advised to wake their child when the alarm is activated—otherwise, children are prone to turn it off and go back to sleep.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The angle at which air refracts light changes based on density. There is a temperature and density gradient between the hot grill and relatively cool surrounding air.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "55695", "title": "Mirage", "section": "Section::::Inferior mirage.:Heat haze.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 390, "text": "Convection causes the temperature of the air to vary, and the variation between the hot air at the surface of the road and the denser cool air above it creates a gradient in the refractive index of the air. This produces a blurred shimmering effect, which affects the ability to resolve objects, the effect being increased when the image is magnified through a telescope or telephoto lens.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3178571", "title": "Reflective surfaces (climate engineering)", "section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 351, "text": "A bright, reflective roof could reflect light and heat into the higher windows of taller neighboring buildings. In sunny conditions, this could cause uncomfortable glare and unwanted heat for you or your neighbors. Excess heat caused by reflections increases air conditioning energy use, negating some of the energy saving benefits of the cool roof.”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44396205", "title": "Drying drum", "section": "Section::::Working principle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 360, "text": "Material goes in from one side of the rotary dryer, and goes out from the other side. And the hot air (heat) generated by burner passes through the dryer to raise the inner temperature. The inner cylinder has many shoveling plates, which scoop up the materials for a sufficient contact with the hot air. Meanwhile the plates push the material to move forward.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "807687", "title": "Gable", "section": "Section::::Drawbacks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 459, "text": "The gable end roof is a poor design for hurricane or tornado-prone regions, as it easily peels off in strong winds. The part of the roof that overhangs the triangular wall very often creates a trap that can catch wind like an umbrella. Winds blowing against the gable end can exert tremendous pressure, both on the triangular wall and on the roof edges where they overhang the triangular wall, causing the roof to peel off and the triangular wall to cave in.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6003086", "title": "Apparent temperature", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 211, "text": "BULLET::::- The heat index and humidex measure the effect of humidity on the perception of temperatures above . In humid conditions, the air feels much hotter because less perspiration evaporates from the skin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25948", "title": "Refraction", "section": "Section::::Light.:Atmospheric refraction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 523, "text": "Temperature variations in the air can also cause refraction of light. This can be seen as a heat haze when hot and cold air is mixed e.g. over a fire, in engine exhaust, or when opening a window on a cold day. This makes objects viewed through the mixed air appear to shimmer or move around randomly as the hot and cold air moves. This effect is also visible from normal variations in air temperature during a sunny day when using high magnification telephoto lenses and is often limiting the image quality in these cases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1723027", "title": "Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide lamp", "section": "Section::::Safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 722, "text": "In all quartz lamps which have a gas fill, there is a small area that looks like a nipple. It is in fact the location of the exhaust tube where the lamp was filled with its gas mixture. The position of the nipple is very important and if it’s facing the wrong way, it may show up as a shadow in the optical path. Whenever possible, the exhaust tip should be orientated straight up, or up to 45 degrees from vertical. This will keep the tip in the hottest location, and prevent the iodides and rare earth metals from collecting in it as the lamp cools. If the tip is orientated down, the rare earth metals will collect in it over time and the color of the lamp will shift as they are no longer included in the plasma arc. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Essential oil simple means that is possess a smell similar to the plant it is derived from. It isn't based on anything medical related. Now that doesn't mean that they arn't good for you, it just means that it is a large category that isn't related to anything medical. Its sort of like asking if the category food is good for you. The quality that makes something food doesn't entail it being healthy, but some food can be healthy. You would have to research each individual product to say if it is good for you or not. If someone has a study like that on a broad level they may be able to dismiss them all together.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[there is some evidence that some essential oils have antibacterial propreties](_URL_1_)\n\n[while others can help with glucose regulation](_URL_0_) but it is a very broad subject and is going to depend on specific oils and specific uses. \n\n\nOne of the problems we run into is that many of the essential oils can and will interact with actual medical therapies, and people taking them and giving them won't know that. They are often metabolically active, and in some cases detrimentally so. \n\n\nIn the end, it is going to depend on the oil, the dose and the intended use if you want a reasonable answer. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\"Essential oil\" is a pretty broad category.\n\nIn principle it refers to **any** compounds produced by a plants, that have both a **low boiling point** and also low solubility in water.\n\nEssential oils are created by heating plant materials with steam, then chilling and re-condensing the vapors. At which point you end up with a thin oily organic layer on top of the condensed moisture, which might contain tens of thousands of possible plant compounds.\n\nThere are quite a number of compounds found in various essential oils that are already known to be toxic and/or carcinogenic, *at least in massive doses.* For example, Methyl salicylate found in wintergreen oil, d-Limonene, Saffrole, or Coumarine to name just a few. (note: d-limonene is the principle component in orange flavorings and in small amounts it's generally considered food-safe.) \n\nThis makes sense, because plants don't produce the compounds that are concentrated in EO's just for the hell of it, or because some human might come along and think it smells nice later. \n\nThey produce them to ward off and sicken potential predators, kill disease-causing organisms, interfere with nearby plants competing with them, ( or in the case of flowers, to attract polinators.)\n\n\nWorse, the vast majority of compounds that might be found in EO's haven't been tested in any serious fashion. Although the oils themselves are typically tested in bulk for obvious toxicity on animals. \n\nFurthermore plants that are known to be toxic themselves aren't used to create EO's \n\nMany manufacturers put warnings on their bottles against taking internally, for this reason.\n\n\n\nEssential oils can also trigger serious allergies in some people", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5808493", "title": "List of essential oils", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 662, "text": "Essential oils are volatile and liquid aroma compounds from natural sources, usually plants. They are not oils in a strict sense, but often share with oils a poor solubility in water. Essential oils often have an odor and are therefore used in food flavoring and perfumery. They are usually prepared by fragrance extraction techniques (such as distillation, cold pressing, or Solvent extraction). Essential oils are distinguished from aroma oils (essential oils and aroma compounds in an oily solvent), infusions in a vegetable oil, absolutes, and concretes. Typically, essential oils are highly complex mixtures of often hundreds of individual aroma compounds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3065494", "title": "Agathosma", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 385, "text": "The essential oil is used in the manufacture of flavorings and perfume. There appear to be differences in people's perceptions of the smell, possibly determined genetically, rather than by familiarity or nurture. Some people find the smell to be repulsive, while most find it pleasantly herbal. This is not particularly unusual in reaction to the smells of many aromatic Karoo shrubs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "281028", "title": "Essential oil", "section": "Section::::Pharmacology and medical uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 303, "text": "Some essential oils, such as those of juniper and agathosma, are valued for their diuretic effects. With relatively recent concerns about the overuse of antibacterial agents, many essential oils have seen a resurgence in off-label use for such properties and are being examined for this use clinically.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "281028", "title": "Essential oil", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 802, "text": "An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. An essential oil is \"essential\" in the sense that it contains the \"essence of\" the plant's fragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived. The term \"essential\" used here does not mean indispensable, as with the terms essential amino acid or essential fatty acid, which are so called because they are nutritionally required by a given living organism. In contrast to fatty oils, essential oils typically evaporate completely without leaving a stain or residue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25611728", "title": "Aromatherapy", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 211, "text": "Oils were used for aesthetic pleasure and in the beauty industry. It was a luxury item and a means of payment. It was believed the essential oils increased the shelf life of wine and improved the taste of food.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "244905", "title": "Lauraceae", "section": "Section::::Distribution and uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 234, "text": "BULLET::::- Some of the essential oils are valued as fragrances, such as in the traditional laurel wreath of classical antiquity, or in cabinet making, where the fragrant woods are prized for making insect-repellant furniture chests.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3092597", "title": "Illicium", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 338, "text": "The essential oils of several species are used as flavorings and carminatives; however, the oils of \"I. anisatum\" and \"I. floridanum\" are toxic. \"I. verum\", the common star anise, is used to flavor food and wine. Its fruit is a traditional Chinese medicine called \"pa-chio-hui-hsiang\", which is used to treat abdominal pain and vomiting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > Edit: ah dicks, forgot ELI5\n\nHa. It's ok. It's still evident this is a legit ELI5 question.\n\nI really wish there were a better answer, but they pretty much just [close down all the roads](_URL_0_). It's super inconvenient (which is why they try to do it late at night).\n\nLA has something of a habit of frequently inconveniencing its citizens by bringing in massive boulders, sculptures, and even space shuttles.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11378941", "title": "Articulated hauler", "section": "Section::::Comparison to rigid dump trucks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 1103, "text": "The articulated haulers relatively small size also make them able to drive on public roads between different worksites at a large construction project—something that is impossible for the largest haul trucks, which might even have to be disassembled to be moved between different locations. For transportation between different construction projects, articulated haulers usually have to be hauled on flatbed trailers as oversize cargo due to their width and weight, as well as their limited speed. However, in reality, it is normal for most articulated trucks to be trailered between worksites, as there are few construction sites giving an opportunity to drive on public roads between work zones, depending on the size of the machine and the local laws this could also be illegal. For any distance greater than a few miles, it would also be considered uneconomical wear-and-tear on the hauler trucks, to be putting hours on them that aren't contributing towards the paying job. It is far more efficient and quicker to use trucks and trailers and let them do what they specialize in, over-road hauling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31456", "title": "Truck", "section": "Section::::Design.:Frame.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 790, "text": "A truck frame consists of two parallel boxed (tubular) or C‑shaped rails, or beams, held together by crossmembers. These frames are referred to as ladder frames due to their resemblance to a ladder if tipped on end. The rails consist of a tall vertical section (two if boxed) and two shorter horizontal flanges. The height of the vertical section provides opposition to vertical flex when weight is applied to the top of the frame (beam resistance). Though typically flat the whole length on heavy duty trucks, the rails may sometimes be tapered or arched for clearance around the engine or over the axles. The holes in rails are used either for mounting vehicle components and running wires and hoses, or measuring and adjusting the orientation of the rails at the factory or repair shop.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1219747", "title": "Concrete mixer", "section": "Section::::Trucks and trailers.:Concrete mixing transport trucks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1445, "text": "Special concrete transport trucks (in-transit mixers) are made to mix concrete and transport it to the construction site. They can be charged with dry materials and water, with the mixing occurring during transport. They can also be loaded from a \"central mix\" plant; with this process the material has already been mixed prior to loading. The concrete mixing transport truck maintains the material's liquid state through agitation, or turning of the drum, until delivery. The interior of the drum on a concrete mixing truck is fitted with a spiral blade. In one rotational direction, the concrete is pushed deeper into the drum. This is the direction the drum is rotated while the concrete is being transported to the building site. This is known as \"charging\" the mixer. When the drum rotates in the other direction, the Archimedes' screw-type arrangement \"discharges\", or forces the concrete out of the drum. From there it may go onto chutes to guide the viscous concrete directly to the job site. If the truck cannot get close enough to the site to use the chutes, the concrete may be discharged into a concrete pump, connected to a flexible hose, or onto a conveyor belt which can be extended some distance (typically ten or more metres). A pump provides the means to move the material to precise locations, multi-floor buildings, and other distance-prohibitive locations. Buckets suspended from cranes are also used to place the concrete.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7206824", "title": "Truck scale", "section": "Section::::Design Concept.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 328, "text": "Truck scales can be surface mounted with a ramp leading up a short distance and the weighing equipment underneath or they can be pit mounted with the weighing equipment and platform in a pit so that the weighing surface is level with the road. They are typically built from steel or concrete and by nature are extremely robust.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11699678", "title": "Vehicle frame", "section": "Section::::Frame rails.:Design features.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 442, "text": "While appearing at first glance as a simple form made of metal, frames encounter great amounts of stress and are built accordingly. The first issue addressed is beam height, or the height of the vertical side of a frame. The taller the frame, the better it is able to resist vertical flex when force is applied to the top of the frame. This is the reason semi-trucks have taller frame rails than other vehicles instead of just being thicker.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "545815", "title": "Longboard (skateboard)", "section": "Section::::Components.:Trucks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 645, "text": "Trucks are the metal turning mechanism that attach the longboard wheels to the deck. They come in a wide range of styles, with wider trucks meaning a wider turning circle. They use the motion of the rider's feet and body to turn the board by pivoting a joint in the middle of the truck. There are generally two types of trucks used on longboards: reverse kingpin trucks and conventional skateboard trucks (vertical kingpin). Conventional skateboard trucks have the kingpin on the inner side (towards the center of the board) of the axle, whereas reverse kingpin trucks have the kingpin on the outer side (towards the nose and tail) of the axle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1395879", "title": "Span bolster", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 335, "text": "A span bolster, in rail terminology, is a beam or frame used to link two trucks (US) or bogies (UK) so that they can be articulated together and be joined to the locomotive or railroad car at one rotating mounting point. In effect, they make one \"super-truck\" out of the two, while permitting each truck to move relative to the other.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The DSM-IV-TR has definitions for alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence - [link](_URL_0_).\n\nIt's important to note that (a) The DSM V is due very shortly and (b) There are many researchers who feel that the DSM does not use the best model. \n\nIn regards to your question, it's worth noting that the criteria are a combination of subjective and objective symptoms. This is common for mental health conditions and one of the more common criticisms. If you lined up 100 therapists and asked them all to tell you whether 100 regular drinkers had a disorder, there would be *some* level of agreement but not total agreement. In nature, all mental health diagnoses are somewhat subjective and therefore open to interpretation by sufferers and diagnosticians.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are scientific definitions, yes, though they may vary by source. In the United States, the grail for such criteria is the DSM from the American Psychiatric Association. They distinguish between alcohol abuse and alcohol dependency as distinct forms of alcoholism. Clinically, symptoms of withdrawal are regarded as sufficient but not necessary for diagnosis.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2965", "title": "Alcoholism", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Definition.:Alcoholism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 492, "text": "The term \"alcoholism\" is commonly used amongst laypeople, but the word is poorly defined. The WHO calls \"alcoholism\" \"a term of long-standing use and variable meaning\", and use of the term was disfavored by a 1979 WHO expert committee. \"The Big Book\" (from Alcoholics Anonymous) states that once a person is an alcoholic, they are always an alcoholic, but does not define what is meant by the term \"alcoholic\" in this context. In 1960, Bill W., co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), said:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2965", "title": "Alcoholism", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Definition.:Alcoholism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 713, "text": "In professional and research contexts, the term \"alcoholism\" sometimes encompasses both alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence, and sometimes is considered equivalent to alcohol dependence. Talbot (1989) observes that alcoholism in the classical disease model follows a progressive course: if a person continues to drink, their condition will worsen. This will lead to harmful consequences in their life, physically, mentally, emotionally and socially. Johnson (1980) explores the emotional progression of the addict's response to alcohol. He looks at this in four phases. The first two are considered \"normal\" drinking and the last two are viewed as \"typical\" alcoholic drinking. Johnson's four phases consist of:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32961", "title": "Wine", "section": "Section::::Health effects.:Long-term effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 91, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 91, "end_character": 927, "text": "Alcoholism is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems. It was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions is present: a person drinks large amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6044476", "title": "Disease theory of alcoholism", "section": "Section::::Current acceptance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 446, "text": "The American Society of Addiction Medicine and the American Medical Association both maintain extensive policy regarding alcoholism. The American Psychiatric Association recognizes the existence of \"alcoholism\" as the equivalent of alcohol dependence. The American Hospital Association, the American Public Health Association, the National Association of Social Workers, and the American College of Physicians classify \"alcoholism\" as a disease.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2047", "title": "Alcoholics Anonymous", "section": "Section::::Disease concept of alcoholism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 892, "text": "Since then medical and scientific communities have generally concluded that alcoholism is an \"addictive disease\" (aka Alcohol Use Disorder, Severe, Moderate, or Mild). The ten criteria are: alcoholism is a Primary Illness not caused by other illnesses nor by personality or character defects; second, an addiction gene is part of its etiology; third, alcoholism has predictable symptoms; fourth, it is progressive, becoming more severe even after long periods of abstinence; fifth, it is chronic and incurable; sixth, alcoholic drinking or other drug use persists in spite of negative consequences and efforts to quit; seventh, brain chemistry and neural functions change so alcohol as perceived as necessary for survival; eighth, it produces physical dependence and life-threatening withdrawal; ninth, it is a terminal illness; tenth, alcoholism can be treated and can be kept in remission.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2965", "title": "Alcoholism", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Definition.:DSM and ICD.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 755, "text": "AA describes alcoholism as an illness that involves a physical allergy (where \"allergy\" has a different meaning than that used in modern medicine.) and a mental obsession. The doctor and addiction specialist Dr. William D. Silkworth M.D. writes on behalf of AA that \"Alcoholics suffer from a \"(physical) craving beyond mental control\". A 1960 study by E. Morton Jellinek is considered the foundation of the modern disease theory of alcoholism. Jellinek's definition restricted the use of the word \"alcoholism\" to those showing a particular natural history. The modern medical definition of \"alcoholism\" has been revised numerous times since then. The American Medical Association uses the word alcoholism to refer to a particular chronic primary disease.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1318497", "title": "Liquor", "section": "Section::::Health effects.:Long-term effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 966, "text": "Alcoholism, also known as \"alcohol use disorder\", is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems. It was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions is present: a person drinks large amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third-leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The aircraft require less power at high altitude because of less air resistance but very few aircraft can operate at very high levels due to the lack of air.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The plane does indeed need a *lot* of oxygen from the air. The front of the engine has *compressor fans* which suck in huge amounts of air and squeeze it much more densely into a small space farther back in the engine, where it is actually used to burn the fuel.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9091093", "title": "Effects of high altitude on humans", "section": "Section::::Acclimatization to altitude.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 553, "text": "The human body can adapt to high altitude through both immediate and long-term acclimatization. At high altitude, in the short term, the lack of oxygen is sensed by the carotid bodies, which causes an increase in the breathing depth and rate (hyperpnea). However, hyperpnea also causes the adverse effect of respiratory alkalosis, inhibiting the respiratory center from enhancing the respiratory rate as much as would be required. Inability to increase the breathing rate can be caused by inadequate carotid body response or pulmonary or renal disease.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1700890", "title": "Forrest Bird", "section": "Section::::Biography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 664, "text": "The newest models of aircraft were capable of exceeding altitudes at which humans can breathe, even with 100% oxygen supplementation, introducing the risk of hypoxia. Bird discovered that an oxygen regulator in a crashed German bomber he was ferrying back to the U.S. for study seemed to contain a pressure breathing circuit. He took the oxygen regulator home, studied it, and made it more functional. It became the standard design for high-altitude oxygen regulators for most military aircraft until recent time. Bird studied medicine \" ... to understand the human body and its stress in flight\". This led to him developing efficient respirators and ventilators.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61048", "title": "Decompression sickness", "section": "Section::::Prevention.:Exposure to altitude.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 788, "text": "One of the most significant breakthroughs in the prevention of altitude DCS is oxygen pre-breathing. Breathing pure oxygen significantly reduces the nitrogen loads in body tissues by reducing the partial pressure of nitrogen in the lungs, which induces diffusion of nitrogen from the blood into the breathing gas, and this effect eventually lowers the concentration of nitrogen in the other tissues of the body. If continued for long enough, and without interruption, this provides effective protection upon exposure to low-barometric pressure environments. However, breathing pure oxygen during flight alone (ascent, en route, descent) does not decrease the risk of altitude DCS as the time required for ascent is generally not sufficient to significantly desaturate the slower tissues.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "459471", "title": "Breathing gas", "section": "Section::::Hypobaric breathing gases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 91, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 91, "end_character": 700, "text": "Breathing gases for use at reduced ambient pressure are used for high altitude flight in unpressurised aircraft, in space flight, particularly in space suits, and for high altitude mountaineering. In all these cases, the primary consideration is providing an adequate partial pressure of oxygen. In some cases the breathing gas has oxygen added to make up a sufficient concentration, and in other cases the breathing gas may be pure or nearly pure oxygen. Closed circuit systems may be used to conserve the breathing gas, which may be in limited supply - in the case of mountaineering the user must carry the supplemental oxygen, and in space flight the cost of lifting mass into orbit is very high.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6338482", "title": "High-altitude research", "section": "Section::::High-altitude medical research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 779, "text": "Although the shortage of air contributes to the effects on the human body, research has found that most altitude sicknesses can be linked to the lack of atmospheric pressure. At low elevation, the pressure is higher because the molecules of air are compressed from the weight of the air above them. However, at higher elevations, the pressure is lower and the molecules are more dispersed. The percentage of oxygen in the air at sea level is the same at high altitudes. But because the air molecules are more spread out at higher altitudes, each breath takes in less oxygen to the body. With this in mind, the lungs take in as much air as possible, but because the atmospheric pressure is lower the molecules are more dispersed, resulting in a lower amount of oxygen per breath.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13105024", "title": "Tupolev Tu-2000", "section": "Section::::Design and development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 465, "text": "Installation of a large number of engines was due to the requirements of maximum efficiency in various modes. Most of the aircraft's volume was occupied by fuel tanks with liquid hydrogen. The crew of two people was located in the nose of the fuselage. Automatic crew rescue system provided rescue at altitudes from zero to maximum. The bow section, including the cabin, was detachable. Two options were considered: rescued on parachute e cockpit and ejected seat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9640", "title": "Engine", "section": "Section::::Types.:Heat engine.:Combustion engine.:Air-breathing combustion engines.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 265, "text": "\"Air-breathing combustion engines\" are combustion engines that use the oxygen in atmospheric air to oxidise ('burn') the fuel, rather than carrying an oxidiser, as in a rocket. Theoretically, this should result in a better specific impulse than for rocket engines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "When urine leaves your body it is body temperature. Your body either heats, or is heated, by the cold or hot food and liquids you eat. Urinating itself does not change your body temperature as you are evacuating this temperature stabilized liquid.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4502013", "title": "Uroscopy", "section": "Section::::Procedures and conventions.:Temperature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 650, "text": "The temperature at which the urine is examined is a very important factor to consider in the process of uroscopy. When a patient urinates, the urine will be warm, so it is necessary for it to stay warm for proper evaluation. The external temperature should be the same as the internal temperature. When the temperature of urine goes down the bubbles in it will change. Some of them will disappear, but some will remain. With the temperature decrease particles and impurities will be more difficult to evaluate. They will move toward the middle of the flask, then sink to the bottom. They will all mix, making it more difficult to see the impurities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "742356", "title": "Greater Swiss Mountain Dog", "section": "Section::::Health.:Urinary incontinence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 580, "text": "Urinary incontinence (UI) is defined as involuntary urination, and most often occurs in Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs as leaking of urine while sleeping; it is a non-life-threatening condition. It seems that more than 20% of the females are affected, usually after being spayed. Incontinence is occasionally found in males as well. Incontinence can occur for many reasons, such as a weak bladder sphincter – generally the most common cause in Greater Swiss Mountain Dogs – urinary tract infection, excessive water consumption, congenital structural defects and spinal cord disease.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "179400", "title": "Urinary incontinence", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 393, "text": "Urinary incontinence (UI), also known as involuntary urination, is any uncontrolled leakage of urine. It is a common and distressing problem, which may have a large impact on quality of life. It has been identified as an important issue in geriatric health care. The term enuresis is often used to refer to urinary incontinence primarily in children, such as nocturnal enuresis (bed wetting).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21625681", "title": "Heat urticaria", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 227, "text": "Heat urticaria presents within five minutes after the skin has been exposed to heat above 43 degrees Celsius (109.4 degrees Fahrenheit), with the exposed area becoming burned, stinging, and turning red, swollen, and indurated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12137890", "title": "Human penis", "section": "Section::::Physiological functions.:Urination.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 620, "text": "Physiologically, urination involves coordination between the central, autonomic, and somatic nervous systems. In infants, some elderly individuals, and those with neurological injury, urination may occur as an involuntary reflex. Brain centers that regulate urination include the pontine micturition center, periaqueductal gray, and the cerebral cortex. During erection, these centers block the relaxation of the sphincter muscles, so as to act as a physiological separation of the excretory and reproductive function of the penis, and preventing urine from entering the upper portion of the urethra during ejaculation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "651031", "title": "Toilet training", "section": "Section::::Approaches.:Accidents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 535, "text": "Accidents, periodic episodes of urinary or fecal incontinence, are generally a normal part of toilet training and are usually not a sign of serious medical issues. Accidents that occur with additional problems, such as pain when urinating or defecating, chronic constipation, or blood in urine or feces, should be evaluated by a pediatrician. The prevalence of nocturnal enuresis, also known as bed wetting, may be as high as 9.7% of seven-year-olds, and 5.5% of ten-year-olds, eventually decreasing to a rate of about 0.5% in adults.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "75649", "title": "Sauna", "section": "Section::::Use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 701, "text": "Perspiration is a sign of autonomic responses trying to cool the body. Users are advised to leave the sauna if the heat becomes unbearable, or if they feel faint or ill. Some saunas have a thermostat to adjust temperature, but management and other users expect to be consulted before changes are made. The sauna heater and rocks are very hot—one must stay well clear to avoid injury, particularly when water is poured on the sauna rocks, which creates an immediate blast of steam. Combustibles on or near the heater have been known to result in fire. Contact lenses dry out in the heat. Jewellery or anything metallic, including glasses, will get hot in the sauna and can cause discomfort or burning.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Poland is western Europe now, hurrey ! :D\n\nfor serious - geopolitics - you cover your interests, secure more allies, resourcers or markets, sometimes it aligns with higher goals like human rights.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Humanitarian missions, formal appeals for foreign military intervention, personal financial investments into regions, political/tactical importance of the region/government they support/fight against. But often in modern times it's been mostly in response to protect lives in response to growing terror organisations. In the cold war era, it was often a battle of communism vs capitalism that required the west to step in to stop the spread of communism and perceived evil. Sometimes it's because of military alliances. It's really hard to give you a definitive answer without a specific example.\n\nBut your assertion that it's only the western world that does this is wholly wrong. The difference is that when the west does it - they're more or less transparent about their presence/reasons for doing it. Asian countries such as India, China and Pakistan have done it before, middle-eastern countries are too unstable in their own regions, so they often don't intervene anywhere else, but they have fought multiple wars in the span of a few decades against each other, so have African countries and African countries often involve themselves in ongoing wars within other African countries to \"Aid\" their allies. Russia has done it multiple times as well. It's just that those countries are the strongest and most stable politically/militarily, therefore they can allow themselves to involve themselves into wars without a risk of destabilising their countries.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Several reasons. \n\n1) We have interconnected economies. So having trade access to resources means that some conflict that you would not think would affect a country really do affect them. \n\n2) We now have invented weapons that are capable of destroying civilization as we know it with a push of a button. Limiting who gets the knowledge to make these weapons, and watching those countries that do have the knowledge is important and it often means going into war or smaller conflicts to prevent the spread of that knowledge. \n\n3) Much of the world powers attempted to practice the philosophical stance of letting countries do whatever they want in their borders and to their neighbors and only getting involved when there was direct threat to them. What happened was the build up of Germany and start of WWII. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "long answer: military industrial complex\n\nshort answer: money\n\nAnyone who says we're oversees for humanitarian reasons is most likely a moron. Think of international politics as a game of civilization. Every world leader is trying to get by with whatever resources they have and there are those few dickheads that got lucky with extra science and production and go around screwing over everyone they can because they can.\n\nSure there are humanitarian efforts, but usually the problems these efforts are fixing are directly related to issues our meddling created in the first place.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'd say as well as the other reasons the dudes have given, there's a lot of partnerships and treaties that the western world are part of, which mean that they sometimes need to go to war to uphold them", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Polemologist here.\nThere is a number of reason which can be summarised as follows (not necessarily sorted by importance:\n\n1) Ethical duty and R2P (Responsibility to protect). \n- > Something bad happens. You want to help the victims / affected.\n\n2) Globalisation.\n- > Interconnectedness of economies. If others have problems, you may have problems in the future.\n- > \"Failed States\". If things get too problematic in a given country terrorist groups or criminals may proliferate and establish themselves in the given country and sequently, from there, target other countries. It is better to prevent an escalation.\n\n3) Diplomacy.\n- > There are a number of international agreements that define how countries can and should help each other in certain situations, even if not directly interested by a particular conflict. \n- > Blowback and intelligence / diplomatic actions. They can be good or bad. If a diplomatic action or intelligence field operation goes wrong you can become a target. Accordingly, even if you had no interest in getting involved, you have to reply, or be ready to jeopardise your \"reputation\".\n\n4) Maybe the most important. The \"Western world\", has to do it. for the above reasons, and a number of other concepts, we are affected by conflicts far away. \n\nIf you want further informations about this look up \nBalance of Power\nGlobalisation\nEconomic interconnectedness\nR2P\nBackground _____ (insert any conflict here, and the reasons why we intervened will become clear).\n\nIn particular, the book \"Resource Wars\" By M. Klare, explains quite well the war in Iraq. Specifically, addresses an audience with little to no knowledge of international affairs and explains the reasons why all the events happened. SPOILER: of course oil is involved, but to fully grasp this kind of events you must be open-minded. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It doesn't. It frequently ignores far worse humanitarian situations, where it could have far more positive impacts. The West/Russia/Iran get involved in conflicts where it is either:\n\na) In their geopolitical interests to do so,\n\nb) In the local political interests to do so, or\n\nc) To get themselves/people they are linked to money.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are a lot of geopolitical benefits on top of the economical and moral obligations the US assumes as a top military power. When the US intervenes in a non-democratic country they gain strong political influence, establishing a country's new democratic system and quite possibly selecting who gets the presidential nod. Our involvement in the Middle East is strongly tied to ridding the world of terrorist groups, dictators, oil, and establishing a strong political ally inside a dangerous region. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Many of the concepts here briefly touch on it but in political science, this is referred to as the Role of Hegemon. It works, but you basically hope that the entity in charge is sane and ethically acting and that they're the best when considering the alternative.\n\n\n1) is a theory of international relations, rooted in research from the fields of political science, economics, and history. HST indicates that the international system is more likely to remain stable when a single nation-state is the dominant world power, or hegemon.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To take a less cynical view than most comments. Look at the issues with refugees in Europe, which in turn is messing the world economy up. It may well have been cheaper to get involved very early and wipe out Isis and or Assad than deal with all this. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Lots of good answers here. One thing I've noticed is the US tends to stay out of problems nearby. My guess is because risky military operations far away have a low chance of direct attack in response.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here's your ELI5: Because it's easier to oil an engine than it is to fix one. Civilization needs a well oiled engine to progress. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'd label it as a side effect of the NATO system which basically exists to shut down future world war scenarios. If you look at NATO as a hegemony with the US at its head, you have a system where they quickly turn into political firefighters. You really don't want anyone who has the potential to fuck with the hegemony (China, Russia mainly,) to feel like you can't keep any of your metaphorical fingers from getting cut off. You make sure you don't get burned, that way you look more like you can't be burned. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The US is about 4.4 percent of the world's population, but we in America have grown accostumed to consuming about a quarter of the world's energy resources (coal, oil, natural gas). \n\nSince we don't actually produce a quarter of the world's energy resources, we must continuously exploit numerous resource producing nations in order to maintain our ever increasing appetite for consumption.\n\nCouple that with a capitalist economy, which absolutely relies on ever increasing growth, it naturally follows that we will be perpetually involved in conflicts abroad in order to both secure resources and to increase profits for our companies. \n\nThis is what every empire in history has done or has tried to do.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "412326", "title": "Democratic peace theory", "section": "Section::::Related theories.:The European peace.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 148, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 148, "end_character": 400, "text": "There is significant debate over whether the lack of any major European general wars since 1945, is due to cooperation and integration of liberal-democratic European states themselves (as in the European Union or Franco-German cooperation), an enforced peace due to intervention of the Soviet Union and the United States until 1989 and the United States alone thereafter , or a combination of both .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6564345", "title": "International incident", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 838, "text": "Wars have often been provoked by international incidents, and diplomatic efforts to prevent international incidents from growing into full-scale armed conflicts often have been unsuccessful. In the aftermath of the First World War, the League of Nations was established to help nations who were parties to an international incident achieve a solution to the incident through diplomatic means. Initially, the League of Nations had some success in working to find diplomatic solutions, however the failure of the League of Nations to prevent World War II resulted in the disbandment of the League of Nations in favor of the United Nations. As with its predecessor, the United Nations provides a means by which nations involved in an international incident can work to resolve the matter diplomatically rather than through the use of force.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "636943", "title": "Grand strategy", "section": "Section::::In the United States.:In the 1990s.:Neo-isolationism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 914, "text": "With similar roots in the realist tradition of international relations, selective engagement advocates that the United States should intervene in regions of the world only if they directly affect its security and prosperity. The focus, therefore, lies on those powers with significant industrial and military potential and the prevention of war amongst those states. Most proponents of this strategy believe Europe, Asia and the Middle East matter most to the United States. Europe and Asia contain the great powers, which have the greatest military and economic impact on international politics, and the Middle East is a primary source of oil for much of the developed world. In addition to these more particular concerns, selective engagement also focuses on preventing nuclear proliferation and any conflict that could lead to a great power war, but provides no clear guidelines for humanitarian interventions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "372836", "title": "Great power", "section": "Section::::History.:Great powers at peace.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 578, "text": "Another important factor is the apparent consensus among Western great powers that military force is no longer an effective tool of resolving disputes among their peers. This \"subset\" of great powers – France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States – consider maintaining a \"state of peace\" as desirable. As evidence, Baron outlines that since the Cuban missile crisis (1962) during the Cold War, these influential Western nations have resolved all disputes among the great powers peacefully at the United Nations and other forums of international discussion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3938470", "title": "History of international law", "section": "Section::::The League of Nations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 993, "text": "Following World War I, as after the Thirty Years' War, there was an outcry for rules of warfare to protect civilian populations, as well as a desire to curb invasions. The League of Nations, established after the war, attempted to curb invasions by enacting a treaty agreement providing for economic and military sanctions against member states that used \"external aggression\" to invade or conquer other member states. An international court was established, the Permanent Court of International Justice, to arbitrate disputes between nations without resorting to war. Meanwhile, many nations signed treaties agreeing to use international arbitration rather than warfare to settle differences. International crises, however, demonstrated that nations were not yet committed to the idea of giving external authorities a say in how nations conducted their affairs. Aggression on the part of Germany, Italy and Japan went unchecked by international law, and it took a Second World War to end it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46002", "title": "Pax Americana", "section": "Section::::Modern period.:Late 20th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 375, "text": "After the Second World War, no armed conflict emerged among major Western nations themselves, and no nuclear weapons were used in open conflict. The United Nations was also soon developed after World War II to help keep peaceful relations between nations and establishing the veto power for the permanent members of the UN Security Council, which included the United States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45506", "title": "World peace", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 506, "text": "Various religious and secular organisations have the stated aim of achieving world peace through addressing human rights, technology, education, engineering, medicine or diplomacy used as an end to all forms of fighting. Since 1945, the United Nations and the 5 permanent members of its Security Council (the US, Russia, China, France and the UK) have operated under the aim to resolve conflicts without war or declarations of war. Nonetheless, nations have entered numerous military conflicts since then.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Let's assume that Hernando Pizarro was telling the truth about the size of the ransom and that all the promised ransom was received. Here is the description from Hernando Pizarro \n\n > for that he could give them ten thousand plates, and that he could fill the room in which he was up to a white line, which was the height of a man and a half from the floor. The room was seventeen or eighteen feet wide and thirty-five feet long.\n\nWe'll start with the room. Assuming that the average height of a man was 5 feet, that would make the volume of the room to the line 17ftx35ftx7.5ft. 4462.5 cubic feet. One cubic foot of gold weights 1206 lbs so the total amount in the room would have been, accounting for open space, less than 5,381,775 lbs of gold. There is approximately 280,000,000 lbs of gold above ground in the world. So that would make it about 1.9%. \n\n[Here](_URL_1_) is a picture of silver Incan plates, let's assume the gold ones Pizarro describes are the same size. They are not very big, so let's put their weight at 2 pounds. That would add 20,000 lbs of gold to the ransom which even at 10 lbs a plate is a negligible amount compared to the world's gold supply.\n\n* Sources: \n* _URL_2_\n* _URL_0_\n* _URL_3_\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "According to my copy of 1491, the room Atahualpa filled was 22 feet by 17 feet, and it was filled to a height of 8 feet.\n\n[According to the BBC](_URL_0_), the total amount of gold in the world is about 67^3 feet^3.\n\nIf you assume that the room was filled by a solid block of gold, it works out to be a little less than 1% of the current gold supply. Of course, there was probably much less gold than that - many objects, like cups, are mostly empty space, and the objects wouldn't have been perfectly packed in there. I think you can reasonably say that the amount of gold Atahualpa was ransomed for was somewhere between .0001% and 1% of the current world supply, and is probably closer to the range of .01% to .001%.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "524260", "title": "Ransom", "section": "Section::::Ransom cases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 333, "text": "In 1532, Francisco Pizarro was paid a ransom amounting to a roomful of gold by the Inca Empire before having their leader Atahualpa, his victim, executed in a ridiculous trial. The ransom payment received by Pizarro is recognized as the largest ever paid to a single individual, probably over $2 billion in today's economic markets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41237066", "title": "Action of Faial", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 524, "text": "The cargo of \"Cinco Chagas\" (along with the salvaged cargo from the two other ships) was worth well in excess of 2,000,000 ducats, and in addition there were twenty-two treasure chests of diamonds, rubies and pearls estimated to be worth US$15–20 billion by 2017 values. The prisoners that were saved told their captors that yielding had been impossible as the riches were for the king of Spain and Portugal and that the captain, being highly in the king's favor, would upon his return have been made viceroy in the Indies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12238650", "title": "Maidnappers", "section": "Section::::Epilogue.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 1088, "text": "Meanwhile, Dobermaxx delivers 64,000 pieces of 900-troy ounce gold bullion as full payment for the Philippines foreign debt of USD 29.189 billion (in 1992 figures) to Mother Teresa, who acts as his go-between, since he did not wish for his identity to be known. The gold haul was implied to be the Dobermaxx found in Fort Santiago. He also does the payment anonymously to effectively bypass government law of giving 10% of the find to the National Treasury and keep the treasure off the hands of corrupt officials (such as Senator Cabalfin, who unwittingly said that the bullion should go to his pocket before correcting himself). Shortly after, Mother Teresa arrives in the Philippines to start a fund for calamity victims using the staggering but still enormous amount from the gold. While Dagul and Polgas watch the news reports of these matters, despite the obviousness of the featured silhouette, Dagul asks Polgas his opinion on who the mystery benefactor was, to which the dog convincingly feigns indifference to such matters, effectively keeping his actions with the gold secret.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "400008", "title": "Golden Hind", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 247, "text": "On 1 March 1579, now in the Pacific Ocean, off the coast of Ecuador, \"Golden Hind\" challenged and captured the Spanish galleon . This galleon had the largest treasure captured to that date: over 360,000 pesos (equivalent to around £480m in 2017).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2156620", "title": "April 1967", "section": "Section::::April 6, 1967 (Thursday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 579, "text": "BULLET::::- Marking the largest ransom in United States history up to that time, $250,000 was paid by the president of a bank in Beverly Hills, California, for the safe release of his 11-year-old son, who had been kidnapped from his home three days earlier. A few days short of three years later, Ronald Lee Miller, an investigator for the Internal Revenue Service, would be indicted for the crime before the 3-year statute of limitations expired. After his conviction, Miller would be sentenced to life imprisonment without parole. None of the ransom money would ever be found.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2033771", "title": "Zaruma", "section": "Section::::History.:Inca invasion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 415, "text": "The Inca, now settled in Zaruma, felt compelled to contribute to the ransom of Atahualpa when he was taken prisoner by the Spanish. In 1533, their chief Quinará decided to take a lot of gold in order to pay this ransom. Records say that he crossed the river Pisco Bamba, Catamayo Canton, but on learning of Atahualpa's execution he buried the gold in deep galleries close to the Guatuchi Hacienda in Loja Province.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "453778", "title": "Atahualpa", "section": "Section::::Prison and execution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 549, "text": "On 17 November the Spaniards sacked the Inca army camp, in which they found great treasures of gold, silver, and emeralds. Noticing their lust for precious metals, Atahualpa offered to fill a large room about long and wide up to a height of once with gold and twice with silver within two months. It is commonly believed that Atahualpa offered this ransom to regain his freedom. But Hemming says that he did so to save his life. None of the early chroniclers mention any commitment by the Spaniards to free Atahualpa once the metals were delivered.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The so-called 'Order of the White Feather' was created in Britain in 1914 by a former admiral, and essentially involved handing out 'white feathers' to anyone, specifically men, not seen as supporting the war effort, ie not enlisting. Some British women's organizations handed out feathers, an act that symbolizes 'cowardice' on the part of the receiver and which predated WWI. However, they seem to have been a minority, [with Stephen Badsey indicating that most references to them he's seen from the time being in the context of complaints against their activities.] (_URL_0_) It would seem their activities were curtailed, and by 1915 Compulsion had been introduced under the Derby Plan, and eventually Conscription was introduced at the beginning of 1916. The appearance of the White Feather seems to have died out by 1916, which seems to suggest a correlation with Conscription being enacted.\n\nIt's also worth noting that few men before conscription enlisted purely on compulsion; the Derby Plan netted 80 000 in 1915, the roughly same number as that of volunteers in August 1914. [Compare this again to the over 100 000 men that volunteered in the first fortnight of September 1914, following the publishing of the Mons Dispatch.] (_URL_1_)\n\nIf you want some good sources on wartime Britain (1914-1918), I'd highly recommend *The Last Great War: British Society in the First World War* by Adrian Gregory, *A Kingdom United* by Catriona Pannell, *Myriad Faces of War* by Trevor Wilson and *Different Wars, Different Experiences* by Janet K Watson. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "42828596", "title": "Women in World War II", "section": "Section::::Allies.:Great Britain.:Volunteers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 90, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 90, "end_character": 1329, "text": "Despite their obvious distinctions from men, women were eager to volunteer. Many of the servicewomen came from restricted backgrounds; therefore they found the army liberating. Other reasons women volunteered included escaping unhappy homes or marriages, or to have a more stimulating job. The overwhelming reason for joining the army, though, was patriotism. As in World War I, Great Britain was in a patriotic fervour throughout World War II to protect itself from foreign invasion. Women, for the first time, were given the opportunity to help in their native land's defense, which explains the high number of female volunteers at the beginning of the war. Despite the overwhelming response to the call for female volunteers, some women refused to join the forces; many were unwilling to give up the civilian job they had, and others had male counterparts that were unwilling to let them go . Others felt that war was still a man's job, and not something women should be involved in. Similar to the men's forces, women's forces were mostly volunteer throughout the war. When women's conscription did come into effect, however, it was highly limited. For example, married women were exempt from any obligation to serve unless they chose to do so, and those who were called could opt to serve in civil defense (the home front).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27316915", "title": "World War I conscription in Australia", "section": "Section::::The role of women.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1163, "text": "One the primary roles of women in conscription was in the recruiting and campaigns. They would often be on posters or in the posts. They would be positioned during this time as vulnerable, perhaps with children, and be made out to be weak, and therefore in need of protection. One quote from one photos even recounts, 'Any right—minded woman would rather be a mother or sister of a dead hero than of a living shirker.' Women during World War I were also a huge pacifist movement often going through great deals to hold out for peace. Once again, they portrayed themselves as wives, sisters, sweethearts or mothers. Women often did less dangerous jobs that needed to be done for instance visiting and healing wounded soldiers. Often, they would hold small or confectionery sales, such as sold buttons on button days, rattled collection boxes on collection days, organised fetes, baked cakes, put together 'comfort parcels' and, above all they knitted. Quite a few women looked to take a greater part in the more war related activities. This included cooking, stretcher bearing, drivers, interpreters and munitions workers. However the government did not allow it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "161441", "title": "Recruitment to the British Army during the First World War", "section": "Section::::Volunteer Army, 1914–15.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 392, "text": "The women's suffrage movement was sharply divided, the slight majority becoming very enthusiastic patriots and asking their members to give white feathers (the sign of the coward) in the streets to men who appeared to be of military age to shame them into service. After assaults became prevalent the Silver War Badge was issued to men who were not eligible or had been medically discharged.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19827726", "title": "Sex in the American Civil War", "section": "Section::::Female soldiers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 1256, "text": "Women had different motivations for joining the army, just as did their male counterparts. A common reason was to escape pre-arranged marriages. Sarah Edmonds, for example, left her home in maritime Canada and fled to the United States to avoid marriage—but took the ultimate protective step of dressing as a man and enlisting in the Union Army to avoid detection. Loreta Janeta Velazquez, on the other hand, was driven to enlist by more personal motivations; inspired by the example of Joan of Arc and other historical women warriors, she was idealistic about feminine potential on the battlefield, insisting that,“when women have rushed to the battlefield, they have invariably distinguished themselves.” Sarah Rosetta Wakeman had been living as a man long before the outbreak of the war, hoping to find better-paying work on the riverboats of New York rather than as a female domestic servant. She was, therefore, compelled to enlist by an economic imperative; the prospect of steady pay as an enlisted soldier in the Union Army appeared to be preferable to the instability of day labour. Whatever the original motivations of the individual female soldiers, however, they ultimately took part in the war on similar terms as their male brothers-in-arms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9374383", "title": "American propaganda during World War II", "section": "Section::::Themes.:War effort.:Womanpower.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 145, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 145, "end_character": 309, "text": "The woman war worker was commonly used as a symbol of the home front, perhaps because, unlike a male figure, the question of why she was not serving in the armed forces would not be raised. In many stories, the woman worker appeared as an example to a selfish woman who then reformed and obtained employment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51655083", "title": "Mary F. Thomas", "section": "Section::::American Civil War service.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 754, "text": "During the American Civil War, women's public roles were expanded out of necessity as men joined the military. Some women organized events to raise funds to aid soldiers' families, ran family businesses and farms, or volunteered as nurses to help care for wounded soldiers. Thomas was active in these efforts. In March 1862, Indiana Governor Oliver P. Morton established the Indiana Sanitary Commission to help raise funds and gather supplies for troops in the field. Thomas initially worked in Richmond, Indiana, for a year gathering supplies for the war effort. Beginning in January 1863, Governor Morton and the Indiana Sanitary Commission enlisted the aid of women, including Thomas, to help carry supplies to the front line ans to serve as nurses. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "611740", "title": "French Army", "section": "Section::::Personnel.:Officers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 292, "text": "Civilian women were hired by the French army in the First World War, thereby opening new opportunities for them, forcing a redefinition of military identity, and revealing the strength of anti-Republicanism within the Army. Officers by the 1920s accepted women as part of their institution. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Follow up, when did the Byzantines stop using Latin and changed to more Greek names?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "That depends on the time period and location. Up until around the sixth century, you can see a lot of emperors having Latinate names, like Flavius Sabbatius Iustinianus (not that I'm biased!), Constantinus, or Iulianus. Later, more Hellenic names appear, like Basileios the Bulgar-Slayer or Alexios Komnenos. It's worth noting that those two are usually anglicized and latinized, respectively, as Basil and Alexius Comnenus. Now, since the Byzantine heartland was around the southern Balkans and Anatolia, Greek names would dominate the lower classes in much of the Empire. At its further reaches, one could also find Slavs, Armenians, Arabs, and others. Furthermore, in Constantinople there existed a large Italian presence thanks to the merchant republics. \n\nAgain, though, you're asking about a period of roughly a thousand years and an area covering much of the eastern Mediterranean. It's hard to generalize. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "**Background** (to build upon /u/EMPEROR_JUSTINIAN_I) Historically Hellenes practiced mononomia (meaning they only had one given name, i.e. Alexander or Pericles). Typically those names would have two components just like Germanic names. In addition with the long recorded history of Greeks and Hellenes there was a wide record of possible names to give to your child. After the Roman conquest, Greek Roman citizens use a mix of the Roman trianomia (usually the praenomen and nomen of their first sponsor) using their Greek name as cognomen. With the declining use of the trianomina among Roman citizen starting the 4th century BC, Greeks simply reverted back to mononomia in their own language. By the 6th century, even in Latin record of the ERE most individual are only identified by their given name, only old senatorial families keep alive the practice of multinomina.\n\n\nOne of the most important factor in the change of naming conventions among Hellenes is obviously Christianity bringing both names from the Bible, and names related to Christian concept or affiliation (i.e. Theophilos or Christophoros). Side note: some major Latin names made their way into Greek (most notably Constantine), while Greek gave many Christian name to Latin speakers.\n\n\n*So what about the 13th century:* If you look at the Palaiologos line, you see names heavily influence by Christianity, both names from the Bible and theophoric names. But some classic Greek names remain too (Andronicus in this case). This is a feat that is also present in the west with Germanic names coexisting along side Latin/Christian names in the same family (the Capet dynasty of France mostly used Charles, Louis, Robert for their sons since the 10th century, names which are all Germanic but later they also started to used Philippe (i.e. Philip) a very old Greek name, and later Jean (i.e. John)). The 13th century is also a complicated time for the Empire falling to the Latin in 1204. So it is very likely that at some level Germanic or Latin names penetrated into the Greek culture among the lower classes at least for a time. Another interesting things is the use of several family names in the mobility to demonstrate lineage (especially in relation to the former imperial lines), when the West was only starting to spread the use of family names for the commoners.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5434729", "title": "Names of Istanbul", "section": "Section::::Historical names in other languages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 283, "text": "Many peoples neighboring on the Byzantine Empire used names expressing concepts like \"The Great City\", \"City of the Emperors\", \"Capital of the Romans\" or similar. During the 10th to 12th century Constantinople was one of the largest two cities in the world, the other being Baghdad.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39370487", "title": "Cangelari family", "section": "Section::::General information.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 2057, "text": "Of Byzantine origin according to tradition and a family of warriors and priests at the outset, its members will later distinguish themselves in the fields of trade, shipping, arts and letters. Their surname is mentioned for the first time by the mid-12th century in the person of a great Byzantine hagiographer of that era Luca Cancellari (in Greek: Λουκάς Καγκελλάρης), to whom are assigned the oldest and best icons of Virgin Mary and who is often confused with the Apostle Luke. Etymologically it goes back to the Latin \"cancellarius\", which means \"chief secretary\" or \"chancellor\", designates an office and thus in its original form must have been Cangellarios (in Greek: Καγκελλάριος). After the fall of Constantinople they fled to Corfu, from where they migrated in the early 16th century to settle at the village Vari in the region of Erisso, in Cephalonia, where they were entrusted with the military command of the region. Their inscription in the Golden Book of the island (in Italian: Libro d'Oro) is recorded in 1652, however, members of the family participated already before 1560 to the Council of Notables (in Italian: \"Conseglio dei Primarii\") and later to the Community Council (in Italian: \"Conseglio della Communità\") of Cephalonia. In the 16th century they will migrate to other parts of the island (St. George Castle, Pirgo, Plagia, Vassilikades, Asso, Cothria) and in the 17th and 18th centuries at Sami (Alevrata, Grizata, Zervata), Lixouri (Mantzavinata) and Argostoli. With the liberation of Lefkada from the Ottoman yoke, members will establish themselves there (Santa Maura, City of Lefkas or Amaxiki, St Peter), as well as at Preveza and Arta. During the 19th century members will settle in mainland Greece (Athens, Andravida, Patras etc.), the Ottoman Empire (Constantinople, Kios, Princes Islands), Romania (Braila), Crimea (Kerch) and Egypt (Suez, Alexandria). In the 20th century they will migrate to Africa (Asmara of Eritrea, Belgian Congo, Burundi, etc.), Jerusalem, Cyprus, the United States, Australia and other places.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14771231", "title": "List of monarchs of Sardinia", "section": "Section::::Judges.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 377, "text": "Of those rulers, only two names are known: Salusios (Σαλούσιος) and the \"protospatharios\" Turcoturios (Tουρκοτούριος), who probably reigned some time in the 10th and 11th centuries. They were still closely linked to the Byzantines, both by a pact of ancient vassalage and culturally, with the use of the Greek language (in a country of the Romance language) and Byzantine art.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42056", "title": "Greeks", "section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 1715, "text": "During most of the Middle Ages, the Byzantine Greeks self-identified as \"Rhōmaîoi\" (, \"Romans\", meaning citizens of the Roman Empire), a term which in the Greek language had become synonymous with Christian Greeks. The Latinizing term \"Graikoí\" (Γραικοί, \"Greeks\") was also used, though its use was less common, and nonexistent in official Byzantine political correspondence, prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204. The Eastern Roman Empire (today conventionally named the \"Byzantine Empire\", a name not used during its own time) became increasingly influenced by Greek culture after the 7th century when Emperor Heraclius ( 610–641 AD) decided to make Greek the empire's official language. Although the Catholic Church recognized the Eastern Empire's claim to the Roman legacy for several centuries, after Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne, king of the Franks, as the \"Roman Emperor\" on 25 December 800, an act which eventually led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire, the Latin West started to favour the Franks and began to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire largely as the \"Empire of the Greeks\" (\"Imperium Graecorum\"). In the eastern Roman Empire the use of the Latinizing term \"Graikoí\" (Γραικοί, \"Greeks\") was uncommon and nonexistent in official Byzantine political correspondence, prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204. While this Latin term for the ancient \"Hellenes\" could be used neutrally, its use by Westerners from the 9th century onwards in order to challenge Byzantine claims to ancient Roman heritage rendered it a derogatory exonym for the Byzantines who barely used it, mostly in contexts relating to the West, such as texts relating to the Council of Florence, to present the Western viewpoint.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46778939", "title": "Tekfur", "section": "Section::::Origin and meaning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 744, "text": "The origin of the title is uncertain. It has been suggested that it derives from the Byzantine imperial name \"Nikephoros\", via Arabic \"Nikfor.\" It is sometimes also said that it derives from the Armenian \"takavor\", \"king\". The term and its variants (\"tekvur\", \"tekur\", \"tekir\", etc.) began to be used by historians writing in Persian or Turkish in the 13th century, to refer to \"denote Byzantine lords or governors of towns and fortresses in Anatolia (Bithynia, Pontus) and Thrace. It often denoted Byzantine frontier warfare leaders, commanders of \"akritai\", but also Byzantine princes and emperors themselves\", e.g. in the case of the \"Tekfur Sarayı \", the Turkish name of the Palace of the Porphyrogenitus in Constantinople (mod. Istanbul).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "364407", "title": "Daqin", "section": "Section::::Naming conventions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 714, "text": "In the Chinese histories, the names of Romans and Byzantines were often transliterated into Chinese as they were heard, yet occasionally the surname stemmed from their country of origin, Daqin (大秦). For instance, the Roman merchant Qin Lun (秦論), who visited the Eastern Wu court of Sun Quan in 226 AD, bears the surname derived from the name for his homeland, while having a given name that is perhaps derived from the Greek name Leon (e.g. Leon of Sparta). In the Han-era intermediate spoken language between Old Chinese and Middle Chinese, the pronunciation for his given name \"Lun\" (論) would have sounded quite different than modern spoken Mandarin: K. 470b *li̯wən / li̯uĕn or *lwən / luən; EMC lwən or lwənh.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "64676", "title": "Constantine XI Palaiologos", "section": "Section::::Regnal number.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 652, "text": "Regnal numbers, used in many monarchies since medieval times to differentiate among rulers with the same name in the same office reigning over the same territory, were never used in the Roman Empire. Despite the increase in emperors with the same name during the Middle Ages, such as the several Michaels and Constantines, the practice was never introduced. Instead, the Byzantines used nicknames and patronymics to distinguish rulers of the same name. As such, the numbering of Byzantine emperors is a purely historiographical invention, created by historians beginning with Edward Gibbon in his \"History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The Polish army was strong for a country of its economical development - it was well trained and equipped with modern arms. However, they were unable to stand up to the full power of a grand power such as Germany, and even less the power of two grand powers (Germany and the Soviet Union).\n\nThe Soviet-Polish war and the Polish gains in it earned it the enmity of the Soviet Union. It already had the enmity of Germany due to existing partially on previously German land that the Germans wanted back. It also had the enmity of Lithuania, since it had annexed the city of Vilnius and the area around it.\n\nCzechoslovakia and Poland also had a strained relationship, since Czechoslovakia had used the timing of the Polish-Soviet war to grab the contested area of Teschen from Poland.\n\nPoland had friendly relations with Romania and France though.\n\nAs you can see from this, the Polish-Soviet war placed Poland in a strategic and diplomatic vice from which it could not escape. Once Germany and the Soviet Union came to an agreement, there was very little the Poles could do to change their situation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9909828", "title": "Territorial evolution of Poland", "section": "Section::::Second Polish Republic and occupation 1918 to 1945.:1919.:Polish–Soviet War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 112, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 112, "end_character": 632, "text": "The Polish–Soviet War (February 1919 – March 1921) was an armed conflict between Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine on the one hand and the Second Polish Republic and the short-lived Ukrainian People's Republic on the other. The war was the result of conflicting expansionist ambitions. Poland, whose statehood had just been re-established by the Treaty of Versailles following the Partitions of Poland in the late 18th century, sought to secure territories it had lost at the time of the partitions. The aim of the Soviet states was to control those same territories, which the Russian Empire had gained in the partitions of Poland.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1687689", "title": "Polish–Soviet War in 1920", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 772, "text": "The Polish–Soviet war erupted in 1919 in the aftermath of World War I. The root causes were twofold: a territorial dispute dating back to Polish–Russian wars in the 17–18th centuries; and a clash of ideology due to RSFSR's goal of spreading communist rule further west, to Europe (Soviet westward offensive of 1918–19). At that time both countries had just undergone transition: in 1918 Poland reclaimed independence after 123 years of partitions. In 1917 the October Revolution replaced the liberal, democratic Provisional Government, that had previously displaced the Tsar in Russia, with Soviet rule. The war ended with the Treaty of Riga in 1921, which settled the border issue and regulated Polish-Soviet relations until the German-Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46941733", "title": "Government of Vladimir Lenin", "section": "Section::::Consolidating revolution.:Civil War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 974, "text": "In 1920, the Polish-Soviet War broke out after Poland attempted to annex parts of Belarus and Western Ukraine; by May 1920 they had conquered Kiev. After forcing the Polish army back, Lenin urged the Russian Army to push into Poland itself, believing that the Polish proletariat would rise up to support the Russian troops and thus spark European revolution. Although Trotsky and other Bolsheviks were sceptical, they eventually agreed to the invasion; however, the Polish proletariat failed to raise up against their government, and the Red Army was defeated at the Battle of Warsaw. Lenin had also sent a note to E. M. Sulyanski, in which he called on the Red Army to hang kulaks, clergy, and landed gentry, before blaming these attacks on Green armies. The Polish armies began to push the Red Army back into Russia, forcing Sovnarkom to sue for peace; the war culminated in the Peace of Riga, a treaty in which Russia ceded territory to Poland and paid them reparations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "461582", "title": "War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 678, "text": "In 1939 the invading forces consisted of 1.5 million Germans and nearly half a million Soviets. Poland's territory was divided between Nazi Germany and the USSR. In the summer and autumn of 1941 the lands annexed in the east by the Soviets, containing large Ukrainian and Belarusian populations, were overrun by Nazi Germany in the initially successful Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union.The occupying countries' actions eclipsed the sovereign Polish state and inflicted massive damage to the country's cultural heritage. Other war crimes against Poland included deportations aimed at ethnic cleansing, imposition of forced labor, pacifications, and genocidal acts. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "512808", "title": "Stanisławów Voivodeship", "section": "Section::::September 1939 and its aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 827, "text": "Following German aggression on Poland, and in accordance with the secret protocol of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland on September 17, 1939. As bulk of the Polish Army was concentrated in the west, fighting Germans, the Soviets met with little resistance and their troops quickly moved westwards. Polish authorities originally intended to organize anti-German resistance in Stanisławów Voivodeship \"(see: Romanian Bridgehead)\", with Polish Army units planned to stand ground until the spring of 1940 when French attack on Germany was expected. However, the Soviet invasion of Poland rendered these plans ineffectual. It is estimated that prior to Soviet counter-offensive in the later part of World War II, over 18,000 Polish civilians in Stanisławów Voivodeship fell victims to OUN-UPA massacres.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "340235", "title": "History of Poland (1918–1939)", "section": "Section::::Formative years (1918-1921).:War with Soviet Union.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 1214, "text": "The Polish-Soviet war, began in 1919, was the most important of the regional wars. Piłsudski first carried out a major military thrust into Ukraine in 1920 and in May Polish-Ukrainian forces reached Kiev. Just a few weeks later, however, the Polish offensive was met with a Soviet counter-offensive, and Polish forces were forced into a retreat by the Red Army. Poland was driven out of Ukraine and back into the Polish heartland. Most observers at the time marked Poland for extinction and Bolshevization, However at the Battle of Warsaw Piłsudski organized a stunning counterattack that won a famous victory. This \"Miracle on the Vistula\" became an iconic victory in Polish memory. Piłsudski resumed the offensive, pushing the Red forces east. Eventually both sides, exhausted, signed a compromise peace treaty at Riga in early 1921 that divided the disputed territories of Belarus and Ukraine between the two combatants. These acquisitions were recognized by the international agreement with the Entente. The treaty gave Poland an eastern border well beyond what the peacemakers in Paris had envisioned, and added 4,000,000 Ukrainians, 2,000,000 Jews, and 1,000,000 Belarusians to Poland's minority population.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30293887", "title": "Jewish–Ukrainian relations in Eastern Galicia", "section": "Section::::During the Soviet Annexation of Western Ukraine (1939–41).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 689, "text": "In September 1939 Poland was invaded and divided between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union (USSR), with most of Eastern Galicia falling under Soviet rule. Although the Soviets initially sought to win over the local Ukrainian population, their policies grew increasingly repressive. Ukrainian organizations not controlled by the Soviets were limited or abolished. Hundreds of credit unions and cooperatives that had served the Ukrainian people between the wars were shut down, and Ukrainian libraries, reading rooms, and newspapers were similarly closed. Mass arrests led to the deportation of up to 500,000 Ukrainians from regions annexed by the USSR between 1939 and the German invasion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Gravity pulls things down. You can exploit this for energy, but only once.\n\nOnce the object has exhausted its \"gravitational potential\" (i.e. hit the ground) you can't extract any more without first picking it up again.\n\nWe do extract energy from falling water in hydroelectric dams, but again the water can only pass the dam once.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because all of the energy produced by the system must invariably be reused to provide the potential energy used for the next cycle. The amount of energy you put into moving the rock up the hill is equivalent to the energy released when it rolls back down. The result is that you'll never get more energy out than you put in. Then throw in entropy generation as a constant bleed-off of useful energy due to inevitable inefficiencies, and you'll always be operating at a net loss.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "54077", "title": "Perpetual motion", "section": "Section::::Basic principles.:Techniques.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 1109, "text": "Gravity also acts at a distance, without an apparent energy source, but to get energy out of a gravitational field (for instance, by dropping a heavy object, producing kinetic energy as it falls) one has to put energy in (for instance, by lifting the object up), and some energy is always dissipated in the process. A typical application of gravity in a perpetual motion machine is Bhaskara's wheel in the 12th century, whose key idea is itself a recurring theme, often called the overbalanced wheel: moving weights are attached to a wheel in such a way that they fall to a position further from the wheel's center for one half of the wheel's rotation, and closer to the center for the other half. Since weights further from the center apply a greater torque, it was thought that the wheel would rotate for ever. However, since the side with weights further from the center has fewer weights than the other side, at that moment, the torque is balanced and perpetual movement is not achieved. The moving weights may be hammers on pivoted arms, or rolling balls, or mercury in tubes; the principle is the same.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54077", "title": "Perpetual motion", "section": "Section::::Basic principles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 268, "text": "Even machines which extract energy from long-lived sources - such as ocean currents - will run down when their energy sources inevitably do. They are not perpetual motion machines because they are consuming energy from an external source and are not isolated systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "67088", "title": "Conservation of energy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 458, "text": "A consequence of the law of conservation of energy is that a perpetual motion machine of the first kind cannot exist, that is to say, no system without an external energy supply can deliver an unlimited amount of energy to its surroundings. For systems which do not have time translation symmetry, it may not be possible to define conservation of energy. Examples include curved spacetimes in general relativity or time crystals in condensed matter physics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54077", "title": "Perpetual motion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 274, "text": "Perpetual motion is motion of bodies that continues indefinitely. A perpetual motion machine is a hypothetical machine that can do work indefinitely without an energy source. This kind of machine is impossible, as it would violate the first or second law of thermodynamics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19080286", "title": "Natural resource economics", "section": "Section::::Perpetual resources vs. exhaustibility.:Background and introduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 941, "text": "The perpetual resource concept is a complex one because the concept of resource is complex and changes with the advent of new technology (usually more efficient recovery), new needs, and to a lesser degree with new economics (e.g. changes in prices of the material, changes in energy costs, etc.). On the one hand, a material (and its resources) can enter a time of shortage and become a strategic and critical material (an immediate exhaustibility crisis), but on the other hand a material can go out of use, its resource can proceed to being perpetual if it was not before, and then the resource can become a paleoresource when the material goes almost completely out of use (e.g. resources of arrowhead-grade flint). Some of the complexities influencing resources of a material include the extent of recyclability, the availability of suitable substitutes for the material in its end-use products, plus some other less important factors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "410793", "title": "Continuity equation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 911, "text": "Continuity equations are a stronger, local form of conservation laws. For example, a weak version of the law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed—i.e., the total amount of energy in the universe is fixed. This statement does not rule out the possibility that a quantity of energy could disappear from one point while simultaneously appearing at another point. A stronger statement is that energy is \"locally\" conserved: energy can neither be created nor destroyed, \"nor\" can it \"teleport\" from one place to another—it can only move by a continuous flow. A continuity equation is the mathematical way to express this kind of statement. For example, the continuity equation for electric charge states that the amount of electric charge in any volume of space can only change by the amount of electric current flowing into or out of that volume through its boundaries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23703", "title": "Potential energy", "section": "Section::::Gravitational potential energy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 520, "text": "Gravitational energy is the potential energy associated with gravitational force, as work is required to elevate objects against Earth's gravity. The potential energy due to elevated positions is called gravitational potential energy, and is evidenced by water in an elevated reservoir or kept behind a dam. If an object falls from one point to another point inside a gravitational field, the force of gravity will do positive work on the object, and the gravitational potential energy will decrease by the same amount.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]