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[ { "answer": "Yes, Jupiter might even be one. Even if it is not then other gas giants could be formed by gravitational instability in which there is no solid core (at least at the early stages but there are processes which may form one later).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I would say unlikely, but not necessarily impossible. Depending on the size of the planet, the pressure on the core is likely to cause it to solidify, even at high internal temperatures. Equally, the surface is likely to cool to a solid, and in order to remain liquid would need a gaseous atmosphere to insulate it. Even solar system moons like Europa and Enceladus that are considered to have large quantities of subsurface liquid water have ice surfaces and solid cores.\n\nExtrasolar planets, however, could be different. I could imagine a planet primarily composed of, say, helium II, which could potentially remain liquid even near absolute zero. Because it’s more or less impossible for helium to solidify, it might remain liquid even at the core. The surface, however, might still evaporate to a gas from solar exposure, etc.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think it would be difficult, because liquids are only stable in a limited pressure range.\n\nAt low pressures, ie on a planetary surface exposed to vacuum, liquids are not stable. A liquid surface will either boil and surround itself with an atmosphere, or else will freeze solid.\n\nBut maybe you ignore the atmosphere? Well the other problem is that at high enough pressure and temperature, there is no distinction between liquid and gas! Basically as the pressure rises the molecules in a gas get compressed together, and as the temperature rises the molecules in a liquid push further apart, and at the *critical point* gas and liquid become one and the same, and the result is called a *supercritical fluid*.\n\nThen there's also the issue that at high enough pressure a liquid or a supercritical fluid will become solid.\n\nThat said there are a vast range of liquids. Maybe there is one that, in a certain size planet (big enough to *be* a planet) with a certain amount of solar heating, would be able to stay liquid all the way through, avoiding becoming either a supercritical fluid or a solid. I doubt it would occur naturally, but sufficiently advanced aliens could build it.\n\n(Come to think of it, maybe a ball of molten iron somewhat smaller than the Earth would do the trick?)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18993825", "title": "Liquid", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 597, "text": "The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, and much higher than in a gas. Therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, they are both called fluids. Although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to exist. Most known matter in the universe is in gaseous form (with traces of detectable solid matter) as interstellar clouds or in plasma from within stars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11322595", "title": "Extraterrestrial liquid water", "section": "Section::::Indicators, methods of detection and confirmation.:Water rich circumstellar disks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 515, "text": "There is, of course, no guarantee that the other conditions will be found that allow liquid water to be present on a planetary surface. Should planetary mass objects be present, a single, gas giant planet, with or without planetary mass moons, orbiting close to the circumstellar habitable zone, could prevent the necessary conditions from occurring in the system. However, it would mean that planetary mass objects, such as the icy bodies of the solar system, could have abundant quantities of liquid within them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18842359", "title": "Ocean", "section": "Section::::Extraterrestrial oceans.:Non-water surface liquids.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 1229, "text": "Oceans, seas, lakes and other bodies of liquids can be composed of liquids other than water, for example the hydrocarbon lakes on Titan. The possibility of seas of nitrogen on Triton was also considered but ruled out. There is evidence that the icy surfaces of the moons Ganymede, Callisto, Europa, Titan and Enceladus are shells floating on oceans of very dense liquid water or water–ammonia. Earth is often called \"the\" ocean planet because it is 70% covered in water. Extrasolar terrestrial planets that are extremely close to their parent star will be tidally locked and so one half of the planet will be a magma ocean. It is also possible that terrestrial planets had magma oceans at some point during their formation as a result of giant impacts. Hot Neptunes close to their star could lose their atmospheres via hydrodynamic escape, leaving behind their cores with various liquids on the surface. Where there are suitable temperatures and pressures, volatile chemicals that might exist as liquids in abundant quantities on planets include ammonia, argon, carbon disulfide, ethane, hydrazine, hydrogen, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, methane, neon, nitrogen, nitric oxide, phosphine, silane, sulfuric acid, and water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19593167", "title": "Heat", "section": "Section::::Heat capacity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 126, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 126, "end_character": 847, "text": "Beyond this, most substances have three ordinarily recognized states of matter, solid, liquid, and gas. Some can also exist in a plasma. Many have further, more finely differentiated, states of matter, such as for example, glass, and liquid crystal. In many cases, at fixed temperature and pressure, a substance can exist in several distinct states of matter in what might be viewed as the same 'body'. For example, ice may float in a glass of water. Then the ice and the water are said to constitute two phases within the 'body'. Definite rules are known, telling how distinct phases may coexist in a 'body'. Mostly, at a fixed pressure, there is a definite temperature at which heating causes a solid to melt or evaporate, and a definite temperature at which heating causes a liquid to evaporate. In such cases, cooling has the reverse effects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10915", "title": "Fluid", "section": "Section::::Physics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 584, "text": "Both solids and liquids have free surfaces, which cost some amount of free energy to form. In the case of solids, the amount of free energy to form a given unit of surface area is called surface energy, whereas for liquids the same quantity is called surface tension. The ability of liquids to flow results in different behaviour in response to surface tension than in solids, although in equilibrium both will try to minimise their surface energy: liquids tend to form rounded droplets, whereas pure solids tend to form crystals. Gases do not have free surfaces, and freely diffuse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18842359", "title": "Ocean", "section": "Section::::Extraterrestrial oceans.:Non-water surface liquids.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 487, "text": "Supercritical fluids, although not liquids, do share various properties with liquids. Underneath the thick atmospheres of the planets Uranus and Neptune, it is expected that these planets are composed of oceans of hot high-density fluid mixtures of water, ammonia and other volatiles. The gaseous outer layers of Jupiter and Saturn transition smoothly into oceans of supercritical hydrogen. The atmosphere of Venus is 96.5% carbon dioxide, which is a supercritical fluid at its surface.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34661457", "title": "Planetary surface", "section": "Section::::Surface materials.:Rare surface occurrences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 403, "text": "Surface liquid, while abundant on Earth (the largest body of surface liquid being the World Ocean) is rare elsewhere, a notable exception being Titan which has the largest known hydrocarbon lake system while surface water, abundant on Earth and essential to all known forms of life is thought only to exist as Seasonal flows on warm Martian slopes and in the habitable zones of other planetary systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Forging involved hammering soft heated metal into the shape you want. Casting is pouring liquid metal into a mould and letting it cool.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Casting doesn’t have grain structure, which makes it weaker than something that is forged. _URL_0_:", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26714", "title": "Sculpture", "section": "Section::::Materials and techniques.:Metal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 818, "text": "Casting is a group of manufacturing processes by which a liquid material (bronze, copper, glass, aluminum, iron) is (usually) poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solid casting is then ejected or broken out to complete the process, although a final stage of \"cold work\" may follow on the finished cast. Casting may be used to form hot liquid metals or various materials that \"cold set\" after mixing of components (such as epoxies, concrete, plaster and clay). Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. The oldest surviving casting is a copper Mesopotamian frog from 3200 BCE. Specific techniques include lost-wax casting, plaster mold casting and sand casting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2853363", "title": "Foundry", "section": "Section::::Process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 399, "text": "In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21501000", "title": "Casting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 762, "text": "Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a \"casting\", which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various \"time setting\" materials that cure after mixing two or more components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.Heavy equipment like machine tool beds,ship's propeller etc. can be cast easily in the required size rather than fabricating them by joining several small pieces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53601", "title": "Casting (metalworking)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 526, "text": "In metalworking and jewellery making, casting is a process in which a liquid metal is somehow delivered into a mold (it is usually delivered by a crucible) that contains a hollow shape (i.e., a 3-dimensional negative image) of the intended shape. The metal is poured into the mold through a hollow channel called a sprue. The metal and mold are then cooled, and the metal part (the \"casting\") is extracted. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1082009", "title": "Sand casting", "section": "Section::::Basic process.:Components.:Cores.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 726, "text": "After casting, the cores are broken up by rods or shot and removed from the casting. The metal from the sprue and risers is cut from the rough casting. Various heat treatments may be applied to relieve stresses from the initial cooling and to add hardness—in the case of steel or iron, by quenching in water or oil. The casting may be further strengthened by surface compression treatment—like shot peening—that adds resistance to tensile cracking and smooths the rough surface. And when high precision is required, various machining operations (such as milling or boring) are made to finish critical areas of the casting. Examples of this would include the boring of cylinders and milling of the deck on a cast engine block.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3174561", "title": "Continuous casting", "section": "Section::::Problems.:Contamination by oxygen.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 1120, "text": "While the large amount of automation helps produce castings with no shrinkage and little segregation, continuous casting is of no use if the metal is not clean beforehand, or becomes 'dirty' during the casting process. One of the main methods through which hot metal may become dirty is by oxidation, which occurs rapidly at molten metal temperatures (up to 1700 °C for steel); inclusions of gas, slag or undissolved alloys may also be present. To prevent oxidation, the metal is isolated from the atmosphere as much as possible. To achieve this, exposed liquid metal surfaces are covered – by the shrouds, or in the case of the ladle, tundish and mould, by synthetic slag. In the tundish, any inclusions that are less dense than the liquid metal – gas bubbles, other slag or oxides, or undissolved alloys – may also float to the surface and be trapped in the slag layer. While the tundish and mold fill for the first time at the start of a casting run, the liquid is badly contaminated with oxygen and the first items produced are typically quarantined or diverted to customers who do not require top-quality material.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29923728", "title": "Warm glass", "section": "Section::::Processes.:Casting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 402, "text": "Casting is the process where the glass begins to melt and behave as a liquid. Its shape is now constrained entirely by the mould and the previous shape is lost. Glass is viscous though and unlike metal casting, the soft glass does not flow through the mould. Variations in the glass are thus preserved in the final piece, so colours and inclusions present beforehand may still remain in the cast item.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I wouldn't say that, even by the High Renaissance, artists had that much freedom over their subject matter. It was still very much a matter of the patron's (whether it be royalty, church, or private) will. The more well-known artists had a bit more input (I'm thinking, for example, of Titian and his portraits for the Spanish kings), and certainly more freedom to choose and be exposed to a wider range of possible patrons, but they weren't truly able to just paint for the sake of it - that shift was still another couple of hundred years away. Everything had to be created for a purpose. \n\nIn terms of patronage, the addition of private citizens (usually middle and upper class) as patrons to the standard patronage of church and royalty coincided with the rise and growing wealth of those classes. You have to remember that at this point, art museums - and publicly accessible art in general - weren't concepts. Art, for a private citizen, was a status symbol: something that the church and royals had had for centuries, that now they could too. The growth of private collecting & commissions also benefitted the artist because citizens tended to have more wide-ranging tastes than the royals or especially the church, based both on personal taste and current fashion, thus giving the artist a bigger scope in which to work, as well as another means of making money.\n\nThe financial aspect of private patronage is one reason that it really flourished in Italy and the North - in a country like Spain, for instance, the financial gap between the royals and their subjects was so wide that there was barely a middle class, let alone one with the disposable income to spend on art. \n\nSo I'd argue that it wasn't really that the role of the artist changed all that much; rather, the *perception* of the artist in society, and the function and purpose of art itself, that benefited most from Renaissance ideals during the period - he was gradually elevated from a craftsman to a serious and in-demand professional, who had access to an ever-growing pool of patrons and ideas than his predecessors. \n\nI really recommend Jay Levenson's *Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration* as a starting point if you're interested in this subject / period. Ann Harris also has a really interesting text on the same topic, but it deals with the period just after the Renaissance. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "322915", "title": "Italian Renaissance", "section": "Section::::Development.:Spread.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 526, "text": "The nature of the Renaissance also changed in the late 15th century. The Renaissance ideal was fully adopted by the ruling classes and the aristocracy. In the early Renaissance artists were seen as craftsmen with little prestige or recognition. By the later Renaissance the top figures wielded great influence and could charge great fees. A flourishing trade in Renaissance art developed. While in the early Renaissance many of the leading artists were of lower- or middle-class origins, increasingly they became aristocrats.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "334829", "title": "Art of Europe", "section": "Section::::Renaissance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 1132, "text": "The Renaissance is characterized by a focus on the arts of Ancient Greece and Rome, which led to many changes in both the technical aspects of painting and sculpture, as well as to their subject matter. It began in Italy, a country rich in Roman heritage as well as material prosperity to fund artists. During the Renaissance, painters began to enhance the realism of their work by using new techniques in perspective, thus representing three dimensions more authentically. Artists also began to use new techniques in the manipulation of light and darkness, such as the tone contrast evident in many of Titian's portraits and the development of sfumato and chiaroscuro by Leonardo da Vinci. Sculptors, too, began to rediscover many ancient techniques such as contrapposto. Following with the humanist spirit of the age, art became more secular in subject matter, depicting ancient mythology in addition to Christian themes. This genre of art is often referred to as Renaissance Classicism. In the North, the most important Renaissance innovation was the widespread use of oil paints, which allowed for greater colour and intensity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "283846", "title": "Culture of Italy", "section": "Section::::Arts.:Visual art.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 385, "text": "The later Renaissance was dominated by Raphael and Michelangelo. Raphael painted balanced, harmonious pictures that expressed a calm, noble way of life. Michelangelo achieved greatness both as a painter and sculptor. In Venice, a number of artists were painting richly colored works during the 16th century. The most famous Venetian masters included Giorgione, Titian, and Tintoretto.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "322915", "title": "Italian Renaissance", "section": "Section::::Culture.:Sculpture and painting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 538, "text": "In painting, the Late Medieval painter Giotto di Bondone, or Giotto, helped shape the artistic concepts that later defined much of the Renaissance era. The key ideas that he explored – classicism, the illusion of three-dimensional space and a realistic emotional context – inspired other artists such as Masaccio, Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. He was not the only Medieval artist to develop these ideas, however; the artists Pietro Cavallini and Cimabue both influenced Giotto’s use of statuesque figures and expressive storylines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2287895", "title": "Late Middle Ages", "section": "Section::::Arts and sciences.:Visual arts and architecture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 453, "text": "A precursor to Renaissance art can be seen already in the early 14th-century works of Giotto. Giotto was the first painter since antiquity to attempt the representation of a three-dimensional reality, and to endow his characters with true human emotions. The most important developments, however, came in 15th-century Florence. The affluence of the merchant class allowed extensive patronage of the arts, and foremost among the patrons were the Medici.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11548603", "title": "Themes in Italian Renaissance painting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 563, "text": "The themes that preoccupied painters of the Italian Renaissance were those of both subject matter and execution- what was painted and the style in which it was painted. The artist had far more freedom of both subject and style than did a Medieval painter. Certain characteristic elements of Renaissance painting evolved a great deal during the period. These include perspective, both in terms of how it was achieved and the effect to which it was applied, and realism, particularly in the depiction of humanity, either as symbolic, portrait or narrative element.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "283846", "title": "Culture of Italy", "section": "Section::::Italian culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 114, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 114, "end_character": 1077, "text": "Renaissance period saw a rebirth of many interests, particularly in the arts. By the early 15th century, in Florence, a circle of architects, painters, and sculptors have sought to revive classical art. The leader of this group was an architect, Filippo Brunelleschi. He designed churches reflecting classical models. To him we also owe a scientific discovery of the first importance in the history of art: the rules of perspective. In painting, Leonardo da Vinci and other Italian painters used a technique called \"sfumato\" that created softness in their portraits. At the same time, Italy witnessed the revival of the fresco. In music, both the small-scale madrigal and the large-scale opera were inventions of the period with a long future. Italian cities invented the modern conservatory to train professional musicians, as they invented the art academy as a place to master the techniques and the theory of painting, sculpture, and architecture. Rome and Venice witnessed the emergence of the first art \"market\" where buyers and sellers exchanged artworks as commodities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They hold the rails at a fixed distance - without them, the trains would push them apart. If the railroad is built on concrete or other solid material (e.g. a railway crossing, or railroads in cities) then they're not needed because the ground provides enough stability.\n\nIf the ground is soft, they also keep the rails from sinking in because they have more surface than the rails.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They're railroad ties. They keep the tracks level and from sinking. They also make sure the tracks stay a uniform distance apart from one another.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4346222", "title": "London Underground rolling stock numbering and classification", "section": "Section::::Electric Multiple Units.:Unit Classification.:Types of Unit.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 321, "text": "On most lines, trains are formed from a pairing or triplet of units. Units are 'single-ended', where there is a driving cab at one end only, or 'double-ended', where there is a driving cab at both ends. In addition, some units have no driving cabs, and thus must always be included in the middle of a formation of units.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "321365", "title": "Track (rail transport)", "section": "Section::::Sleepers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 331, "text": "A sleeper (tie) is a rectangular object on which the rails are supported and fixed. The sleeper has two main roles: to transfer the loads from the rails to the track ballast and the ground underneath, and to hold the rails to the correct width apart (to maintain the rail gauge). They are generally laid transversely to the rails.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "220118", "title": "Railroad car", "section": "Section::::Passenger cars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 721, "text": "Many multiple unit trains consist of cars which are semi-permanently coupled into sets: these sets may be joined together to form larger trains, but generally passengers can only move around between cars within a set. This \"closed\" arrangement keeps parties of travellers and their luggage together, and hence allows the separate sets to be easily split to go separate ways. Some multiple-unit trainsets are designed so that corridor connections can be easily opened between coupled sets; this generally requires driving cabs either set to the side or (as in the Dutch \"Koploper\" or the Japanese 285 series) above the passenger compartment. These cabs or driving trailers are also useful for quickly reversing the train.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3010919", "title": "Single-track railway", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 275, "text": "A single-track railway is a railway where trains traveling in both directions share the same track. Single track is usually found on lesser-used rail lines, often branch lines, where the level of traffic is not high enough to justify the cost of constructing a second track.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2357584", "title": "Ruislip Lido Railway", "section": "Section::::Permanent Way.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 573, "text": "Generally, the sleepers were laid straight onto the existing ground of London clay, far from ideal for supporting a railway. The passage of trains has, and still does cause the track to very gradually sink due to the clay. The problem sections have been gradually removed & improved. The double track section between the loops at either end of the line was also slewed during this period to allow for multiple train operation in the future, although this was not a possibility until February 1986 with the arrival of a second locomotive in the form of ‘Lady of the Lakes’.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "587965", "title": "Rail transport operations", "section": "Section::::Intrinsic factors.:Types of vehicle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 507, "text": "Trains are pushed/pulled by one or more locomotive units. Two or more locomotives coupled in multiple traction are frequently used in freight trains. Railroad cars or rolling stock consist of passenger cars, freight cars, maintenance cars and in America cabooses. Modern passenger trains sometimes are pushed/pulled by a tail and head unit (see top and tail), of which not both need to be motorised or running. Many passenger trains consist of multiple units with motors mounted beneath the passenger cars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1674026", "title": "Gauntlet track", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 453, "text": "Gauntlet track or interlaced track (also gantlet track) is an arrangement in which railway tracks run parallel on a single track bed and are interlaced (i.e., overlapped) such that only one pair of rails may be used at a time. Since this requires only slightly more width than a single track, all rails can be carried on the same crossties/sleepers. Trains run on the discrete pair of rails appropriate to their direction, track gauge or loading gauge.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is just speculation tbh.\n\n\nOver time, the same applications on your phone consume more resources. This is because the rate technology improves is swift, and application devs are constantly keeping up. So say an app is currently built to run well on a phone with 1GB RAM. When phones with 2GB RAM become the norm, app devs feel comfortable giving their app a larger footprint on available resources.\n\n\nBut your phone still has 1GB. And the app and the OS both have progressed to being comfortable using more resources than before. Hence the difference in performance.\n\n\nEdit: Apparently this has been asked before and the answer is flash memory degradation", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23818735", "title": "Criticism of Apple Inc.", "section": "Section::::Planned obsolescence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 139, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 139, "end_character": 220, "text": "Apple said in December 2017 that the reason their older phones run slower (one of the criticised changes) is because the battery in their phones wear out over time and that their older phones may shut down unexpectedly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22631818", "title": "Microsoft Kin", "section": "Section::::Original Kin series features.:Social networking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 648, "text": "Commentators noted Loop's 15-minute delay for updates, which CNET's Ina Fried described as \"odd\". \"PC World\" argued this delay was at odds with Microsoft's claim that the phone is \"always-connected\". Users could not adjust this interval, although updates could be manually triggered with an on-screen refresh button, or locking then unlocking the phone. Microsoft cited battery life and immature social networking APIs as reasons for the delay; \"Engadget\" speculated that Microsoft may have been using the delayed messaging to encourage Verizon to offer lower-priced data plans, which would be attractive to the platform's teenage target audience.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15233899", "title": "AirPort Time Capsule", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 393, "text": "In October 2009, several news sites reported that many first generation Time Capsules were failing after 18 months, with some users alleging that this was due to a design failure in the power supplies. Apple confirmed that certain Time Capsules sold between February 2008 and June 2008 do not power on, or may unexpectedly turn off. Apple offered free repair or replacement to affected units.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46875443", "title": "IOS 9", "section": "Section::::Problems.:Date reboot issue.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 242, "text": "In February 2016, a bug was discovered that could permanently disable 64-bit devices. The bug, setting the time to 1 January 1970, would cause the device to get stuck in a reboot process. iOS 9.3, released on March 21, 2016, fixed the issue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12610483", "title": "Android (operating system)", "section": "Section::::Development.:Update schedule.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 919, "text": "Compared to its primary rival mobile operating system, Apple's iOS, Android updates typically reach various devices with significant delays. Except for devices within the Google Nexus and Pixel brands, updates often arrive months after the release of the new version, or not at all. This was partly due to the extensive variation in hardware in Android devices, to which each upgrade must be specifically tailored, a time- and resource-consuming process. Manufacturers often prioritize their newest devices and leave old ones behind. Additional delays can be introduced by wireless carriers that, after receiving updates from manufacturers, further customize and brand Android to their needs and conduct extensive testing on their networks before sending the upgrade out to users. There are also situations in which upgrades are not possible due to one manufacturing partner not providing necessary updates to drivers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30879508", "title": "HTC Desire S", "section": "Section::::Hardware.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 358, "text": "A hardware design flaw or defective eMMC chip in some devices can render the phone unusable (bricked) and require SAT if the battery is removed if the device is on. Updating several applications from market at once can cause the device to not respond, forcing the user to remove the battery to reboot; this is the most usual cause of this problem to appear.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55440889", "title": "Pixel 2", "section": "Section::::Issues.:Other issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 204, "text": "The phones are known to randomly reboot. Google promised a fix in the coming weeks. The random reboots are believed to be caused by the LTE modem. The Android 8.1 release in 2017 did not fix the problem.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "One other thing is repair tools are designed to implement a set of fixed “scripts/instructions” known to solve common problems. You can consider the scan and repair program to be a collection of known fixes that attempt to run and repair your system. Sometimes these tools can be helpful, sometimes they are not able to resolve the issue as it is dependent on the people writing the program to include the necessary bug fixes or configuration fixes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4820337", "title": "Computer repair technician", "section": "Section::::Software repair.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 573, "text": "When possible, repair technicians protect the computer user's data and settings. After a software repair, the goal is that the user will not have lost any data and that they can fully use the device. To address a software problem, the technician could take action as minor as adjusting a single setting or they may implore more involved techniques like installing, uninstalling, or reinstalling various software packages. Advanced software repairs often involve directly editing keys and values in the Windows Registry or running commands directly from the command prompt.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38855647", "title": "Fakesysdef", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 238, "text": "The branding strategy may look legitimate to computer users as the names are usually a combination of technical words such as \"HDD\", \"Disk\", \"Memory\" and action words such as \"Scanner\", \"Defragmenter\", \"Diagnostics\", \"Repair\", and \"Fix\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4820337", "title": "Computer repair technician", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 275, "text": "A computer repair technician is a person who repairs and maintains computers and servers. The technician's responsibilities may extend to include building or configuring new hardware, installing and updating software packages, and creating and maintaining computer networks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "634143", "title": "Disk cloning", "section": "Section::::Common uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 775, "text": "BULLET::::- Reboot and restore – a technique in which the disk of a computer is automatically wiped and restored from a \"clean\", master image, which should be in full working order and should have been swept for viruses. This is used by some cybercafes and some training and educational institutes, and helps ensure that even if a user does misconfigure something, downloads inappropriate content or programs, or infects a computer with a virus, the computer will be restored to a clean, working state. The reboot and restore process can either take place irregularly when a computer shows signs of malfunctioning, on a regular basis (e.g., nightly) or even, in some cases, every time a user logs off, which is the safest approach (although that does involve some downtime).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22536536", "title": "Memory tester", "section": "Section::::Types.:Software testers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 619, "text": "Memory diagnostic software programs (e.g., Memtest86) are low-cost or free tools used to check for memory failures on a PC. They are usually in the form of a bootable software distribution on a floppy disk or CD-ROM. The diagnostic tools provide memory test patterns which are able to test all system memory in a computer. Diagnostic software cannot be used when a PC is unable to start due to memory or motherboard. While in principle a test program could report its results by sending them to a storage device (e.g., floppy disc) or printer if working, or by sound signals, in practice a working display is required.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4820337", "title": "Computer repair technician", "section": "Section::::Software repair.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 625, "text": "A reliable, but somewhat more complicated procedure for addressing software issues is known as a system restore (also referred to as imaging, and/or reimaging), in which the computer's original installation image (including operating system and original applications) is reapplied to a formatted hard drive. Anything unique such as settings or personal files will be destroyed if not backed up on external media, as this reverts everything back to its original unused state. The computer technician can only reimage if there is an image of the hard drive for that computer either in a separate partition or stored elsewhere.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2160183", "title": "Data recovery", "section": "Section::::Physical damage.:Recovery techniques.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 506, "text": "Recovering data from physically damaged hardware can involve multiple techniques. Some damage can be repaired by replacing parts in the hard disk. This alone may make the disk usable, but there may still be logical damage. A specialized disk-imaging procedure is used to recover every readable bit from the surface. Once this image is acquired and saved on a reliable medium, the image can be safely analyzed for logical damage and will possibly allow much of the original file system to be reconstructed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Alright, I'll try my best to explain it. \n\nFirst of all, law is a murky subject. There are many ways the same piece of law could be read by different people. Often the judge who has his opinion overturned read the law different than an appellate judge, but once the appellate court rules on it, the trial judge now has a framework for how to handle similar cases. \n\nCases are not overturned that often. The vast majority are not, because most topics in our legal system have been ruled on by appellate courts or set forth in clear terms by legislatures. \n\nThere are review boards in most states, but they only step in when Judges do off the wall things, that have ZERO basis in law. Most of the \"bad\" rulings you describe actually have some merit in the law as written, but lay people don't know the law like people trained to do so. \n\nJudges who make \"wacky\" rulings can be impeached. I recall a case of one judge in Georgia with no prior legal training who made rulings based on his judgment instead of the law. He was impeached, and I believe sent to jail for a few days. EDIT: I looked it back up. He did have prior legal training, but apparently had forgotten all of it when he became judge. He had no handle on basic legal concepts. For instance, he offered in Court to let a woman off a parking ticket if she paid him. \n\nThe thing to remember is this: Judges in appointed positions are trained legal professionals with years of experience (in most cases) and their judgments are based on law, whether you like them or not. Most \"bad\" rulings come from areas with elected judges, because anyone can register for the ballot without any training(varies by locale). This usually happens in uneducated, conservative areas, where people vote a party ticket.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Some jurisdictions (as in Florida) have elected judges who have to run for re-election. If they have \"performance problems\" (such as an inordinate number of cases being overturned), you can count on their opponents to trot them out prior to the election.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Judges have a career track that involves them getting appointed to increasingly higher courts. A judge whose rulings get overturned a lot isn't going to get better appointments.\n\nIf a judge is too bad, then can get appointed to courts where they have less influence, like traffic court. They can also be impeached. And many judged are elected, and can be voted out. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "59595282", "title": "Judicial independence in Australia", "section": "Section::::Initial principles.:Security of tenure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 882, "text": "There have been occasions in which judges have been removed by the abolition of their court. In 1878 the Governor of Victoria dismissed all judges of County Courts, Mines and Insolvency and all Chairman of General Sessions, as well as a large number of public servants. and only some, not all were subsequently reappointed. The Supreme Court held that County Court judges held office at pleasure and the Governor in council could remove them without cause. More recent examples of courts being abolished without protecting the tenure of the judges are the abolition of the Court of Petty Sessions (NSW) and its replacement by the Local Court in which all but 6 magistrates were appointed to the new court, and the abolition of the Victorian Accident Compensation Tribunal in 1992 by the Victorian government which by-passed the legislative removal mechanism and removed all judges.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18677188", "title": "Chief Justice of Sri Lanka", "section": "Section::::Appointment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 377, "text": "Judges of the Supreme Court shall hold office during good behaviour. Removal of a judge shall only proceed with an address of the Parliament supported by a majority of the total number of Members of Parliament, (including those who are not present), and then by an order of the President. Reasons for such removal should be on the grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5119834", "title": "Oklahoma Court on the Judiciary", "section": "Section::::Purpose.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 569, "text": "The Court of the Judiciary is the court responsible for removing judges from their position if they have committed illegal acts, including gross neglect of duty, corruption in office, habitual drunkenness, commission while in office of any offense involving moral turpitude, gross partiality in office, oppression in office, or other grounds as specified by the state legislature to be removed from office. Also, the Court on the Judiciary may imposed forced retirement if the court finds the judge in question to be mentally or physically unable to perform their job.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "834368", "title": "United States federal judge", "section": "Section::::Tenure and salary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 673, "text": "\"Article III federal judges\" (as opposed to judges of some courts with special jurisdictions) serve \"during good behavior\" (often paraphrased as appointed \"for life\"). Judges hold their seats until they resign, die, or are removed from office. Although the legal orthodoxy is that judges cannot be removed from office except by impeachment by the House of Representatives followed by conviction by the Senate, several legal scholars, including William Rehnquist, Saikrishna Prakash, and Steven D. Smith, have argued that the Good Behavior Clause may, in theory, permit removal by way of a writ of \"scire facias\" filed before a federal court, without resort to impeachment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6087226", "title": "Law of South Korea", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 383, "text": "The revised Constitution of 1987 guaranteed that judges would not be removed from office for any reason other than impeachment, criminal acts, or incapacity. Additionally, the 1987 Constitution officially codified judicial independence in Article 103, which states that, \"Judges rule independently according to their conscience and in conformity with the Constitution and the law.\" \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "144570", "title": "History of the Constitution of the United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Post-Civil War.:Act of Settlement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 134, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 134, "end_character": 538, "text": "The Act also introduced the concept of judicial independence by establishing that judges can keep their position as long as they maintain \"good behaviour\". Before 1701 a judge's position was held at the disrection of the monarch and there were instances of judges being removed from their position after making judgements that the monarch did not like. After the Act of Settlement, a judge could only be removed from office by the agreement of both the House of Commons and the House of Lords with the subsequent approval of the monarch.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3726271", "title": "Chapter III Court", "section": "Section::::What constitutes a Chapter III Court.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 489, "text": "Chapter III judges cannot be removed except upon an address from both houses of the Parliament of Australia in the same session, \"praying for such removal on the ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity\". Thus, a judge cannot be removed except in the most extraordinary of circumstances. The only instance where the situation has even been close to arising was during the tenure of Justice Murphy of the High Court. However, he died in 1986 before procedures to remove him could begin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It does, yes, and for the exact reasons you mentioned too. The problem is, that the best alternative to salt is to use sand instead, but that doesn't get rid of the ice and also has to swept away again once the weather got warmer, which in turn makes it more expensive.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As well as being bad for the natural environment, it plays havoc with any metal reinforcing in the road or bridge structure. Many of the 'elevated' sections of roads in London are now rotting because no-one realised putting loads of salt on them every winter was a bad idea. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's actually funny that you say that. Here in wisconsin, we use a shit ton of salt, and it actually can help some plants like celery grow. Apparently there are people here that drive around in spring and get some road celery to eat? Idk why but I've seen it happen. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1186356", "title": "Salinity in Australia", "section": "Section::::Effects and impacts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 570, "text": "High soil salt levels have dramatic impact on plant root zones, in both native vegetation as well as agricultural and pasture crops, natural wetlands and surrounding water ways. An increase in salt can decrease the ability of plants to absorb water through their roots via osmosis, cause leaf burn and necrosis through increased levels of sodium and chloride, and create nutrient and ionic imbalances, resulting in poor growth, and death. Salinity can also adversely affect infrastructure such as roads and buildings, and underground pipes and cables through oxidation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "903", "title": "Arable land", "section": "Section::::Non-arable land.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 330, "text": "BULLET::::- Each year, arable land is lost due to desertification and human-induced erosion. Improper irrigation of farm land can wick the sodium, calcium, and magnesium from the soil and water to the surface. This process steadily concentrates salt in the root zone, decreasing productivity for crops that are not salt-tolerant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1152361", "title": "Sierra Madre Occidental", "section": "Section::::Geology.:Soil.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 316, "text": "Problems with soil degradation have been aggravated by the cultivation of drug crops, leading to deforestation of many areas. Other problems include overgrazing, which has led to terracing from cattle paths and the formation of a soil crust, and soil acidification, which poses a risk to some grasslands as of 2002.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11593538", "title": "Severe weather", "section": "Section::::High winds.:Dust storm.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 453, "text": "Dust storms can many issues for agricultural industries as well. Soil erosion is one of the most common hazards and decreases arable lands. Dust and sand particles can cause severe weathering of buildings and rock formations. Nearby bodies of water may be polluted by settling dust and sand, killing aquatic organisms. Decrease in exposure to sunlight can affect plant growth, as well as decrease in infrared radiation may cause decreased temperatures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18522361", "title": "Urban runoff", "section": "Section::::Pollutants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1125, "text": "Eroding soils or poorly maintained construction sites can often lead to increased sedimentation in runoff. Sedimentation often settles to the bottom of water bodies and can directly affect water quality. Excessive levels of sediment in water bodies can increase the risk of infection and disease through high levels of nutrients present in the soil. These high levels of nutrients can reduce oxygen and boost algae growth while limiting native vegetation growth. Limited native vegetation and excessive algae has the potential to disrupt the entire aquatic ecosystem due to limited light penetration, lower oxygen levels, and reduced food reserves. Excessive levels of sediment and suspended solids have the potential to damage existing infrastructure as well. Sedimentation can increase runoff by plugging underground injection systems, thereby increasing the amount of runoff on the surface. Increased sedimentation levels can also reduce storage behind reservoirs. This reduction of reservoir capacities can lead to increased expenses for public land agencies while also impacting the quality of water recreational areas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51534743", "title": "Environmental issues in Sri Lanka", "section": "Section::::Major environmental issues.:Soil degradation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 569, "text": "Soil degradation is mainly caused by unsustainable agricultural practices, high intensity rainfall and indirectly caused by population growth which results in increased consumption. Tree plantation such as tea and rubber plantation cause low rates of soil erosion. Higher rates of soil erosion are caused by crops which are harvested annually like potatoes, most vegetables and tobacco. Soil degradation in the dry zone leads to desertification. The loss of soil also is a big problem near watersheds, because a lot of hydro power plants are built in those watersheds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37783642", "title": "Road ecology", "section": "Section::::Hydrology.:De-icing chemicals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 557, "text": "The chemicals applied to roads along with grit for de-icing are primarily Salt and calcium chloride. Other chemicals such as urea are also used. These chemicals leave the road surface either in water runoff or in water spray. Apart from heavy metal bioaccumulation in adjacent plants, vegetation can be damaged by salt as far as from the road. Studies have found negative effects on wood frog population dynamics when tadpoles were raised in presence of most de-icing chemicals, such as decreased tadpole survival rates and modified sex ratios at maturity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "i used to play guitar when i was younger, and my dog would sit in front of me like she was listening.\n\nnot sure why though...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Animal's ears are very different to our own, music simply probably sounds completely different to them than it does to us, and probably doesn't sound like music at all.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8526165", "title": "Cat senses", "section": "Section::::Hearing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 441, "text": "Although it was long generally thought that cats were unresponsive to music, recent studies have shown that they do in fact respond to music which has been created with species-specific frequencies. Results suggested that cats do benefit from music therapy when the sounds have been composed to target their auditory senses. Other findings include age-related sensitivity (older and younger cats were more responsive than middle aged cats).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4269567", "title": "Dog", "section": "Section::::Roles with humans.:As pets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 101, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 101, "end_character": 291, "text": "The latest study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) comparing humans and dogs showed that dogs have the same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans do. This gives dogs the ability to recognize emotional human sounds, making them friendly social pets to humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9536113", "title": "Computer audition", "section": "Section::::Areas of study.:Auditory cognition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 810, "text": "Listening to music and general audio is commonly not a task directed activity. People enjoy music for various poorly understood reasons, which are commonly referred to the emotional effect of music due to creation of expectations and their realization or violation. Animals attend to signs of danger in sounds, which could be either specific or general notions of surprising and unexpected change. Generally, this creates a situation where computer audition can not rely solely on detection of specific features or sound properties and has to come up with general methods of adapting to changing auditory environment and monitoring its structure. This consists of analysis of larger repetition and self-similarity structures in audio to detect innovation, as well as ability to predict local feature dynamics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14918624", "title": "Attenborough in Paradise and Other Personal Voyages", "section": "Section::::Documentary Summaries.:\"The Song of the Earth\" (2000).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 492, "text": "This natural history of music begins with Attenborough playing the piano. Searching for the origins of human music, he traces its connections to the musical sounds that other animals make: the beauty of the wolf's howl, the complexity of the bat's cry, the deep rumble of the elephant's signals, the acoustically sophisticated sounds the dolphin produces and the songs of whales and birds. Why do these animals produce this amazing variety of sounds? It's all tied up with sex and territory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6678", "title": "Cat", "section": "Section::::Senses.:Hearing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 733, "text": "Cats have excellent hearing and can detect an extremely broad range of frequencies. They can hear higher-pitched sounds than either dogs or humans, detecting frequencies from 55 Hz to 79,000 Hz, a range of 10.5 octaves, while humans and dogs both have ranges of about 9 octaves. Cats can hear ultrasound, which is important in hunting because many species of rodents make ultrasonic calls. However, they do not communicate using ultrasound like rodents do. Cats' hearing is also sensitive and among the best of any mammal, being most acute in the range of 500 Hz to 32 kHz. This sensitivity is further enhanced by the cat's large movable outer ears (their pinnae), which both amplify sounds and help detect the direction of a noise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8526165", "title": "Cat senses", "section": "Section::::Hearing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 541, "text": "Humans and cats have a similar range of hearing on the low end of the scale, but cats can hear much higher-pitched sounds, up to 64 kHz, which is 1.6 octaves above the range of a human, and even 1 octave above the range of a dog. When listening for something, a cat's ears will swivel in that direction; a cat's ear flaps (pinnae) can independently point backwards as well as forwards and sideways to pinpoint the source of the sound. Cats can judge within the location of a sound being made away—this can be useful for locating their prey.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13537626", "title": "Quantum biology", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Vibration theory of olfaction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 509, "text": "While the vibration theory has some experimental proof of concept, there have been multiple controversial results in experiments. In some experiments, animals are able to distinguish smells between molecules of different frequencies and same structure other experiments show that people are unaware distinguishing smells due to distinct molecular frequencies. However, it has not been disproven, and has even been shown to be an effect in olfaction of animals other than humans such as flies, bees, and fish.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes. This is mainly a thing for spinning black holes, although the gravitational effects of the Earth's rotation has been measured by a very precise satellite experiment called [Gravity Probe B](_URL_0_). However, this isn't the reason for prograde orbits, that more has to do with angular momentum conservation and the initial conditions of planetary systems.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes, the effect as know as [frame dragging.](_URL_0_) In fact, it behaves very similar to magnetism and can be explained with the same equations as electromagnetics in some situations, so is referred to as [gravitomagnetism.](_URL_1_) In magnetism, moving or rotating electric charges create a second field to the electric field that impacts different effects on electrical charges. It's the same thing with moving and rotating mass and gravity. It's really only noticable on the astronomical scale, but we have observed it. \n\n\nGeneral relativity can't fully be explained with Maxwell electromagnetic equation analogs, but in certain scenarios it's a quite close approximation. Similar to how in some scenarios a very good approximation of general relativity is Newtonian gravity, which is completely analogous to Coulomb's law for electricity. \n\n\nNo, this is not responsible for prograde orbits, the effect is far too small. That's simply due to conservation of momentum and star systems forming from the same collapsing cloud of gas. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22498", "title": "Orbit", "section": "Section::::Relativistic orbital motion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 102, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 102, "end_character": 456, "text": "The above classical (Newtonian) analysis of orbital mechanics assumes that the more subtle effects of general relativity, such as frame dragging and gravitational time dilation are negligible. Relativistic effects cease to be negligible when near very massive bodies (as with the precession of Mercury's orbit about the Sun), or when extreme precision is needed (as with calculations of the orbital elements and time signal references for GPS satellites.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18603506", "title": "Weightlessness", "section": "Section::::Weightlessness in Newtonian mechanics.:Relativity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 1697, "text": "To a modern physicist working with Einstein's general theory of relativity, the situation is even more complicated than is suggested above. Einstein's theory suggests that it actually is valid to consider that objects in inertial motion (such as falling in an elevator, or in a parabola in an airplane, or orbiting a planet) can indeed be considered to experience a local loss of the gravitational field in their rest frame. Thus, in the point of view (or frame) of the astronaut or orbiting ship, there actually is nearly-zero proper acceleration (the acceleration felt locally), just as would be the case far out in space, away from any mass. It is thus valid to consider that most of the gravitational field in such situations is actually absent from the point of view of the falling observer, just as the colloquial view suggests (see equivalence principle for a fuller explanation of this point). However, this loss of gravity for the falling or orbiting observer, in Einstein's theory, is due to the falling motion itself, and (again as in Newton's theory) not due to increased distance from the Earth. However, the gravity nevertheless is considered to be absent. In fact, Einstein's realization that a pure gravitational interaction cannot be felt, if all other forces are removed, was the key insight to leading him to the view that the gravitational \"force\" can in some ways be viewed as non-existent. Rather, objects tend to follow geodesic paths in curved space-time, and this is \"explained\" as a force, by \"Newtonian\" observers who assume that space-time is \"flat,\" and thus do not have a reason for curved paths (i.e., the \"falling motion\" of an object near a gravitational source).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1137568", "title": "Artificial gravity", "section": "Section::::Linear acceleration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 468, "text": "Linear acceleration, even at a low level, can provide sufficient g-force to provide useful benefits. A spacecraft under constant acceleration in a straight line would give the appearance of a gravitational pull in the direction opposite of the acceleration. This \"pull\" that would cause a loose object to \"fall\" towards the hull of the spacecraft is actually a manifestation of the inertia of the objects inside the spacecraft, in accordance with Newton's first law. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "324949", "title": "Accelerometer", "section": "Section::::Physical principles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1108, "text": "The reason for the appearance of a gravitational offset is Einstein's equivalence principle, which states that the effects of gravity on an object are indistinguishable from acceleration. When held fixed in a gravitational field by, for example, applying a ground reaction force or an equivalent upward thrust, the reference frame for an accelerometer (its own casing) accelerates upwards with respect to a free-falling reference frame. The effects of this acceleration are indistinguishable from any other acceleration experienced by the instrument, so that an accelerometer cannot detect the difference between sitting in a rocket on the launch pad, and being in the same rocket in deep space while it uses its engines to accelerate at 1 g. For similar reasons, an accelerometer will read \"zero\" during any type of free fall. This includes use in a coasting spaceship in deep space far from any mass, a spaceship orbiting the Earth, an airplane in a parabolic \"zero-g\" arc, or any free-fall in vacuum. Another example is free-fall at a sufficiently high altitude that atmospheric effects can be neglected.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "980666", "title": "Pioneer anomaly", "section": "Section::::Previously proposed explanations.:New physics.:Definition of gravity modified.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 774, "text": "The Modified Newtonian dynamics or MOND hypothesis proposed that the force of gravity deviates from the traditional Newtonian value to a very different force law at very low accelerations on the order of 10 m/s. Given the low accelerations placed on the spacecraft while in the outer Solar System, MOND may be in effect, modifying the normal gravitational equations. The Lunar Laser Ranging experiment combined with data of LAGEOS satellites refutes that simple gravity modification is the cause of the Pioneer anomaly. The precession of the longitudes of perihelia of the solar planets or the trajectories of long-period comets have not been reported to experience an anomalous gravitational field toward the Sun of the magnitude capable of describing the Pioneer anomaly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "244611", "title": "Newton's law of universal gravitation", "section": "Section::::Problematic aspects.:Theoretical concerns with Newton's expression.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 314, "text": "BULLET::::- Newton's theory of gravitation requires that the gravitational force be transmitted instantaneously. Given the classical assumptions of the nature of space and time before the development of General Relativity, a significant propagation delay in gravity leads to unstable planetary and stellar orbits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34022823", "title": "Binary black hole", "section": "Section::::Dynamics modelling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 248, "text": "Angular momentum is also lost in the gravitational radiation. This is primarily in the z axis of the initial orbit. It is calculated by integrating the product of the multipolar metric waveform with the news function complement over retarded time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Qin was more effective from the middle Warring States onwards. They weren't always more effective.\n\nThat being said I would say the reasons are: \n1) Qin's land was fertile. It wasn't (originally) as populous, but Qin took over the heartland of the Zhou when the Zhou moved east (the event that ushered in the Spring and Autumn period). The Wei river valley was fertile and not hemmed in all sides by hostile states but had places they could expand into. When they go campaigning on their Eastern borders, they don't have to worry about another state taking advantage and attacking from their west (something other states had to put up with all the time) because there was no state on their west. I also read (but for the life of me can't remember where I read it from, might have been Cambridge's History of China) that they also embarked on huge irrigation projects of dikes and canals to make their lands even better and efficiently transfer goods.\n\n2) Legalist reforms. Throughout the Warring States period, all the major players tried to concentrate power in the hand of the state/ruler and take it away from the aristocrats that made up the charioteers of the Spring and Autumn period. The Qin, on advice of Shang Yang, did this most completely. They adapted a very regimented society of five/ten mutually-responsible households (if one commits a crime, all are punished). All middle-men and aristocratic standings were (in theory) abolished. There was (in theory) no hereditary titles except that of the King, and everything was to be done by officers on the state's payroll. Society was to be structured around nuclear families of farmer-soldiers. There was to be no large family groups, and the entire population was to be available for military service. This allowed the Qin to mobilize its resources for war more efficiently than any other state. \nFun fact. If you go read legalist writings by Lord Shang and especially Hanfeizi, it reads like a checklist of what Big Brother is like from Orwell's 1984. The difference is Orwell says this is bad for the people, while Hanfeizi says it's good for the state/ruler.\n\n3) Qin's successful conquest/colonization of the Sichuan basin really tipped the scale towards their favour with the addition of the vast and incredibly fertile Sichuan basin into their realm for the state to exploit, population to expand into, and to farm.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "196576", "title": "Warring States period", "section": "Section::::Horizontal and vertical alliances (334–249 BC).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 578, "text": "Towards the end of the Warring States period, the Qin state became disproportionately powerful compared with the other six states. As a result, the policies of the six states became overwhelmingly oriented towards dealing with the Qin threat, with two opposing schools of thought. One school advocated a 'vertical' or north-south alliance called \"hezong\" (合縱/合纵) in which the states would ally with each other to repel Qin. The other advocated a 'horizontal' or east-west alliance called \"lianheng\" (連橫/连横) in which a state would ally with Qin to participate in its ascendancy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43461", "title": "Qin dynasty", "section": "Section::::History.:Growth of power.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 415, "text": "Another advantage of the Qin was that they had a large, efficient army and capable generals. They utilised the newest developments in weaponry and transportation as well, which many of their enemies lacked. These latter developments allowed greater mobility over several different terrain types which were most common in many regions of China. Thus, in both ideology and practice, the Qin were militarily superior.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "361005", "title": "Qin (state)", "section": "Section::::History.:Warring States Period.:Early decline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 663, "text": "During the early Warring States period, as its neighbours in east and central China began rapidly developing, Qin was still in a state of underdevelopment and decline. The Wei state, formed from the Partition of Jin, became the most powerful state on Qin's eastern border. Qin was equipped with natural defenses, with Hangu Pass (函谷關; northeast of present-day Lingbao, Henan province) in the east and Tong Pass (潼關; present-day Tongguan County, Shaanxi province) in the west. Between 413 and 409  during the reign of Duke Jian of Qin, the Wei army led by Wu Qi, with support from Zhao and Han, attacked Qin and conquered Qin territories west of the Yellow River.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "196576", "title": "Warring States period", "section": "Section::::Dukes become kings.:Shang Yang reforms Qin (356–338 BC).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 290, "text": "During the early Warring States period Qin generally avoided conflicts with the other states. This changed during the reign of Duke Xiao, when prime minister Shang Yang made centralizing and authoritarian reforms in accordance with his Legalist philosophy between the years 356 and 338 BC.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23565461", "title": "Qin's wars of unification", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 284, "text": "Qin's wars of unification were a series of military campaigns launched in the late 3rd century BC by the Qin state against the other six major Chinese states — Han, Zhao, Yan, Wei, Chu and Qi. During 247–221 BC, Qin emerged as one of the dominant powers of the Seven Warring States. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34838", "title": "3rd century BC", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 446, "text": "The Warring States period in China drew to a close, with Qin Shi Huang conquering the six other nation-states and establishing the short-lived Qin dynasty, the first empire of China, which was followed in the same century by the long-lasting Han dynasty. However, a brief interregnum and civil war existed between the Qin and Han periods known as the Chu-Han contention, lasting until 202 BC with the ultimate victory of Liu Bang over Xiang Yu. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5760", "title": "History of China", "section": "Section::::Imperial China.:Qin dynasty (221–207 BC).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 588, "text": "Major contributions of the Qin include the concept of a centralized government, and the unification and development of the legal code, the written language, measurement, and currency of China after the tribulations of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. Even something as basic as the length of axles for carts—which need to match ruts in the roads—had to be made uniform to ensure a viable trading system throughout the empire. Also as part of its centralization, the Qin connected the northern border walls of the states it defeated, making the first Great Wall of China.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If its a small station call just before the end of the announcement, if its a large station call as soon as possible. \n\nAt a small station the announcer answers their own calls, at a large station a producer or panelist will answer the phone. \n\nSource I work in Radio.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Used to be a dj, always call as soon as it starts. At the one I worked at we had 6 phone lines to where as soon as I was off air I would answer the phone as such: \n\"Caller number 1 thanks for trying\" click etc. really it's just luck, but being those first few calls helps. Also listen at certain times, we always have our tickets at certain times of the day, so keep track of that to up your chances. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2421114", "title": "Contesting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 622, "text": "Contesting (also known as \"radiosport\") is a competitive activity pursued by amateur radio operators. In a contest, an amateur radio station, which may be operated by an individual or a team, seeks to contact as many other amateur radio stations as possible in a given period of time and exchange information. Rules for each competition define the amateur radio bands, the mode of communication that may be used, and the kind of information that must be exchanged. The contacts made during the contest contribute to a score by which stations are ranked. Contest sponsors publish the results in magazines and on web sites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2421114", "title": "Contesting", "section": "Section::::Contesting basics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 774, "text": "During a radio contest, each station attempts to establish two-way contact with other licensed amateur radio stations and exchange information specific to that contest. The information exchanged could include an R-S-T system signal report, a name, the national region, i.e. a province or US state, in which the station is located, the geographic zone in which the station is located, the Maidenhead grid locator in which the station is located, the age of the operator, or an incrementing serial number. For each contact, the radio operator must correctly receive the call sign of the other station, as well as the information in the \"exchange\", and record this data, along with the time of the contact and the band or frequency that was used to make the contact, in a log.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2421114", "title": "Contesting", "section": "Section::::Contesting basics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 807, "text": "Radio contests are principally sponsored by amateur radio societies, radio clubs, or radio enthusiast magazines. These organizations publish the rules for the event, collect the operational logs from all stations that operate in the event, cross-check the logs to generate a score for each station, and then publish the results in a magazine, in a society journal, or on a web site. Because the competitions are between stations licensed in the Amateur Radio Service (with the exception of certain contests which sponsor awards for shortwave listeners), which prohibits the use of radio frequencies for pecuniary interests, there are no professional radio contests or professional contesters, and any awards granted by the contest sponsors are typically limited to paper certificates, plaques, or trophies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2421114", "title": "Contesting", "section": "Section::::Station locations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 817, "text": "Many radio amateurs are happy to contest from home, often with relatively low output power and simple antennas. Some of these operators at modest home stations operate competitively and others are simply on the air to give away some points to serious stations or to chase some unusual propagation. More serious radio contesters will spend significant sums of money and invest a lot of time building a potentially winning station, whether at home, a local mountain top, or in a distant country. Operators without the financial resources to build their own station establish relationships with those that do and \"guest operate\" at other stations during contests. Contesting is often combined with a DX-pedition, where amateur radio operators travel to a location where amateur radio activity is infrequent or uncommon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23275402", "title": "Amateur radio", "section": "Section::::Activities and practices.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 451, "text": "Many amateur radio operators participate in radio contests, during which an individual or team of operators typically seek to contact and exchange information with as many other amateur radio stations as possible in a given period of time. In addition to contests, a number of Amateur radio operating award schemes exist, sometimes suffixed with \"on the Air\", such as Summits on the Air, Islands on the Air, Worked All States and Jamboree on the Air.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2421114", "title": "Contesting", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 638, "text": "Contesting grew out of other amateur radio activities in the 1920s and 1930s. As intercontinental communications with amateur radio became more common, competitions were formed to challenge stations to make as many contacts as possible with amateur radio stations in other countries. Contests were also formed to provide opportunities for amateur radio operators to practice their message handling skills, used for routine or emergency communications across long distances. Over time, the number and variety of radio contests has increased, and many amateur radio operators today pursue the sport as their primary amateur radio activity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2421114", "title": "Contesting", "section": "Section::::Types of contests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 651, "text": "A wide variety of amateur radio contests are sponsored every year. Contest sponsors have crafted competitive events that serve to promote a variety of interests and appeal to diverse audiences. Radio contests typically take place on weekends or local weeknight evenings, and can last from a few hours to forty-eight hours in duration. The rules of each contest will specify which stations are eligible for participation, the radio frequency bands on which they may operate, the communications modes they may employ, which other amateur radio stations they may contact, and the specific time period during which they may make contacts for the contest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "the fibrous cell structures within the plants become more rigid when they are cold. that rigidity gives them additional \"crispyness.\"\n\nit is similar to if you were to take a foam bed and turn the heat off in the room. the bed becomes much firmer. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1002536", "title": "Freeze-drying", "section": "Section::::Advantages.:Effect on nutrients and sensory quality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 230, "text": "Due to the low processing temperatures and the minimization of deterioration reactions, nutrients are retained and color is maintained. Freeze-dried fruit maintains its original shape and has a characteristic soft crispy texture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2050894", "title": "Astringent", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 637, "text": "Astringency, the dry, puckering mouthfeel caused by the tannins in unripe fruits, lets the fruit mature by deterring eating. Ripe fruits and fruit parts including blackthorn (sloe berries), \"Aronia\" chokeberry, chokecherry, bird cherry, rhubarb, quince and persimmon fruits, and banana skins are very astringent; citrus fruits, like lemons, are somewhat astringent. Tannins, being a kind of polyphenol, bind salivary proteins and make them precipitate and aggregate, producing a rough, \"sandpapery\", or dry sensation in the mouth. The tannins in some teas and red grape wines like Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot produce mild astringency.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1817444", "title": "Maceration (food)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 295, "text": "In the case of fresh fruit, particularly soft fruit such as strawberries and raspberries, they are often just sprinkled with sugar (and sometimes a small amount of salt) and then left to sit and release their own juices. This process makes the food more flavorful and easier to chew and digest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1056624", "title": "Diospyros virginiana", "section": "Section::::Cultivation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 866, "text": "It is a common misconception persimmon fruit needs frost to ripen and soften, called bletting. Some, such as the early-ripening varieties \"pieper\" and \"NC21\"(also known as \"supersweet\"), easily lose astringency and become completely free of it when slightly soft at the touch—these are then very sweet, even in the British climate. On the other hand, some varieties (like the very large fruited \"yates\", which is a late ripening variety) remain astringent even when the fruit has become completely soft (at least in the British climate). Frost, however, destroys the cells within the fruit, causing it to rot instead of ripen. Only completely ripe and soft fruit can stand some frost; it will then dry and become even sweeter (hence the misconception). The same goes for the Oriental persimmon (\"Diospyros kaki\"), where early frost can severely damage a fruit crop.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20258", "title": "McIntosh (apple)", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 590, "text": "The fruit grows best in cool areas where nights are cold and autumn days are clear; otherwise, it suffers from poor colour and soft flesh, and tends to fall from the tree before harvest. It stores for two to three months in air, but is prone to scald, flesh softening, chilling sensitivity, and coprinus rot. It can become mealy when stored at temperatures below . The fruit is optimally stored in a controlled atmosphere in which temperatures are between , and air content is 1.5–4.5% oxygen and 1–5% carbon dioxide; under such conditions, the McIntosh will keep for five to eight months.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20921569", "title": "List of food origins", "section": "Section::::Europe.:Mediterranean and subtropical fruits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 232, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 232, "end_character": 216, "text": "Fruits in this category are not hardy to extreme cold, as the preceding temperate fruits are, yet tolerate some frost and may have a modest chilling requirement. Notable among these are natives of the Mediterranean:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21282070", "title": "Taste", "section": "Section::::Further sensations and transmission.:Coolness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 407, "text": "Some substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. This \"fresh\" or \"minty\" sensation can be tasted in peppermint, spearmint, menthol, ethanol, and camphor. Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, TRPM8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The jagged and irregular shape of a lightning bolt is one thing that causes thunder to rumble. Different points all along the lightning bolt are different distances from your ears and thus the sounds arrives at slightly different times. If a lightning bolt were perfectly straight, for example, you'd hear a big boom but it would be uniform in intensity for its duration (discounting effects of distance on sound intensity). \n\nA forked bolt would make a sort of ka-boom sound as the two separate forks of the bolt create sound waves that arrive close to each other but not at the exact same time (at least in most cases, you could prove mathematically that at a point equally spaced from each fork, the sounds would constructively interfere to create a louder boom, however it's pretty unlikely that you'd happen to be in the exact spot where this happens).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[Resoning](_URL_0_) \nFork lightning is the actual lightning. Sheet lightning is actually layers of clouds illuminated by hidden fork lightning. \n\nThis is the closest I could get between the difference between the sound of forked and sheet lightning. I think they maybe a muffling effect due to the clouds, however, there isn't a significant difference.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Think about it this way. The sound you are hearing is the rapid expansion of air as it is superheated by the charge flow through the lightning path. Sound waves travel at a finite speed in the atmosphere. The longer the lightning bolt, the more thunder will be produced. The more area covered, the more the sound will rumble due to sound reflections from the ground and clouds, dispersion of the sound waves, and general mischief of the smaller forked leaders, etc. \n\nThe loud crack sound usually indicates close proximity of the lighting bolt, often strinking an object within a few hundred yards. It is estimated, according to Wallace and Hobbs, that theres about a 50 yard seeking radius for dart leaders as they try to find a conducting path. This is why you will be relatively safe surrounded by very tall trees, while you stand about 50 yards away. It is also why you dont go golfing during a thunderstorm, you're likely to be the tallest thing in an open space, wearing metal spiked shoes -- this allows the ground charge to easily flow through your body and attract the dart leaders more effectively. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "61344", "title": "Lightning", "section": "Section::::Effects.:Thunder.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 800, "text": "Because the electrostatic discharge of terrestrial lightning superheats the air to plasma temperatures along the length of the discharge channel in a short duration, kinetic theory dictates gaseous molecules undergo a rapid increase in pressure and thus expand outward from the lightning creating a shock wave audible as thunder. Since the sound waves propagate not from a single point source but along the length of the lightning's path, the sound origin's varying distances from the observer can generate a rolling or rumbling effect. Perception of the sonic characteristics is further complicated by factors such as the irregular and possibly branching geometry of the lightning channel, by acoustic echoing from terrain, and by the usually multiple-stroke characteristic of the lightning strike.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "94858", "title": "Thunder", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 458, "text": "Thunder is the sound caused by lightning. Depending on the distance from and nature of the lightning, it can range from a sharp, loud crack to a long, low rumble (brontide). The sudden increase in pressure and temperature from lightning produces rapid expansion of the air within and surrounding the path of a lightning strike. In turn, this expansion of air creates a sonic shock wave, sonic boom, often referred to as a \"thunderclap\" or \"peal of thunder\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "94858", "title": "Thunder", "section": "Section::::Perception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 304, "text": "Close-in lightning has been described first as a clicking or cloth-tearing sound, then a cannon shot sound or loud crack/snap, followed by continuous rumbling. The early sounds are from the leader parts of lightning, then the near parts of the return stroke, then the distant parts of the return stroke.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3007735", "title": "Skyquake", "section": "Section::::Local names.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 468, "text": "Their sound has been described as being like distant but inordinately loud thunder while no clouds are in the sky large enough to generate lightning. Those familiar with the sound of cannon fire say the sound is nearly identical. The booms occasionally cause shock waves that rattle plates. Early white settlers in North America were told by the native Haudenosaunee Iroquois that the booms were the sound of the Great Spirit continuing his work of shaping the earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16191879", "title": "Atmospheric noise", "section": "Section::::Lightning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 317, "text": "The sum of all these lightning flashes results in atmospheric noise. It can be observed, with a radio receiver, in the form of a combination of white noise (coming from distant thunderstorms) and impulse noise (coming from a near thunderstorm). The power-sum varies with seasons and nearness of thunderstorm centers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "169319", "title": "Necessity and sufficiency", "section": "Section::::Sufficiency.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 242, "text": "BULLET::::- Example 3: An occurrence of thunder is a sufficient condition for the occurrence of lightning in the sense that hearing thunder, and unambiguously recognizing it as such, justifies concluding that there has been a lightning bolt.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1168", "title": "Anaximander", "section": "Section::::Theories.:Meteorological phenomena.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 595, "text": "Anaximander attributed some phenomena, such as thunder and lightning, to the intervention of elements, rather than to divine causes. In his system, thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other; the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock. Thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame, but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A bit is a binary digit. A byte is an 8 digit number, in binary.\n\nIn decimal, a ten digit number could represent a high count of something, or each digit could have it's own significance. For example, in a telephone number, where it really just represents what button to press. It's conceivable that every two digits could combine to represent something. Kind of like the first three in an American phone number represent a region.\n\nDNA is made up a discreet number of pairs of bases, no? The are four bases that bind in two different pairs. Even if it matters which is left and which is right, relative to something arbitrary (for instance the pairs of the entire preliminary length of the strand), it's all powers of two.\n\nSo in the case of DNA it would be pretty simple to convert to bits and bytes. Without even knowing specifically how many kinds of bases there are, or whether the chirality matters, as long as everything must pair up, each pair is represented by a strict number of bits, with no waste.\n\nI.e., if there are 4 bases I'll call a b c and d, but the pairs only form like ab and cd, then that's either 0 or 1 in binary. One digit covers all those possibilities. If chirality confess into play, so that relative to the first ab or cd, you can have ab ba cd or dc, then there are 4 possibilities, which are entirely grasped by two digits with no wasted digit.\n\nBy waste I mean, imagine if you had 5 possibilities. That would require 3 digits, but wouldn't use all the combinations of those 3.\n\nAlthough, even if the third digit is used, and a little bit a waste, it would still factor correctly into an amount of dat a, so that's somewhat moot.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well, with only one of four nucleotides possible at any position on the strand (A, C, T, G), the nucleotide could be represented by a number 0, 1, 2 or 3, or the binary equivalent 00, 01, 10 or 11 (two bits per nucleotide). From there, it's just a matter of multiplying by the number of positions on the DNA strand for the total number of bits, and then dividing by eight to get bytes. The number still seems a bit off though, so perhaps I'm missing something.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Depends on what you mean by \"information\".\n\nIf we just say how much a *single* strand of DNA *could possibly encode*, it's ~750 MB. I agree with [this blogger's take](_URL_0_), and really reading that is better than an ELI5 here, probably, but...\n\n- The DNA code uses 4 \"code pieces\": A, T, C, and G. (They are teeny little bunches of specific atoms, such bunches are called \"bases\", and those letters stand for their names: adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine).\n\n- To use binary code--just 0 and 1--to distinguish between four things, you have to do it like so: 00, 01, 10, 11. So say \"00\" = A, \"01\" = T, and so on. A single digit is one \"bit\", in binary code.\n\n- So therefore you use 2 bits for each letter. \n\n- There are 3 billion such letters in a *single* strand of DNA. (though the blogger talks about 2 strands, one each from mom and dad...that's why the answer there is twice as big).\n\n- 3 billion x 2 bits = 6 billion bits / 8 bits per byte = 750 million bytes = 750 Megabytes also called 750 MB.\n\nSo where does the 4MB come from? \n\nInformation is defined in information theory as basically \"that which we don't know\"--in the sense that if you tell me \"the sun will rise tomorrow\", you haven't told me any information, since I already know that. \n\nSome estimates state that all human DNA is 99.5% the same as everyone else's. So, under this interpretation of information, if I got a sample of your specific DNA, I'd only learn 0.5% new information compared to \"Joe Human's\" DNA.\n\nAnd 0.5% of 750 MB = 3.75 MB ≈ 4MB.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1317000", "title": "Arecibo message", "section": "Section::::Explanation.:Double helix.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 280, "text": "DNA double helix; the vertical bar represents the number of nucleotides. The value depicted is around 4.3 billion, which was believed to be the case in 1974 when the message was transmitted. It is currently thought that there are about 3.2 billion base pairs in the human genome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "841429", "title": "Synthetic biology", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Designed nucleic acid systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 375, "text": "Scientists can encode digital information onto a single strand of synthetic DNA. In 2012, George M. Church encoded one of his books about synthetic biology in DNA. The 5.3 Mb of data was more than 1000 times greater than the previous largest amount of information to be stored in synthesized DNA. A similar project encoded the complete sonnets of William Shakespeare in DNA.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31001114", "title": "DNA nanoball sequencing", "section": "Section::::Procedure.:Rolling circle replication.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 791, "text": "Once a single-stranded circular DNA template is created, containing sample DNA that is ligated to two unique adapter sequences has been generated, the full sequence is amplified into a long string of DNA. This is accomplished by rolling circle replication with the Phi 29 DNA polymerase which binds and replicates the DNA template. The newly synthesized strand is released from the circular template, resulting in a long single-stranded DNA comprising several head-to-tail copies of the circular template. The resulting nanoparticle self-assembles into a tight ball of DNA approximately 300 nanometers (nm) across. Nanoballs remain separated from each other because they are negatively charged naturally repel each other, reducing any tangling between different single stranded DNA lengths.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2890145", "title": "William Astbury", "section": "Section::::X-ray diffraction studies of fibrous proteins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 377, "text": "Astbury and Bell reported that DNA's structure repeated every 2.7 nanometres and that the bases lay flat, stacked, 0.34 nanometres apart. At a symposium in 1938 at Cold Spring Harbor, Astbury pointed out that the 0.34 nanometre spacing was the same as amino acids in polypeptide chains. (The currently accepted value for the spacing of the bases in B-form of DNA is 0.332 nm.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "583438", "title": "Transformation (genetics)", "section": "Section::::Natural competence and transformation.:Natural transformation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 311, "text": "In \"B. subtilis\" the length of the transferred DNA is greater than 1271 kb (more than 1 million bases). The length transferred is likely double stranded DNA and is often more than a third of the total chromosome length of 4215 kb. It appears that about 7-9% of the recipient cells take up an entire chromosome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34253810", "title": "2012 in science", "section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:August.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 447, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 447, "end_character": 261, "text": "BULLET::::- Researchers at Harvard's Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering successfully store 5.5 petabits of data – around 700 terabytes – in a single gram of DNA, breaking the previous DNA data density record by a thousand times. (ExtremeTech)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5300", "title": "Computer data storage", "section": "Section::::Storage media.:Other storage media or substrates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 300, "text": "BULLET::::- DNA: stores information in DNA nucleotides. It was first done in 2012 when researchers achieved a rate of 1.28 petabytes per gram of DNA. In March 2017 scientists reported that a new algorithm called a DNA fountain achieved 85% of the theoretical limit, at 215 petabytes per gram of DNA.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In theory if you keep cutting the distance between two objects in half, they will not meet. I'm not sure what you are asking about though.\n\nHere's a little joke that is very relevant: \nA mathematician and an engineer are both told they can half the distance between themselves and a beautiful woman as many times as they want. The mathematician responds: \"I'll never get to her.\" The engineer says: \"I'll get close enough...\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Two answers:\n\n1. You can't keep cutting matter in half. There are particles which are indivisible.\n2. Your idea of what it means to \"touch\" something only applies at the macro scale. On the quantum level, \"touching\" isn't a binary state in which two atoms are either touching or they're not. What's actually happening is that the closer two atoms get, the stronger the electromagnetic forces between the electrons and the protons in the atoms are felt. It's like trying to push together two repelling magnets that can never be touched together.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because we don't move in half-distances, we move in whole ones. My steps are, say, 1 meter apiece, not 50% of the distance between me and my object. I'm not subdividing the distance, I'm subtracting it. Dividing the distance between me and the object is a model of movement that breaks down at very small distances.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well if you want to get REAL technical about it, no two objects EVER actually touch due to the way electron clouds work. Even solids are made up of tightly packed, but essentially free floating atoms that never touch. Nuclei of atoms never touch, but reactions can take place that swap electrons and protons", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "None of these answers would appeal to a 5 year old. Let's get an answer in simple elementary English!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The answer is: calculus. You use calculus (specifically: limits) to determine that ½ + ¼ + ⅛ + ... is equal to 1. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22697098", "title": "Distance of closest approach of ellipses and ellipsoids", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 291, "text": "The distance of closest approach of two objects is the distance between their centers when they are externally tangent. The objects may be geometric shapes or physical particles with well defined boundaries. The distance of closest approach is sometimes referred to as the contact distance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4864945", "title": "Contact area", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 693, "text": "When two objects touch, only a certain portion of their surface areas will be in contact with each other. This area of true contact, most often constitutes only a very small fraction of the apparent or \"nominal\" contact area. In relation to two contacting objects, the term Contact area refers to the fraction of the nominal area that consists of atoms of one object in true contact with the atoms of the other object. Because objects are never perfectly flat due to asperities, the actual contact area (on a microscopic scale) is usually much less than the contact area apparent on a macroscopic scale. Contact area may depend on the normal force between the two objects due to deformation. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "277468", "title": "Two-body problem", "section": "Section::::Results for prominent cases.:Gravitation and other inverse-square examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 350, "text": "The two-body problem is interesting in astronomy because pairs of astronomical objects are often moving rapidly in arbitrary directions (so their motions become interesting), widely separated from one another (so they won't collide) and even more widely separated from other objects (so outside influences will be small enough to be ignored safely).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1316947", "title": "Ambiguous image", "section": "Section::::Gestalt grouping rules.:Proximity, common region, and connectedness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 452, "text": "The grouping property of \"proximity (Gestalt)\" is the spatial distance between two objects. The closer two objects are, the more likely they belong to the same group. This perception can be ambiguous without the person perceiving it as ambiguous. For example, two objects with varying distances and orientations from the viewer may appear to be proximal to each other, while a third object may be closer to one of the other objects but appear farther.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61255683", "title": "Charles Reid (painter)", "section": "Section::::Characteristics of Charles Reid's watercolor work.:The drawing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 249, "text": "In the same meaning the line will be more or less pressed on depending on whether you want to connect or to separate, \"find\" or \"lose\" the boundary according to the tonal value of the contiguous zones that you want to melt in the other or separate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28758", "title": "Spacetime", "section": "Section::::Spacetime in special relativity.:Spacetime interval.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 703, "text": "In special relativity, however, the distance between two points is no longer the same if measured by two different observers when one of the observers is moving, because of Lorentz contraction. The situation is even more complicated if the two points are separated in time as well as in space. For example, if one observer sees two events occur at the same place, but at different times, a person moving with respect to the first observer will see the two events occurring at different places, because (from their point of view) they are stationary, and the position of the event is receding or approaching. Thus, a different measure must be used to measure the effective \"distance\" between two events.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30035631", "title": "Principles of grouping", "section": "Section::::Good continuation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 362, "text": "When there is an intersection between two or more objects, people tend to perceive each object as a single uninterrupted object. This allows differentiation of stimuli even when they come in visual overlap. We have a tendency to group and organize lines or curves that follow an established direction over those defined by sharp and abrupt changes in direction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "My guess is since the password never changes anymore some bot brute forces the password and takes over the account.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12878216", "title": "Criticism of Facebook", "section": "Section::::Privacy issues.:Photo recognition and face tagging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 330, "text": "Naomi Lachance stated in a web blog for NPR, \"All Tech Considered\", that Facebook's facial recognition is right 98% of the time compared to the FBI's 85% out of 50 people. It's also noted, however, that the accuracies of Facebook searches are due to its larger, more diverse photo selection compared to the FBI's closed database.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41787388", "title": "Mass surveillance in China", "section": "Section::::Timeline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 356, "text": "In 2018, Chinese law enforcement officials have been equipped with facial recognition glasses in order to apprehend criminals, especially drug smugglers. This technology was adopted at the 2017 Qingdao International Beer Festival. With the assistance of it, policemen captured many criminals, including 25 fugitives, 19 drug smugglers, and 37 plagiarists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31781072", "title": "Wipas Raksakulthai", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 315, "text": "The \"Bangkok Post\" reported that this was thought to be the first lèse majesté charge against a Thai Facebook user. A media reform activist described the case as escalating \"the climate of fear among [Thai] internet users\" and stated that \"now many people refrain from revealing their real identities on Facebook.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38068433", "title": "Mug shot publishing industry", "section": "Section::::Private attempts to block industry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 801, "text": "On October 5, 2013, David Segal, a reporter at the \"New York Times\", published an article critical of the mugshot publishing industry. Prior to publication and seemingly in response to this criticism, Google took steps to lower mugshot sites rankings in their search algorithms so that such pictures no longer appear in the first page of search results when a person is searched by name. According to the New York Times article, payment processors such as Visa, MasterCard, Discover, American Express, and PayPal were in process of terminating processing payments to mugshot websites and related removal sites. Ten days later CNN Money reported, that according to American Express, it had severed all ties; and that other companies were still in the process of cutting ties with the mugshot industry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42032995", "title": "Smartglasses", "section": "Section::::Public reception for commercial usage.:Critical reception.:Privacy concerns.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 86, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 86, "end_character": 996, "text": "Privacy advocates are concerned that people wearing such eyewear may be able to identify strangers in public using facial recognition, or surreptitiously record and broadcast private conversations. Some companies in the U.S. have posted anti-Google Glass signs in their establishments. In July 2013, prior to the official release of the product, Stephen Balaban, co-founder of software company Lambda Labs, circumvented Google’s facial recognition app block by building his own, non-Google-approved operating system. Balaban then installed face-scanning Glassware that creates a summary of commonalities shared by the scanned person and the Glass wearer, such as mutual friends and interests. Additionally, Michael DiGiovanni created Winky, a program that allows a Google Glass user to take a photo with a wink of an eye, while Marc Rogers, a principal security researcher at Lookout, discovered that Glass can be hijacked if a user could be tricked into taking a picture of a malicious QR code.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7529378", "title": "Facebook", "section": "Section::::Criticisms and controversies.:Privacy.:Shadow profiles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 155, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 155, "end_character": 488, "text": "This practice has been criticized by those who believe people should be able to opt-out of involuntary data collection. Additionally, while Facebook users have the ability to download and inspect the data they provide to the site, data from the user's \"shadow profile\" is not included, and non-users of Facebook do not have access to this tool regardless. The company has also been unclear whether or not it is possible for a person to revoke Facebook's access to their \"shadow profile.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48303965", "title": "Michael Stokes (photographer)", "section": "Section::::Facebook Controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 556, "text": "In December 2013, Facebook removed another photo of Minsky from Stokes' page, saying it violated their Community Standards, and banned the photographer's page for 30 days. Stokes told \"The Advocate\" he suspected this action was personal. \"I believe I know who reported the photo. It was most likely a gay graphics designer who stole one of my photos and used it for a bar ad. He and I were going back and forth on what he had done, and his employer made him pay a license fee for image usage. So, Facebook's reporting system is an effective revenge tool.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Propeller aircraft are usually less expensive for the same size and slightly more fuel efficient, although slower. Makes for a compelling argument for shorter routes without high demand, and some airlines such as Silver run almost exclusively propeller aircraft.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not sure how modern is modern, but the Seattle-Portland route that Alaska flies is frequently serviced by Dash-8s or Q-400s, I believe. It was designed in 84, with the upgraded Q-400s coming out in the 90s.\n\nEdit: they are more fuel efficient and require a lot less runway to take off.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One thing to keep in mind is these are still jet engines, and not piston engines. They just don't use the jet stream for propulsion, but propellers connected to the engine via a shaft.\n\nThe reason is that propellers are more fuel efficient at speeds they operate at. Regular turbo-fan engines really need to be bigger to be efficient (thats why you see companies like Boeing trying to use the biggest engine possible in latest 737 models). They are also cheaper to produce and mantain.\n\nOne nice \"safety\" feature of using turbo-props (thats how their are named) is that you have very little power-lag in case of aborted approach. Because they regulate thrust by propeller angles, the engines are allways runnig at speeds, so there is no spool-up if you require thrust, you just need to change the angles.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "TLDR: The aircraft are cheaper to operate and more efficient for short-haul flights.\n\nDisclaimer: I used to work for a commuter airline that operated only propeller driven aircraft.\n\nModern commuter aircraft use Turbo-props which are effectively small jet engines with a propeller attached to the front via a gearbox.\n\nTurboprops are considerably more expensive to build and maintain vs traditional piston engines but they are more powerful and much lighter. For aircraft weight is everything, as each pound you can potentially carry directly translates to profits.\n\nBut why turboprops instead of Turbofans (jets)?\n\nTurboprops use less fuel than Turbofans but consequently they also fly slower. What airlines discovered in the late 80's, early 90's is that passengers on commuter (short) flights were willing to take slightly longer flights if it meant paying less per ticket.\n\nTurboprop aircraft are more efficient for short haul flights. They are also less noisy which means they operate under less restrictions than jets.\n\nThey can also land in shorter distances, and even operate on gravel with fewer modifications making them better suited for operating out of smaller airports. Particularly in the far north where airstrips are mostly chip-stone/gravel.\n\nAll aircraft are very safe (statistically speaking you are hundreds of times more likely to die in the cab on the way to the airport) but *arguably* turbo-props are safer than jets because they can land in shorter distances, propellers are more responsive (less throttle lag than jets) and can fly at much slower speeds making them easier to handle in the case of an emergency.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Except for a few military planes, there are no jet planes. All the planes you name are turbofan or turboprop. A small jet core turns an air mover and that air thrust makes the plane go. The bigger the air mover, the more efficient. But, really big air movers are speed limited, you don't want the tips to break the speed of sound.\n\nIf you're willing to go slower, turboprop saves gas. If you want to go faster you enclose the propeller in a duct to make a turbofan. It costs more and needs more gas, but it's faster.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13086317", "title": "Fastest propeller-driven aircraft", "section": "Section::::Propeller versus jet propulsion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1264, "text": "Aircraft that use propellers as their prime propulsion device constitute a historically important subset of aircraft, despite inherent limitations to their speed. Aircraft powered by piston engines get virtually all of their thrust from the propeller driven by the engine. A few piston engined aircraft derive some thrust from the engine's exhaust gases, and there are certain hybrid types like the Motorjet that use a piston engine to drive the compressor of a jet engine, which supplies the primary thrust (although some types also have a propeller powered by the piston engine for low speed efficiency). All aircraft prior to World War II (except for a tiny number of early jet aircraft and rocket aircraft) used piston engines to drive propellers, so all Flight airspeed records prior to 1944 were necessarily set by propeller-driven aircraft. Rapid advances in first liquid-fueled rocket engine-powered aircraft – with a 1004 km/h record set in October 1941 by a German example — and axial-flow jet engine technology during World War II meant that no propeller-driven aircraft would ever again hold an absolute air speed record. Shock wave formation in propeller-driven aircraft at speeds near sonic conditions, impose limits not encountered in jet aircraft.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32420169", "title": "Powered aircraft", "section": "Section::::Methods of propulsion.:Rotating aerofoils.:Propeller aircraft.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 450, "text": "Turbine engines need not be used as jets (see below), but may be geared to drive a propeller in the form of a turboprop. Modern helicopters also typically use turbine engines to power the rotor. Turbines provide more power for less weight than piston engines, and are better suited to small-to-medium size aircraft or larger, slow-flying types. Some turboprop designs mount the propeller directly on an engine turbine shaft, and are called propfans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1999139", "title": "Turbomachinery", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Aerospace.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 363, "text": "Gas turbines- Aerospace gas turbines, more commonly known as jet engines, are the most common gas turbines. They are the most like power generation turbines because the electricity used on the airplane is from the turbines, while also providing the propulsion. These turbines are the smallest out of the industrial turbines, and are most often the most advanced.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42008609", "title": "Post-war aviation", "section": "Section::::Aircraft.:Engines.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 219, "text": "The propeller powered by a piston engine, in radial or inline form, still dominated aviation at the close of World War Two, and its simplicity and low cost mean it is still in use today for less demanding applications.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "192453", "title": "Motorjet", "section": "Section::::Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 696, "text": "Motorjet engines provide greater thrust than a propeller alone mounted on a piston engine; this has been successfully demonstrated in a number of different aircraft. A jet engine also can provide thrust at higher speeds where a propeller becomes less efficient or even ineffective; in fact, a jet engine gains efficiency as speed rises, while a propeller loses it (outside of a certain design range). This gives better efficiency in either operating range than an aircraft powered by just a propeller or a jet. The same is true of the dual-powerplant aircraft experimented with after the turbojet became practicable, which were equipped with both a piston-driven propeller and a turbojet engine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32420169", "title": "Powered aircraft", "section": "Section::::Methods of propulsion.:Rotating aerofoils.:Propeller aircraft.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 384, "text": "From the first controlled powered fixed-wing aircraft flight by the Wright brothers until World War II, propellers turned by the internal combustion piston engine were virtually the only type of propulsion system in use. The piston engine is still used in the majority of smaller aircraft produced, since it is efficient at the lower altitudes and slower speeds suited to propellers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15944", "title": "Jet engine", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 256, "text": "Jet engines are also sometimes developed into, or share certain components such as engine cores, with turboshaft and turboprop engines, which are forms of gas turbine engines that are typically used to power helicopters and some propeller-driven aircraft.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "EDIT : u/sunagainstgold's answer on [homosexuality and its perception in medieval Scandinavia](_URL_0_) is certainly interest you on the other part of your question.\n\nWe have litterary evidence that ancient Celts (i.e. more or less people we would call Gauls) practiced homosexuality, to the point it was considered one of their positive qualities by Aristotle.\n\n > \\[...\\] *and yet among the barbarians, a female and a slave are upon a level in the community, the reason for which is, that amongst them there are none qualified by nature to govern, therefore their society can be nothing but between slaves of different sexes. For which reason the poets say, it is proper for the Greeks to govern the barbarians, as if a barbarian and a slave were by nature one.* (Politics, I, \n > \n > *So that in such a state riches will necessarily be in general esteem, particularly if the men are governed by their wives, which has been the case with many a brave and warlike people except the Celts, and those other nations, if there are any such, who openly practise pederasty* (Politics II, 9)\n\nu/cleopatra_philopater wrote [an answer that is necessary](_URL_1_) to understand what Greeks saw in participating to homosexual and pederastic activities : an initiation of the youngest, wild and \"desiring\" members of the upper society by older, experienced and guiding mentors. For Aristotle, it was the marking of a comparatively well-regulated and \"not that Barbaric\" society.\n\nAncient Celts, however, seems to have overdone it in the eyes of the Greeks as Diodorus Siculus\n\n > *Although their wives are comely, they have very little to do with them, but rage with lust, in outlandish fashion, for the embraces of males. It is their practice to sleep upon the ground on the skins of wild beasts and to tumble with a catamite on each side. And the most astonishing thing of all is that they feel no concern for their proper dignity, but prostitute to others without a qualm the flower of their bodies; nor do they consider this a disgraceful thing to do, but rather when anyone of them is thus approached and refuses the favour offered him, this they consider an act of dishonour.*\n\nActually revealing in penetration? Boys serching actively for partners? Lack of a natural desire for women as a \"settled\" man should have? *Threesomes*? That won't do at all : for Diodorus, regardless of their qualities, these are the displays of a deeply disordered people just as human sacrifices are.\n\nThis reputation of Gauls is echoed by Strabo as common knowledge.\n\n > \\[...\\] *one of the things that are repeated over and over again, namely, that not only are all Celts fond of strife, but among them it is considered no disgrace for the young men to be prodigal of their youthful charms*. (Geography, V, 4)\n\nEvidently, Gauls had a different approach on sexual practices among men than Greeks, even if it was still marked by intercourse between older mentors and wild youth. Unfortunately, there are no Celtic sources on this; obviously the lack of written litterature in ancient Gaul prevents a direct understanding, but the lack of pictural sources that we could interpret are an additional problems : Gauls didn't represent themselves, except relatively uncommon hieratic fashion, and sexual depictions are usually subtle.\n\nStill, we can draw something more than their immediatly descriptive meaning from Greek texts : at the partial exception of Strabo (who might have borrowed elements from Poseidonios as much from other authors), their perception of Celts was importantly drawn from the form of contacts Greek had with them. In the IVth to IInd centuries it was often as warring bands, either raiders or mercenaries, whom practices including sexual were thus displayed and known to Greeks (earlier mentions of Celts, from the VIth to the IVth centuries are silent on this topic).\n\nWe'd be thus allowed to preserve a strong association with pedagogic practices comparable to Greek pederasty, as Aristotle understood it.\n\nWe know that warfare was central in Gaulish public life : the social class Caesar describes as equites are determinated by their capacity to wage war as part of the mobilised troop and thus taking an active part into religious rites, political activity and social status among their peers on which personal prestige played the main part until the Ist century BCE. The importance of clientelization and personal relations in the make-up of the *pagus* (the supra-tribal entity from which troops were gathered and mobilised) would have impressed the pedagogic initiation including warring but also social mentorship and sponsorship that would have included gifts, equipment and sexual intercourse; making fully realized men out of \"boys\" able to participate to public life as peers; something that could be part of a larger set of practices in Indo-European peoples (altough certainly not limited to them).\n\nIn Gaul, it appears from sources that young children weren't fully considered part of the overall social sphere : Caesar inform us that it is innappropriate for a Gaul to bring his child with him, and young children aren't properly buried but cast away in some ditch except in the context of important lineage where they were groomed into a future social role. As such, a pubescent male is immediatly taken from childhood to active initiation, instead of it being a \"gateway\" of sorts as in Greece;which might have added to the confusion and reprobation from Greeks, but also something that might have well blurred the distinction between \"sexually-ehanced\" initiation and sexual intercourse among peers, both probably participating from the same set of practices, eventually removing these from strict pederasty and associating virile and social binding among warriors.\n\nThe active part taken by the youngers is interesting as it is uncommon and a shocking behavious for Greeks : it might be interpretable as understanding warfare itself as both central for Gauls but as a \"special\" sphere too. War and mobilisation were made under the auspices of standards taken from sanctuaries, among them the boar-standard or the beastly carnyxes, which had a military and religious meaning : the boar in particular is particularily present in this context while rare in coinage or other displays (where horse are far more common along with cervids).Likewise, Cernunnos as the torque-bearing god and association to cervids could be less a master of nature (and even less a \"god of nature\") than master of the wild whom initiated warriors (the representation of Cernunnos on the Gundestrup Cauldron being associated with a possible symbolical representation of initiation) could drawn from altough being \"harnassed\" by the god trough torque-giving.\n\nThere's an impression that warfare, decidely distinct from the \"normal\" sphere (which, incidentally, is governed by women in time of wars, at least for what matter the political management, as accounted by Plutarch), where the wilderness of young men could find an outlet in aggressive warfare and sexuality along older patrons, or as part of a \"troop of young men\" (or *männerbund).*\n\nWould these practices have been maintained outside warfare? That's possible but sources are lacking and interpretation of what is at disposal is limited. Warfare being the natural and recurring lifestyle of warriors, we can speculate that there were more than enough occasions to practice something that might have been situated between accepted bisexuality and ritualized pederasty.\n\nWere these practices accepted outside warriors? Opposite stances had been supported and argued, from these being limited to a ritual and \"special\" context, to Gaulish culture being essentially accepting of bisexuality. Absence of sources (either positively or negatively pointing this) prevent any form of certainty in spite of enthusiastic support for the latter, such as Celts being considered as \"sin-free\" and \"taboo-free\" (e.g. Pierre Godard)\n\n\\[EDIT : We have nothing, on the other hand, on feminine homosexual intercourse or relationships. It was pretty much a non-topic for ancient authors, who focused on a warring elite they were more likely to met with in Gaul or elsewhere in the Mediterranean basin.Altough Gaulish women in particular, and Celtic women in general, seems to have beneficed from a higher status and more agency in public life than in Greece or Rome, we're badly informed on their everyday or public life itself and it is often in relation with how it differed or completed masculine spheres. Even comparatism with other mythological or historical sources (notably medieval Irish and Welsh ones) doesn't give much which could be the sign lesbianism wasn't acknowledged in ancient Gaul either\\]\n\nWhat we can say, however, is that Gauls were apparently less uptight than Greeks in their sexual approach (some Gaulish names or surnames have possible explicit translations, such as Tarcondimotus, litterally \"his head is like a d\\*\\*g\"), and seems to have, in a context of social upbringing and perpetuation of a male elite, not only tolerated but actively practiced it.\n\n* *Dictionnaire de langue gauloise - Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental*; Xavier Delmarre; éditions Errance; 2003\n* *Homosexualité et initiation chez les peuples indo-européens*; Bernard Sergent; Payot & Rivages, 1996.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43797", "title": "Violence against LGBT people", "section": "Section::::State-sanctioned violence.:Historic.:The Middle East.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 360, "text": "David F. Greenberg, \"The construction of homosexuality\", p. 242 f. Scholarship compares the later Germanic concept of Old Norse \"argr\", Langobardic \"arga\", which combines the meanings \"effeminate, cowardly, homosexual\", see Jaan Puhvel, 'Who were the Hittite \"hurkilas pesnes\"?' in: A. Etter (eds.), \"O-o-pe-ro-si\" (FS Risch), Walter de Gruyter, 1986, p. 154.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15179951", "title": "Human sexuality", "section": "Section::::Psychological aspects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 1040, "text": "Before the High Middle Ages, homosexual acts appear to have been ignored or tolerated by the Christian church. During the 12th century, hostility toward homosexuality began to spread throughout religious and secular institutions. By the end of the 19th century, it was viewed as a pathology. Havelock Ellis and Sigmund Freud adopted more accepting stances; Ellis said homosexuality was inborn and therefore not immoral, not a disease, and that many homosexuals made significant contributions to society. Freud wrote that all human beings as capable of becoming either heterosexual or homosexual; neither orientation was assumed to be innate. According to Freud, a person's orientation depended on the resolution of the Oedipus complex. He said male homosexuality resulted when a young boy had an authoritarian, rejecting mother and turned to his father for love and affection, and later to men in general. He said female homosexuality developed when a girl loved her mother and identified with her father, and became fixated at that stage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40857917", "title": "LGBTQ migration", "section": "Section::::LGBT discrimination and tolerance by region.:Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 226, "text": "Beginning in the 16th and 17th centuries, Europe considered all homosexuality equivalent to the biblical sin of sodomy, punishable by death. Later during the Holocaust, homosexuals were rounded up and murdered alongside Jews.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57715", "title": "Richard von Krafft-Ebing", "section": "Section::::Principal work.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 383, "text": "Krafft-Ebing’s conclusions about homosexuality are now largely forgotten, partly because Sigmund Freud’s theories were more interesting to physicians (who considered homosexuality to be a psychological problem) and partly because he incurred the enmity of the Austrian Catholic Church when he psychologically associated martyrdom (a desire for sanctity) with hysteria and masochism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5075928", "title": "LGBT rights in Costa Rica", "section": "Section::::Legality of same-sex sexual activity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 333, "text": "Homosexuality first became classified as a grave sin and crime during the Spanish rule. After gaining independence, it remained a crime until the liberal presidency of Tomás Guardia. While it was decriminalized during this era as part of a larger reform of the legal system, homosexuality was still widely seen as an \"infamous sin\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8176791", "title": "LGBT rights in Europe", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 410, "text": "In 1979, a number of people in Sweden called in sick with a case of \"being homosexual,\" in protest of homosexuality being classified as an illness. This was followed by an activist occupation of the main office of the \"National Board of Health and Welfare\". Within a few months, Sweden became the first country in Europe from those that had previously defined homosexuality as an illness to remove it as such.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5000147", "title": "Nils Asther", "section": "Section::::Homosexuality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 460, "text": "Asther was a homosexual in a time when it was a dangerous social stigma, both personally and professionally. He grew up in a deeply religious Lutheran home, believing homosexuality was a sin and society viewed homosexuality as a disease. In Sweden it was called \"unnatural fornication\". While sexual relations between adults of the same sex were legalized in 1944, the medical classification of homosexuality as a form of mental disorder continued until 1979.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes, we got better at grunting.\n\nBut to say \"developed independently all over the world\" is a bit misleading.\n\nA group of people that speak A all lived together, but then some moved away and over time the languages changed, and now you have two different languages, A and B because they were so far apart geographically they couldn't keep eachother up to date.\n\nFrench, english, spanish, german, all have similar origins, so they were not independent in the beginning. It is not like different languages spontaneously happened.\n\nThe language's change is very much like evolution of the species, and in essence there was no \"creation\" for languages either. Radical changes take a LOT of time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "More like a big \"chicken and egg\" thing going on as our brains developed, I think. Getting better at grunting helped us make more sounds. More sounds mean the ability to convey more information. Passing information is really useful if you're a social, cultural species with a brain that can make use of it; it means you can do much more complex things as a group, and more efficiently. So developing a vocal system that can make lots of different sounds is really useful. So you get better at grunting. And round it goes.\n\nIf you're really interested in how language might have developed, though, you could do worse than go read about Nicaraguan Sign Language. In a nutshell, NSL is the nearest we have to an real example of a language emerging spontaneously from next to nothing (among a group of deaf school children in Nicaragua in the 1970s onwards). What's fascinating is the way in which succeeding \"generations\" of children passing through the school rapidly deepened the complexity and subtlety of their signing, from a very basic pidgin into a full-blown language with all the sorts of grammar subtleties you'd expect to see in one. However language started out, it's clearly something we're very strongly adapted to make use of.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "At first I thought the post said \"Did we just get better at hunting?\" and I thought, hey that's probably right. We would of started making different noises to mean different things in hunting situations. Maybe that is a cause for its beginnings?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A lot of people are claiming much more certainty than we have on the topic. We'll never really know how language developed initially - there are a huge range of theories, which you can find a summary of [here](_URL_0_).\n\nOnce the first language(s) developed, basically people would speak a language, get separated from other people, and their languages would naturally diverge. \n\nOne of the most prominent language families is Indo-European. A group of people, the Proto-Indo Europeans (PIE), seemed to have some advantage (possibly horsemanship) that allowed them to spread from their original homeland somewhere on the border of Asia and Europe to inhabit almost everything from Portugal to northern India, excepting some parts of Scandinavia and Eastern Europe which speak Finno-Urgic Languages (thanks /u/tarvaina for the correction!). The only non-Indo European language in South Western Europe is Basque, which is the last remnant of a now mostly extinct language family. People were either displaced or (more likely) learned the new language of a conquering people. PIE language then diverged as separate pockets stopped speaking to each other. One of those pockets, for instance, became Latin. Latin spread over Europe with the conquests of the Roman empire, but then when the Empire collapsed, people stopped speaking to people from other regions, so Latin became French, Portuguese, Italian, Spanish etc.\n\nEdit: added Finno-Urgic Languages as per /u/tarvaina", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One interesting theory is that the first languages actually used gestures rather than sounds. The idea is that complex communication started as pantomime - you would act out a story to tell others about some event. Over time these acts were reduced to hand gestures, while vocalisations and facial expressions started to convey more and more of the message. According to this theory, the way modern humans use their hands during speech is a remnant of ancient gestural communication.\n\nHere's an article which makes the argument more fully: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You see, following the Great Flood, a united humanity all lived together in the Tower of Babel and spoke the same language. Then God scattered us and confounded our speech.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yup.\n\nExcept French. French was formed from hate and bad Italian cheese over a three day bender.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Watching a toddler grow from grunting noises to almost-complete sentences over the last year has been absolutely fascinating for me.\n\nIt's not a direct parallel for the development of our species into one that could communicate with more and more complexity, but it's definitely an insight.\n\nIt begins with nouns. You can point at a thing and then at your mouth to signify that you want to eat it, but if you can't see the thing, you need to be able to metaphorically point at it. That's what words are for.\n\n\"Biscuit!\" said while pointing at the mouth is a much more flexible form of communication.\n\nBeyond nouns lie more abstract concepts. It's just fascinating to watch a toddler grasp \"outside\" or \"raining\" or \"hot\", and then start to combine them. There is a definite pause between them still, but my toddler can now say \"Cat! Downstairs!\" or \"Shoes on! Outside!\" to make himself understood.\n\nOnce the basic building blocks are in place, you can then start stitching them together in more nuanced ways. \"What's catty doing?\" is a complete sentence. \"Where's mummy?\" displays a grasp of concepts like the existence of places and people beyond current sight. \n\nI guess what I'm trying to say is that there is real continuity in the development of his language. There is no sudden leap of intuition where one day he's not talking and the next he is. It's a distinctly gradual process of knitting together simple concepts into more complex ones as his brain develops, and I imagine humanity has done something similar on a much larger scale.\n\nI don't know that that's a very scientific answer to your question, but perhaps it's one that's still appropriate for ELI5!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > From what I understand, languages developed all over the world independently from one another. \n\nThis is wrong: _URL_0_\n\nAnd it is likely that those different language families are also related to each other. It is just extremely hard to trace back more than 5,000 years.\n\nModern humans exist for 100,000-200,000 years. Meaning that for at least 100,000 years, humans have the same cognitive abilities as we have today. And humans most likely even spoke more than 200.000 years ago.\n\nIt is quite likely that all languages are derivatives of a very old (way older than 10,000 years) language. Note that languages changed very fast back then. For example, German and English are about 1500 years apart. And English and German are still very similar. That is because there were many many thousand of Germans and English people who carried their language to the next generation with only little changes. In pre-historic times, people lived in small tribes. Meaning, langues change fast because smaller groups are more \"dynamic\". After just 200 years of a tribe splitting up in two tribes, their languages would probably already be more different than German and English. And after 1000 years, even linguists would have a hard time to see that those tribes spoke the same language 1000 years ago.\n\n > How rapidly did this happen,\n\nIt happened kinda fast in terms of evolutionary times. From a chimpanzee-like grunting creature to modern humans in just 6 mio years is fast.\n\nBut it was definitively not like that we all grunted, and suddenly one smart ape invented words and thousand years later we had a language like today. It took many ten or even hundred thousands of years.\n\n > and was it just a result of us learning to make complex sounds with our mouths?\n\nIt was a result of brain development. You can be sure that as soon as our brain was capable of speaking a language, that we also did. Nature does not waste resources. Having a brain that is able to speak, but does not, is a wast of energy. Maybe it was even the need to communicate that caused our brain to develop.\n\nPoint is: The important part was the brain, not the mouth. Of course you need both, but developing the brain was the \"hard\" part.\n\nAnd this all happened way before humans left Africa.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When we talk about language change, we are talking about how individual languages change, rather than the mental faculty itself. Latin became Spanish and French because pronunciation changed and meanings shifted while those groups were isolated from each other. \n\nThe evolution of language occurred on a far longer time scale. No doubt it involved a lot of language change, but to go from grunting to Latin, you need a lot of evolution reshaping your species' brains.\n\nAll languages may or may not have descended from a common super ancient language, which would in turn have developed from something simpler which we would not a call language. The important thing is to understand that all this can happen without conscious creation. Languages don't need to get invented: mistakes, changes in pronunciation, compounds, and intuitions reshape language naturally. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It all started with sweat glands! Sweat glands allowed humans to run further than any other animal. To day humans are still the fastest long distance runners on the plannet. We weren't able to, outrun a deer in 100 feet, but if we kept chasing it we would eventually exhaust and overheat it and thus be able to eat it. This hunting style relied on multiple people chasing after the animal. So societies that could find a way to organize and communicate quickly were able to eat more as they were able to make more effective strategies for outrunning the prey. A society with different grunts meaning different things was able to make better plans and thus they got to eat more. After a while this turned into language!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The origin of human language remains a scientific mystery, but OP makes a reasonable guess that the ability to articulate more sounds over time was what marks a change from primitive language to complex language, and that the earliest behaviors that we would recognize as language-like probably occurred in more than one community, and that both the separation of nomadic groups and their occasional contact sped up the cultural evolution that is concomitant with the rise of language.\n\nA great deal of the question depends on how smooth the evolutionary process occurs. If you are a Daniel Dennett, you think it was very smooth, and view the \"language organ\" the same as you view an eye or a wing, e.g. incrementally developing from a succession of barely useful adaptations/mutations that still granted a smidgen of survival/reproductive success. If you are a Steven Jay Gould, you see infrequent, but often profound hiccups in the evolutionary process, and a more complex organ develops more rapidly.\n\nI actually posed a similar question to Gould when he came for a lecture at my university (just a few months before he died), and his answer was a little cryptic: he referred to the \"evolution of computational propensities\", which I took to mean that language evolved somewhat parasitically on the back of the rise of human intelligence generally.\n\nMost people believe that language-as-we-know-it developed fairly rapidly (compared to eyes, wings, etc.), and that the critical period corresponds to the end of the last ice age, and the changes in proto-human social behavior that were required for survival. Hunting, tool-making, primitive agriculture, must have required a lot of coordination, with hierarchical social structures developing. Primitive religious practice - animism - helps account for abstraction in language.\n\nSince the earliest proto-humans are so close genetically, and the earliest homo sapiens essentially our genetic equal, it's logical to assume that all the hardware for modern language was in place, and so it simply took the rise of complex culture and early civilization to cause larger areas of our cognitive capacities to be concerned with expression.\n\nA favorite quasi-theory about language origins - which perhaps could ascribed to Steven Pinker - holds that some language behavior is truly innate (e.g. calling mom \"mama\" has something to do the pursing of lips related to breast-feeding), some language is based on mimicry of nature (e.g. onomatopoeia), and some language is purely a human invention, a tool in the strictest sense (e.g. religious utterances like \"Amen!\" or \"Om...\" - which originate in ritualized breathing). Though not Pinker's idea, it is sometimes speculated that discovering edible psychotropic substances ('shrooms, marijuana, fermented mold on wheat, etc.) was instrumental in the genesis of religion and language alike.\n\nAnother point to make is that there were specific changes in proto-human physiology which are directly implicated in the origin of language. Walking upright, and eating upright, required a different kind of throat, which just happens to correspond to the period when grunts gave way to a wider selection of vocal articulations. Also, the human diet becoming more iodine-rich (e.g. with organized hunting) and diversified (with agriculture) allowed us to use the brains we had more efficiently - and obviously increased life-spans, so that when you have old tribal elders, you've effectively increased the cultural heritage, and have the origination of history.\n\n(Sorry for wall of text - diachronic linguistics was my specialty before going into philosophy. But I have one more point.)\n\nAll of the above is fine and good until you take Darwin to a logical end-point. There is language-like behavior all across the biospheres. Birds, bees, ants, dolphins, whales, even flowers - and maybe even velociraptors according to Jurassic Park. The way Dennett approaches this observation is basically to grok \"meaning\" in language-like behavior to be akin to the way a thermometer \"tells\" us the temperature. It's an interpretative stance, that we made up by painting the lines on the thermometer. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "English is not only becoming global but also intergalactic. Heaps of science programs I've seen have alien life forms speaking in English or f not they have an alien that can translate and create English subtitles at least. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just had a lecture about this in my Anthropology class, from what I understand there was a mutation in the FOXP2 gene in humans that allowed for us to have advanced tongue and mouth movements-- something that is pretty much exclusive in nature to humans. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Noam Chomsky has a lot to say on the subject of the formation of language. He kind of blew my mind by suggesting that the purpose language isn't for communication. It is actually a \"mode of creating and interpreting thought\". You can see him talking about it here: _URL_0_\n\nIn this context the question becomes more of at what point did our brains advance to where we required language to organize our thoughts?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Parasites that attach to the vocal cords needed nutrients from a host and these particular parasites chose humans as a viable host to receive sustenance. In return the vocal cord parasites allowed our speech patterns to evolve until we no longer needed them to learn. Skull face plans on using these parasites to wipe out all language. Causing a kind of cleansing of sorts.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here's a really great recent review of the status of research into the origins of human language: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A man named Code Talker once told me about these vocal cord parasites that caused the human larynx to evolve...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Languages evolve like species. Like species, isolation is important in allowing them to split off from one another. But the rate at which language changes is much faster than the rate of change due to mutation in organisms, so you end up with tens of thousands of different languages spoken by members of the same species that have spread out across the globe.\n\nAs of relatively recently, we have globalization. Languages aren't isolated. That's why most of the world's languages are now dying out. There are something like 60,000 languages still living, but like 90% of people on earth speak one of the most common 20.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I remember asking this same question in primary school, the teacher plus all the students laughed at me, I'll never forget that shitbag teacher.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A simple question with an incredibly complex answer. If you read Richard Dawkins' *The Selfish Gene*, it explains in a way how languages formed. \n\nI don't remember if it actually talked about languages, but it does talk about memes. Yes, memes. In fact, it was Richard who coined the term meme, derived from the word mimeme, which means 'self replicating thing' \n\nQuite literally, everything that is not is not a gene/biological, that self replicates (ideas, stories, tales, religions, *languages*), IS a meme. Memes self replicate in the same way genes do. The stronger memes persist. Some live longer than others, like Success Child or the boogyman. Some live short, but have huge impact, like Gangnam Style or Woodstock. \n\nLanguages are no exception, and, other than religions, are probably one of the 'longest living' memes in human history. Memes can even evolve in a same way biological life forms do. In fact, if you compare languages to evolving beings, you will see some very similar things, and you can probably understand just exactly how they formed. \n\nThe way I think of it is that, yes, it started out as sounds. There was some point in our evolution that we adopted the ability to recognize perhaps tones or intents in grunts. Kind of like how your dog might not know *what* you're saying, but understands your intent based on your tone (you could call your dog all kinds of nasty names in the nicest tone ever, and he will just wag his tail and get excited). \n\nIf you think back when primates were adapting the ability to use tools and hunting spears, certain sounds and yells were better at warning others than other sounds. It also depended on the region. Certain sounds and yells might travel better in a mountainous area than a flat desert, for example. Since certain language traits were better at certain things, and in certain regions, we got different languages based on region, and even different dialects of the same language. \n\nEarly on, communication was simply a primary means of just that - communicating. Perhaps not speaking exact words, but rather shouting certain sounds to convey certain meanings to other primates. A cry for help would be different than a cry from fear, or a shout to get another's attention.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Languages R own Lee words oar noises. \n\nAh brains yous passed eggs-peer-eons two under stand the me-nin.\n\nTheir moor Weir ewe sing it the moor we our understanding it.\n\nIt's the same way children learn.\n\nRepetition.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We did get better at grunting, *so to speak.* Essentially, we experimented in many of the same ways babies do, but not as fast. And we only had each other to learn off. Remember the sounds. We required labels for things. Grunting and gestures were not sufficient to encapsulate all the idea's and things. It took thousands and thousands and thousands of years to develop, because it took the human brain many thousands and millions of years to develop too.\n\nLanguage is evolving even now. Look at all the additional nouns and adjectives we're creating. Yes, many of these are not technically 'dictionary' level but, given enough usage and it becomes part of the corpus. \n\nIt's quite exciting really, not just to see where we started and how long it took to progress from basic plosive, glottal sounds, to much more complex sounds where a label for something requires a string of syllables. \n\nAnother thing with developing language is also perception. To be aware of third person, and gender and time and so on. To be able to categorise these concepts through voice and then to further capture this in written/drawing form. \n\nLanguage truly is humanities greatest achievement. The more advanced our brain becomes, so shall our language. It's one of the many reasons I hold high regard for languages such as Japanese and Chinese.\n\n((Kept it simple. Studied linguistics so didn't want to ramble on about the technicals!))", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There was these guys who got help from satan to build a portal into heaven, in the process God made languages so they couldn't understand each other.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "From what I remember of my western Civ class we started to get more rules for language after we started building villages and living in one spot instead of roaming around. It started with symbols for certain objects and then grew more complex as their technology did. Language I believe was similar, in that it started with people using verbal sounds to communicate certain things. Much like animals might do for predators or mating. Over time that would've grown more complex, especially when written language came into play", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is important, because many smart folks have noticed that there are three important time periods for mankind's evolution. The first, was 250 thousand years ago, or around then. This is when our bodies stopped evolving. We became fit for our niche. Skeletons from this time period are more or less indistinguishable to us today.\n\nThen, again, 50 thousand years ago, another event occurred. The Toba catastrophe. This event proves my previous statement, because despite enormous natural selection pressures which drove our species down to as few as a thousand or so people, we did not have any major changes in our physiology. In a sense, our fit status proved itself by not changing through this event. However, even though our bodies didn't change, our minds did. For one reason or another, the Toba catastrophe gave us a spark that made us the intelligent, sapient, sentient beings we are today. Prior to the Toba catastrophe, mankind's greatest achievement was fire and rock cutting tools. Things that even our ape cousins can pull off from time to time. After the Toba catastrophe, we were making art, stories, sculpture, farms, homes, villages, governments, and everything we have today. The academic term for this event, is Behavioral Modernity. It is thought that language first began being experimented with at this time. Limited to mostly just symbols on rock.\n\nHowever, research into when exactly language, spoken that is, began, is a bit difficult to locate. We know that the FOXP2 gene is partially responsible, and some research indicates it became widespread around 50k-20k years ago. The gene itself seems to have begun in Africa or India, and spread throughout the human species over the subsequent tens of thousands of years.\n\nIt is important to realize that humans are not as isolated as we like to think. In fact, an Englander is more genetically related to an isolated pacific islander on Easter Island, than two ape communities in the same forest are. Human migration has never truly stopped. If you are white, you have indian dna in you from a migration wave a few thousand years ago. if you are Chinese, you have Polynesian dna in you from a wave a few thousand years ago, etc etc.\n\nWith each wave, comes the genes from the host population. FOXP2 probably spread throughout the human species about 20k years ago.\n\nFor this reason, you are not wrong to state languages developed all over the world independently, but you are not right, in the sense that primitive language spread through these migration waves many eons before those current languages developed. In fact, there is even a little evidence that Neanderthals learned a word or two from us.\n\nIn order to make this super easy, here's a diagram:\n\n100k-50-k: Hominid populations spread out of Africa\n\n50k: true humans leave Africa, subsequently likely contributing to the extinction of all other hominid groups in their way.\n\n30k-20k: FOXP2 mutations begin to exit Africa on later human waves, bleeding into the local populations.\n\n20k-10k: Environmental changes somewhat cause a cold restart of human development. Subsequent migration waves carry advanced languages with them. Languages as they are today, can be broken up into basically a handful of families, suggesting that they all came from a primitive master-tongue that humans were speaking before the environmental changes.\n\n10k-5k: Languages start to form local identities from the previous language families. Environmental stability leads to human societies being established all across the world. simultaneously. Any river valley with some fertile lands leads to a civilization.\n\n5k-1k: Cyclical rise and falls of societies cause \"hubs\" to develop where languages firmly root themselves. \"Latin\", \"Germanic\", \"Sino\", etc etc. These language groups form out of the cultural primordial soup of the last couple thousand years.\n\n1K-present: Unusual stability leads to the formal establishment and codification of language groups into formal grammatical societies and dictionaries. Language development is frozen, other than a few dank memes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's probably wrong or there is a lot more to it but this theory always interested me. People learning to talk from mushroom tripping ancestors.\n\n[Stoned Ape Theory](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Might be too late for you to see this, but to piggyback off the top post... We got better at grunting because we had to. Imagine being a group trying to hunt a large animal and having to work as a team. Language (probably) developed as a means to coordinate hunts, and then slowly evolved and improved from there.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yeah, it is interesting to know as well. My old man can be quite lazy at home in front of the tv at times and just grunt and point to make his point across. Growing up with him meant that we had to learn which grunt meant, \"Go out and buy me some snacks. The money is on the table.\", or \"Make me some snacks\" or \"Pass me that pillow\" or \"Quietly, go out and buy some snacks and dont tell mom\" or \"Move over, I want to lie down and pass me that remote\" or \"Let's order pizza. And dont tell mom\".\n\nAh, I miss my dad.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What I'm more curious about is when we developed the *ability* to speak languages.\n\nIf we magically took an infant born 200,000 years ago and brought him into the present, would he be able to speak like us?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16300571", "title": "Computational creativity", "section": "Section::::Linguistic creativity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 550, "text": "Language provides continuous opportunity for creativity, evident in the generation of novel sentences, phrasings, puns, neologisms, rhymes, allusions, sarcasm, irony, similes, metaphors, analogies, witticisms, and jokes. Native speakers of morphologically rich languages frequently create new word-forms that are easily understood, and some have found their way to the dictionary. The area of natural language generation has been well studied, but these creative aspects of everyday language have yet to be incorporated with any robustness or scale.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "769065", "title": "Niche construction", "section": "Section::::Humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 418, "text": "Niche construction is also now central to several accounts of how language evolved. For instance, Derek Bickerton describes how our ancestors constructed scavenging niches that required them to communicate in order to recruit sufficient individuals to drive off predators away from megafauna corpses. He maintains that our use of language, in turn, created a new niche in which sophisticated cognition was beneficial.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10853", "title": "Fictional language", "section": "Section::::Commercial fictional languages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 370, "text": "While some languages are created purely from the desire of the creator, language creation can be a profession. In 1974, Victoria Fromkin was the first person hired to create a language (Land of the Lost's Paku). Since then, notable professional language creators have included Marc Okrand (Klingon), David Peterson (Game of Thrones languages), and Paul Frommer (Na'vi).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20324344", "title": "Constructed language", "section": "Section::::History.:Artlangs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 89, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 89, "end_character": 796, "text": "Some people prefer however to take pleasure in constructing, crafting a language by a conscious decision for reasons of literary enjoyment or aesthetic reasons without any claim of usefulness. Such artistic languages begin to appear in Early Modern literature (in Pantagruel, and in Utopian contexts), but they only seem to gain notability as serious projects beginning in the 20th century. \"A Princess of Mars\" (1912) by Edgar Rice Burroughs was possibly the first fiction of that century to feature a constructed language. J. R. R. Tolkien developed families of related fictional languages and discussed artistic languages publicly, giving a lecture entitled \"\"A Secret Vice\"\" in 1931 at a congress. (Orwell's Newspeak is considered a satire of an IAL rather than an artistic language proper.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40166", "title": "Broca's area", "section": "Section::::Evolution of language.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 600, "text": "The pursuit of a satisfying theory that addresses the origin of language in humans has led to the consideration of a number of evolutionary \"models\". These models attempt to show how modern language might have evolved, and a common feature of many of these theories is the idea that vocal communication was initially used to complement a far more dominant mode of communication through gesture. Human language might have evolved as the \"evolutionary refinement of an implicit communication system already present in lower primates, based on a set of hand/mouth goal-directed action representations.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5626283", "title": "Generative anthropology", "section": "Section::::The originary hypothesis of human language.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 599, "text": "Language makes possible new forms of social organization radically different from animal \"pecking order\" hierarchies dominated by an alpha male. Thus, the development of language allowed for a new stage in human evolution – the beginning of culture, including religion, art, desire, and the sacred. As language provides memory and history via a record of its own history, language itself can be defined via a hypothesis of its origin based on our knowledge of human culture. As with any scientific hypothesis, its value is in its ability to account for the known facts of human history and culture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2068726", "title": "History of Earth", "section": "Section::::Phanerozoic Eon.:Human evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 117, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 117, "end_character": 759, "text": "It is more difficult to establish the origin of language; it is unclear whether \"Homo erectus\" could speak or if that capability had not begun until \"Homo sapiens\". As brain size increased, babies were born earlier, before their heads grew too large to pass through the pelvis. As a result, they exhibited more plasticity, and thus possessed an increased capacity to learn and required a longer period of dependence. Social skills became more complex, language became more sophisticated, and tools became more elaborate. This contributed to further cooperation and intellectual development. Modern humans (\"Homo sapiens\") are believed to have originated around 200,000 years ago or earlier in Africa; the oldest fossils date back to around 160,000 years ago.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Probably just because professionals do it way more often and probably way more intensely than you. Lots of high school sports players get injured frequently.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your average sports player does not have the strength and speed of a professional sports player nor are they competing against other professional sports player. Force equals mass times acceleration. The faster you're going and the more mass you have, the more strain it puts on you when you suddenly stop or say, plant on a foot and try to turn.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "People still do, but what people also don't realize is that the movements that cause some ACL tears require a great deal of athleticism. You aren't running, cutting, planting, and spinning with nearly the same force, speed, and quickness that professional athletes do. It's those weird movements that lead to injuries.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "People are talking about intensity but frequency is just as important. You play a couple hours once/week. Professional athletes are playing their sport 40+ hours/week. They may get injured at a higher rate (ie one ACL injury per 500 hours of training for an athlete vs. one per 1000 hours for you and you never hit the threshold) and as noted below, nobody is writing a news story about how /u/itravelforchurros/ knee injury is going to affect his team's chances, so there's recall bias at play too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3468590", "title": "Australian rules football injuries", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 388, "text": "The high levels of injuries that take place during games of football are so much that not only during a players' career are they susceptible to injuries, but the effects afterwards are detrimental to their health. One example of a current player (as of 2005) that has suffered a large share of injuries is Essendon champion James Hird, who has suffered virtually every injury imaginable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "67883", "title": "Sports injury", "section": "Section::::Types of sport injury.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 778, "text": "Nearly two million people every year suffer sports-related injuries and receive treatment in emergency departments. Fatigue is a large contributing factor that results in many sport injuries. There are times where an athlete may participate on low energy leading to the deterioration in technique or form, resulting in a slower reaction time, loss in stability of muscle joints, and allowing an injury to occur. For both sexes the most common areas injured are the knee and ankle, with sprains/strains being the most common areas for injury. Injuries involving the patellofemoral articulation are significantly more frequent among females. The sport with the highest injury rate is football, with greater than 12 times the number of injuries seen in the next most common sport.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7191296", "title": "House Gymnastics", "section": "Section::::Injuries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 231, "text": "Injuries due to the sport are seen as unfortunate, but inevitable, and one reviewer of the site and product said it would be more likely to lead to a trip to the hospital than a thrill, for people who aren't trained professionals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47676981", "title": "Concussions in Australian sport", "section": "Section::::AFL.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 770, "text": "The occurrence of concussions in amateur leagues are less common because of the lower impact intensity. However, concussions suffered at amateur levels can at times be more dangerous then those suffered in the AFL because of the inferior resources possessed and in some cases the coaches are not willing to pull a player out of the game, or rest them if they are suffering from a concussion. A study conducted by the Australian Football Injury Prevention Project (AFIPP) in 2002 showed that out of 301 players (who play for amateur clubs in the Melbourne metropolitan area), 14 suffered from a form of head knock, 7 of which resulted in concussion. 18.9% of players participating in the test suffered from concussion, bearing in mind that the sample size is also small.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34253452", "title": "Elimination from possibility of reaching postseason", "section": "Section::::Effect on rest of the season.:Modern era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 240, "text": "BULLET::::- In sports where there is a high rate of injury, the risk of going onto the field for a meaningless game, and subsequently suffering a serious injury, outweighs the mostly nonexistent benefits. \"(See also: resting the starters)\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47677054", "title": "Mental health in the Australian Football League", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Injuries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 864, "text": "Injury and the risk of injury also contributes to this lack of mental health because if a player does become injured they will have a lower or no income and their position in next season is on the rocks so knowing this makes them stress. Being injured also means they cannot exercise as much and this sudden drop in physical activity levels makes the player more likely to become anxious or depressed as physical activity is a mood enhancer. On average a total of 40 players miss a total of 142 games a season. This is a huge number and a constant lingering concern for players. The whole process of finding out about their injury to rehabilitation and returning to the sport is an emotional roller-coaster for players as they have strong negative feelings when they find out about their diagnosis, to struggling through rehab then having the pressure to perform.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "564204", "title": "Esports", "section": "Section::::Ethics and legal problems.:Player exploitation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 277, "text": "Players must handle their own treatments and carry their own medical insurance, which is opposite of the norm with professional sports teams. Since most esports play requires many actions per minute, some players may get repetitive strain injuries, causing hand or wrist pain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "heavy rain (heavy water) adsorbs sound energy a at a rate √3 x F greater than light water (deuterium). thunder is mostly in the 20-50hz range, so at 100% relative humidity\n, we might expect thunder to be heard at about twice the range in light rain", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "94858", "title": "Thunder", "section": "Section::::Cause.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 405, "text": "The cause of thunder has been the subject of centuries of speculation and scientific inquiry. Early thinking was that it was made by deities but the ancient Greek philosophers attributed it to natural causes, such as wind striking clouds (Anaximander, Aristotle) and movement of air within clouds (Democritus).. The Roman philosopher, Lucretius held it was from the sound of hail colliding within clouds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "240778", "title": "Heat lightning", "section": "Section::::Cloud-to-ground lightning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 513, "text": "The movement of sound in the atmosphere depends on the properties of the air, such as temperature and density. Because temperature and density change with height, the sound of thunder is refracted through the troposphere. This refraction results in spaces through which the thunder does not propagate. The sound of thunder often reflects off the Earth's surface. The rumbling sound is partly due to these reflections. This reflection and refraction can leave zones bypassed by the sound that constitutes thunder.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "70807", "title": "Thunderstorm", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 749, "text": "Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm, moist air, sometimes along a front. As the warm, moist air moves upward, it cools, condenses, and forms a cumulonimbus cloud that can reach heights of over . As the rising air reaches its dew point temperature, water vapor condenses into water droplets or ice, reducing pressure locally within the thunderstorm cell. Any precipitation falls the long distance through the clouds towards the Earth's surface. As the droplets fall, they collide with other droplets and become larger. The falling droplets create a downdraft as it pulls cold air with it, and this cold air spreads out at the Earth's surface, occasionally causing strong winds that are commonly associated with thunderstorms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "240778", "title": "Heat lightning", "section": "Section::::Cloud-to-ground lightning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 742, "text": "The Earth's curvature also contributes to distant observers not hearing the thunderclap. Thunder is more likely to reflect off the Earth's surface before it reaches an observer far from the strike, and only the right refraction and reflection of the sound off of the atmosphere will give it the range it needs to be heard far away. The reflection and refraction in the troposphere determines who hears the strike and who doesn't. Usually, the troposphere will reflect the light, and leave out the sound - in these cases some fraction of the light emanating from distant thunderstorms (whose distant clouds may be so low to the horizon as to be essentially invisible) is scattered by the upper atmosphere and thus visible to remote observers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10567426", "title": "Underwater acoustics", "section": "Section::::Measurements.:Ambient noise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 206, "text": "Rain can produce high levels of ambient noise. However the numerical relationship between rain rate and ambient noise level is difficult to determine because measurement of rain rate is problematic at sea.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28443079", "title": "1913 Great Meteor Procession", "section": "Section::::Accompanying sounds.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 354, "text": "William Henry Pickering noted that at eight stations in Canada a trembling of the house or ground was felt. In many other places loud, thunder-like sounds were heard, occasionally by people who had not seen the meteors themselves. Pickering used the sound reports to perform a check on the height of the meteors, which he calculated at 35 miles (56 km).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "94858", "title": "Thunder", "section": "Section::::Types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 554, "text": "Inversion thunder results when lightning strikes between cloud and ground occur during a temperature inversion; the resulting thunder sound have significantly greater acoustic energy than from the same distance in a non-inversion condition. In an inversion, the air near the ground is cooler than the higher air; inversions often occur when warm moist air passes above a cold front. Within a temperature inversion, the sound energy is prevented from dispersing vertically as it would in a non-inversion and is thus concentrated in the near-ground layer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There have been a number of \"Ice Ages\" of varying severity. \n\n > probably the most severe [\"Ice Age\"] of the last billion years, occurred from 850 to 630 million years ago (the Cryogenian period) [before there was complex multicellular life or life on land] and may have produced a [Snowball Earth](_URL_1_) in which glacial ice sheets reached the equator\n\n_URL_0_ \n\nDuring the recent \"Ice Age\" (with mammoths and people hunting them with spears, etc), the areas covered with snow and ice were very roughly similar to the areas that get snow and ice now, but it accumulated to great depths rather than melting off every spring and summer. \n\n\n > The ice on both North America and Europe was about 3,000 m (9,800 ft) thick near the centers of maximum accumulation [close to two miles, or higher than the Appalachian Mountains, though not as high as the Rockies], but it tapered toward the glacier margins.\n\n_URL_2_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The drop in global temperature was about 4°C. It was not uniform but pretty much everywhere got colder. [Here's a map](_URL_1_) of the temperature decrease based on proxy data from the last glacial maximum. \n\nSource: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Aren't we still technically on an ice age by some definitions?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a distinction to be made between global or near global glaciations in the deep geological past vs. periods of permanent ice at the poles vs. the advance of said polar ice due to orbital variation. \n\n**Snowball/Slushball Earths**: In the past there have been instances (Sturtian, Marinoan, and possibly Ediacaran) of near-global glaciation which are popularly referred to as Snowball Earth states. Although the initial hypothesized state of the planet was that of a \"hard\" freeze (i.e. total glaciation encompassing the global ocean), this has been IMO fairly conclusively refuted in favor of a \"soft\" freeze or \"Slushball\" state with open ocean near the equator (see e.g. [Rieu et al., 2007](_URL_9_); [Allen and Etienne, 2008](_URL_6_); [Le Heron, 2011](_URL_7_)). Solar luminosity, continental configurations, GHG concentrations, and a number of factors were vastly different then compared to the present. Using modern topography, a Snowball state can be reached with a 10-15% reduction in solar irradiance and preindustrial GHG levels ([Yang e tal., 2012](_URL_5_)). The average global temperature would be several tens of °C colder, but a precise value would depend a lot on your assumptions. \n\n**Presence of Polar Ice**: Some people argue that technically, any time during which there exists substantial ice at the poles can be referred to as an \"ice age\" or \"ice house\". I don't have a source handy but this was something that could be found in museums like the National Museum of Natural History, as an example. \n\nHowever, this is not what most people think of when they hear \"ice age\". If you use this definition, we are currently in an \"ice age\". \n\n**Glacial Maxima**: Periodic variations in the Earth's position relative to the sun results in changes in the intensity, duration, and distribution of insolation, which drives climatic variation on millennial timescales. These orbitally-driven changes cause increases and decreases of glaciation but stop well short of Snowball states. The Last Glacial Maximum is what people commonly think of when they think of the \"ice age\". This is simply the most recent maximum, [which occur ~100 ka during the Pleistocene](_URL_3_). Orbital increases in glacial extent can be seen throughout many periods in the geologic/paleoclimatic record, although not always in the eccentricity/100ka spectrum. \n\nThe Last Glacial Maximum is believed to have been ~4-7°C colder than present, depending on the proxies and modeling assumptions used ([IPCC AR4](_URL_1_); [Schneider von Deimling et al., 2006](_URL_2_); [Annan and Hargreaves, 2013](_URL_0_)). \n\nIn terms of maximum ice sheet extent, the LGM reached its fullest extent ~26 kya, with significant latitudinal variation ([Clark et al., 2009](_URL_8_)).\n\nThe ice sheet and alpine glacial advance was extensive but was nowhere near global, reaching down to the upper portion of the present US, but certainly not the subtropics or equator: \n\n_URL_4_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5367", "title": "Cambrian", "section": "Section::::Climate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 554, "text": "The Earth was generally cold during the early Cambrian, probably due to the ancient continent of Gondwana covering the South Pole and cutting off polar ocean currents. However, average temperatures were 7 degrees Celsius higher than today. There were likely polar ice caps and a series of glaciations, as the planet was still recovering from an earlier Snowball Earth. It became warmer towards the end of the period; the glaciers receded and eventually disappeared, and sea levels rose dramatically. This trend would continue into the Ordovician period.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19166484", "title": "Inuit culture", "section": "Section::::Overview of cultural history.:Period V (1000 CE-present).:Transitional phase (1300–19th century).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 912, "text": "From the beginning of the 14th century, a gradual cooling occurred throughout the Canadian Archipelago and the Arctic Ocean coast of the mainland. The period between 1550 and 1880, the so-called \"Little Ice Age\", caused temperatures significantly lower than today's in North America and Europe (with a brief period of higher heat around 1800). The effect of the drop in temperature upon the hunting-dependent lifestyle of the Thule was significant. Entire regions of the high Arctic were depopulated, partly by mass migrations but also by the starvation of entire communities. The traditional way of life was maintained only by communities in the relatively hospitable regions of the Arctic: the southern end of Baffin Island, Labrador, and the southernmost tip of Greenland. In Greenland, the Thule developed a different social structure and new dwelling types, and became what is known as the Inugsuk culture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25797277", "title": "Pliocene climate", "section": "Section::::Setting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 464, "text": "During the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene Series of the Cenozoic Era, 3.6 to 2.2 Ma (million years ago), the Arctic was much warmer than it is at the present day (with summer temperatures from 3.6-3.4 Ma some 8 °C warmer than today). That is a key finding of research into a lake-sediment core obtained in Eastern Siberia, which is of exceptional importance because it has provided the longest continuous late Cenozoic land-based sedimentary record thus far.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41560533", "title": "Early 2014 North American cold wave", "section": "Section::::Role of climate change.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 399, "text": "A 2001 study found that \"there is no apparent trend toward fewer extreme cold events in Europe or North America over the 1948–99 period, although a long station history suggests that such events may have been more frequent in the United States during the late 1800s and early 1900s.\" A 2009 MIT study found that such events are increasing and may be caused by the rapid loss of the Arctic ice pack.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6889084", "title": "Historical climatology", "section": "Section::::Evidence of climatic variations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 394, "text": "The eruption of the Toba supervolcano, 70,000 to 75,000 years ago reduced the average global temperature by 5 degrees Celsius for several years and may have triggered an ice age. It has been postulated that this created a bottleneck in human evolution. A much smaller but similar effect occurred after the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883, when global temperatures fell for about 5 years in a row.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "95812", "title": "Year Without a Summer", "section": "Section::::Description.:Asia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 342, "text": "The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century. Known today as the Little Ice Age, it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe. The Little Ice Age's existing cooling was exacerbated by the eruption of Tambora, which occurred near the end of the Little Ice Age.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5141410", "title": "Origin of the domestic dog", "section": "Section::::Canid and human evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 377, "text": "Six million years ago, towards the close of the Miocene era, the earth's climate gradually cooled. This would lead to the glaciations of the Pliocene and the Pleistocene, which are commonly referred to as the Ice Age. In many areas, forests and savannahs were replaced with steppes or grasslands, and only those species of creature that adapted to these changes would survive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Improvements in various things. For example in HDMI the speed increase is associated with a higher clock rate. Much like faster processors increased in Mhz, and into Ghz.\n\nHDMI Max Clock frequency to Data throughput\n\n - HDMI 1.0 - 1.2: 165mhz = 4.95Gbps\n\n - HDMI 1.3 - 1.4: 300mhz = 10.2Gbps\n\n - HDMI 2.0: 600mhz = 18Gbps\n\n - HDMI 2.1: ?? Spec not out to public or vendors yet, [here is some speculation though](_URL_0_).\n\nThis increase in clock speed is kind of like increasing the speed limit on the road. If the speed limit goes up from 25mph to 50mph, twice as many cars can go down that road.\n\nThere are various reasons that increasing the frequency of the signal is difficult, and just gets harder the higher the frequency gets.\n\nSometimes bandwidth increases come from adding pins/wires. This is like adding another set of lanes to that 25mph road. More lanes, more cars.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13339340", "title": "USB 3.0", "section": "Section::::Issues.:Speed and compatibility.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 273, "text": "A factor affecting the speed of USB storage devices (more evident with USB 3.0 devices, but also noticeable with USB 2.0 ones) is that the USB Mass Storage Bulk-Only Transfer (BOT) protocol drivers are generally slower than the USB Attached SCSI protocol (UAS[P]) drivers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25084036", "title": "USB image", "section": "Section::::Benefits and limitations.:Benefits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 407, "text": "BULLET::::- The absence of moving parts in USB flash devices allows true random access avoiding the rotational latency and seek time, meaning small programs will start faster from a USB flash drive than from a local hard disk or live CD. However, as USB devices typically achieve lower data transfer rates than internal hard drives, booting from older computers that lack USB 2.0 or newer can be very slow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "891379", "title": "Disk enclosure", "section": "Section::::Consumer enclosures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 206, "text": "BULLET::::- relatively high transfer speed; typically faster than other common portable media such as CDs, DVDs and USB flash drives, slower than drives connected using solely ATA, SCSI and SATA connectors\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "400414", "title": "USB flash drive", "section": "Section::::File transfer speeds.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 425, "text": "USB flash drives usually specify their read and write speeds in megabytes per second (MB/s); read speed is usually faster. These speeds are for optimal conditions; real-world speeds are usually slower. In particular, circumstances that often lead to speeds much lower than advertised are transfer (particularly writing) of many small files rather than a few very large ones, and mixed reading and writing to the same device.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "100616", "title": "Parallel port", "section": "Section::::History.:Centronics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1007, "text": "In theory, the Centronics port could transfer data as rapidly as 75,000 characters per second. This was far faster than the printer, which averaged about 160 characters per second, meaning the port spent much of its time idle. The performance was defined by how rapidly the host could respond to the printer's BUSY signal asking for more data. To improve performance, printers began incorporating buffers so the host could send them data more rapidly, in bursts. This not only reduced (or eliminated) delays due to latency waiting for the next character to arrive from the host, but also freed the host to perform other operations without causing a loss of performance. Performance was further improved by using the buffer to store several lines and then printing in both directions, eliminating the delay while the print head returned to the left side of the page. Such changes more than doubled the performance of an otherwise unchanged printer, as was the case on Centronics models like the 102 and 308.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5321416", "title": "Live USB", "section": "Section::::Benefits and limitations.:Benefits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 464, "text": "BULLET::::- The absence of moving parts in USB flash devices allows true random access avoiding the rotational latency and seek time (see mechanical latency) of hard drives or optical media, meaning small programs will start faster from a USB flash drive than from a local hard disk or live CD. However, as USB devices typically achieve lower data transfer rates than internal hard drives, booting from older computers that lack USB 2.0 or newer can be very slow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "317625", "title": "Image scanner", "section": "Section::::Computer connection.:Direct physical connection to a computer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 272, "text": "BULLET::::- Universal Serial Bus (USB) scanners can transfer data quickly. The early USB 1.1 standard could transfer data at 1.5 megabytes per second (slower than SCSI), but the later USB 2.0/3.0 standards can transfer at more than 20/60 megabytes per second in practice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because of the cheaper prices. If a company can pay people less, then the price of their product can be reduced. That's not to say there is no outrage - it's just limited to the workers in that particular industry. For the average customer, they just are happy to have the cheaper price and don't really think about why it's cheaper. Especially if their job is not affected by it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I grew up in northern Indiana. Many people were upset when the steel industry started moving jobs over seas. The thing is it was a slow process. They did not do it all at once so it was not as noticeable. Also a lot of people did receive compensation for losing there job. An example would be being able to retire earlier with full benefits. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Politicians deflect the outrage to illegal immigrants while their corporate owners continue outsourcing jobs and maximizing profits. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One thing to remember is that just because some jobs/industries are lost, doesn't mean others aren't gained. The US has a much larger service industry now than manufacturing. So people may have been laid off from their textile job, but there isn't much outrage if they can go and find another job without much difficulty", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "160353", "title": "First World", "section": "Section::::Globalization.:Outsourcing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 653, "text": "Outsourcing is among some of the many reasons for increased competition within developing countries. Aside from being a reason for competition, many First World countries see outsourcing, in particular offshore outsourcing, as an opportunity for increased income. As a consequence, the skill level of production in foreign countries handling the outsourced services increases within the economy; and the skill level within the domestic developing countries can decrease. It is because of competition (including outsourcing) that Robert Feenstra and Gordon Hanson predict that there will be a rise of 15–33 percent in inequality amongst these countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4433535", "title": "Conceptual economy", "section": "Section::::The evolving state of the economy.:Outsourcing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 618, "text": "Given the low costs of labour in developing countries such as China, India and the Philippines, American and European companies are now outsourcing or offshoring an ever-increasing proportion of their production, manufacturing or service tasks to foreign countries. As a result, job opportunities in the West are slowly moving away from routine tasks such as accounting, telephone support services, computer programming and electronic component manufacturing. The efficiency of outsourcing has also been improving as the internet continues to provide increasingly reliable and ever faster global communications links.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10169528", "title": "Reading Works", "section": "Section::::2005: From the USA.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 582, "text": "Outsourcing is a new name for a long-standing phenomenon: the movement of jobs from the USA to countries where wages, benefits and the cost of living are much lower. In the 1970s and 1980s, heavy manufacturing jobs went to other countries by the tens of thousands. The result was cheaper goods for U.S. consumers and less pollution in many of the nation's industrial cities. Economists who backed the trend envisioned a new \"knowledge economy\" in which well-trained Americans would become the world's designers, innovators and administrators. The dirty work would be sent overseas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6137171", "title": "American middle class", "section": "Section::::Middle-class squeeze.:Struggle for reemployment: downsizing and outsourcing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 588, "text": "According to Christopher B. Doob, outsourcing is companies' subcontracting of services to other companies instead of continuing to provide those services themselves. This takes away from jobs offered in the United States and makes it more difficult to maintain and get jobs. Outsourcing raises the unemployment rate, and while outsourcing has been steadily increasing since the 1990s, data on the subject is limited by the power elite. Companies like Apple and Nike outsource jobs overseas so they can have cheaper labor to make their products and keep from raising prices in the States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32105383", "title": "Gender and development", "section": "Section::::Neoliberal approaches.:Gender and Outsourcing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 936, "text": "One of the features of development encouraged in neoliberal approaches is outsourcing. Outsourcing is when companies from the western world moves some of their business to another country. The reasons these companies make the decision to move is often because of cheap labor costs. Although outsourcing is about businesses it is directly related to gender because it has greatly affected women. The reason it is related to gender is that women are mainly the people that are being hired for these cheap labor jobs and why they are being hired. One example of a popular place for factories to relocate is to China. In China the main people who work in these factories are women, these women move from their home towns to cities far away for the factory jobs. The reasons these women move is to be able to make a wage to take care of not only themselves but their families as well. Often times these women are expected to get these jobs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2266706", "title": "Job security", "section": "Section::::In the United States.:Outsourcing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 365, "text": "Overseas outsourcing (sometimes called offshoring) may decrease job security for people in certain occupations such as telemarketers, computer programmers, medical transcriptionists, and bookkeeping clerks. Generally, to outsource work to a different country the job must be quick to learn and the completed work must be transferrable with minimal loss of quality.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "648470", "title": "Oppression", "section": "Section::::Social oppression.:Economic oppression.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 524, "text": "Indirect economic oppression is exemplified when individuals work abroad to support their families. Outsourced employees, working abroad generally little to no bargaining power not only with their employers, but with immigration authorities as well. They could be forced to accept low wages and work in poor living conditions. And by working abroad, an outsourced employee contributes to the economy of a foreign country instead of their own. Veltman and Piper describe the effects of outsourcing on female laborers abroad:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm not sure if I understood correctly. But you can find [degenerated matter](_URL_0_) - or fermion gas - in white dwarfs for example. And of course there are processes happening inside these stars that may create/change/destroy this fermion gas.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "From what I understand of a Fermi gas (which is mostly based on wikipedia articles) it is not simply a nucleus/electron configuration which has gone awry but rather a fundamentally different system where an area is occupied by fermions and it satisfies the conditions that define the Fermi gas state.\n\nTo me this question seems like you're asking if finely crushed-up Lego can still be used build a tower of blocks. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "34231074", "title": "Hereditary diffuse leukoencephalopathy with spheroids", "section": "Section::::Clinical symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 253, "text": "White matter degeneration is associated with and makes differential diagnoses out of other adult onset leukodystrophies such as metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD), Krabbe disease (globoid cell leukodystrophy), and X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (X-ADL).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "240123", "title": "Plasticity (physics)", "section": "Section::::Physical mechanisms.:Amorphous materials.:Crazing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 627, "text": "In amorphous materials, the discussion of \"dislocations\" is inapplicable, since the entire material lacks long range order. These materials can still undergo plastic deformation. Since amorphous materials, like polymers, are not well-ordered, they contain a large amount of free volume, or wasted space. Pulling these materials in tension opens up these regions and can give materials a hazy appearance. This haziness is the result of \"crazing\", where fibrils are formed within the material in regions of high hydrostatic stress. The material may go from an ordered appearance to a \"crazy\" pattern of strain and stretch marks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "144428", "title": "Degenerate matter", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 622, "text": "Degenerate matter is a highly dense state of fermionic matter in which particles must occupy high states of kinetic energy to satisfy the Pauli exclusion principle. The description applies to matter composed of electrons, protons, neutrons or other fermions. The term is mainly used in astrophysics to refer to dense stellar objects where gravitational pressure is so extreme that quantum mechanical effects are significant. This type of matter is naturally found in stars in their final evolutionary states, like white dwarfs and neutron stars, where thermal pressure alone is not enough to avoid gravitational collapse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "144428", "title": "Degenerate matter", "section": "Section::::Concept.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 786, "text": "Exotic examples of degenerate matter include neutron degenerate matter, strange matter, metallic hydrogen and white dwarf matter. Degeneracy pressure contributes to the pressure of conventional solids, but these are not usually considered to be degenerate matter because a significant contribution to their pressure is provided by electrical repulsion of atomic nuclei and the screening of nuclei from each other by electrons. In metals it is useful to treat the conduction electrons alone as a degenerate free electron gas, while the majority of the electrons are regarded as occupying bound quantum states. This solid state contrasts with degenerate matter that forms the body of a white dwarf, where most of the electrons would be treated as occupying free particle momentum states.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31546867", "title": "Dimethylol ethylene urea", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 520, "text": "Dimethylol ethyleneurea is an organic compound derived from formaldehyde and urea. It is a colourless solid that is used for treating cellulose-based heavy fabrics to inhibit wrinkle formation. Dimethylol ethylene urea (DMEU) bonds with the hydroxyl groups present in long cellulose chains and prevents the formation hydrogen bonding between the chains, the primary cause of wrinkling. This treatment produces permanently wrinkle-resistant fabrics and is different from the effects achieved from using fabric softeners.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14975920", "title": "Cellular adaptation", "section": "Section::::Metaplasia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1161, "text": "Metaplasia occurs when a differentiated cell of a certain type is replaced by another cell type, which may be less differentiated. It is a reversible process thought to be caused by stem cell reprogramming. Stem cells are found in epithelia and embryonic mesenchyme of connective tissue. A prominent example of metaplasia involves the changes associated with the respiratory tract in response to inhalation of irritants, such as smog or smoke. The bronchial cells convert from mucus-secreting, ciliated, columnar epithelium to non-ciliated, squamous epithelium incapable of secreting mucus. These transformed cells may become dysplasic or cancerous if the stimulus (e.g., cigarette smoking) is not removed. The most common example of metaplasia is Barrett's esophagus, when the non-keratinizing squamous epithelium of the esophagus undergoes metaplasia to become mucinous columnar cells, ultimately protecting the esophagus from acid reflux originating in the stomach. If stress persists, metaplasia can progress to dysplasia and eventually carcinoma; Barrett's esophagus, for example, can eventually progress to adenocarcinoma of the esophagus if not treated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "531239", "title": "Rotational spectroscopy", "section": "Section::::Stark and Zeeman effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 394, "text": "A similar removal of degeneracy will occur when a paramagnetic molecule is placed in a magnetic field, an instance of the Zeeman effect. Most species which can be observed in the gaseous state are diamagnetic . Exceptions are odd-electron molecules such as nitric oxide, NO, nitrogen dioxide, , some chlorine oxides and the hydroxyl radical. The Zeeman effect has been observed with dioxygen, \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "**TL;DR - I freaking love biochemistry and explaining things**\n********\n\n**Explained Simply** \n\nYou have DNA, which is a mixture of 4 chemical \"bases\", known as Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), Thymine (T) and Adenine (A). DNA itself is made of two long strands (*double stranded*) with Cytosine binding to Guanine, and Thymine binding to Adenine. Thus DNA is a long length of C-G and T-A links. Because of this, we only need to look at one strand of DNA to know what the other strand looks like. \n\nWhen we map a gene, we break down the gene into the DNA strands and try to determine the \"sequence\" of one of them - that is, which bases are present, and in what order? Each base can bind a specific chemical, which usually fluoresces when a specific light is shone on it. In the end, we have a large length of DNA to which we can work out it's complimentary second strand. \n\nWhen you have a lot of genes together, they can form a chromsome. They need some help from other chemicals, such as histones, but basically a chromosome is a large number of genes together. Most people have 23 copies - or 46 chromosomes. The reason you have copies, is that you have one set from your mum, and the other from dad. As well as this, one set of them are your sex chromosomes - which are known as either X or Y. If you get two X - you're a girl. If you get an X and Y - you're a guy! You can't get two Y's - but you're clever for thinking that. \n\nThe Human Genome Project was an idea set forth in the 1990's which had the aim of characterising and sequencing every gene in the human body. That meant taking all the DNA from a person, and using the process described above to work out the sequences. In the end, about 20,000 to 25,000 genes were discovered, but we don't know what half of them do! It's like knowing that one gene can contribute to the colour of your hair, but if you have that gene and it's identical to your friend's gene, it doesn't mean you'll have the same hair colour. \n\nOther methods of gene mapping depend upon your knowledge of biochemistry. Essentially you can do what's called a \"shotgun\" sequence approach, where you take a gene, isolate the DNA within it and then copy it a lot. It has recently gotten a LOT easier to copy DNA (look up a process called Polymerase Chain Reaction). Then you break all those DNA copies up in different places, and then see where each bit of the DNA matches up with other parts - kinda like break 3 or 4 rulers into pieces and then matching up based on the number of centimetres they have. Once you've determined the overlapping, you can \"walk\" your way from one end to the other, working out the bases as you go, using chemicals.\n\n\n********\n**ELI5**\n\nWhat colour hair do you have? Is it the same as your mothers? Does your dad have the same colour eyes as you? What about your best friend? All of these are because of your \"genes\". Genes are the little things inside of you that make you different from everyone else. Genes themselves are made up of DNA. \n\nA while ago, a couple of clever fellows made a model of DNA. Their model used four letters: C, G, T and A. DNA is a whole bunch of those letters mixed up in a long, long row - and if you have enough of them, you can make a gene! \n\nWhen we want to \"map\" a gene, we have to work out the long sequence of letters (What were they again? C, G, T and A!), which is very specific! First, we have to take out the DNA from you. Don't worry - you have a lot of it! Then we cut it up and add some colours. Each colour will find a letter (C, G, T and A) and stick to it! Then we work out which letters are next to each other, until we reach the end of the gene. \n\nIn the 1990's, long before you were born, some people decided to work out the DNA sequence of every gene in everyone's body! They took some DNA from a lot of people, and did exactly what you just learned. Guess how many genes there were? OVER 20,000! Some of these genes will decide what colour hair you have, or your eye colour. Some may actually help you be tall, or short, or big, or small. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10452165", "title": "David Haussler", "section": "Section::::Research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 737, "text": "As a collaborator on the international Human Genome Project, his team posted the first publicly available computational assembly of the human genome sequence on the Internet on July 7, 2000. Following this, his team developed the UCSC Genome Browser, a web-based tool that is used extensively in biomedical research and serves as the platform for several large-scale genomics projects. These include NHGRI’s ENCODE project to use omics methods to explore the function of every base in the human genome (for which UCSC serves as the Data Coordination Center), NIH’s Mammalian Gene Collection, NHGRI’s 1000 genomes project to explore human genetic variation, and NCI’s Cancer Genome Atlas project to explore the genomic changes in cancer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5219699", "title": "Human Genome Project", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 976, "text": "The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the sequence of nucleotide base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint. It remains the world's largest collaborative biological project. After the idea was picked up in 1984 by the US government when the planning started, the project formally launched in 1990 and was declared complete on April 14, 2003. Funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health (NIH) as well as numerous other groups from around the world. A parallel project was conducted outside government by the Celera Corporation, or Celera Genomics, which was formally launched in 1998. Most of the government-sponsored sequencing was performed in twenty universities and research centers in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Germany and China.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "323792", "title": "Genome project", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 673, "text": "Genome projects are scientific endeavours that ultimately aim to determine the complete genome sequence of an organism (be it an animal, a plant, a fungus, a bacterium, an archaean, a protist or a virus) and to annotate protein-coding genes and other important genome-encoded features. The genome sequence of an organism includes the collective DNA sequences of each chromosome in the organism. For a bacterium containing a single chromosome, a genome project will aim to map the sequence of that chromosome. For the human species, whose genome includes 22 pairs of autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes, a complete genome sequence will involve 46 separate chromosome sequences.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18403497", "title": "Gene Wiki", "section": "Section::::Project goals and scope.:Number of gene articles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 547, "text": "The human genome contains an estimated 20,000–25,000 protein-coding genes. The goal of the Gene Wiki project is to create seed articles for every human gene, that is, every gene whose function has been assigned in the peer-reviewed scientific literature. Approximately half of human genes have assigned function, therefore the total number of articles seeded by the Gene Wiki project would be expected to be in the range of 10,000–15,000. To date, approximately 11,000 articles have been created or augmented to include Gene Wiki project content.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22364466", "title": "Timeline of United States discoveries", "section": "Section::::Twenty-first century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 337, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 337, "end_character": 813, "text": "BULLET::::- The human genome is the genome of Homo sapiens, which is stored on 23 chromosome pairs. Whereas a genome sequence lists the order of every DNA base in a genome, a genome map identifies the landmarks. A genome map is less detailed than a genome sequence and aids in navigating around the genome. While working at the National Institute of Health, Craig Venter discovered a technique for rapidly identifying all of the mRNAs present in a cell, and began to use it to identify human brain genes. The short cDNA sequence fragments discovered by this method are called expressed sequence tags. Through his scientific research of bringing the world one step closer to personalized medicine, Craig Venter was listed on Time Magazine's 2007 and 2008 Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23167397", "title": "GENCODE", "section": "Section::::Related Projects.:Human Genome Project.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 520, "text": "The Human Genome Project was an international research effort to determine the sequence of the human genome and identify the genes that it contains. The Project was coordinated by the National Institutes of Health and the U.S. Department of Energy. Additional contributors included universities across the United States and international partners in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Japan, and China. The Human Genome Project formally began in 1990 and was completed in 2003, 2 years ahead of its original schedule.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32122303", "title": "Richard M. Myers", "section": "Section::::Human Genome Project Contributions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 507, "text": "Cox and Myers in their work at the Stanford Human Genome Center collaborated with the Joint Genome Institute (JGI) in Walnut Creek to sequence the first human genome. That collaboration led to maps of the entire genome, which played a key role in piecing the entire sequence together for the Human Genome Project (HGP). The Stanford group generated genome-wide maps as well as finishing of sequences of three human chromosomes, and their collaboration with JGI contributed 11% of the finished human genome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "1/2\n\n**Luxembourg, First World War**\n\n\nLuxembourg was [invaded and occupied by Germany](_URL_0_) during the First World War.\n\nBeing able to move their army through Luxembourg, as well as Belgium, was a key part of the Moltke-Schlieffen Plan. On 1st August 1914 the Germans violated Luxembourgish neutrality by using Troisvierges Station in the north of the country and taking control of the telegraph posts there. The Luxembourgish prime minister, Paul Eyschen, telegraphed Berlin, asking what was happening. The German State Secretary for Foreign Affairs, Gottlieb von Jagow, responded that there must have been a mistake, and that Germany would respect Luxembourgish neutrality, as had been affirmed at the 1867 Second Treaty of London, providing that France did the same.\n\nOn 2nd August 1914 Germany launched its invasion of Luxembourg, crossing the Moselle (which the border between Germany and Luxembourg follows, excluding a little bit of Luxembourg near Vianden which is east of the river) at Remich and Wasserbillig, and moved on the capital, Luxembourg City. The Luxembourg Army, consisting of 400 mostly ceremonial troops, were ordered by the Grand Duchess of Luxembourg, Marie-Adélaïde, not to resist the Germans. At 17:00 a telegram was sent to the Luxembourgish prime minister in which the German government apologised for the invasion, which they said was necessary to protect German military and railway interests, and that Luxembourg would be fully compensated by the Germans for any damage. At the end of the day a fight between German and French troops broke out at Petit-Croix, on the western border of Luxembourg.\n\nOn 3rd August a further telegram was sent, claiming the occupation to be temporary, that the rights of Luxembourgers would be respected, and that France had caused the invasion by sending 650 troops on bicycle into Luxembourg before the invasion. This claim seems unlikely, though possible, and was denied by the government of Luxembourg.\n\n3200 Luxembourgers had left the country before the invasion, and most of these volunteered within the French army. 2800 of these were killed in the course of the war.\n\nDuring the occupation, trees were pulled down in Luxembourg City in order to improve the line of sight for using machine guns, should the Germans have needed to defend Luxembourg. Orchards and farmland were dug up to locate bunkers and gun emplacements. Luxembourgish workers were made to work for the German war effort. In order to prevent trouble brewing among the local population, 'preventive arrests' of possible dissenters were made - it seems that the German secret police had been active in Luxembourg before the war. Most of these prisoners were taken to Trier, just across the border into Germany. Luxembourg was kept under martial law, and there were restrictions on travel, free speech/press and rationing. The country was used by the Germans as a logistical support centre for the German army, and Crown Prince Wilhelm, who was a general in the army, had his headquarters at Luxembourg's second city, Esch-sur-Alzette.\n\nOne of the major events during the occupation was a strike by iron miners on 31st May 1917. As a result of the British naval blockade on Germany, Luxembourg had become very important to German iron production, and contributed one-seventh of Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire's pig iron. Generalmajor Richard Karl von Tessmar put down the strike, and arrested the ringleaders, who were sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment.\n\nHad Germany won the war, it has been argued that she intended to annex Luxembourg. There is some evidence to support this. The Septemberprogramm, a draft of German war aims, stated that Luxembourg was to become a member of the German Empire, and this has been used by historian Fritz Fischer in *Germany's Aims in the First World War* to claim that it was German policy to annex Luxembourg. General Friedrich Bronsart von Schellendorf, Chief of General Staff of the Ottoman Army, also talked of annexing Luxembourg. The Septemerprogramm was never official policy, however, and Bronsart von Schellendorf's statements should not be seen as representative of German policy makers' opinion. As it is, no serious attempts were made to annex Luxembourg during occupation.\n\nOn 6th November 1918, Richard von Tessmar announced the withdrawal of German troops from Luxembourg. After the armistice, on 18th November 1918 it was decided that General John Pershing's US Third Army would move through Luxembourg to take up their occupation of the Rhineland, which they did the following day. The American troops were greeted by the Luxembourgers as liberators, and on 22nd November the German army completed its withdrawal from Luxembourg.\n\n\n**Liechtenstein, First World War**\n\nOfficially Liechtenstein was neutral during the First World War, and did not have a standing army. Unlike Luxembourg, its neutrality was largely respected. Liechtenstein was closely tied to Austria-Hungary, however: since 1852 Austrian customs officials were in charge of collecting duties at border crossings; since 1872 the Vienna-Zürich train line which passed through the country had been under the control of the Imperial Austrian State Railway; since 1880 Austrian diplomats were able to represent Liechtensteiner interests abroad. As a result, the Allies saw Liechtenstein as being so closely integrated into the Austro-Hungarian economy that it too was subjected to embargo by the Allies. This caused hardships in Liechtenstein, and the Allies even denied the Swiss their requests to send food to the principality. As a result, after the armistice and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Liechtenstein concluded much the same treaties (customs, consular etc.) with Switzerland in the place of Austria, and adopted the Swiss Franc, which is still the currency today.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "39478", "title": "History of Liechtenstein", "section": "Section::::Liechtenstein during the World Wars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 833, "text": "During World War II, Liechtenstein remained neutral, while family treasures within the war zone were brought to Liechtenstein (and London) for safekeeping. At the close of the conflict, Czechoslovakia and Poland, acting to seize what they considered to be German possessions, expropriated the entirety of the Liechtenstein dynasty's hereditary lands and possessions in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia — the princes of Liechtenstein lived in Vienna until the Anschluss of 1938. The expropriations (subject to modern legal dispute at the World Court) included over 1,600 square kilometres (600 mi.²) of agricultural and forest land (most notably the UNESCO listed Lednice–Valtice Cultural Landscape), and several family castles and palaces. Citizens of Liechtenstein were also forbidden from entering Czechoslovakia during the Cold War.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17810", "title": "Liechtenstein", "section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 425, "text": "Until the end of World War I, Liechtenstein was closely tied first to the Austrian Empire and later to Austria-Hungary; the ruling princes continued to derive much of their wealth from estates in the Habsburg territories, and spent much of their time at their two palaces in Vienna. The economic devastation caused by the war forced the country to conclude a customs and monetary union with its other neighbour, Switzerland.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39478", "title": "History of Liechtenstein", "section": "Section::::Liechtenstein during the World Wars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 578, "text": "Liechtenstein did not participate in World War I, claiming neutrality. However, until the end of the war, Liechtenstein was closely tied to Austria. In response, the Allied Powers imposed an economic embargo on the principality. The economic devastation forced the country to conclude a customs and monetary union with Switzerland. In 1919 Liechtenstein and Switzerland signed a treaty under which Switzerland assumes the representation of Liechtenstein interests at the diplomatic and consular level in countries where it maintains a representation and Liechtenstein does not.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17830", "title": "History of Luxembourg", "section": "Section::::Separation and the World Wars (1890–1945).:First World War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 569, "text": "World War I affected Luxembourg at a time when the nation-building process was far from complete. The small grand duchy (about 260,000 inhabitants in 1914) opted for an ambiguous policy between 1914 and 1918. With the country occupied by German troops, the government, led by Paul Eyschen, chose to remain neutral. This strategy had been elaborated with the approval of Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg. Although continuity prevailed on the political level, the war caused social upheaval, which laid the foundation for the first trades union in Luxembourg.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17810", "title": "Liechtenstein", "section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 718, "text": "During World War II, Liechtenstein remained officially neutral, looking to neighbouring Switzerland for assistance and guidance, while family treasures from dynastic lands and possessions in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia were taken to Liechtenstein for safekeeping. At the close of the conflict, Czechoslovakia and Poland, acting to seize what they considered German possessions, expropriated the entirety of the Liechtenstein dynasty's properties in those three regions. The expropriations (subject to modern legal dispute at the International Court of Justice) included over of agricultural and forest land (most notably the UNESCO listed Lednice–Valtice Cultural Landscape), and several family castles and palaces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5783379", "title": "German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 496, "text": "The German occupation of Luxembourg in World War I was the first of two military occupations of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg by Germany in the 20th century. From August 1914 until the end of World War I on 11 November 1918, Luxembourg was under full occupation by the German Empire. The German government justified the occupation by citing the need to support their armies in neighbouring France, although many Luxembourgers, contemporary and present, have interpreted German actions otherwise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26849954", "title": "Foreign Ministry of Austria-Hungary", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 325, "text": "At the end of the war, the Dual Monarchy collapsed and the governmental powers in German Austria were taken over by the government of State Chancellor Karl Renner by resolution of the Provisional Assembly on 12 November 1918. The last Austro-Hungarian foreign minister Ludwig von Flotow did not resign until 8 November 1920.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Moisture in the atmosphere is water vapor. When the temperature is low enough, the molecules of water condense but also freeze simultaneously in ice crystal structures rather than forming together into a water droplet THEN freezing (which would obviously result in hail). These ice structures are much less dense than actual chunks of ice, and when they fall to the ground, they stick to each other rather than compress and merge (that is, until they're compacted forcibly together, or melt is warmer surface temperatures).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52434656", "title": "Snow science", "section": "Section::::Physical properties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 253, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Snow hardness\" (\"R\" ) is the resistance to penetration of an object into snow. Most snow studies use a fist or fingers for softer snows (very soft through medium) and a pencil (hard) or knife (very hard) below the hardness boundary of ice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18449525", "title": "Snowman", "section": "Section::::Construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 655, "text": "Snow becomes suitable for packing when it approaches its melting point and becomes moist and compact. Making a snowman of powdered snow is difficult since it will not stick to itself, and if the temperature of packing snow drops, it will form an unusable denser form of powdered snow called crust. Thus, a good time to build a snowman may be the next warm afternoon directly following a snowfall with a sufficient amount of snow. Using more compact snow allows for the construction of a large snowball by simply rolling it until it grows to the desired size. If the snowball reaches the bottom of the grass it may pick up traces of grass, gravel or dirt.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28191", "title": "Snow", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1108, "text": "Snow refers to forms of ice crystals that precipitate from the atmosphere (usually from clouds) and undergo changes on the Earth's surface. It pertains to frozen crystalline water throughout its life cycle, starting when, under suitable conditions, the ice crystals form in the atmosphere, increase to millimeter size, precipitate and accumulate on surfaces, then metamorphose in place, and ultimately melt, slide or sublimate away. Snowstorms organize and develop by feeding on sources of atmospheric moisture and cold air. Snowflakes nucleate around particles in the atmosphere by attracting supercooled water droplets, which freeze in hexagonal-shaped crystals. Snowflakes take on a variety of shapes, basic among these are platelets, needles, columns and rime. As snow accumulates into a snowpack, it may blow into drifts. Over time, accumulated snow metamorphoses, by sintering, sublimation and freeze-thaw. Where the climate is cold enough for year-to-year accumulation, a glacier may form. Otherwise, snow typically melts seasonally, causing runoff into streams and rivers and recharging groundwater.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1080811", "title": "Physics of skiing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 871, "text": "An illustration of how snow quality can be different follows. In an area which experiences fluctuation in temperatures around 0°C - freezing temperature of water, both rain and snowfall are possible. Wet snow or the wet ground can freeze into a slippery sheet of ice. In an area which consistently experiences temperatures below 0°C, snowfall leads to accumulation of snow on the ground. When fresh, this snow is fluffy and powder-like. This type of snow has a lot of air space. Over time, this snow will become more compact, and the lower layers of snow will become more dense than the top layer. Skiers can use this type of information to improve their skiing experience by choosing the appropriate skis, wax, or by choosing to stay home. Search and rescue teams, and backcountry users rely on our understanding of snow to navigate the dangers present in the outdoors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "244878", "title": "Winter storm", "section": "Section::::Snow.:Dangers of snow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1205, "text": "Depending on the temperature profile in the atmosphere, snow can be either \"wet\" or \"dry\". Dry snow, being lighter, is transported by wind more easily and accumulates more efficiently. Wet snow is heavier due to the increased water content. Significant accumulations of heavy wet snow can cause roof damage. It also requires considerably more energy to move and this can create health problems while shoveling when combined with the harsh weather conditions. Numerous deaths as a result of heart attacks can be attributed to snow removal. Accretion of wet snow to elevated surfaces occurs when snow is \"sticky\" enough which can cause extensive tree and power line damage in a manner similar to ice accretion during ice storms. Power can be lost for days during a major winter storm, and this usually means the loss of heating inside buildings. Other than the obvious risk of hypothermia due to cold exposure, another deadly element associated with snowstorms is carbon monoxide poisoning which can happen anytime combustion products from generators or heating appliances are not properly vented. Finally, partially or fully melted snow on roadways can refreeze when temperatures fall, creating black ice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23418473", "title": "Classifications of snow", "section": "Section::::Classifications of snow on the ground.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 303, "text": "Classification of snow on the ground comes from two sources: the science community and the community of those who encounter it in their daily lives. Snow on the ground exists both as a material with varying properties and as a variety of structures, shaped by wind, sun, temperature, and precipitation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "130312", "title": "Storm", "section": "Section::::Effects on human society.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 594, "text": "Accumulated snow is removed to make travel easier and safer, and to decrease the long-term effect of a heavy snowfall. This process utilizes shovels and snowplows, and is often assisted by sprinkling salt or other chloride-based chemicals, which reduce the melting temperature of snow. In some areas with abundant snowfall, such as Yamagata Prefecture, Japan, people harvest snow and store it surrounded by insulation in ice houses. This allows the snow to be used through the summer for refrigeration and air conditioning, which requires far less electricity than traditional cooling methods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The German occupation was significantly more brutal, considering Germany suffered some million or so civilian casualties from all military actions (including those of the western allies,) compared to the 8-12 million inflicted in the Soviet Union.\n\nThe Russian occupation is, I feel, often played up due to the political concerns of the time. Yes, there are accounts of rapes by Russian soldiers, but there are also accounts of Soviet troops handing out food to orphans.\n\nThe thing is, the Russian plan wasn't to murder 2/3 of the German population. The Nazi plan for Russia was to do just that. The Soviet high command issued orders against rape and murder, although depending on commander this was sometimes not enforced (as in all the allied armies.) It may have been more of a problem for Soviet forces, but then, virtually every Russian soldier would have personally known somebody who had been killed by the Germans.\n\nThe difficulty in finding good sources on this issue is that it has become highly politicized. It's difficult to find a middle ground between \"the Russians were barbecuing babies in the street\" and \"glorious Soviet soldiers were all angels and did nothing but help the German civilians.\" The truth is probably somewhere inbetween.\n\nHowever, I do firmly believe that the \"Stalin's army of rapists\" line can be firmly dismissed as Cold War era propaganda. This is not to say that the Soviet occupation was not brutal and that rape did not happen, but the scale which is hinted at (but seldom given a hard number,) in English sources is probably exaggerated. Sadly, it would be difficult to exaggerate the horror of the holocaust in Russia.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "59510", "title": "Russians", "section": "Section::::Notable achievements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 596, "text": "Russian people played a crucial role in the victory over Nazi Germany in World War II. According to the British historian Richard Overy, the Eastern Front included more combat than all the other European fronts combined—the Wehrmacht suffered 80% to 93% of all of its total World War II combat casualties on the Eastern Front. Russia's casualties in this war were the highest of all nations, and numbered more than 20 million dead (Russians composed 80% of the 26.6 million people lost by the USSR), which is about half of all World War II casualties and the vast majority of Allied casualties. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25762", "title": "Russian Revolution", "section": "Section::::Background.:World War I.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 563, "text": "In 1915, things took a critical turn for the worse when Germany shifted its focus of attack to the Eastern front. The superior German army – better led, better trained, and better supplied – was quite effective against the ill-equipped Russian forces, driving the Russians out of Galicia, as well as Russian Poland during the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive campaign. By the end of October 1916, Russia had lost between 1,600,000 and 1,800,000 soldiers, with an additional 2,000,000 prisoners of war and 1,000,000 missing, all making up a total of nearly 5,000,000 men.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24962835", "title": "The War That Came Early", "section": "Section::::\"West and East\".:The Siberian campaign.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 578, "text": "The Japanese successfully sever the Trans-Siberian Railway, cutting off shipments to Vladivostok. Cold weather and mosquitoes take their toll on the Japanese soldiers, and skirmishes with Soviet partisans are commonplace. Despite the distance from the industrial areas of Russia, Soviet forces still maintain modest air and artillery superiority, though their accuracy is often doubtful, causing many casualties on both sides. Japanese attacks on Vladivostok proceed much like their attacks on Port Arthur in 1905, suffering tremendous casualties for very little ground gained.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "465971", "title": "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)", "section": "Section::::World War II.:Wartime developments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 566, "text": "The Soviets bore the brunt of World War II because the West did not open up a second ground front in Europe until the invasion of Italy and the Battle of Normandy. Approximately 26.6 million Soviets, among them 18 million civilians, were killed in the war. Civilians were rounded up and burned or shot in many cities conquered by the Nazis. The retreating Soviet army was ordered to pursue a 'scorched earth' policy whereby retreating Soviet troops were ordered to destroy civilian infrastructure and food supplies so that the Nazi German troops could not use them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "291145", "title": "Battle of Berlin", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 745, "text": "During and immediately following the assault, in many areas of the city, vengeful Soviet troops (often rear echelon units) engaged in mass rape, pillage and murder. Oleg Budnitskii, historian at the Higher School of Economics in Moscow, told a BBC Radio programme that Red Army soldiers were astounded when they reached Germany. \"For the first time in their lives, eight million Soviet people came abroad, the Soviet Union was a closed country. All they knew about foreign countries was there was unemployment, starvation and exploitation. And when they came to Europe they saw something very different from Stalinist Russia ... especially Germany. They were really furious, they could not understand why being so rich, Germans came to Russia\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61095", "title": "Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)", "section": "Section::::Following Germany's defeat.:Poland, including former German territories.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 98, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 98, "end_character": 295, "text": "The attitude of Soviet soldiers was ambiguous. Many committed atrocities, most notably rape and murder, and did not always distinguish between Poles and Germans, mistreating them equally. Other Soviets, were taken aback by the brutal treatment of the German civilians and tried to protect them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20968874", "title": "Victims of Yalta", "section": "Section::::Contents.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 931, "text": "Tolstoy describes the various groups of over five million Russians who had fallen into German hands. These include prisoners of war, forced laborers (\"Ostarbeiter\"), collaborators, refugees, émigrés, and anti-communists. Conditions in Germany for Soviet prisoners were appalling and their mortality rate high, making it attractive for many to join laborers, Russian auxiliary troops, or the Russian Liberation Army (ROA). The situation for Russian soldiers was complicated by the stance of the Soviet government that rejected efforts by the International Red Cross to intervene and considered anyone who had surrendered to the enemy a traitor. The Moscow conference of 1944 and the Yalta agreement laid the groundwork for the participation of the British and American governments to support the repatriation program of the Soviet government. Tolstoy was especially critical of Anthony Eden's role in trying to appease the Soviets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Small parts can move faster, and motorcycle engines usually have a short stroke. They are generally optimized for maximum horsepower, while car and truck engines place a greater importance on torque at low RPMs for moving heavy loads from a standstill. Modern sportbike engines are also significantly more advanced that automotive engines, due to looser regulations and a horsepower war that's been going on for decades.\n\nHardley-Davidsons only rev to 6,000, by the way, but their V-twin is based on an engine design that was obsolete in the 1940's. They ride like a truck on two wheels though...instant torque.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm going to assume you know how a 4 stroke engine works in this post,if not there's thousands of youtube videos that explain it\n\nBecause you don't want a car that redlines at 14,000 RPMs. Motorcycles are lightweight and don't require much power to accelerate; cars on the other hand have lots of inertia and are meant to be driven around in stop and go traffic so you need to be able to make enough power to safely accelerate from low RPMs.\n\nComponents on a motorcycle engine are much smaller and therefore have much less inertia so you can go from 2,500 RPMs to 10,000 RPMs with a blip of the throttle. The valvetrain of a motorcycle is also designed to withstand high RPMs. If you overspeed a car's engine (drop it into too low of a gear at too high of a speed and release the clutch) the biggest danger is something called valve float. This occurs when the valve springs don't shut the valves quick enough and the pistons strike the open valves damaging them. Motorcycles, which have to cope with much higher RPMs have stiffer valve springs. Since the valve springs are stiffer it makes it harder to turn, you increase parasitic loss from the valvetrain and increase wear and tear. That's why you don't necessarily want stiffer valve springs on a car.\n\nHowever, if you did for whatever reason decide to upgrade your valve springs to stiffer ones, the other problem you run into is volumetric efficiency. When engineers design an engine for a street driven car, they want an engine with a flat torque curve. That is, when you floor it at 3,000 RPMs you accelerate roughly the same as you would when you hold it at 5,000 RPMs. This makes the car driveable on normal road conditions since you don't want to constantly be shifting gears. If valve float were not an issue, volumetric efficiency becomes one. At too high of an engine speed the airflow into the cylinders gets less and less efficient. That is, when you floor it at 3,000 RPMs when the piston moves down during the intake stroke it draws in more air than it would at 7,500 RPMs. Cars rely on something called the scavenging effect to maximize the air drawn in during each stroke; when exhaust gasses leave the cylinder they leave in 3 pulses:\n\n1. The first pulse occurs when the valve begins to open and the cylinder pressure equalizes with the pressure in the exhaust manifold\n2. The majority of the gasses come out in this pulse when the piston rises to expel the gasses out the cylinders\n3. This is where that extra umf comes in, scavenging. The exhaust valve stays open while the piston moves down during the intake stroke and while the intake valve is slightly open. The exhaust gasses inside the exhaust system have inertia and want to move towards the muffler, while both valves are still open the exhaust gasses scavenge some of the air inside the cylinder out that would otherwise remain trapped if the exhaust valve closed the instant the intake valve opens\n\nThe amount of time both the intake valve and exhaust valve remain open is called overlap, the more overlap you have the harder it is for the engine to operate at low RPMs but the more power you make at high RPMs. This is what gives old muscle cars the distinctive rumbling sound at idle. Motorcycles tend to have slightly more overlap than street cars. Motorcycles also tend to have shorter intake runners which also contribute to a higher revving engine.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Try this - hold something - say, an orange - in your hand. Swing it back and forth through about 12 inches, as fast as you can. You can definitely feel the resistance to changing direction. OK. A piston in an engine running at 6,000 rpm is reversing direction 100 times PER SECOND! It really, really doesn't \"want\" to do that. It's yanking and pushing on that connecting rod with all the \"First Law of Motion\" it can muster. Those \"forces\" increase with mass (size?) and increase exponentially with speed. So, given that they are made of similar materials, smaller parts can do it faster than bigger parts, before they destroy themselves.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Long stroke engines generate more torque, torque being raw twisting power. In order for the piston to move up and down really far (stroke), the crank pins need to be further away from the center of the crank shaft (crank pins are where the connecting rods connect to the crank shaft, then the other end of the connecting rods connect to the piston). The crank arms offset the crank pins from the center of the crankshaft. So ultimately, the longer the crank arms the are the longer the stroke is. \n\nOkay, now that that's out of the way, I shall use a little analogy. Imagine you are working on your car and have to remove a few bolts. One of them has corroded and rusted and you're having a really hard time removing it, no matter how hard you push on the wrench. You decide to grab a way longer wrench and with that you're finally able to break it loose and remove the bolt. This is because of leverage, you were able to apply way more twisting power on the bolt with a longer wrench. So just imagine instead of a longer wrench you have longer crank arms, and when the piston is forced down from the gas exploding it applies more twisting power on the crank shaft. This means more torque is generated.\n\nThis has turned out to be rather long winded, I hope you're following me so far! Cars are pretty heavy compared to motorcycles and need a lot more torque to get them to start moving. So car engines need to have longer strokes compared to motorcycle engines. Unfortunately this means the pistons need to travel a lot faster in order to complete the stroke, and faster moving parts mean more friction, and more friction means more heat and wear. This is bad and is why long stroke engines can't rev up as high as a motorcycle engines can.\n\nHigh revving motorcycle engines have very short strokes. Those bikes only weigh 400 pounds, so they don't need much torque to get them to start moving. But if you were to take that same engine and put it in a heavy car you would have a hard time just getting off the line, there's just not much power at low RPM. But because these engines can rev up super high they are able to generate a crap ton of horsepower at high RPM, especially for their small size, which makes them awesome for racing. The draw back here is that they are dog slow until you hit the 9,000 mark. \n\nDoes this help at all?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Short version:\n\nAn engine contains parts which need to change the direction they are moving in frequently. A small engine (such as an MC) has smaller parts. Smaller parts can change direction quicker without the forces becoming too large. If the forces becomes too large, you'll get vibrations and possibly failure.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Jesus...I googled this, and the first response was this same fucking question asked and answered over a year ago on this very same shitty site. _URL_0_\n\nHere you go you lazy liberal fuck.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "902718", "title": "Redline", "section": "Section::::Variation of redline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 496, "text": "Motorcycle engines can have even higher redlines because of their comparatively lower reciprocating mass. For example, the 1986–1996 Honda CBR250RR has a redline of about 19,000 rpm. (Though due to regulations in Japanese motorcycle manufacturing this was later lowered to 18,000). Higher yet is the redline of a modern Formula One car. Regulations in 2010 limit the maximum engine rotation to 18,000 rpm , but during the 2006 season, engine speeds reached over 20,000 rpm on the Cosworth engine\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1008348", "title": "Porsche 911 GT1", "section": "Section::::Street-legal version.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 250, "text": "The engine had to be slightly de-tuned to meet European emissions laws, although its at 7,200 rpm and of torque at 4,250 rpm proved to be more than adequate; the car could accelerate to from a standstill in 3.9 seconds on its way to a top speed of .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24780941", "title": "Toyota LR engine", "section": "Section::::1LR-GUE.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 393, "text": "The engine redlines at 9000 rpm and has a fuel cut-off at 9500 rpm, with 90% of its peak torque available from 3,700 rpm to 9,000 rpm. An LCD tachometer was fitted to the LF-A as an analog fixture allegedly was not responsive enough to the engine's ability to change speed. The Lexus LFA broke the world record in 2012, for the fastest production engine revving to its redline in 0.6 seconds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57498481", "title": "Mazda MX-5 (NC)", "section": "Section::::2008 facelift.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 459, "text": "The Inline-four engine was rated at 7,000 rpm and at 5,000 rpm for the 5-speed manual transmission, at 6,700 rpm with the fuel cut-off at 7,200 rpm and at 5,000 rpm for the automatic transmission. Engine redline was raised by 500 rpm to 7,200 rpm in manual model and fuel cut at 7,500 rpm. The suspension and gearbox have been fine-tuned; with the latter offering smoother shifts and an automatic transmission will be introduced in Europe for the first time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3200893", "title": "Suzuki RGV250", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 329, "text": "This motorcycle's engine performance is not very inspiring at engine speeds under 7,000 rpm, due to the two-stroke engine power delivery of a relatively narrow power band. However, once the engine is revved over 8,000 rpm, the power delivery characteristics effectively doubles, as is expected of a two-stroke racing motorcycle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3772202", "title": "Rev limiter", "section": "Section::::Operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 267, "text": "However, with a manual transmission engine RPM can redline in \"neutral\", or by shifting to a higher gear too late, or by shifting to a lower gear too early. In the case of \"neutral\" or shifting up too late, a rev limiter can easily keep engine RPM below the redline.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10840443", "title": "Suzuki RG50", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 430, "text": "This motorcycle has a six-speed transmission. Its maximum speed on level pavement with no headwind is 60 km/hour in 4th gear at 6000 rpm. Fuel usage at full speed is average, at around 40mpg +/- 30%. The engine redlines at 5500 rpm, and engine torque below 5000 rpm is quite feeble. A first gear with higher-than-average speed ratio, combined with weak low-speed torque, makes it a fairly difficult bike to start from standstill.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I realize this shouldn't be a top-level comment, but since no one's posted I will. I went to the wiki page for rabbit starvation syndrome, and it said it was from a lack of fat in your diet. Humans are pretty fatty, so it shouldn't be a problem.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I realize this shouldn't be a top-level comment, but since no one's posted I will. I went to the wiki page for rabbit starvation syndrome, and it said it was from a lack of fat in your diet. Humans are pretty fatty, so it shouldn't be a problem.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "682482", "title": "Human", "section": "Section::::Biology.:Diet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 851, "text": "In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. About 36 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to starvation. Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease. However global food distribution is not even, and obesity among some human populations has increased rapidly, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed, and a few developing countries. Worldwide over one billion people are obese, while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an \"obesity epidemic.\" Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by an energy-dense diet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "738736", "title": "Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571", "section": "Section::::Passenger survival.:Reluctant turn to cannibalism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 414, "text": "Some initially had reservations, though after realizing that it was their only means of staying alive, they changed their minds a few days later. Javier Methol and his wife Liliana, the only surviving female passenger, were the last survivors to eat human flesh. She had strong religious convictions, and only reluctantly agreed to partake of the flesh after she was told to view it as \"a kind of Holy Communion\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "215891", "title": "Starvation", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 445, "text": "There is insufficient scientific data on exactly how long people can live without food. Although the length of time varies with an individual's percentage of body fat and general health, one medical study estimates that in adults complete starvation leads to death within 8 to 12 weeks. Starvation begins when an individual has lost about 30%, or about a third, of their normal body weight. Once the loss reaches 40% death is almost inevitable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38905237", "title": "Hunger (2009 film)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 738, "text": "On the second day a scalpel appears on one of the barrels of water. A note attached to the scalpel reads “the human body can only survive thirty days without eating“ and Jordan explains to the group that scalpels are designed for cutting into human tissue. The kidnapper’s identity is revealed and a flashback occurs to a boy with similar features. The boy and his mother are in a car accident and the boy realizes that his mother has died. The boy is trapped inside the car until discovered by authorities two weeks later. To the authorities’ surprise the boy survived the two weeks by eating the flesh of his deceaced mother. In the present, photos on the captor’s wall reveal that he has been stalking his victims for quite some time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "738736", "title": "Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571", "section": "Section::::Passenger survival.:Reluctant turn to cannibalism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 496, "text": "The group survived by collectively deciding to eat flesh from the bodies of their dead comrades. This decision was not taken lightly, as most of the dead were classmates, close friends, or relatives. Canessa used broken glass from the aircraft windshield as a cutting tool. He set the example by swallowing the first matchstick-sized strip of frozen flesh. Several others did the same later on. The next day more survivors ate the meat offered them, but a few refused or could not keep it down. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1351954", "title": "Issedones", "section": "Section::::Cannibalism controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 270, "text": "Murphy and Mallory do not exclude the possibility that the flesh removed from the bodies was consumed. Archeologically these activities remain invisible. But they point out that elsewhere, Herodotus names another tribe (Androphagi) as the only group to eat human flesh.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "738736", "title": "Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571", "section": "Section::::Passenger survival.:Three more deaths.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 419, "text": "On 15 November, Arturo Nogueira died, and three days later, Rafael Echavarren died, both from gangrene due to their infected wounds. Numa Turcatti, who couldn't stomach the idea of eating human flesh, died on day 60 (11 December) weighing only . Those left knew they would inevitably die if they didn't find help. The survivors heard on the transistor radio that the Uruguayan Air Force had resumed searching for them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Ya, it's just for flavor, and you could use non alcoholic substitutes, but it wouldnt taste the same, and If you just make sure you cook off the alcohol it wont affects you like that.\nIt can if it hasent all been cooked off", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One thing to note about cooking it off properly is that alcohol (specifically ethanol, for context) has a much lower boiling point than water. Thus, the ethanol boils and evaporates off earlier and more completely than water. So if your food is cooked properly, it would be highly unlikely that any ethanol would remain.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Pretty much just for flavour. Could definitely use a substitute if you can find a good one but I’ve yet to find a decent alcohol free wine (suggestions welcome, UK only pls). I read somewhere that alcohol doesn’t always evaporate during cooking, can’t remember the exact details though! \n\nFor things like tiramisu though, I’m not sure what a good substitute would be, plus you don’t cook it. I’m sure google could suggest a substitute but then it wouldn’t reeeeeaally be tiramisu IMO.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For some things, alcohol can be pretty important. \n\nAlcohol is a great solvent for aromatic compounds. It’s also volatile and evaporates easily, so as its particles drift into the air, they carry those aromas with them. As you chew, that translates into more flavors that reach the back of your mouth, creating a heightened sense of complexity. At high concentrations, alcohol’s sting can overwhelm these flavors, but in small volumes, that sensation is balanced and pleasant.\n\nAdditionally, alcohol has an emulsifying ability, bonding with both water and fat, encouraging the two to coexist smoothly. In recipes like penne alla vodka, it helps the sauce become a creamier, tomato-ier, more cohesive whole.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It is just for flavor, but that doesn't mean you could necessarily use a non-alcoholic substitute. Some flavors are alcohol soluble, but not water soluble.\n\nAlso, since alcohol has a lower evaporation point, foods with alcohol in them will evaporate more and thus have more \"smell,\" which changes how we taste.\n\nAnd when frying things, the evaporation point can effect how things fry. This is why we have \"beer battered\" fish and chicken and onion rings... the alcohol in the beef changes the way the outside of the food cooks (compared to water).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18948043", "title": "Alcoholic drink", "section": "Section::::Reasons for use.:Flavoring.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 739, "text": "Pure ethanol tastes bitter to humans; some people also describe it as sweet. However, ethanol is also a moderately good solvent for many fatty substances and essential oils. This facilitates the use of flavoring and coloring compounds in alcoholic drinks as a taste mask, especially in distilled drinks. Some flavors may be naturally present in the beverage's raw material. Beer and wine may also be flavored before fermentation, and spirits may be flavored before, during, or after distillation. Sometimes flavor is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in oak barrels, usually made of American or French oak. A few brands of spirits may also have fruit or herbs inserted into the bottle at the time of bottling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "666105", "title": "Fusel alcohol", "section": "Section::::Classification.:Aroma alcohols.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 518, "text": "Excessive concentrations of some alcohols other than ethanol may cause off-flavors, sometimes described as \"spicy\", \"hot\", or \"solvent-like\". Some beverages, such as rum, whisky (especially Bourbon), incompletely rectified vodka (e.g. Siwucha), and traditional ales and ciders, are expected to have relatively high concentrations of non-hazardous alcohols as part of their flavor profile. However, in other beverages, such as Korn, vodka, and lagers, the presence of alcohols other than ethanol is considered a fault.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1722999", "title": "Cooking with alcohol", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 313, "text": "Wine, especially, is used as an ingredient for its acidic properties, for the bitterness of its tannins, and for its fruit components. Beer and liqueurs are also commonly used as alcoholic ingredients. For a flambé, in which warm alcohol is ignited, the higher alcohol content of a distilled spirit is required. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25539883", "title": "Ripeness in viticulture", "section": "Section::::What happens to a grape as it ripens.:Varying ripeness levels for different wines.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 751, "text": "The presence of alcohol (particularly ethanol) in the wine contributes much more than just intoxication. It has an immense impact of the weight and mouthfeel of the wine as well as the balance of sweetness, tannins and acids. In wine tasting, the anaesthetic qualities of ethanol reduces the sensitivity of the palate to the harsh effects of acids and tannins, making the wine seem softer. It also plays a role during the ageing of wine in its complex interaction with esters and phenolic compounds that produce various aromas in wine that contribute to a wine's flavor profile. For this reason, some winemakers will value having a higher potential alcohol level and delay harvesting until the grapes have a sufficiently high concentration of sugars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2172079", "title": "Rectified spirit", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 726, "text": "Neutral spirits are used in the production of blended whisky, cut brandy, some liqueurs, and some bitters. As a consumer product, it is almost always mixed with other beverages to create drinks like alcoholic punch or Jello shots or is sometimes added to cocktails in place of vodka or rum. It is also used to make homemade liqueurs, such as limoncello or cassis, and in cooking because its high concentration of alcohol acts as a solvent to extract flavors. Rectified spirits are also used for medicinal tinctures and as a household solvent. It is sometimes consumed undiluted; however because the alcohol is very high proof, over consumption can cause alcohol poisoning more quickly than more traditional distilled spirits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27061", "title": "Soft drink", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 626, "text": "Some soft drinks contain measurable amounts of alcohol. In some older preparations, this resulted from natural fermentation used to build the carbonation. In the United States, soft drinks (as well as other products such as non-alcoholic beer) are allowed by law to contain up to 0.5% alcohol by volume. Modern drinks introduce carbon dioxide for carbonation, but there is some speculation that alcohol might result from fermentation of sugars in a non-sterile environment. A small amount of alcohol is introduced in some soft drinks where alcohol is used in the preparation of the flavoring extracts such as vanilla extract.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1014", "title": "Alcohol", "section": "Section::::Occurrence in nature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 304, "text": "Simple alcohols are found widely in nature. Ethanol is most prominent because it is the product of fermentation, a major energy-producing pathway. The other simple alcohols are formed in only trace amounts. More complex alcohols are pervasive, as manifested in sugars, some amino acids, and fatty acids.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Final Cut X is actually not Final Cut 10, just \"X\". It is a dumbed down, consumer version of the glorious Final Cut 7 which Apple abandoned years ago, which was used on many feature films. \n\nThe old standard, Avid, is still a big one. However, Adobe Premiere is taking its cut of the cake as it has improved considerably over the past few years and its excellent integration with After Effects and other Adobe software makes it a pick of choice.\n\nEdit: _URL_0_\n\nAccording to this interview Harry Potter movies are edited in Avid.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15893057", "title": "Applications of artificial intelligence", "section": "Section::::Deepfake.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 208, "text": "Hollywood film studios had already used the technique in animated films, but it took time and efforts from professionals. The main difference is that today anyone can use a deep fake software and rig videos.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27630736", "title": "Magix Movie Edit Pro", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 461, "text": "Movie Edit Pro (also known as Magix Video Deluxe in Europe) is a video editing software developed by Magix for semi-professional and DIY users for Windows PC. It is the best selling video software in Europe, and is most famous for its ease-of-learn and rendering stability The first version was published in 2001. According to the developer, it applied the principles of non-destructiveness and object orientation to a video editing program for the first time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "371264", "title": "Nero Multimedia Suite", "section": "Section::::Included products.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 382, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Nero Video\": is a software tool for creating and editing videos. It combines editing tools (including the addition of effects, music and themes) and video export as well as DVD and Blu-ray authoring. The product provides simple editing functions for novices (in Express mode) as well as advanced video editing (Advanced mode). It is available separately as a download.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17496868", "title": "Antics3D", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 787, "text": "The software applies the drag and drop and point and click paradigms to animation, allowing users to create virtual sets, import props and characters, direct the characters to perform actions, and use virtual cameras to record scenes which can be edited on a timeline. Unlike traditional animation software, the possibilities for a user are limited - scenes will always utilise (at most) characters, cars, rooms and other common objects. However, this allows for much more intuitive user interaction, where \"intelligent\" props respond in obvious ways without the user needing to define the desired response. For instance, a character can be commanded to walk across a room by simply selecting the destination - the user does not need to directly animate the character's legs, arms, etc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38304210", "title": "DraCo", "section": "Section::::Software.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 225, "text": "It used a custom, but otherwise powerful software to manage digital video editing. It was called MovieShop (latest version is from and was really flexible, so much that many studios adopted it as their primary editing suite.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12712929", "title": "Nero Vision", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1016, "text": "Nero Video (known as Nero Vision until 15 October 2011) is a video editing software from Nero AG that provides simple editing functions (in Express mode) as well as advanced video editing (Advanced mode), which includes multitrack timeline and key framing functions. Nero Video also provides a wide range of functions for including photos and music in video projects, as well as a broad selection of transition, video, audio and title effects. In addition, it includes templates for semi-automatic film creation and for picture-in-picture effects. Once editing is complete, users can export their finished film as a file or upload it to the web. They can also use Nero Video to burn the film onto DVDs and Blu-Rays and personalize the discs’ menu and chapters step by step. Video disc creation is a separate module and can be executed directly from the start screen. That enables users to complete their disc-only projects quickly and easily. This authoring module also includes simple cropping and arranging tools.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58451381", "title": "DaVinci Resolve", "section": "Section::::Functionality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 327, "text": "The software includes modules for video editing, color correction, audio mixing/effects (including Fairlight), and visual effects (including Fusion). It can either be used as an intermediary between other NLE software and Digital Cinema Package (DCP) creation software, or as a standalone end-to-end video editing application.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You \"hear\" your own voice through vibrations in your jaw bone and skull as well as external soundwaves, which creates a different sound than if it was exclusively soundwaves (which is what you hear from a recording). That's why you hear your voice differently.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As a Singer (opera, rock, pop, choral) I love answering this because It's a struggle I have had constantly. Nobody can be actually tone deaf or you wouldn't be able to ever hear a tune or inflection in peoples voices, But when you are singing along with a track or with an instrument you are also hearing the instrument or track you're singing with. \n\nThis is why you often see singers plugging one ear so they have a register of what they actually sound like listening with their inner ear as well as the perception of how their voice bounces around and mixes. If you cover your ears and sing you will have a more accurate Idea of what you sound like (I'm sorry for shattering the illusion). \n\nTo improve your singing you can probably take lessons that teach you how to match pitch without the aid of covering your ear as you learn what your own voice truly sounds like and have outside input as to when you are singing correctly. \nHope this helps!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "292200", "title": "Missing fundamental", "section": "Section::::Explanation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 257, "text": "A low pitch (also known as the pitch of the missing fundamental or virtual pitch) can sometimes be heard when there is no apparent source or component of that frequency. This perception is due to the brain interpreting repetition patterns that are present.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "77933", "title": "Pitch (music)", "section": "Section::::Definite and indefinite pitch.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 325, "text": "A special type of pitch often occurs in free nature when sound reaches the ear of an observer directly from the source, and also after reflecting off a sound-reflecting surface. This phenomenon is called \"repetition pitch\", because the addition of a true repetition of the original sound to itself is the basic prerequisite.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1605494", "title": "Auditory imagery", "section": "Section::::Image properties.:Pitch.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 573, "text": "Humans retain a relatively strong auditory image for details in pitch, which can be improved with musical training. The development of cultivating an auditory image with absolute pitch, which is being able to determine a note upon hearing a sound, however, is dependent on childhood musical training and genetic factors. People are able to improve their discrimination of pitch; however, they cannot improve their detection. Auditory image pitch detection studies have shown that response time decreases when judging two high pitches as opposed to judging two low pitches.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2774090", "title": "Pitch correction", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Pitch correction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 439, "text": "The most common use of pitch correctors is to fix wrong intonation (tuning) of notes sung by vocalists in popular music sound recordings. The use of pitch correction speeds up the recording process, because singers do not need to keep singing a song or vocal line and re-recording it until the pitches are correct. The pitch correction software can correct any pitch errors in the singing without the need for overdubbing or re-recording.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "77933", "title": "Pitch (music)", "section": "Section::::Perception of pitch.:Pitch and frequency.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 527, "text": "Pitch is an auditory sensation in which a listener assigns musical tones to relative positions on a musical scale based primarily on their perception of the frequency of vibration. Pitch is closely related to frequency, but the two are not equivalent. Frequency is an objective, scientific attribute that can be measured. Pitch is each person's \"subjective perception\" of a sound wave, which cannot be directly measured. However, this does not necessarily mean that most people won't agree on which notes are higher and lower.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18839", "title": "Music", "section": "Section::::Elements.:Description of elements.:Pitch and melody.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 775, "text": "Pitch is an aspect of a sound that we can hear, reflecting whether one musical sound, note or tone is \"higher\" or \"lower\" than another musical sound, note or tone. We can talk about the highness or lowness of pitch in the more general sense, such as the way a listener hears a piercingly high piccolo note or whistling tone as higher in pitch than a deep thump of a bass drum. We also talk about pitch in the precise sense associated with musical melodies, basslines and chords. Precise pitch can only be determined in sounds that have a frequency that is clear and stable enough to distinguish from noise. For example, it is much easier for listeners to discern the pitch of a single note played on a piano than to try to discern the pitch of a crash cymbal that is struck.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25213736", "title": "Music-specific disorders", "section": "Section::::Definitions: basic musical concepts.:Pitch.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 759, "text": "In the physical sense of the term, the word \"pitch\" refers to the frequency of a sound. Another term that is frequently used by music neuroscientists is \"fine-grained pitch processing\" which refers to the ability of a person to distinguish minor changes or fluctuations in pitch. Processing pitch is an extremely integral part of music cognition. Recent developments in brain scanning techniques have shown neuroscientists that the posterior secondary cortex plays an extremely important part in the processing of pitch in the brain. In music, \"pitch relation\" is more important than pitch itself. A subset of five to seven pitches creates a scale. The scale tones are \"not equivalent and are organized around a central tone, called the tonic\" (Peretz 2005).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It is difficult to say specifically for ebolavirus. To know precisely which mutation would be necessary to confer airborne transmission would require gain-of-function experiments such as those conducted on the H5N1 avian flu. ([source](_URL_1_)) This kind of study is basically forced lab evolution: site-directed mutagenesis is used on the virus followed by multiple passages of virus in hosts with desired traits selected, in this case airborne transmission. Such experiments are controversial and quite dangerous as we would be making a virus *more* transmissible. There was a [recent AMA](_URL_0_) in /r/science about this issue.\n\n The H5N1 flu study showed that 4 different point mutations in the H5N1 genome were seen in all the successfully transformed mammal airborne flu viruses. These four mutations affected receptor binding (virus binds to upper airway epithelium), replication, and glycosylation (the attachment of sugar chains to surface protein that may change the virion's ability to get into water droplets). ([source](_URL_1_)) Whether these changes are applicable to ebolavirus is not known.\n\nThe thing is: there is little selective pressure for ebola to develop such mutations; ebola is spreading just fine in the populations of Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, with basic replication numbers (average number of secondary cases an infected individual can cause) of 1.71, 1.83, and 2.02 respectively. ([source](_URL_2_)) Anything over 1 is enough to cause an epidemic. And ebola is primarily a blood/fluid-borne pathogen, so most favorable (for the virus) mutations that ebola would undergo would likely be within that existing transmission framework rather than toward developing a novel transmission route.\n\nThat is not to say that these fears airborne ebola are totally without basis. Viruses mutate very quickly even within one host. An epidemic with exponential growth like the one going on in W. Africa right now has the virus passaging through thousands of hosts, increasing the probability of novel mutations/adaptations being selected and further passaged. If the response/containment situation does not improve over there thousands of hosts will become tens of thousands very quickly. ([source](_URL_2_)) ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\"Fear mongering\"? That is a very, very, very poor choice of words. Given the rate of transmission I would say it is being under reported. We likely don't have the real figures of the amount of infected which are likely to be substantially more than the official figures.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43978682", "title": "Ebola virus epidemic in Guinea", "section": "Section::::Containment efforts.:Quarantines and travel restrictions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 743, "text": "Good disease tracing is important to prevent the outbreak from spreading. Previous Ebola outbreaks have occurred in remote areas making containment easier; the current outbreak struck in an area that lies at the centre of both a highly-mobile and densely populated region which has made tracking more difficult: \"This time, the virus is traveling effortlessly across borders by plane, car and foot, shifting from forests to cities and springing up in clusters far from any previously known infections. Border closures, flight bans and mass quarantines have been ineffective.\" Peter Piot, who co-discovered Ebola, said Ebola \"isn't striking in a 'linear fashion' this time. It's hopping around, especially in Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "620102", "title": "George Will", "section": "Section::::Controversy.:2014 Ebola spread claim.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 377, "text": "In 2014, Will claimed that Ebola could be spread via sneezing, contrary to widely accepted evidence which says that Ebola can only be spread by direct contact with infected bodily fluids. The comments occurred in a context of Republican criticism of the Obama administration's handling of the 2014 Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa. PolitiFact rated Will's claim as \"False.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44358983", "title": "Cultural effects of the Ebola crisis", "section": "Section::::Ebola in broadcasting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 271, "text": "BULLET::::- To break an awkward silence, Chandler Bing says, \"So, the Ebola virus. That's gotta suck, huh?\" In 2014, when Ebola reached America, some sources incorrectly said Chandler had predicted the Ebola outbreak, even though the disease had been discovered in 1976.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42345073", "title": "Western African Ebola virus epidemic", "section": "Section::::Virology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 675, "text": "In January 2015, the media stated researchers in Guinea had reported mutations in the virus samples that they were looking at. According to them, \"we've now seen several cases that don't have any symptoms at all, asymptomatic cases. These people may be the people who can spread the virus better, but we still don't know that yet. A virus can change itself to [become] less deadly, but more contagious and that's something we are afraid of.\" A 2015 study suggested that accelerating the rate of mutation of the Ebola virus could make the virus less capable of infecting humans. In this animal study, the virus became practically non-viable, consequently increasing survival.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58011203", "title": "2018–19 Kivu Ebola epidemic", "section": "Section::::Epidemiology.:Democratic Republic of the Congo.:Transition to 2nd biggest EVD outbreak.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 368, "text": "According to a September 2018 \"Lancet\" survey, 25% of respondents in Beni and Butembo believed the Ebola outbreak to be a hoax. These beliefs correlated with decreased likelihood of seeking healthcare or agreeing to vaccination. Furthermore, according to the World Health Organization, resistance to vaccination in the Kaniyi health area was ongoing as of March 2019.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43978682", "title": "Ebola virus epidemic in Guinea", "section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 651, "text": "Although Ebola represents a major public health issue in sub-Saharan Africa, no cases had ever been reported in West Africa and the early cases were diagnosed as other diseases more common to the area such as Lassa fever, another hemorrhagic fever similar to Ebola. Thus, it was not until March 2014 that the outbreak was recognized as Ebola. The Ministry of Health of Guinea notified the World Health Organization (WHO), and on 23 March the WHO announced an outbreak of Ebola virus disease in Guinea with a total of 49 cases as of that date. By late May, the outbreak had spread to Conakry, Guinea's capital, a city of about two million inhabitants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44935899", "title": "Ebola virus disease in Nigeria", "section": "Section::::Epidemiology.:West African Outbreak.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 284, "text": "Although Ebola represents a major public health issue in sub-Saharan Africa, no cases had ever been reported in West Africa and the early cases were diagnosed as other diseases more common to the area. Thus, the disease had several months to spread before it was recognized as Ebola.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I think you're confused. Nasa's newest piece of technology is the EMDrive. It doesn't create warp bubbles but years ago some guy in a garage said \"hey, I can accelerate this thing without using propellant!\" but was treated as some crazy dude in a garage. Not too long after China, I believe, verified and ran their own tests, and came to the same conclusion as garage dude. Eventually NASA took notice and lo and behold, it worked for them too but they do not know why. It is now undergoing more rigorous testing. \n\nSo in short the EM drive accelerates without using fuel, just electricity, which is huge for space travel. \n\nThere is a theoretical warp drive though but it requires negative mass and is still very theoretical. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Actually, the EmDrive *may* warp space **inside** of the metal cavity. It is not a warp drive, nor does it make itself move faster than light. If it does, in fact, warp space inside of the metal cavity, that shows that it is possible to warp space without a large mass or negative energy, so that may open up a path to a warp drive in the future.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "55278", "title": "Warp drive", "section": "Section::::\"Star Trek\".:Fictional history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 476, "text": "The episode \"Metamorphosis\", from \"The Original Series\", establishes a backstory for the invention of warp drive on Earth, in which Zefram Cochrane discovered the \"space warp\". Cochrane is repeatedly referred to afterwards, but the exact details of the first warp trials were not shown until the second \"\" movie, \"\". The movie depicts Cochrane as having first operated a warp drive on Earth in 2063. This successful first trial led directly to first contact with the Vulcans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3306533", "title": "Threshold (Star Trek: Voyager)", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 810, "text": "\"Voyager\"s crew discovers a rare, more stable form of dilithium that they postulate could power a warp drive beyond Warp 10. This would allow \"Voyager\" to reach the Alpha Quadrant near instantaneously. Although holodeck simulations prove disastrous, Lieutenant Paris (Robert Duncan McNeill) comes up with an idea after an off-the-cuff discussion with Neelix (Ethan Phillips). The next simulation is successful and a shuttlecraft, dubbed the \"Cochrane\", is prepared for a full test flight. (Robert Picardo) identifies a rare medical condition in Lieutenant Paris indicating a 2% chance that he will suffer lethal effects from the test-flight and recommends assigning Ensign Kim (Garrett Wang) as test-pilot. Paris convinces Captain Janeway (Kate Mulgrew) to allow him to fly the shuttle despite the small risk.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37856", "title": "Alcubierre drive", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 596, "text": "In 1994, Alcubierre proposed a method for changing the geometry of space by creating a wave that would cause the fabric of space ahead of a spacecraft to contract and the space behind it to expand. The ship would then ride this wave inside a region of flat space, known as a \"warp bubble\", and would not move within this bubble but instead be carried along as the region itself moves due to the actions of the drive. It was thought to use too much negative energy until Harold Sonny White said that the amount of energy required could be reduced if the warp bubble were changed into a warp ring.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10466533", "title": "Equinox (Star Trek: Voyager)", "section": "Section::::Part 1.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 378, "text": "Janeway and Ransom discuss how both their ships had been pulled into the Delta Quadrant, five years earlier, by . Ransom shares that they found a wormhole and made enhancements to their warp engines, explaining how this allowed the smaller (with a crew of 80) and slower (warp 8) \"Nova\"-class \"Equinox\" to travel the same 40,000 light years as \"Voyager\" on its return to Earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "384096", "title": "Where no man has gone before", "section": "Section::::Origin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 431, "text": "In-universe, the sentence was attributed in the \"\" pilot episode \"\" to warp drive inventor Dr. Zefram Cochrane in a recorded speech during the dedication of the facility devoted to designing the first engine capable of reaching Warp 5 (thus making interstellar exploration practical for humans) in the year 2119, some thirty-two years before the 2151 launch of the first vessel powered by such an engine, the \"Enterprise\" (NX-01):\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42241533", "title": "Build the Enterprise", "section": "Section::::Warp drive.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 542, "text": "In Houston, Texas, at the Johnson Space Center, Harold White is working to create a warp drive that could be used for propulsion. Although this project is not related to the project proposed by BTE Dan, it could still possibly be used in a future version of the \"Enterprise\". The project is based on Miguel Alcubierre's spacetime metric. The warp drive would allow the ship to travel faster than the speed of light by compressing space around it to create a moving bubble. As of yet however, there still remain many problems with the theory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55278", "title": "Warp drive", "section": "Section::::Real-world theories and science.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 408, "text": "In 2012, NASA researcher Harold White hypothesized that by changing the shape of the warp drive, much less negative mass and energy could be used, though the energy required ranges from the mass of Voyager 1 to the mass of the observable universe, or many orders of magnitude greater than anything currently possible by modern technology. NASA engineers have begun preliminary research into such technology.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I did research on this in college for psychology. Turns out the more invested in outside events, especially sports the lower the self esteem of the individual. Now having a healthy relationship with a sports team is ok and being happy or disappointed when your team wins and loses is ok, but the people that get truly upset and it ruins their day or week, those are the ones who have the lowest self esteem. They are not happy within themselves and invest part of their identity in the team. As in their teams success also reflects on who they are as individuals. Basically they don't have anything good per say going in their lives and their team is the only thing that makes them feel like they are a success. You will see this pattern in every ethnicity, age and economic range, although it tends to be more pronounced in lower income and blue collar workers. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "994199", "title": "College rivalry", "section": "Section::::Important contributors that fuel a rivalry.:The team dynamic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 569, "text": "In such sports as basketball and football there is a stress on the importance of teamwork. This is so because the team is a smaller society that needs to function properly. This means that they need good communication and get necessary goals accomplished for the team. Because of this, the individual on the team is seen as less important than the group as everyone works toward the goal of making the group the best it can possibly be. Players do this \"in the form of obedience to authority, group loyalty, and the willingness to sacrifice for the good of the group.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "398277", "title": "Professional sports", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 607, "text": "Professional sports, as opposed to amateur sports, are sports in which athletes receive payment for their performance. Professional athleticism has come to the fore through a combination of developments. Mass media and increased leisure have brought larger audiences, so that sports organizations or teams can command large incomes. As a result, more sportspeople can afford to make athleticism their primary career, devoting the training time necessary to increase skills, physical condition, and experience to modern levels of achievement. This proficiency has also helped boost the popularity of sports.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30348396", "title": "Personal finances of professional American athletes", "section": "Section::::Education.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 804, "text": "Some believe that the universities are not to blame, and that students often pave their own path. In a survey consisting of previous student athletes, athletic performance and effort was attributed to helping the development of major life skills, especially in the work force. However, this can change from person to person, and social theorists even believe that roles and identities contribute heavily to where a person is headed in life. There are some athletes, whose personality caters to working incredibly hard on the field, rather than off the field, thus developing more of an athletic identity that can get in the way of a career path or education. The same goes with those who have passions in education or some other activity, making student athletes think very differently from one another.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45517805", "title": "Schooled: The Price of College Sports", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 386, "text": "Student-athletes are described as amateurs and that they are playing for the love of the sport and not money. Amateurism is said to have started in England where students played sports on the side for fun. After the realization that college sports were becoming involved seriously with gambling and fraud the idea that offering athletes a free education would get rid of that culture. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60324306", "title": "Loan-Out Corporation", "section": "Section::::Common Law.:Section 482 of the Internal Revenue Code: Reallocation of Income.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 371, "text": "In the case of athletes, their services or talents are considered to be a business in their own right, and the sportsperson may therefore be recognised as multiple operating entities. This can be avoided by athletes if they only perform services through the Loan-Out corporation, not forming additional contracts with other external parties for their athletic services. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20302094", "title": "Professional performances", "section": "Section::::Sport.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 316, "text": "Sometimes the professional status of an activity is controversial; for example, there is debate as to whether professionals should be allowed to compete in the Olympic Games. The motivation for money (either in rewards, salaries or advertising revenue) is sometimes seen as a corrupting influence, tainting a sport.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16844797", "title": "Student athlete", "section": "Section::::Student athletes after college.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 367, "text": "As athletes move on from sports the separation from their athletic identity maybe easier for some than others. It could be the greater the commitment to the athletic role, the more difficult the disengagement, but there are too many factors to pin point the reasoning. It takes time an effort to reinvent oneself and figure out a future in society aside from sports.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > Surely if something is in HD, it was recorded that way originally. \n\nCorrect.\n\n > If its just a rip off thing\n\nIt's not a \"rip-off\" thing. It's a \"people are willing to pay less for standard definition, and more for high definition\" thing.\n\n > wouldnt it be a good idea to make laws banning this practice?\n\nNo. Telling a company \"you can't charge different amounts for different products\" is generally an ill-conceived way of writing laws. It limits consumer options. The result would be \"well, I guess the cheaper version is going away then, and we're only going to charge the higher price for HD channels\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just because you don't know anyone with an old tv doesn't mean there aren't people out there with old tvs willing to pay for standard programming. As for banning, it isn't the government's business to get involved at that level. The practice is not harming anyone, so they shouldn't be interfering. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > Surely if something is in HD, it was recorded that way originally\n\nNo, it could have been upconverted. \n\n > I'm not aware of anyone that has a TV incapable of HD now.\n\nYou can't say that anymore. I have a SDTV in addition to a big HDTV. It makes no sense to throw away something that works fine.\n\n > make laws banning this practice?\n\nMake laws banning things which harm people. Nobody is harmed by SDTV. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "533649", "title": "Home Shopping Network", "section": "Section::::High definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 431, "text": "When the HD channel launched, the network had a different presentation than most HD channels, choosing to present content on the standard definition feed using a left cut of the HD image rather than taken from the center of the screen within the standard 4:3 safe area. As of February 2013, the standard definition channel is now merely downscaled at the provider from the HD feed rather than having a devoted channel for 4:3 TVs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13339604", "title": "High-definition television in the United Kingdom", "section": "Section::::Platforms.:Terrestrial.:Freeview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 332, "text": "The broadcasts make use of a single multiplex currently allowing four channels, BBC One HD, BBC Two HD, ITV HD/STV HD/UTV HD and Channel 4 HD. A fifth slot is available, with Channel 5 withdrawing from the opportunity to broadcast on it on two separate occasions, it has however been temporarily used by both the BBC and Channel 4.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6321", "title": "Channel 4", "section": "Section::::Channel 4 HD.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 130, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 130, "end_character": 349, "text": "The channel carries the same schedule as Channel 4, broadcasting programmes in HD when available, acting as a simulcast. Therefore, SD programming is broadcast upscaled to HD. The first true HD programme to be shown was the 1996 Adam Sandler film Happy Gilmore. From launch until 2016 the presence of the 4HD logo on screen denoted true HD content.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9624289", "title": "DirecTV", "section": "Section::::Receivers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 649, "text": "The new DirecTV HD channels require an H20/HR20 or H21/HR21/HR22/HR23/H24/HR24 set top box (STB). In order to receive the new HD channels (channels added after September 2007), all HD receivers except the HR23 must have a B-Band converter installed. If the converter is not installed, viewers can only receive older HD channels (channels 70–99). The B-Band Converter (BBC) is also not required with the new Single Wire Multiswitch (SWM or SWiM) system, which preselects the satellite and transponder tuning and can feed up to 8 tuners via a single coaxial cable. The \"HR\" moniker designates the receiver as an HD digital video recorder (DVR) model.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50415058", "title": "High-definition television in Australia", "section": "Section::::Broadcasters.:Seven Network.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 857, "text": "The channel replaced Seven's existing high definition service 7 HD Digital, a part-time simulcast of its standard definition and analogue services. Due to an amendment of the \"Broadcasting Services Act 1992\" in 2006, the \"Broadcasting Legislation Amendment (Digital television) Act 2006\", television networks are now permitted to launch digital multichannels, provided that they are broadcast exclusively in high definition. The channel expanded its broadcast schedule on 10 December 2007 to include daytime programming which had previously been a full simulcast of the main channel. 7HD breakaway programming ceased transmission on Sunday 4 October 2009 in preparation for the launch of 7TWO a few weeks later on 1 November. 7HD then returned to being a full high definition simulcast of Seven, before finally being replaced by 7mate on 25 September 2010.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12324273", "title": "FTA receiver", "section": "Section::::Common features.:HDTV.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 376, "text": "A few high-end receivers feature HDTV. In North America, these often include an ATSC over-the-air digital television tuner and MPEG-4 support. A few HDTV units allow for the addition of a UHF remote control. However, an 8PSK module can be installed in place of the UHF remote and allows the receiver to decode the format used on most Dish Network high definition programming.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2632722", "title": "Freesat", "section": "Section::::Technical details.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 462, "text": "All of the standard definition channels on Freesat are broadcast using DVB-S; ITV HD, NHK World HD and RT HD also use DVB-S. BBC One HD and BBC HD used DVB-S until 6 June 2011 when the satellite transponder carrying them was upgraded to DVB-S2. Channel 4 HD had launched using DVB-S2 but the transponder was downgraded to DVB-S on 28 March 2012. Standard definition channels are broadcast using MPEG-2, while high definition channels are broadcast using MPEG-4.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Your*, my bad.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Have you noticed that you *feel* cold when your running a fever? It's sometimes called \"the chills\".\n\nPart of the sensation of temperature is the *difference* between the room's temperature and your body temperature. When your body is hot (without clear causes such as exertion), the room feels colder.\n\nThe term cold describes how the patient *feels*. They feel like the room's cold and they want a blanket even though they are running a fever.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "19725090", "title": "Cold", "section": "Section::::Physiological effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 396, "text": "Cold has numerous physiological and pathological effects on the human body, as well as on other organisms. Cold environments may promote certain psychological traits, as well as having direct effects on the ability to move. Shivering is one of the first physiological responses to cold. Extreme cold temperatures may lead to frostbite, sepsis, and hypothermia, which in turn may result in death.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "154881", "title": "Heat index", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 760, "text": "The human body normally cools itself by perspiration, or sweating. Heat is removed from the body by evaporation of that sweat. However, high relative humidity reduces the evaporation rate. This results in a lower rate of heat removal from the body, hence the sensation of being overheated. This effect is subjective, with different individuals perceiving heat differently for various reasons (such as differences in body shape, metabolic differences, differences in hydration, pregnancy, menopause, effects of drugs and/or drug withdrawal); its measurement has been based on subjective descriptions of how hot subjects feel for a given temperature and humidity. This results in a heat index that relates one combination of temperature and humidity to another.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "146879", "title": "Hypothermia", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Paradoxical undressing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 383, "text": "One explanation for the effect is a cold-induced malfunction of the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that regulates body temperature. Another explanation is that the muscles contracting peripheral blood vessels become exhausted (known as a loss of vasomotor tone) and relax, leading to a sudden surge of blood (and heat) to the extremities, causing the person to feel overheated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48834921", "title": "Revelation 3", "section": "Section::::The Message to Laodicea (3:14–22).:Verse 15.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 477, "text": "According to the Jamieson-Fausset-Brown commentary, \"cold\" must mean \"more than negatively cold\", i.e. not warm: it must mean \"positively, icy cold: never warmed\", while \"hot\" literally means \"boiling\" or \"fervent\". They comment that \"the lukewarm state (verse 16), if it be the transitional stage to a warmer, is a desirable state (for a little religion, if real, is better than none); but most fatal when, as here, an abiding condition, for it is mistaken for a safe state.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51796195", "title": "Cold and heat adaptations in humans", "section": "Section::::Physiological adaptations.:Cold.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 352, "text": "The human body has two methods of thermogenesis, which produces heat to raise the core body temperature. The first is shivering, which occurs in an unclothed person when the ambient air temperature is under 25 °C (77 °F). It is limited by the amount of glycogen available in the body. The second is non-shivering, which occurs in brown adipose tissue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19593167", "title": "Heat", "section": "Section::::Heat transfer.:Heat transfer between two bodies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 86, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 86, "end_character": 270, "text": "Referring to conduction, Partington writes: \"If a hot body is brought in conducting contact with a cold body, the temperature of the hot body falls and that of the cold body rises, and it is said that a \"quantity of heat\" has passed from the hot body to the cold body.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5992", "title": "Traditional Chinese medicine", "section": "Section::::Concept of disease.:Patterns.:Eight principles of diagnosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 143, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 143, "end_character": 286, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Heat\" (热, ) is characterized by absence of aversion to cold, a red and painful throat, a dry tongue fur and a rapid and floating pulse, if it falls together with an exterior pattern. In all other cases, symptoms depend on whether heat is coupled with vacuity or repletion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You're counting how many ways you can arrange things.\n\nSay you have 4 cards. How many possible ways can you order those cards?\n\nThere are 4 possibilities for the first card, 3 for the second, 2 for the third, and one for the last (whichever one is left). 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 4!.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You take the number and multiply it by all the whole numbers preceding it. \n For example: 4! = 4\\*3\\*2\\*1 \n If you are wondering why factorials exist, it is just a simpler way of saying 4*3*2*1 which is useful since you need to do that more often than you might think. \n Edit: I done formatted wrong.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23683488", "title": "Aurifeuillean factorization", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 453, "text": "In number theory, an aurifeuillean factorization, or aurifeuillian factorization, named after Léon-François-Antoine Aurifeuille, is a special type of algebraic factorization that comes from non-trivial factorizations of cyclotomic polynomials over the integers. Although cyclotomic polynomials themselves are irreducible over the integers, when restricted to particular integer values they may have an algebraic factorization, as in the examples below.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1113108", "title": "Factorial number system", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 501, "text": "In combinatorics, the factorial number system, also called factoradic, is a mixed radix numeral system adapted to numbering permutations. It is also called factorial base, although factorials do not function as base, but as place value of digits. By converting a number less than \"n\"! to factorial representation, one obtains a sequence of \"n\" digits that can be converted to a permutation of \"n\" in a straightforward way, either using them as Lehmer code or as inversion table representation; in the\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6994353", "title": "Fractional factorial design", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 598, "text": "In statistics, fractional factorial designs are experimental designs consisting of a carefully chosen subset (fraction) of the experimental runs of a full factorial design . The subset is chosen so as to exploit the sparsity-of-effects principle to expose information about the most important features of the problem studied, while using a fraction of the effort of a full factorial design in terms of experimental runs and resources. In other words, it makes use of the fact that many experiments in full factorial design are often redundant, giving little or no new information about the system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8026273", "title": "Factor base", "section": "Section::::Usage in factoring algorithms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 357, "text": "A factor base is a relatively small set of distinct prime numbers \"P\", sometimes together with -1. Say we want to factorize an integer \"n\". We generate, in some way, a large number of integer pairs (\"x\", \"y\") for which formula_1, formula_2, and formula_3 can be completely factorized over the chosen factor base—that is, all their prime factors are in \"P\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15491", "title": "Integer factorization", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 221, "text": "In number theory, integer factorization is the decomposition of a composite number into a product of smaller integers. If these integers are further restricted to prime numbers, the process is called prime factorization.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36433745", "title": "Factor system", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 401, "text": "In mathematics, a factor system (sometimes called factor set) is a fundamental tool of Otto Schreier’s classical theory for group extension problem. It consists of a set of automorphisms and a binary function on a group satisfying certain condition (so-called \"cocycle condition\"). In fact, a factor system constitutes a realisation of the cocycles in the second cohomology group in group cohomology.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10606", "title": "Factorial", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 243, "text": "The factorial operation is encountered in many areas of mathematics, notably in combinatorics, algebra, and mathematical analysis. Its most basic use counts the possible distinct sequences – the permutations – of distinct objects: there are .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well, volume or loudness is the amplitude of the sound wave and if its bigger the sound will be louder. But in terms of hearing things in your apartment certain sounds are more likely to penetrate concrete and wood and get to your ears. Bass-ier sounds have much more penetrating power generally speaking so you can hear low-end sounds through your walls much better than high end. High pitched whistles are used if you are lost in the woods for instance because it will echo a lot more and it is much more distinct from ambient sounds. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You are probably experiencing the effect that things sound louder when there is a drastic change in volume level from before to during the sound. Bangs of doors tend to go from quiet to loud really fast, while shouting is consistent.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Different frequencies travel through materials differently. you'll find that bass sounds with frequencies below sort of 500Hz (500 vibrations a second) will travel through walls really easily because its closer to the natural Resonance frequency (the frequency the material naturally vibrates) of wood or concrete.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think this is also a consequence of 5.1 audio being played on a 2.1 speaker system. The surround-sound tracks get ignominiously plopped right on top of the front stereo tracks, neatly making them twice as loud to the detriment of the center 'voice' channel.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "66599", "title": "Noise pollution", "section": "Section::::Health.:Humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1230, "text": "Less addressed is how humans adapt to noise subjectively. Indeed, tolerance for noise is frequently independent of decibel levels. Murray Schafer's soundscape research was groundbreaking in this regard. In his work, he makes compelling arguments about how humans relate to noise on a subjective level, and how such subjectivity is conditioned by culture. Schafer also notes that sound is an expression of power, and as such, material culture (e.g., fast cars or Harley Davidson motorcycles with aftermarket pipes) tend to have louder engines not only for safety reasons, but for expressions of power by dominating the soundscape with a particular sound. Other key research in this area can be seen in Fong's comparative analysis of soundscape differences between Bangkok, Thailand and Los Angeles, California, US. Based on Schafer's research, Fong's study showed how soundscapes differ based on the level of urban development in the area. He found that cities in the periphery have different soundscapes than inner city areas. Fong's findings tie not only soundscape appreciation to subjective views of sound, but also demonstrates how different sounds of the soundscape are indicative of class differences in urban environments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2127046", "title": "Marine pollution", "section": "Section::::Types of pollution.:Underwater noise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 458, "text": "Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called the Lombard vocal response. Whale songs are longer when submarine-detectors are on. If creatures don't \"speak\" loud enough, their voice can be masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins speaking louder, it will mask other species voices, causing the whole ecosystem to eventually speak louder.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1434630", "title": "Noise trader", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 223, "text": "In finance, noise obtained a formal definition in a 1986 paper by Fischer Black: \"Noise in the sense of a large number of small events is often a cause factor much more powerful than a small number of large events can be.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41415", "title": "Noise", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 278, "text": "Noise is unwanted sound judged to be unpleasant, loud or disruptive to hearing. From a physics standpoint, noise is indistinguishable from sound, as both are vibrations through a medium, such as air or water. The difference arises when the brain receives and perceives a sound.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2890925", "title": "Acoustic ecology", "section": "Section::::Bioacoustics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 548, "text": "Noise is generally a by-product of increased urbanization and development. Noise can alter the acoustic environment of aquatic and terrestrial habitats. Bird diversity has shown to decline because of chronic noise levels in cities and along roadways. Some species such as the urban great tits have changed the frequency of their calls to adapt. In terms of evolution, man-made noise is a much more recent phenomenon. Scientific research has shown that it has potential to change behavior, alter physiology and even restructure animal communities. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18994087", "title": "Sound", "section": "Section::::Perception of sound.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 299, "text": "Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted sound. In science and engineering, noise is an undesirable component that obscures a wanted signal. However, in sound perception it can often be used to identify the source of a sound and is an important component of timbre perception (see above).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35332840", "title": "Noise in music", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 457, "text": "In more general usage, noise is any unwanted sound or signal. In this sense, even sounds that would be perceived as musically ordinary in another context become noise if they interfere with the reception of a message desired by the receiver. Prevention and reduction of unwanted sound, from tape hiss to squeaking bass drum pedals, is important in many musical pursuits, but noise is also used creatively in many ways, and in some way in nearly all genres.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because there's a chemical reaction going on all the time inside the battery, it can burn itself out if not used for a certain length of time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1164345", "title": "Automotive battery", "section": "Section::::Specifications.:Date codes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 348, "text": "BULLET::::- In the United States there are codes on batteries to help consumers buy a recently produced one. When batteries are stored, they can start losing their charge. A battery made in October 2015 will have a numeric code of 10-5 or an alphanumeric code of K-5. \"A\" is for January, \"B\" is for February, and so on (the letter \"I\" is skipped).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31933239", "title": "Batteries Included (company)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 644, "text": "Batteries Included was founded by siblings Alan Krofchick, Robbie Krofchick and Marcie Swartz in 1978 as a calculator and personal computer retail store. The hand-held electronic devices they sold were always advertised as \"batteries not included,\" so they included the batteries for free and named themselves Batteries Included. The company began to develop its own computer software and hardware and became a multimillion-dollar multi-faceted company, charging its way into the international computer software and accessory market. Michael Reichmann joined the company in its early years and eventually became its president in the mid-1980s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26308054", "title": "Birmingham Battery and Metal Company", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 203, "text": "The company did not make batteries, but the use of the word battery in the name refers to a method of metal production and forming (which had largely been supplanted by metal rolling using steam power).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "217946", "title": "Lemon battery", "section": "Section::::Use in school projects.:Learning outcomes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 375, "text": "For children in the age range 10−13, batteries are used to illustrate the connection between chemistry and electricity as well as to deepen the circuit concept for electricity. The fact that different chemical elements such as copper and zinc are used can be placed in the larger context that the elements do not disappear or break down when they undergo chemical reactions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2885000", "title": "Battery charger", "section": "Section::::Type.:Timer-based charger.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 425, "text": "Often a timer charger and set of batteries could be bought as a bundle and the charger time was set to suit those batteries. If batteries of lower capacity were charged then they would be overcharged, and if batteries of higher capacity were charged they would be only partly charged. With the trend for battery technology to increase capacity year on year, an old timer charger would only partly charge the newer batteries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44035472", "title": "Exit sign", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 592, "text": "As battery-backup systems became smaller and more efficient, some exit signs began to use a dual-power system. Under normal conditions, the exit sign was lit by mains power and the battery was in a charged state. In the event of a power outage, the battery would supply power to light the sign. Early battery-backup systems were big, heavy, and costly. Modern systems are lightweight, can be installed virtually anywhere, and are integrated into the fixture, rather than requiring a separate box. As batteries improved, so did the amount of time that a fixture could remain lit on batteries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12734489", "title": "E-TAG", "section": "Section::::Technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 236, "text": "The life of the battery in an e-TAGs is approximately 5 years. Customers are advised when a device is about to expire and to contact the issuer should their e-TAG not beep as they pass a tolling gantry, to receive a replacement device.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Jimi Hendrix is considered a great guitar player because he reinvented how the guitar was played. He invented a style that influenced just about every rock, blues and jazz guitarist that came after him. His technical skill wasn't the greatest, but his creativity and style has proven to be extremely influential--even nearly 50 years after he got his start! For example, he was known to use hammer-ons and pull-offs: a style that made Eddie Van Halen famous. He played loud and distorted, which was influential to the hard rock and heavy metal bands that came in the 70's. His wah-wah sound went on to influence guys like Steve Vai. He even had a session with Miles Davis, making him popular with fusion guitarists such as Al DiMeola. In short, he was highly original and influential.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "He was one of the first to use distortion (the heavy rock guitar sound) and other sorts of audio effects in a truly effective way. He wasn't the *only* person doing it, but he's considered the best of his time at it, and generally everybody after started trying to copy him.\n\nFrom a purely technical perspective, he wasn't necessarily unique, though he could certainly keep up with the other top guys of his time when it came to \"shredding.\" He did pioneer (or, really, popularize) a few techniques like using the thumb of the fretting hand, which not many other guitarists of the time were doing, but is now pretty much standard (the guitarist from RHCP and John Mayer do it a lot, off the top of my head).\n\nIt was really in terms of raw overall musical ability and sensibility where Hendrix outclassed other guitarists. There isn't one thing you can necessarily point to that he did better than absolutely everybody else, it's more that he could do *everything* you would ask of a guitarist at a world-class level. Because he was so versatile and so *damn good at everything*, he was able to play in a way that other guys couldn't. A really good soloist like Clapton, for example, can impress you during the lead passages, but their rhythm sections are less inspired. Hendrix's leads might not have been as perfect as Clapton's, but he could drop into a rhythm section and blow Clapton out of the water.\n\nBasically, with most guitarists, I could give you a two-minute clip of them playing, and you'd pretty much know what they're about. With Hendrix, you have to listen to nearly his entire body of work to really appreciate how complete his mastery over the instrument was.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "IMHO, anyone wanting to learn how to be a \"good\" rock and roll guitarist (more than strumming chords around a campfire) could study Hendrix's techniques and learn far more than you would from any other guitarist. \n\nClapton could show you tasty blues leads, Van Halen could show you two-handed tapping, Iommi could show you heavy riffage, Gilmour could show you melodic phrasing, etc.\n\nHendrix did all of this and better IMO. He also did it first, which means that he was inventing these techniques and playing them better than the folks who copied him. I could go on, but this is already too long.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[This is why.](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "He's considered one of the best because of his attitude. He is actually just a very good and original guitar player, it's his humble down to earth nature that sets him apart and makes people remember him fondly. Here is a link to a video where he's being told that he's the greatest guitar player in the world, he responds that he [\"might be the greatest guitar player sitting in his chair.\"](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Aside from what everyone is saying here (First to utilize distortion as a lead tone, first to hammer, pull off, ect.) I think the real thing that defines him as a player is a bit more musical. His technical ability (what he does with his hands) is off the charts, though there are lots that are better than him even now in that regard.\n\nWhat Jimi did well however, and I mean that as a litote, was phrase his solos and riffs. Like Keith Moon played drums as a melodic instrument rather than just keeping a back-beat, or Les Claypool plays bass like drum kit with a synthesizer attached, Jimi was able to sing with the guitar. His lyrics were insipid and pointless to most of his songs, in my opinion, but how he was able to warp and change his tone and his playstyle constantly was something guitar players even now haven't mastered. He not only *knew* his way around the neck, he spoke through it. His playing was not just giant shredtastic \"MEEDLY MEEDLY MEEDLY MEEEEEEEE\" stuff, it was soulful, quiet, loud explosive, reserved, all over the place. He had an enormous range with his phrasing, and always knew exactly where to take songs, (having one of the worlds tightest rythm sections ever didn't hurt). \n\nI don't like Jimi Hendrix's songs, but as a musician I have an immense respect for someone who can speak so fluidly and effortlessly through their instrument. Every idea, every piece he played was a perfect translation from his brain to his hands, without falling into the common phrases. Think of it as all of us being in a language class, trying to translate complex ideas through a non-written language. We struggle, some of us get better with practice, but we have tricks we fall into in order to be reliable (in our playstyle). Jimi didn't really do that a lot, he was able to communicate without that struggle. It's some hardcore shit you don't see outside of the really really great musicians. This guy not only knew how to use his hands, he could say anything he wanted with a single guitar.\n\nEdit: Formatting", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "According to Bill Hicks, Jimi was an alien who strung up his cock and played it. Enough said. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Same reason the Beatles are considered one of the best bands ever; he did it first. He defined a style that influenced hundreds of thousands of others, and although by todays standards he's not the greatest guitar player around, you can almost guarantee the best modern day rock guitarist was heavily influenced by jimi.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because there was guitar before Jimi, and guitar after Jimi. He single-handedly changed how people (and when I say people, I mean everyone, not just guitar nerds) approach the electric guitar. You can't really claim that about anyone else, except MAYBE Eddie Van Halen (and I would argue that his impact wasn't nearly as big as Jimi's, people were already shredding before him, though he was on a different level than everyone else at that point).\n\nNeil Young said it best: \"That guy wasn't just on another level, he was in a whole other building from the rest of us.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I hereby sentence you to listen to listen to *Electric Ladyland* on repeat until you are ashamed to have asked.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here is a list of video links collected from comments that redditors have made in response to this submission:\n\n|Source Comment|Score|Video Link|\n|:-------|:-------|:-------|\n|[IveGotAHadron](_URL_39_)|104|[When Eric Clapton met Jimi Hendrix](_URL_54_)|\n|[griffsterb](_URL_12_)|45|[Michael Jackson - Beat It Digitally Restored Version](_URL_16_)|\n|[roocketfish](_URL_50_)|43|[Jimi Hendrix - Pali Gap Voodoo Soup version](_URL_65_)|\n|[BatmanSadMobile](_URL_0_)|25|[Yngwie J. Malmsteen - Purple Haze - Tribute to Fender](_URL_25_)|\n|[BatmanSadMobile](_URL_0_)|25|[Rainbow - Ritchie Blackmore's Rainbow - FULL ALBUM HD](_URL_61_)|\n|[cc132](_URL_34_)|24|[ETTA BAKER - Carolina Breakdown Ragtime Guitar Legend](_URL_43_)|\n|[bonyhawk](_URL_2_)|19|[Eddie Van Halen CNN Interview 5/3/13](_URL_59_)|\n|[robbiestafford](_URL_56_)|12|[Dread Zeppelin - Black Dog.mpg](_URL_19_)|\n|[aoiao](_URL_51_)|10|[Return To Forever - Duel Of The Jester And The Tyrant Parts I & II](_URL_49_)|\n|[aoiao](_URL_51_)|10|[Mediterranean Sundance - Al Di Meola](_URL_41_)|\n|[aoiao](_URL_51_)|10|[Mahavishnu Orchestra - Meeting Of The Spirits](_URL_64_)|\n|[aoiao](_URL_51_)|10|[Noonward Race by the Mahavishnu Orchestra](_URL_8_)|\n|[j_po](_URL_40_)|6|[Jimi Hendrix Sgt peppers Lonely Hearts Club](_URL_52_)|\n|[daddytwofoot](_URL_4_)|5|[Steve Vai - For the Love of God](_URL_30_)|\n|[daddytwofoot](_URL_4_)|5|[Guthrie Govan - Fives at _URL_60_](_URL_1_)|\n|[daddytwofoot](_URL_4_)|5|[Selkies Solo - Paul Waggoner](_URL_31_)|\n|[untaken-username](_URL_32_)|5|[Jimi Hendrix - :blues - Born Under A Bad Sign](_URL_37_)|\n|[polarityinverted](_URL_55_)|4|[Josh Homme - Guitar Moves - Episode 3](_URL_18_)|\n|[rychild](_URL_26_)|3|[Hendrix Interview - \"I'm not the greatest guitar player\"](_URL_9_)|\n|[DeathFromWithin](_URL_13_)|2|[Django Reinhardt](_URL_23_)|\n|[jumpstartation](_URL_42_)|2|[The WHO - Water Live at Isle of Wight 1970](_URL_22_)|\n|[untaken-username](_URL_67_)|2|[Albert King - As The Years Go Passing By live in Montreux with Rory Gallagher](_URL_7_)|\n|[Chunga_the_Great](_URL_38_)|2|[Bold As Love - Jimi Hendrix](_URL_48_)|\n|[Chunga_the_Great](_URL_38_)|2|[Jimi Hendrix - Spanish Castle Magic / Long Version Audio Only 1969](_URL_27_)|\n|[OrangeEyedPs](_URL_58_)|2|[Cream - White Room](_URL_44_)|\n|[OrangeEyedPs](_URL_58_)|2|[Jim Dunlop GCB-95 Cry Baby Wah](_URL_17_)|\n|[OrangeEyedPs](_URL_58_)|2|[The Jimi Hendrix Experience - Voodoo Child Slight Return](_URL_68_)|\n|[wantonballbag](_URL_33_)|2|[Jimi Hendrix- Little Wing Studio](_URL_29_)|\n|[Mr-Yuck](_URL_69_)|2|[Prince, Tom Petty, Steve Winwood, Jeff Lynne and others -- \"While My Guitar Gently Weeps\"](_URL_35_)|\n|[jumpstartation](_URL_42_)|2|[The Who - Heaven and Hell - Isle Of Wight](_URL_3_)|\n|[khfreek](_URL_6_)|1|[John Mayer - Out Of My Mind Live in LA High Def!](_URL_24_)|\n|[seanziewonzie](_URL_5_)|1|[Steve Vai Solo - Zomby Woof - Zappa plays Zappa](_URL_11_)|\n|[bumwine](_URL_47_)|1|[Jimi Hendrix - Pali Gap](_URL_53_)|\n|[FCBSean](_URL_62_)|1|[Beatles Anthology 2/7 - Part 4](_URL_45_)|\n|[andrewhy](_URL_28_)|0|[None](_URL_66_)|\n|[Kibekt](_URL_36_)|0|[FOUR TET - My angel rocks back and forth](_URL_57_)|\n|[andrewhy](_URL_28_)|0|[None](_URL_14_)|\n|[andrewhy](_URL_28_)|0|[None](_URL_15_)|\n|[saynotoneckbeards](_URL_63_)|-1|[The oOohh Baby Gimme Mores - Beat Up Kidz](_URL_21_)|\n\n* [VideoLinkBot FAQ](_URL_20_)\n* [Feedback](_URL_10_)\n* [Playlist of videos in this comment](_URL_46_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Listen to Villanova Junction at Woodstock.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "He was innovative. He changed the scene with a whole new sound. Add to that, his personal skill; he was left-handed, and taught himself to play a guitar for right-handed people backwards. He could play it with his feet, or behind his head, and managed an impressive sound playing it with his teeth. His sound holds a great appeal for many millions of people across several generations, entirely distinct from any other source of appeal (take away the girls who want to cuddle with Justin Bieber, because they find him cute and they're too young to really get what sex is all about, and he'd have 27 fans left). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Nobody is mentioning that Jimi also SANG. Obviously legendary musicians can play and sing, but it's another level when you play like he did.\n\nHe obviously wasn't a great singer but it didn't matter.\n\nFurther, he played a right handed guitar left handed, and reversed the strings. (I get that this is kind of meaningless, but I heard he actually learned with the strings in their normal position. If nothing else, it's just strange and adds to his mystique)\n\nOn a side note, his drummer is one of the most underrated of all time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This isn't as in-depth an answer as others, but Josh Homme from Queens of the Stone Age [recently did an interview](_URL_0_) for Guitar Moves and goes over the different styles he's learned and how he's taught himself how other guitarists play, Hendrix included. It pans in super close when he is showing/describing how others play, so you can get a real grasp for what's going on.\n\nIt's 14 minutes long but it's really interesting, inspiring and quite funny. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ever notice the guy on the far right of Zappa's 'We're only in it for the Money'? [Inside Cover](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Basically, when you hear Jimi Hendrix, you know without question that it is Jimi. No one else sounds like him, yet he influenced so many that followed. It's a remarkable dialectic in the realm of popular music, particularly rock, blues and jazz fusion.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Quite simply he had more natural playing ability than anyone.\nThe amount of emotion that he could project through the guitar..a tear comes to my eye.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "ITT: people saying Jimi Hendrix **wasn't technically skilled**\n\nSMH. FSMH.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "He was left handed but played a right handed guitar backwards. As a right handed guitarist who has tried to play a left handed guitar backwards...wow, this guy is amazing. Also, he set fire to his guitar mid-song and that was super artistic. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One thing you have to know about guitarists is after a certain point, it becomes less about skill level and technical prowess, and more about creativity and originality. So, yes, Jimi created all these different ways of playing and was extremely influential for a prolonged amount of time, which has been said by many people in this thread already. \n\n\nHowever, one of the biggest reasons why Jimi is considered the greatest guitarist of all time is the same reason people like Clapton, Page, and Richards are: they're songs are all extremely unique from one another. Take a look at how a song like Hey Joe sounds very unlike Voodoo Chile and how they are both dissimilar from Electric Church Red House. \n\n\nWhile Jimi's style is still his own (wah pedal, excessive extraneous noise, high distortion, lots of vibrato) the notes themselves that he picked for each song were chosen carefully. During his solos he was able to create a sound and feel that would match that of the song he was playing. So what it really comes down to is how well a guitarist can evoke emotion and create a compelling guitar track. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "-He was one of the first to harness the musicality of feedback, which is like trying to contain a forest fire.\n\n-He use of ugly noises contrasted against his melodies to make them even sweeter sounding, and barely anyone was doing that at the time.\n\n-His use of metaphor in music was original, controversial and mind-blowingly psychedelic. How does he make those noises?!?! Think \"Machine Gun\" or his national anthem. His ability in metaphor inspired countless artists across different mediums, for example Bill Hicks' stand-up act.\n\n-His tone was un-fucking-real, and came out of only (usually) his Strat, a wah pedal, and his Marshall stack. People use gobs of pedals to try to get original tones out of what he made with a very simple set-up.\n\nHe was JIMI HENDRIX! That dude WAS music. Sure, he played guitar, but he punctured the sphere of all music.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just listen. It's like jazz: If you have to ask, you'll never know.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Are you deaf? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "37893725", "title": "Death of Jimi Hendrix", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 508, "text": "The American musician Jimi Hendrix (born November 27, 1942) was one of the most influential guitarists of the 1960s. His Rock and Roll Hall of Fame biography says he \"was arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music. Hendrix expanded the range and vocabulary of the electric guitar into areas no musician had ever ventured before. His boundless drive, technical ability and creative application of such effects as wah-wah and distortion forever transformed the sound of rock and roll.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "956338", "title": "Eddie Kramer", "section": "Section::::Career.:Significant collaborations.:Jimi Hendrix.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 407, "text": "\"Rolling Stone\" ranks Hendrix as the greatest guitarist of all time. Kramer specifically cites his strong individuality, powerful message, and expansion of the sonic vocabulary of electric guitar, including its potentials for controlled feedback and distortion. In the words of master musician Les Paul, for whom the Gibson Les Paul is named, \"Man, he was all over that thing! He had that thing wide open.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16095", "title": "Jimi Hendrix", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 846, "text": "The Experience's Rock and Roll Hall of Fame biography states: \"Jimi Hendrix was arguably the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music. Hendrix expanded the range and vocabulary of the electric guitar into areas no musician had ever ventured before. His boundless drive, technical ability and creative application of such effects as wah-wah and distortion forever transformed the sound of rock and roll.\" Musicologist Andy Aledort described Hendrix as \"one of the most creative\" and \"influential musicians that has ever lived\". Music journalist Chuck Philips wrote: \"In a field almost exclusively populated by white musicians, Hendrix has served as a role model for a cadre of young black rockers. His achievement was to reclaim title to a musical form pioneered by black innovators like Little Richard and Chuck Berry in the 1950s.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16095", "title": "Jimi Hendrix", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 450, "text": "James Marshall \"Jimi\" Hendrix (born Johnny Allen Hendrix; November 27, 1942 – September 18, 1970) was an American rock guitarist, singer, and songwriter. His mainstream career lasted only four years, but he is widely regarded as one of the most influential guitarists in history and one of the most celebrated musicians of the 20th century. The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame describes him as \"the greatest instrumentalist in the history of rock music\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "91120", "title": "Phil Keaggy", "section": "Section::::Rumored comments by Jimi Hendrix and others.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 85, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 85, "end_character": 542, "text": "Another version of the story has Hendrix being asked, \"Jimi, how does it feel to be the world's greatest guitar player?\" To which Hendrix supposedly replied, \"I don't know, you'll have to ask Phil Keaggy!\" This account is sometimes attributed to a magazine interview in either \"Rolling Stone\" or \"Guitar Player\". Occasionally the story has the setting for the question being a Hendrix appearance on \"The Dick Cavett Show\", which is also untrue, as the clip from the show in question (in 1969) contains no mention of any other guitar players.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16095", "title": "Jimi Hendrix", "section": "Section::::Equipment.:Guitars and amplifiers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 97, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 97, "end_character": 512, "text": "Hendrix played a variety of guitars throughout his career, but the instrument that became most associated with him was the Fender Stratocaster. He acquired his first Stratocaster in 1966, when a girlfriend loaned him enough money to purchase a used one that had been built around 1964. He thereafter used the model prevalently during performances and recordings. In 1967, he described the instrument as \"the best all-around guitar for the stuff we're doing\"; he praised its \"bright treble and deep bass sounds\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11900812", "title": "Jazz guitarist", "section": "Section::::Fusion, technique, and invention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 298, "text": "When rock guitarist Jimi Hendrix became popular in the 1960s, he created the persona of the guitar hero, the charismatic solo guitarist dazzling the audience. He created possibilities on guitar through the use of electronic effect units. Hendrix inspired many musicians to pick up electric guitar.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In a operating room, slowly so as not to cause bursting of capalaries(sp?). Up to 6 hours from initial application of the tourniquet the limb can be mostly saved (depends on the damage done) this is from memory from military training.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "291726", "title": "Emergency tourniquet", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 739, "text": "Emergency tourniquets are cuff-like devices designed to stop severe traumatic bleeding before or during transport to a care facility. They are wrapped around the limb, proximal to the site of trauma, and tightened until all blood vessels underneath are occluded. The design and construction of emergency tourniquets allows quick application by first aid responders or the injured persons themselves. Correct use of tourniquet devices have been shown to save lives under austere conditions with comparatively low risk of injury. In field trials, prompt application of emergency tourniquets before the patient goes into shock are associated with higher survival rates than any other scenario where tourniquets were used later or not at all.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10428984", "title": "Tourniquet", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 202, "text": "A tourniquet is a device which applies pressure to a limb or extremity so as to limit – but not stop – the flow of blood. It may be used in emergencies, in surgery, or in post-operative rehabilitation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10428984", "title": "Tourniquet", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 330, "text": "A simple tourniquet can be made from a stick and a rope (or leather belt). The rope is made into a loop that fits over the damaged limb and the stick is inserted through the loop. The loop is tightened by twisting the stick. This may stem the flow of blood, but side-effects such as soft tissue damage and nerve damage may occur.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49340272", "title": "Archelis", "section": "Section::::Function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 239, "text": "The device can be locked into unassociated positions for each limb to permit the user to stand in a comfortable way. The designers believe that the device is perfect for medical surgeons who need to stand for long hours during operations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10968353", "title": "Emergency bleeding control", "section": "Section::::External wound management.:Tourniquet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 329, "text": "Improvised tourniquets, in addition to creating potential problems for the ongoing medical management of the patient, usually fail to achieve force enough to adequately compress the arteries of the limb. As a result, they not only fail to stop arterial bleeding, but may actually increase bleeding by impairing venous bloodflow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37494348", "title": "Constriction ring syndrome", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Surgical technique.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 418, "text": "At the beginning of the surgery a tourniquet will be applied to the limb. A tourniquet compresses and control the arterial and venous circulation for about 2 hours. The constriction band must be dissected very carefully to avoid damaging the underlying neurovasculature. When the constriction band is excised, there will be a direct closure. This allows the fatty tissue to naturally reposition itself under the skin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53216446", "title": "Ischemia-reperfusion injury of the appendicular musculoskeletal system", "section": "Section::::Tourniquets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 877, "text": "Emergency field tourniquets have been used for many centuries, and have seen a resurgence in the recent combat operations in Afghanistan and Iraq, as well as expanded use in civilian trauma and mass casualty settings. Expedient and widespread tourniquet use in the modern combat setting is frequently cited as a primary driver for increased survival following major battlefield trauma. These tourniquets are often 1-2\" in width, which concentrates the pressure to a narrow band of tissue. They can result in tissue necrosis if kept in place for long periods, and should only be applied after other methods to control bleeding (e.g., elevation or direct pressure to the wound) have failed, except in settings where time does not allow waiting. Generally, tissue distal to a field tourniquet that has been in place for greater than 6 hours is considered likely to be non-viable.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Cameron told the EU he would stop promoting a \"Brexit\" if they made reforms in 4 certain areas. Yesterday Donald Tusk (president of the European Council) released a draft trying to find a compromise between Cameron and the EU. Here's what these 4 demands are, and the EU's response to them:\n\n**1. Demand**: Citizens of the EU coming to work in the UK shouldn't be able to apply for important social advantages to accompany their wage for their first 4 years. Also, those workers should no longer be able to send child support to their overseas families.\n\n**EU response**: London will be allowed to pull an \"emergency brake\" if it experiences an extraordinarily large influx of workers from other EU-countries. To do so, they'll have to alert the European Commission to their social security, labour market or social services being under pressure. With a majority vote, the other EU-members can then allow the UK to limit these services for up to 4 years. However, during those 4 years the emergency brake has to be gradually loosened, and the new system only applies to newcomers. Also, an EU-citizen working in London will still receive child support if their child is staying in their home country. In calculating the exact amount of child support, the standard of living in the country in question must be considered.\n\n**2. Demand**: Cameron wanted black-on-white that the principle of an *ever-closer union* would not apply to the UK. He also demanded that national parliaments could draw a 'red card' for European legislation they feel is best decided nationally. \n\n**Eu response**: According to Tusk, the 'ever-closer union' is about improving trust and understanding between the European peoples, not about political integration. Because of this, it can't be the basis for expanding EU legislation. The draft also states the UK doesn't need to strive for further political integration, which is legally binding. Also, if 55% of national parliaments protest against an EU law within 12 weeks, it will be put up for discussion by the national leaders. \n\n**3. Demand**: Cameron wants the EU to recognize itself as multi-currency, and that centralisation for the Euro should never apply to non-euro countries. Also, taxpayers from non-euro countries should never financially support operations within the eurozone.\n\n**EU response**: Laws concerning the monetary union will not be binding for non-euro countries, and they won't have to support operations within the eurozone. However, the EU will not be explicitly multi-currency. Also, non-euro countries can't form an obstacle for integration within the eurozone.\n\n**4. Demand**: Cameron wants the EU to be more competitive, which would lead to more jobs and growth.\n\n**Eu response**: Tusk says he'll be committed increasing competitiveness, and the burden on companies (especially gmo's) will be lessened, but no detailed policies have been mentioned.\n\nAnd that's about the gist of it. Cameron mostly loses out on the first demand, which it what the papers comment on the most. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "37729052", "title": "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum", "section": "Section::::Background.:Renegotiation before the referendum.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 777, "text": "In early 2014, David Cameron outlined the changes he aimed to bring about in the EU and in the UK's relationship with it. These were: additional immigration controls, especially for citizens of new EU member states; tougher immigration rules for present EU citizens; new powers for national parliaments collectively to veto proposed EU laws; new free-trade agreements and a reduction in bureaucracy for businesses; a lessening of the influence of the European Court of Human Rights on British police and courts; more power for individual member states, and less for the central EU; and abandonment of the EU notion of \"ever closer union\". He intended to bring these about during a series of negotiations with other EU leaders and then, if re-elected, to announce a referendum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42509131", "title": "Mats Persson", "section": "Section::::Biography.:UK Government.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 509, "text": "In this role he advocated David Cameron's EU reform program and the UK's EU membership prior to the referendum on the UK's continuing membership of the EU. In May 2015 he advised Cameron not to rush into a referendum vote in order to ensure a better renegotiation of the UK's place in the Union. He later claimed that Cameron could have got a better deal from the other EU member states if he had dragged the negotiations for longer - as opposed to the advice of the UK ambassador to the EU, Sir Ivan Rogers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12260748", "title": "Political positions of David Cameron", "section": "Section::::Foreign policy.:European Union.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 165, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 165, "end_character": 231, "text": "David Cameron has proposed a referendum on the UK's EU continuing membership on 23 June 2016, following negotiations and a package of changes agreed by the EU. On 24 June 2016, the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37729052", "title": "2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum", "section": "Section::::Background.:Renegotiation before the referendum.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 830, "text": "In November that year, Cameron gave an update on the negotiations and further details of his aims. The key demands made of the EU were: on economic governance, to recognise officially that Eurozone laws would not necessarily apply to non-Eurozone EU members and the latter would not have to bail out troubled Eurozone economies; on competitiveness, to expand the single market and to set a target for the reduction of bureaucracy for businesses; on sovereignty, for the UK to be legally exempted from \"ever closer union\" and for national parliaments to be able collectively to veto proposed EU laws; and, on immigration, for EU citizens going to the UK for work to be unable to claim social housing or in-work benefits until they had worked there for four years, and for them to be unable to send child benefit payments overseas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "419342", "title": "David Cameron", "section": "Section::::Prime Minister (2010–2016).:2016 referendum and resignation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 124, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 124, "end_character": 332, "text": "As promised in the election manifesto, Cameron set a date for a referendum on whether the UK should remain a member of the European Union, and announced that he would be campaigning for Britain to remain within a \"reformed EU\". The terms of the UK's membership of the EU were re-negotiated, with agreement reached in February 2016.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12260748", "title": "Political positions of David Cameron", "section": "Section::::Foreign policy.:European Union.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 162, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 162, "end_character": 732, "text": "On 1 July 2013, Cameron outlined his \"vision of the EU is that it should be a large trading and co-operating organisation that effectively stretches, as it were, from the Atlantic to the Urals. We have a wide vision of Europe and have always encouraged countries that want to join,\" as he welcomed the 28th member of the union (Croatia) to the fold while he spoke to Kazakh university students. The speech was characterised as a \"hugely provocative pro-EU\" one by some observers. Cameron \"hailed the power of the EU to transform divided societies,\" whereas President of Russia Vladimir Putin \"may regard Cameron's remarks as hostile. Putin believes that the EU should extend no further into the former USSR than the Baltic states.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50539063", "title": "2015–16 United Kingdom renegotiation of European Union membership", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 525, "text": "After the deal had been approved, Cameron described it as giving the United Kingdom \"special status within the European Union\" and immediately declared that both he and the UK Government would campaign for a \"Remain\" vote in the referendum within a \"reformed European Union\". The following day, after a special meeting of the cabinet, Cameron announced that the in-out referendum would be held on 23 June 2016 under the provisions of the European Union Referendum Act 2015 which had already been agreed by the UK Parliament.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I recommend the following five works as the rock on which to build your understanding of medieval warfare. They are not all easy to read, *Warfare in Medieval Europe 400-1453* is particularly dense, but they will all add to your understanding of the subject. In general, the newer works supersede the older works when it comes to facts, so when there is a contradiction, then the newer work is usually the correct one. I don't believe that this is always the case, but this usually comes down to differences of opinion, not fact. If you only read one of the books, then *Medieval Warfare* will provide the best overview, though I disagree entirely with Timothy Reuter's section of the book.\n\n* *History of the Art of War, Volumes 1-3*, by Hans Delbrück, for insight into infantry and cavalry dynamics, how to use topography and logistics to examine the veracity of battle accounts and various useful miscellaneous pieces of information and primary source quotations.\n\n* *The Art of Warfare in Western Europe During the Middle Ages*, by J.F. Verbruggen for detail on the psychology of medieval warriors.\n\n* *War in the Middle Ages*, by Philippe Contamine for some of the societal aspects of warfare.\n\n* *Medieval Warfare*, edited by Maurice Keen for early medieval Scandinavian warfare, warfare in the High and Late Middle Ages, equipment, sieges, naval warfare, use of mercenaries and the effects of warfare on civilians.\n\n* *Warfare in Medieval Europe 400-1453*, by Bernard and David Bachrach for how to use primary sources, logistics, finance and Carolingian and Ottonian warfare.\n\nIf you want a look at the mind of the medieval warrior, the primary sources are excellent for this. Jean de Joinville's *The Life of Saint Louis* and Geoffrey of Villehardouin's​ *On the Conquest of Constantinople* are two valuable looks into the mind of a medieval knight.\n\nFor a look at the kinds of questions and moral dilemmas medieval warriors had, then Christine de Pizan's *The Book of Deeds of Arms and Chivalry* has a large section devoted to both the questions and answers of this nature, as well as being an important source on early 15th century warfare.\n\n**Edit:** I've just now been reading *Bloodied Banners: Martial Display on the Medieval Battlefield*, by Robert W Jones, and I think this would also suit your needs, as it delves quite deeply into the psychology surrounding arms and armour and their effect on opponents.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15956722", "title": "Clifford J. Rogers", "section": "Section::::Publications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 298, "text": "“The Offensive/Defensive in Medieval Strategy,” \"From Crecy to Mohacs: Warfare in the Late Middle Ages (1346-1526). Acta of the XXIInd Colloquium of the International Commission of Military History\" (Vienna, 1996) (Vienna: Heeresgeschichtliches Museum/Militärhistorisches Institut, 1997): 158-171.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15956722", "title": "Clifford J. Rogers", "section": "Section::::Publications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 227, "text": "“Early and High Medieval Warfare,” \"The West Point History of Warfare\", senior eds. Clifford J. Rogers and James T. Seidule, chapter eds. Clifford J. Rogers and John Stapleton, Jr. (New York: Rowan Technology Solutions, 2015).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "653520", "title": "Medieval: Total War", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Campaign.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1269, "text": "The main campaign of \"Medieval: Total War\" involves the player choosing one of the fourteen playable factions and eventually leading them in conquest on the strategy map. Each of the factions controls a number of historical provinces, which on the map contain a castle and, if located by the sea, a port as well. In the campaign, the player controls construction, unit recruitment and the movement of armies, fleets and agents in each of these provinces, using these means to acquire and defend the provinces. Diplomacy and economics are two other aspects the player can use to advance their aims, as well as having access to more clandestine means such as espionage and assassination. Religion is very important in the game, with the player able to convert provinces to their own religions to cement the people's loyalty. Another campaign mode is available, called \"Glorious Achievements\", in which each faction has several historically-based goals to achieve, which score points; the faction with the most achievement points wins the game. The campaign mode is turn-based, with each turn representing one year, allowing the player to attend to all needs of the faction before allowing the artificial intelligence to carry out the other factions' moves and decisions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "653520", "title": "Medieval: Total War", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Warfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1762, "text": "During battles, players take control of a medieval army containing various units, such as knights and longbowmen, each of which has various advantages, disadvantages and overall effectiveness. Players must use medieval tactics in order to defeat their enemy, using historical formations to give units advantages in different situations. All units in the game gain experience points, known as \"valour\", which improves unit effectiveness in combat as it increases. Every battle map contains various terrain based upon that of the province on the campaign map, with separate maps for each of the borders between provinces – four hundred unique maps are available for the game. The climate, surroundings and building style for every map varies depending on the part of the world it is located in; for example, a map based in the Middle East will have a hot, sunny climate, sandy terrain and Islamic architecture. Sieges are an important aspect of the game introduced to the \"Total War\" series, occurring when the invading army elects to attack the defending army which has retreated inside the province's castle. Upon starting the engagement, the attacker has to fight their way through the castle's defences, winning the battle once the enemy units have been defeated. Each unit in the game has morale, which can increase if a battle is going well for their faction, or decrease in situations such as sustained heavy casualties. Morale can drop low enough to eventually force a unit to rout off the battlefield, with the player having the option to attempt to rally the men back into the battle through their general. Each side's army can capture routing enemy units and ransom them back to the owning faction, with important generals having greater ransom values.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "653520", "title": "Medieval: Total War", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 572, "text": "In addition to the main campaign, \"Medieval: Total War\" also features a game mode where the player can undertake various historical campaigns and battles. Historical campaigns allow the player to control a series of famous battles from a war of the medieval period, such as the Hundred Years War and the Crusades, playing as historic commanders like Richard the Lionheart. Individual historic battles have the player controlling a historical figure in an isolated battle that occurred in the era, such as controlling William Wallace through the Battle of Stirling Bridge.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "653520", "title": "Medieval: Total War", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 610, "text": "\"Medieval: Total War\" is based upon the building of an empire across medieval Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. It focuses on the warfare, religion and politics of the time to ultimately lead the player in conquest of the known world. As with the preceding \"Total War\" game, \"Shogun: Total War\", the game consists of two broad areas of gameplay: a turn-based campaign map that allows the user to move armies across provinces, control agents, diplomacy, religion, and other tasks needed to run their faction, and a real-time battlefield, where the player directs the land battles and sieges that occur.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "619485", "title": "Bascinet", "section": "Section::::Bibliography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 207, "text": "BULLET::::- Nicolle, David (1999-journal) \"Medieval Warfare: The Unfriendly Interface.\" The Journal of Military History, Vol. 63, No. 3 (Jul., 1999), pp. 579–599. Published by: Society for Military History.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "On X-ray, things that are not dense (like air) are dark. The radiation passes right through air and none of it is \"blocked\" on the way to the film. When no X-rays get blocked, the film is black. Things that are white on X-ray are white because they \"intercepted\" all of the radiation. As an example, check out the first film in catdoctor's post. Metal (the pacemaker) is extremely dense, and as such it \"blocks\" the radiation from reaching the film. This leads to a negative space on the film in the shape of the dense object. An object's relative white/black-ness on X-ray tells you relatively how dense it is. \n \nPneumonia is a manifestation of infection in the lungs. Your body deals with infections by \"cordoning off\" the area via positive pressure (fluid) and antimicrobial cells (like white blood cells). This dense area of cells and fluid creates what is known as a consolidation. Because consolidations are dense and confined to one part of the lung, they show up \"whiter\" than normal lung tissue on X-ray. \n \nIncidentally, consolidations are one of the things a doctor is checking for when they are doing that tapping thing (percussion) on your back and chest. Normal lungs are full of air (black on X-ray) so they have a reverberation to them like a drum. A consolidation caused by pneumonia would cause a dullness on percussion that you can hear and feel (and subsequently see on X-ray).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I work as a scribe here (I do charting for doctors on a daily basis)\n\nPneumonia is NOT diagnosed with an X-Ray. It is acutally correlated with an x-ray. \nThe summery by a radiolist would often appear a lot like this: \"consolidations are noted in the X-Ray please correlate with clinical findings.\"\n\nThose findings would then be taken into account during a physical exam i.e wheezing or crackles. That being said you should also look at labs for an elevated white blood count. \n\nOn a seperate note for the actualy X-ray refer to the explination by Shmalpin. I would also note that atelectasis and pneumonia are difficult to seperate from a chest x-ray. So if they dont have any clinical evidence for pneumonia (fever, leukocytosis [elevated white blood count], wheezing, or crackles) then they likely have atelectasis. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "31488973", "title": "Classification of pneumonia", "section": "Section::::By area of lung affected.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 589, "text": "The discovery of x-rays made it possible to determine the anatomic type of pneumonia without direct examination of the lungs at autopsy and led to the development of a radiological classification. Early investigators distinguished between typical lobar pneumonia and atypical (e.g. Chlamydophila) or viral pneumonia using the location, distribution, and appearance of the opacities they saw on chest x-rays. Certain x-ray findings can be used to help predict the course of illness, although it is not possible to clearly determine the microbiologic cause of a pneumonia with x-rays alone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34197", "title": "X-ray", "section": "Section::::Adverse effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 94, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 94, "end_character": 498, "text": "Diagnostic X-rays (primarily from CT scans due to the large dose used) increase the risk of developmental problems and cancer in those exposed. X-rays are classified as a carcinogen by both the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer and the U.S. government. It is estimated that 0.4% of current cancers in the United States are due to computed tomography (CT scans) performed in the past and that this may increase to as high as 1.5-2% with 2007 rates of CT usage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52135", "title": "Pneumonia", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 338, "text": "Pneumonia is typically diagnosed based on a combination of physical signs and a chest X-ray. In adults with normal vital signs and a normal lung examination the diagnosis is unlikely. However, the underlying cause can be difficult to confirm, as there is no definitive test able to distinguish between bacterial and non-bacterial origin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2913317", "title": "Community-acquired pneumonia", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 415, "text": "Chest X-rays and X-ray computed tomography (CT) can reveal areas of opacity (seen as white), indicating consolidation. CAP does not always appear on x-rays, because the disease is in its initial stages or involves a part of the lung an x-ray does not see well. In some cases, chest CT can reveal pneumonia not seen on x-rays. However, congestive heart failure or other types of lung damage can mimic CAP on x-rays.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "211547", "title": "Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus", "section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 390, "text": "At that time, a chest x-ray is ordered to confirm pneumonia. If the chest appears clear and SARS is still suspected, a HRCT scan will be ordered, because it is visible earlier on this scan. In severe cases, it develops into respiratory failure and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and in 70-90% of the cases, they develop lymphopenia (low count of lymphocyte white blood cells).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13629466", "title": "Bronchitis", "section": "Section::::Acute bronchitis.:Diagnosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 356, "text": "Diagnosis is typically based on a person's signs and symptoms. The color of the sputum does not indicate if the infection is viral or bacterial. Determining the underlying organism is usually not required. Other causes of similar symptoms include asthma, pneumonia, bronchiolitis, bronchiectasis, and COPD. A chest X-ray may be useful to detect pneumonia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52135", "title": "Pneumonia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 650, "text": "Pneumonia is usually caused by infection with viruses or bacteria and less commonly by other microorganisms, certain medications and conditions such as autoimmune diseases. Risk factors include other lung diseases such as cystic fibrosis, COPD, and asthma, diabetes, heart failure, a history of smoking, a poor ability to cough such as following a stroke, or a weak immune system. Diagnosis is often based on the symptoms and physical examination. Chest X-ray, blood tests, and culture of the sputum may help confirm the diagnosis. The disease may be classified by where it was acquired with community, hospital, or health care associated pneumonia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You lose a lot of nutrients when you have 'the runs' mainly because bacterial infections which cause the symptom of 'the runs' alter cellular pathways such as the cAMP pathway in gut epithelia, which in the short form, leads to efflux of water out of your cells and into the lumen (hole) of your gut. \nThis 'washing out' effect aids in the movement of bacteria out of the host and also moves nutrients along with it. Mainly though your body loses electrolytes and water. So drink plenty of isotonic drinks and water.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "54537018", "title": "Healthy digestion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 285, "text": "A person with healthy digestion will have lower risk of experiencing diarrhea, constipation, heartburn, bloating, flatulence, and indigestion. Additionally, a person with healthy digestion will have less need of digestive medications than a person who does not have healthy digestion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "404226", "title": "Glycemic index", "section": "Section::::Measurement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 272, "text": "Foods with carbohydrates that break down quickly during digestion and release glucose rapidly into the bloodstream tend to have a high GI; foods with carbohydrates that break down more slowly, releasing glucose more gradually into the bloodstream, tend to have a low GI. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49132", "title": "Marathon", "section": "Section::::Running.:Glycogen and \"the wall\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 105, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 105, "end_character": 880, "text": "Carbohydrates that a person eats are converted by the liver and muscles into glycogen for storage. Glycogen burns rapidly to provide quick energy. Runners can store about 8 MJ or 2,000 kcal worth of glycogen in their bodies, enough for about 30 km/18–20 miles of running. Many runners report that running becomes noticeably more difficult at that point. When glycogen runs low, the body must then obtain energy by burning stored fat, which does not burn as readily. When this happens, the runner will experience dramatic fatigue and is said to \"hit the wall\". The aim of training for the marathon, according to many coaches, is to maximize the limited glycogen available so that the fatigue of the \"wall\" is not as dramatic. This is accomplished in part by utilizing a higher percentage of energy from burned fat even during the early phase of the race, thus conserving glycogen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31589792", "title": "Criticism of fast food", "section": "Section::::Health based criticisms.:Fast food and diet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 1179, "text": "Additionally, in the study children who ate fast food, compared to those who did not, tended to consume more total fat, carbohydrates, and sugar-sweetened beverages. Children who ate fast food also tended to eat less fiber, milk, fruits, and non-starchy vegetables. After reviewing these test results, the researchers concluded that consumption of fast food by children seems to have a negative effect on an individual's diet, in ways that could significantly increase the risk for obesity. Due to having reduced cognitive defenses against marketing, children may be more susceptible to fast food advertisements, and consequently have a higher risk of becoming obese. Fast food is only a minuscule factor that contributes to childhood obesity. A study conducted by researchers at The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill's Gillings School of Global Public Health showed that poor diet and obesity as an overall factor are the leading causes of rising obesity rates in children. \"While reducing fast-food intake is important, the rest of a child's diet should not be overlooked,\" Jennifer Poti, co author and doctoral candidate in the university's Department of Nutrition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31589792", "title": "Criticism of fast food", "section": "Section::::Health based criticisms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1077, "text": "According to the Massachusetts Medical Society Committee Jeff Nutrition, fast foods are commonly high in fat content, and studies have found associations between fast food intake and increased body mass index (BMI) and weight gain. In particular many fast foods are high in saturated fats which are widely held to be a risk factor in heart disease. In 2010, heart disease was the number 1 ranking cause of death. A 2006 study fed monkeys a diet consisting of a similar level of trans fats as what a person who ate fast food regularly would consume. Both diets contained the same overall number of calories. It was found that the monkeys who consumed higher levels of trans fat developed more abdominal fat than those fed a diet rich in unsaturated fats. They also developed signs of insulin resistance, an early indicator of diabetes. After six years on the diet, the trans fat fed monkeys had gained 7.2% of their body weight, compared to just 1.8% in the unsaturated fat group. The American Heart Association recommends consumption of about 16 grams of saturated fats a day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10560587", "title": "Evolutionary mismatch", "section": "Section::::Mismatch in human evolution.:Human disease.:Obesity and diabetes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 879, "text": "However, modern humans have evolved to a world of more sedentary lifestyles and convenience foods. People are sitting more throughout their days, whether it be in their cars during rush hour or in their cubicles during their full-time jobs. Less physical activity in general means fewer calories burned throughout the day. Human diets have changed considerably over the 10,000 years since the advent of agriculture, with more processed foods in their diets that lack nutritional value and lead them to consume more sodium, sugar, and fat. These high calorie, nutrient-deficient foods cause people to consume more calories than they burn. Fast food combined with decreased physical activity means that the \"thrifty gene\" that once benefit human predecessors now works against them, causing their bodies to store more fat and leading to higher levels of obesity in the population.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31006155", "title": "Runner's diarrhea", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 322, "text": "The causes of runner's diarrhea remain under debate, although several theories include ischemia and mechanical trauma. The reduced incidence of diarrhea in cyclists would indicate the latter. Diet is often cited as a common cause of diarrhea in distance runners, particularly with meals including berries and dried fruit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It depends on the frame of reference. A charge at rest on the Earth does not appear to radiate as seen by other at-rest observers on the Earth, but a freefalling observer would see a charge-at-rest radiate.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can't sufficiently explain it myself, but [PDF WARNING] [this paper](_URL_0_) (the first sentence of which is \"unfortunately, laboratory experiments are not usually performed in falling elevators\") goes in depth to resolve this apparent paradox, which dates back to the early days of relativity, particularly in section VII.\n\nThe complications come from the fact that these are non-inertial reference frames and that Maxwell's equations are defined in flat spacetime.\n\nEdit: as a side note, the standard model does not describe gravity at all. \"Gravitons\" are not actually a part of the standard model, but a kind of placeholder name for where gravity would go in the standard model if we knew how to fit it in.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "_URL_0_\n\nNB this article used to be wrong a few months ago, but now its right.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44044088", "title": "Paradox of radiation of charged particles in a gravitational field", "section": "Section::::Statement of the paradox.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 720, "text": "Equivalently, we can think about a charged particle at rest in a laboratory on the surface of the Earth. In order to be at rest, it must be supported by something which exerts an upward force on it to balance the Earth's downward gravitational field of 1 \"g\". This system is equivalent to being in outer space accelerated constantly upward at 1 \"g\", and we know that a charged particle accelerated upward at 1 \"g\" would radiate, why don't we see radiation from charged particles at rest in the laboratory? It would seem that we could distinguish between a gravitational field and acceleration, because an electric charge apparently only radiates when it is being accelerated through motion, but not through gravitation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2817855", "title": "Larmor formula", "section": "Section::::Issues and implications.:Radiation reaction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 405, "text": "The radiation from a charged particle carries energy and momentum. In order to satisfy energy and momentum conservation, the charged particle must experience a recoil at the time of emission. The radiation must exert an additional force on the charged particle. This force is known as the Abraham–Lorentz force in the nonrelativistic limit and the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac force in the relativistic setting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18631", "title": "Lorentz force", "section": "Section::::Lorentz force law as the definition of E and B.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 797, "text": "As a definition of E and B, the Lorentz force is only a definition in principle because a real particle (as opposed to the hypothetical \"test charge\" of infinitesimally-small mass and charge) would generate its own finite E and B fields, which would alter the electromagnetic force that it experiences. In addition, if the charge experiences acceleration, as if forced into a curved trajectory by some external agency, it emits radiation that causes braking of its motion. See for example Bremsstrahlung and synchrotron light. These effects occur through both a direct effect (called the radiation reaction force) and indirectly (by affecting the motion of nearby charges and currents). Moreover, net force must include gravity, electroweak, and any other forces aside from electromagnetic force.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4831", "title": "Bohr model", "section": "Section::::Shortcomings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 258, "text": "BULLET::::- A rotating charge, such as the electron classically orbiting around the nucleus, would constantly lose energy in form of electromagnetic radiation (via various mechanisms: dipole radiation, Bremsstrahlung...). But such radiation is not observed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9999827", "title": "Liénard–Wiechert potential", "section": "Section::::Equations.:Corresponding values of electric and magnetic fields.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 616, "text": "The second term, which is connected with electromagnetic radiation by the moving charge, requires charge acceleration formula_20 and if this is zero, the value of this term is zero, and the charge does not radiate (emit electromagnetic radiation). This term requires additionally that a component of the charge acceleration be in a direction transverse to the line which connects the charge formula_3 and the observer of the field formula_22. The direction of the field associated with this radiative term is toward the fully time-retarded position of the charge (i.e. where the charge was when it was accelerated).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44044088", "title": "Paradox of radiation of charged particles in a gravitational field", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 571, "text": "The paradox of a charge in a gravitational field is an apparent physical paradox in the context of general relativity. A charged particle at rest in a gravitational field, such as on the surface of the Earth, must be supported by a force to prevent it from falling. According to the equivalence principle, it should be indistinguishable from a particle in flat space being accelerated by a force. Maxwell's equations say that an accelerated charge should radiate electromagnetic waves, yet such radiation is not observed for stationary particles in gravitational fields.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44044088", "title": "Paradox of radiation of charged particles in a gravitational field", "section": "Section::::Resolution by Rohrlich.:Additional concerns.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 512, "text": "The radiation from the supported charge viewed in the freefalling frame (or vice versa) is something of a curiosity: where does it go? Boulware (1980) finds that the radiation goes into a region of spacetime inaccessible to the co-accelerating, supported observer. In effect, a uniformly accelerated observer has an event horizon, and there are regions of spacetime inaccessible to this observer. C. De Almeida and A. Saa (2006) have a more accessible treatment of the event horizon of the accelerated observer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Steam, unburnt gases, particles of ash.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27001", "title": "Smoke", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 735, "text": "Smoke is a collection of airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases emitted when a material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis, together with the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass. It is commonly an unwanted by-product of fires (including stoves, candles, internal combustion engines, oil lamps, and fireplaces), but may also be used for pest control (fumigation), communication (smoke signals), defensive and offensive capabilities in the military (smoke screen), cooking, or smoking (tobacco, cannabis, etc.). It is used in rituals where incense, sage, or resin is burned to produce a smell for spiritual or magical purposes. It can be a flavoring agent and preservative for various foodstuffs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "637198", "title": "Great Smoky Mountains", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 303, "text": "The name \"Smoky\" comes from the natural fog that often hangs over the range and presents as large smoke plumes from a distance. This fog is caused by the vegetation exhaling volatile organic compounds, chemicals that have a high vapor pressure and easily form vapors at normal temperature and pressure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "707347", "title": "Magic smoke", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 527, "text": "Magic smoke (also factory smoke, blue smoke, angry pixies, or the genie) is a humorous name for the caustic smoke produced by severe electrical over-stress of electronic circuits or components, causing overheating and accompanying release of smoke. The smoke typically smells of burning plastic and other chemicals. The color of the smoke depends on which component is overheating, but it is commonly white or grey. Minor overstress eventually results in component failure, but without pyrotechnic display or release of smoke.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "860000", "title": "Smokeless powder", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 423, "text": "Smokeless powder is the name given to a number of propellants used in firearms and artillery that produce negligible smoke when fired, unlike the gunpowder or black powder they replaced. The term is unique to the United States and is generally not used in other English-speaking countries, which initially used proprietary names such as \"Ballistite\" and \"Cordite\" but gradually shifted to \"propellant\" as the generic term.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52995", "title": "Smoking (cooking)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 210, "text": "Smoking is the process of flavoring, browning, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Meat, fish, and \"lapsang souchong\" tea are often smoked.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12693013", "title": "Smoke composition", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 230, "text": "A smoke composition is a pyrotechnic composition designed primarily to generate smoke. Smoke compositions are used as obscurants or for generation of signaling smokes. Some are used as a payload of smoke bombs and smoke grenades.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12254052", "title": "Smoking", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1152, "text": "Smoking is a practice in which a substance is burned and the resulting smoke breathed in to be tasted and absorbed into the bloodstream. Most commonly, the substance used is the dried leaves of the tobacco plant, which have been rolled into a small square of rice paper to create a small, round cylinder called a \"cigarette\". Smoking is primarily practiced as a route of administration for recreational drug use because the combustion of the dried plant leaves vaporizes and delivers active substances into the lungs where they are rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and reach bodily tissue. In the case of cigarette smoking these substances are contained in a mixture of aerosol particles and gasses and include the pharmacologically active alkaloid nicotine; the vaporization creates heated aerosol and gas into a form that allows inhalation and deep penetration into the lungs where absorption into the bloodstream of the active substances occurs. In some cultures, smoking is also carried out as a part of various rituals, where participants use it to help induce trance-like states that, they believe, can lead them to spiritual enlightenment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "No, photons are massless.\n\nHowever, massless particles can still have momentum and exert a force. In the case of the sun and the earth, this pressure is between 4.5 and 9 micro-Newtons per square meter (4.5 if photons are absorbed entirely, 9 if all photons are reflected, in reality the value will be somewhere in between). That is approximately equivalent to the gravitational force of 0.5 to 1 microgram of mass spread out over a square meter.\n\nFor the entire earth, this adds up to anywhere between about 5.5 * 10^8 (550 milion) and 1.1 * 10^9 Newton, which, according to Wolfram Alpha, is about one tenth to one fifth of the total force exerted by the water on the walls of the Hoover dam.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "422481", "title": "Mass–energy equivalence", "section": "Section::::Conservation of mass and energy.:Fast-moving objects and systems of objects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 717, "text": "In a similar manner, even photons (light quanta), if trapped in a container space (as a photon gas or thermal radiation), would contribute a mass associated with their energy to the container. Such an extra mass, in theory, could be weighed in the same way as any other type of rest mass. This is true in special relativity theory, even though individually photons have no rest mass. The property that trapped energy \"in any form\" adds weighable mass to systems that have no net momentum is one of the characteristic and notable consequences of relativity. It has no counterpart in classical Newtonian physics, in which radiation, light, heat, and kinetic energy never exhibit weighable mass under any circumstances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "491022", "title": "Mass in special relativity", "section": "Section::::Terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 665, "text": "A so-called \"massless\" particle (such as a photon, or a theoretical graviton) moves at the speed of light in every frame of reference. In this case there is no transformation that will bring the particle to rest. The total energy of such particles becomes smaller and smaller in frames which move faster and faster in the same direction. As such, they have no rest mass, because they can never be measured in a frame where they are at rest. This property of having no rest mass is what causes these particles to be termed \"massless.\" However, even massless particles have a relativistic mass, which varies with their observed energy in various frames of reference,\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1267762", "title": "Variable speed of light", "section": "Section::::Various other VSL occurrences.:Varying photon speed.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 964, "text": "The photon, the particle of light which mediates the electromagnetic force is believed to be massless. The so-called Proca action describes a theory of a massive photon. Classically, it is possible to have a photon which is extremely light but nonetheless has a tiny mass, like the neutrino. These photons would propagate at less than the speed of light defined by special relativity and have three directions of polarization. However, in quantum field theory, the photon mass is not consistent with gauge invariance or renormalizability and so is usually ignored. However, a quantum theory of the massive photon can be considered in the Wilsonian effective field theory approach to quantum field theory, where, depending on whether the photon mass is generated by a Higgs mechanism or is inserted in an ad hoc way in the Proca Lagrangian, the limits implied by various observations/experiments may be different. So, therefore, the speed of light is not constant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "658955", "title": "Quantum optics", "section": "Section::::Concepts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 363, "text": "According to quantum theory, light may be considered not only to be as an electro-magnetic wave but also as a \"stream\" of particles called photons which travel with \"c\", the vacuum speed of light. These particles should not be considered to be classical billiard balls, but as quantum mechanical particles described by a wavefunction spread over a finite region.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "604168", "title": "Franz Aepinus", "section": "Section::::Electrical theories.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 405, "text": "BULLET::::- \"another sort of matter. ... Its weight in any body probably bears a very small proportion to the weight of the matter in the body, but yet the force with which the electric fluid in any body attracts any particle of matter in that body, must be equal to the force with which the matter of the body repels that particle, otherwise the body would appear electrical, as will afterwards appear.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "212490", "title": "Subatomic particle", "section": "Section::::Classification.:By mass.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 315, "text": "In special relativity, the energy of a particle at rest equals its mass times the speed of light squared, \"E\" = \"mc\". That is, mass can be expressed in terms of energy and vice versa. If a particle has a frame of reference in which it lies at rest, then it has a positive rest mass and is referred to as \"massive\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10821", "title": "Francium", "section": "Section::::Production.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 231, "text": "In 1996, the Stony Brook group trapped 3000 atoms in their MOT, which was enough for a video camera to capture the light given off by the atoms as they fluoresce. Francium has not been synthesized in amounts large enough to weigh.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "AM stands for ante meridiem and PM stands for post meridiem - before noon and after noon. Noon is the point at which the sun is highest in the sky. In the AM, the sun is rising. In the PM, it is setting.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "72907", "title": "Sundial", "section": "Section::::Adjustments to calculate clock time from a sundial reading.:Time-zone (longitude) correction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 303, "text": "At its most extreme, time zones can cause official noon, including daylight savings, to occur up to three hours early (the Sun is actually on the meridian at official clock time of 3 pm). This occurs in the far west of Alaska, China, and Spain. For more details and examples, see Skewing of time zones.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22290735", "title": "Legacy of the Roman Empire", "section": "Section::::Calendar and measurement.:Hours of the day.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 365, "text": "The 12-hour clock is a time convention popularized by the Romans in which the 24 hours of the day are divided into two periods. The Romans divided the day into 12 equal hours, A.M. (\"ante-meridiem\", meaning before midday) and P.M. (\"post-meridiem\", meaning past midday). The Romans also started the practice used worldwide today of a new day beginning at midnight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1822111", "title": "Time discipline", "section": "Section::::Towards time-keeping.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 302, "text": "A possible explanation for the shift from having the first hour being the one after dawn, to having the hour after noon being designated as 1 pm (post meridiem), is that these clocks would likely regularly be reset at local high noon each day. This, of course, results in midnight becoming 12 o'clock.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18937058", "title": "Midday (disambiguation)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 292, "text": "Midday refers the time of the middle of the day-light period when the sun is at its highest point. It is synonymous with the word noon, which by itself is etymologically derived from the number nine. It does not coincide with 12:00 p.m. Nor does it mean the middle of a 24-hour calendar day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "209005", "title": "Noon", "section": "Section::::Etymology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 568, "text": "The word \"noon\" is derived from Latin \"nona hora\", the ninth hour of the day, and is related to the liturgical term none. The Roman and Western European medieval monastic day began at 6:00 a.m. (06:00) at the equinox by modern timekeeping, so the ninth hour started at what is now 3:00 p.m. (15:00) at the equinox. In English, the meaning of the word shifted to \"midday\" and the time gradually moved back to 12:00 local time (that is, not taking into account the modern invention of time zones). The change began in the 12th century and was fixed by the 14th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54119209", "title": "Relative hour", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 521, "text": "Another feature of this ancient practice is that, unlike the standard modern 12-hour clock that assigns 12 o'clock pm for noon time, in the ancient Jewish tradition noon time was always the \"sixth hour\" of the day, whereas the \"first hour\" began with the break of dawn, by most exponents of Jewish law, and with sunrise by the Vilna Gaon and Rabbi Hai Gaon. 12:o'clock am (midnight) was also the \"sixth hour\" of the night, whereas the \"first hour\" of the night began when the first three stars appeared in the night sky.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "550670", "title": "Soga language", "section": "Section::::Some useful basic grammar and vocabulary.:Telling the Time.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 467, "text": "Telling the time in Soga is different from the way it is told in English because hours of darkness correspond to PM to include early morning hours. You wake up at 6:00 am while a Musoga waking up at the same time refers to the same time as \"essawa erii ikumi na ibiri munkyo (the time is 12 in the morning).\" Essentially, the number representing the current time is simply skewed behind by six. Time is said using the word ‘essaawa’, e.g., essaawa ndala – 7 o’clock.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hi there! \n\nIf you've come to the thread and are wondering why there's no answer yet, please be patient: [we have found](_URL_4_) that it takes an average of 9 hours for a good answer to appear on a popular thread - properly researching and writing an answer takes time. Additionally, it's currently well past midnight on the East Coast of the US right now, which means that plenty of the historians interested in this topic might already be asleep. Please be patient! If you want to be reminded of this thread in 24 hours, [please see here for information on how to send a private message to RemindMeBot](_URL_1_) to remind you about this thread.\n\nIf you're wondering what's in the 14 removed comments at the time of writing, there are four separate smartarses who've posted a one word reply ('Yes') or a variant ('I guess so'). One other clever chap made a joke imitating the English accent. There is also already a complaint about removed comments. Some of these attracted replies saying \"in before this gets deleted\" and the like. There is also one attempt at an answer which was too vague and short to reach our standards. You're not missing anything great, we promise.\n\nAll of these comments get removed on /r/AskHistorians because the huge majority of our subscribers really do want accurate, comprehensive, in-depth historical answers based on good historical practice and high-quality sources. It's amazing how many downvotes and reports an obvious shitpost can attract on a popular thread on /r/AskHistorians within minutes, thanks to our readers (if you see it, report it!) \n\nPlease see [our subreddit rules](_URL_6_) for more information on how to write an answer up to our standards. On /r/AskHistorians, we want people answering questions to be able to explain not just what the basic facts are, [but why we know that these basic facts are right, and to put those basic facts into context](_URL_5_). This is why we encourage [the use of primary and secondary sources in answering questions](_URL_2_), rather than tertiary sources like Wikipedia, podcasts and textbooks.\n\nIn other words, on /r/AskHistorians, we'd rather have no answer than bad attempts at answers. By removing the short, quick, bad answers that would otherwise crowd them out, the well-researched in-depth answers (that take people time to research and write) are more likely to be seen ([see this graph for more detail](_URL_0_)). The downside to this is that we have to remove a lot of shitposts and comments wondering what happened to the removed comments. The upside is that our contributors consistently post amazing stuff to /r/AskHistorians (which we collate the best of every week in our [Sunday Digest](_URL_3_)). Alternatively, if you want to discuss history without these constraints, /r/history or /r/askhistory might be more appropriate subreddits for you than /r/AskHistorians. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is an interesting question and something that people have been wondering about for a long time. Before I can answer it, I feel like it is worth disclaiming that I am not British, in terms of national origin. I am American, was educated from elementary school through my graduate program entirely in America, so when I speak here, I am talking about what academic historians say about the American Revolution on the university level stage. I have no knowledge what schools, books, or teachers say for students beneath college level. Fortunately, since the American Revolution is something studied globally, I’ve studied historiographical debates of modern and previous historians in Britain, and I will be happy to discuss that here.\n\nOverall, the majority of historians who studied and reported on the American Revolution currently have no major conflicts with American historians who study the same time period, but this is not true for all of the last two centuries. The first person to tackle this question was British historian Richard Middleton, who conducted research and wrote about it in his article, [“British Historians and the American Revolution”](_URL_0_) . His article mainly seeks to study what early British historians said and reported on the American Revolution. I feel obligated to point out that in these early days of the discipline of academic history scholarship, being objective was not something that was desired. \n\nEarly historians, generally speaking had very little problem with letting their biases show. This drastically changed during the middle of the 20th century, as historians sought to become more objective in their study and reporting of history. It’s also worth noting that the vast majority of British scholarship in the first century and a half after the American Revolution took place was mainly focused on British perspectives; such as British politics and economics during that period. Americans, especially during the 19th century conducted a lot of history related to the biographies of the \"Founding Fathers\" and also many sub-topics within the war itself (like military history of the Continental Army). Far fewer British historians studied American perspectives on the war, such as the Continental Congress, the Founding Fathers, or the Contiental Army. \n\nMiddleton noted that many British historians were British apologists, who did side more favorably with the British Crown's decisions during the war and were very critical of the rebelling colonists. This article does a few interesting things, first it accounts for a history of early British Historians who studied the American Revolution and notes that some of the early historians from the late 18th century were in fact more favorable in their views of the rebelling colonists, but they were the minority. Historians tended to be torn between two radical positions in the U.K. One historian, Sir George Otto Trevelyan created a three-volumne account of the American Revolutionary War between 1874 and 1880. Trevelyan, a liberal, reported that the first twenty years of King George III’s reign was a period of regression for English laws and and rights. His writing reflects that the Americans were justified in overthrowing the British government, calling the Americans “law respecting people, who did not care to encroach on the privileges of others and liked still less to have their own rights invaded.’ [Middleton, 50]. This created one of the first historiographical debates in this particular field, with other men, like William Massey and William Lecky arguing for the traditional “Tory” view of the war. Where Trevelyan came down hard on royal governors and British officials in America, historians like Lecky was much more gentle on them, saying that they were just loyal men trying to fulfil their duties to the King. [Middleton 51]. Ultimtely, Middleton noted a few key differences between these earlier types of scholarship between American and British scholarship on the war:\n\n > From this study of British historians and the American Revolution, one or ore general conclusions can be drawn. In the first place, there has bee na curious dichotomy between scholars on both sides of the Atlantic as to what actually constituted the Revolution. Most British writers do not appear to consider it to be properly underway until the fateful year of 1775, while for most American writers, it was then merely a matter of dotting the ‘i’s’ and crossing the ‘t’s’ on the declaration of independence [sic]. There has also been little attempt to understand the revolt of the thirteen colonies by analysis of their social, economic, or politiocal development, lines of approach for so long popular with the American historians. [Middleton, 58]\n\nHistorians during the 20th century, especially in the post World War II era appeared to settle more soundly into the more objective approach to history. Middleton spoke also of, at the time of the publication of that article in 1971, how there was a revival of the British study of the American Revolution during his present because of the infusion of American culture, history, and politics that exploded in those preceding decades. [Middleton, 56]\nIn recent history, the vast majority of historical scholarship that has come out (at least as what I’ve seen and studied] has not conflicted with the current consensus of scholarship coming out of the United States. Some British historians, like Stanley Weintraub’s *Iron Tears* has [pointed out some differences that he sees in views of the American Revolution](_URL_1_), but nothing really seems too far out that it would conflict with what other historians would say. For instance, he shows that from the British perspective, the “taxation without representation” rallying cry of the colonists was a bit weak of an argument from the British perspective because many of the Englishmen living in England were not represented in Parliament either. (His book though more-so focuses on how the Average person in Britain felt about the war, rather than focusing on Historians studying that period).\n\nOverall, modern scholarship between historians of the United States and Britain tends to add to the historical conversation in general on this topic, rather than causing conflict between them. Historians will disagree in every field, it's why consensus does not have the same power as a fact, but there isn't anything fundamentally different between scholarship coming out of the U.K. versus what is coming out of the United States or other countries. \n\nEdit: fixed typos", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Quick preface: I see uncovered-history wrote a response while I was typing up mine. I think they complement each other nicely. \n\nWhile there are certainly still major disagreements about the American Revolution, I cannot think of any that break down primarily along those geographic/national lines. The context in which we live and our backgrounds do shape the kinds of questions we ask about history, though especially in our globalized world today, I don't see any areas in which we are talking past one another. \n\nI do think the differences in our approaches used to be more distinctive. In the mid-twentieth century, the major schools explaining the origins of the American Revolution were generally aligned with one's political sentiments. A conservative approach emerged after WWII aligning with Cold War-era thinking. Historians (for example, Richard Hofstader) argued that the Revolution was fundamentally not as a radical overthrow of the social order but instead an attempt by Americans to preserve their rights and liberties. They emphasize the democratic, literate, informed nature of Revolutionary-era Americans. \n\nHistorians in the neo-whig school disagreed and argued that the American Revolution was fundamentally a political and social upheaval generated by political ideas. The paradigmatic work in this vein would be Bernard Bailyn's *The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution.* Other historians in this vein include Pauline Maier (a Bailyn student) and Gordon Wood (though I personally think Wood is a bit more liberal and writes a bit more toward consensus than the other historians in this school). \n\nThe neo-Whig approach, which focused on the political and intellectual worlds of middling and upper-class people, was challenged as the academy itself expanded and diversified in the 1970s. Historians on the left have emphasized the role of ordinary people and devoted more attention to aspects of race, class, and gender. These historians focus on economic and social explanations for the Revolution and often regard ideological or political rhetoric of the period as hollow. Instead of seeing the Revolution as a contest for independence (home rule), they see it as a question of power on the ground in America (who would rule at home). Historians in this vein include people like Jesse Lemisch, Gary Nash, Woody Holton, and Tim Breen. \n\nWhile Britain had some parallel experiences in the twentieth century, the above examples are of American scholars writing in the context of American debates and issues. (By contrast, during the mid-twentieth century, British attention on the period surrounding the American Revolution was centered around the work of Lewis Namier, a Polish-Jewish emigrant to Britain. His approach was heavily influenced by the context of the world wars, and in particular, he saw the British state as one that would never fall to absolutism. He focused on the personal biographies of individual politicians, showing how alliances shifted and how the party system was based on personal animosities, loyalties, and local issues, rather than any larger ideological positioning.)\n\nConstitutional explanations for the Revolution seem to have maintained more popularity among historians in the U.K. I don't think it's unfair for us to say that British scholars probably inherently care more about the British constitution and probably understood it better, especially in the days when early Americanists were trained solely in colonial American history. The constitutional approach was in fact an old way of explaining the conflict. (The work of Charles McIlwain in the 1920s is probably the best-known example). However, Harry Dickinson, an English historian working in Edinburgh, has been explaining the constitutional origins of the crisis since the 1970s. More recently though, prominent U.S. historians (including Jack Greene, Patrick Griffin, and Brendan McConville) have picked up on this line of thought. \n\nOne of the current trends in scholarship about the American Revolution is placing the conflict within the imperial context. Scholars on/from both sides of the Atlantic are doing this work (e.g. Stephen Conway, Andrew O'Shaughnessy, Eric Nelson, Justin Du Rivage). Advances in technology, I would argue, both in ease of travel to archives and digitization of records, have made this approach more doable in recent years. \n\nI would argue, perhaps, that perhaps one way the American and British views of the war had differed was in valuing the competence of British military strategy during the conflict. The book *The Men who Lost America* by Andrew O'Shaughnessy (a British-born scholar who's now based in the U.S.) demonstrated that we have drastically underestimated the skill of British politicians and officers in addressing the complexities of the war. I mention it as an example of how our backgrounds do influence what we see and how we approach this very well-trodden historical ground. For instance, scholarship on the place of Native people in the Revolution has been led almost entirely by scholars from the U.S. (e.g. Peter Silver, Greg Dowd), though historians working on the American Revolution in the U.K. would not deny the importance of that work. Ultimately, we are all reading one another's work, as well working, traveling, and conversing across the Atlantic. \n\n(Edit for a few typos.)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1924751", "title": "David Ramsay (historian)", "section": "Section::::Historical writing.:Critical response.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 905, "text": "Ramsay's \"History of the American Revolution\" was one of the first and most accomplished histories to appear in the aftermath of that event, according to Karen O'Brien in 1994. O'Brien wrote that Ramsay's history challenges American exceptionalist literary frameworks by presenting itself within the European Enlightenment historical tradition, reflecting Ramsay's belief that the United States would have no historical destiny beyond typical patterns of European political and cultural development. Epic portrayals of American history in the 19th century were more the product of New England's historiographic traditions coupled with German historical thought, treating national character as a historical agent, rather than a historical result, as Ramsay suggests. Ramsay's history, then, is better considered the last of the European Enlightenment tradition than the first of American historical epics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17832214", "title": "Secession in the United States", "section": "Section::::The American Revolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 486, "text": "Historian Pauline Maier argues that this narrative asserted \"... the right of revolution, which was, after all, the right Americans were exercising in 1776\"; and notes that Thomas Jefferson's language incorporated ideas explained at length by a long list of seventeenth-century writers including John Milton, Algernon Sidney, and John Locke and other English and Scottish commentators, all of whom had contributed to the development of the Whig tradition in eighteenth-century Britain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13255951", "title": "Charles Ritcheson", "section": "Section::::Published works.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 207, "text": "BULLET::::- \"The American Revolution: the Anglo-American relation, 1763-1794: interpretive articles and documentary sources,\" Edited by Charles R. Ritcheson. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., [1969].\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8380114", "title": "1776", "section": "Section::::Events.:January–February.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 213, "text": "BULLET::::- January 10 – American Revolution – Thomas Paine publishes his pamphlet \"Common Sense\" (\"written by an Englishman\" in Philadelphia), arguing for independence from British rule in the Thirteen Colonies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8141503", "title": "Pauline Maier", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 374, "text": "Pauline Alice Maier (née Rubbelke; April 27, 1938 – August 12, 2013) was a revisionist historian of the American Revolution, though her work also addressed the late colonial period and the history of the United States after the end of the Revolutionary War. She was the William R. Kenan, Jr. Professor of American History at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5381772", "title": "Thomas Balch", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 320, "text": "Thomas Balch (Leesburg, Virginia, July 23, 1821 — Philadelphia, March 29, 1877) was an American historian, best known for his work on the American Revolutionary War, originally written in French and later translated into English as \"The French in America during the War of Independence of the United States, 1777-1783\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52477", "title": "History of Canada", "section": "Section::::Canada under British rule.:American Revolution and the Loyalists.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 236, "text": "Canadian historians have had mixed views on the long-term impact of the American Revolution. Arthur Lower in the 1950s provided the long-standard historical interpretation that for English Canada the results were counter-revolutionary:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Cells like neutrophils can leave the bloodstream to fight infections like that. Mucosal sites can also fight infection with a special antibody called IgA.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When foreign cells like viruses are detected by local immune cells that happen to be in the area they essentially sound an alarm attracting more immune cells. At the same time they dump a bunch of substances into the local area that cause inflammation of the area. Part of this inflammatory response is that blood vessels around the site dilate and become leaky, allowing fluid through (leading to swelling) as well as immune cells from the blood into the site of the infection to get at the foreign invader.\n\nThis is just a small part of the inflammatory response your body uses to deal with invaders. In addition to a general inflammatory response, lungs in particular have their own local immune components (e.g. Immunoglobulin A) in their secretions, and other sites of the body which have a high exposure to antigens (like the gut) have their own different mechanisms of picking up and detecting as many foreign invaders as possible so as to alert the immune system when needed (e.g. Peyer's Patches).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2913317", "title": "Community-acquired pneumonia", "section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Bacteria and fungi.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 923, "text": "Bacteria and fungi typically enter the lungs through the inhalation of water droplets, although they can reach the lung through the bloodstream if an infection is present and often live in the respiratory tract. In the alveoli, bacteria and fungi travel into the spaces between cells and adjacent alveoli through connecting pores. The immune system responds by releasing neutrophil granulocytes, white blood cells responsible for attacking microorganisms, into the lungs. The neutrophils engulf and kill the microorganisms, releasing cytokines which activate the entire immune system. This response causes fever, chills and fatigue, common symptoms of CAP. The neutrophils, bacteria and fluids leaked from surrounding blood vessels fill the alveoli, impairing oxygen transport. Bacteria may travel from the lung to the bloodstream, causing septic shock (very low blood pressure which damages the brain, kidney, and heart).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26108726", "title": "Respiratory tract antimicrobial defense system", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 646, "text": "In the first line of defense, inhaled bacteria are trapped by mucus and are swept toward the pharynx and are swallowed. Bacteria which penetrate the mucous layer are dealt with a second line of defense which includes antimicrobial peptides that are secreted by the surface epithelium of the respiratory tract which kill many strains of bacteria. Those bacteria that are resistant to antimicrobial peptides are killed by a variety of reactive oxygen species produced by phagocytes. In a third line of defense and as a last resort, persistent bacterial infections which escape the innate immune system are eliminated by the adaptive immune system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36863", "title": "Lung", "section": "Section::::Function.:Other.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 373, "text": "The lungs also serve a protective role. Several blood-borne substances, such as a few types of prostaglandins, leukotrienes, serotonin and bradykinin, are excreted through the lungs. Drugs and other substances can be absorbed, modified or excreted in the lungs. The lungs filter out small blood clots from veins and prevent them from entering arteries and causing strokes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2443846", "title": "Parasitic pneumonia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 426, "text": "There are a variety of parasites which can affect the lungs. In general, these parasites enter the body through the skin or by being swallowed. Once inside the body, these parasites travel to the lungs, most often through the blood. There, a similar combination of cellular destruction and immune response causes disruption of oxygen transportation. Depending on the type of parasite, antihelmynthic drugs can be prescribed. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36863", "title": "Lung", "section": "Section::::Function.:Protection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 1173, "text": "The lungs possess several characteristics which protect against infection. The respiratory tract is lined by respiratory epithelium or respiratory mucosa, with hair-like projections called cilia that beat rhythmically and carry mucus. This mucociliary clearance is an important defence system against air-borne infection. The dust particles and bacteria in the inhaled air are caught in the mucosal surface of the airways, and are moved up towards the pharynx by the rhythmic upward beating action of the cilia. The lining of the lung also secretes immunoglobulin A which protects against respiratory infections; goblet cells secrete mucus which also contains several antimicrobial compounds such as defensins, antiproteases, and antioxidants. A rare type of specialised cell called a pulmonary ionocyte that is suggested may regulate mucus viscosity has been described. In addition, the lining of the lung also contains macrophages, immune cells which engulf and destroy debris and microbes that enter the lung in a process known as phagocytosis; and dendritic cells which present antigens to activate components of the adaptive immune system such as T-cells and B-cells.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "966915", "title": "Bacterial pneumonia", "section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 977, "text": "Bacteria typically enter the lung with inhalation, though they can reach the lung through the bloodstream if other parts of the body are infected. Often, bacteria live in parts of the upper respiratory tract and are continuously being inhaled into the alveoli, the cavities deep in the lungs where gas exchange takes place. Once inside the alveoli, bacteria travel into the spaces between the cells and also between adjacent alveoli through connecting pores. This invasion triggers the immune system to respond by sending white blood cells responsible for attacking microorganisms (neutrophils) to the lungs. The neutrophils engulf and kill the offending organisms but also release cytokines that result in a general activation of the immune system. This results in the fever, chills, and fatigue common in bacterial and fungal pneumonia. The neutrophils, bacteria, and fluid leaked from surrounding blood vessels fill the alveoli and result in impaired oxygen transportation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52135", "title": "Pneumonia", "section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Viral.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 1027, "text": "Viruses may reach the lung by a number of different routes. Respiratory syncytial virus is typically contracted when people touch contaminated objects and then they touch their eyes or nose. Other viral infections occur when contaminated airborne droplets are inhaled through the mouth or nose. Once in the upper airway, the viruses may make their way in the lungs, where they invade the cells lining the airways, alveoli, or lung parenchyma. Some viruses such as measles and herpes simplex may reach the lungs via the blood. The invasion of the lungs may lead to varying degrees of cell death. When the immune system responds to the infection, even more lung damage may occur. Primarily white blood cells, mainly mononuclear cells, generate the inflammation. As well as damaging the lungs, many viruses simultaneously affect other organs and thus disrupt other body functions. Viruses also make the body more susceptible to bacterial infections; in this way, bacterial pneumonia can occur at the same time as viral pneumonia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "there IS a machine or procedure for replicating the experience of muscle growth, they are called \"work out equipment\" and \"gyms\". \n\nIn these places, and using these machines, you are able to artificially tear your muscles in a controlled and measured setting, specifically targeting certain muscle groups with ease. This allows you to change your physique much faster then the unorganized and un-directed muscle exertion experienced in day to day life.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I heard a rumor that Bruce Lee used such a device. By electric induction you can force the neves that control the muscle to contract (thus causing the tears). By using paddles like a defibrillator, you can place them on your body to force a contraction of a muscle. This device I know is used by physical therapist because my cousin who is studying to be one tried it. As he explained it, the muscle created, although has mass, is not \"usable\". (Paraphrasing) This is because the neves used to contract the muscle were not done naturally, and thus the new muscle does not have a nervous system response. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[We have.](_URL_0_) It's very painful to have your muscles electrically stimulated to build them up though so it's not wide-spread.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is a gene that prevents muscles from growing too fast, this gene was turned of in belgian blue cows, and they got totally jacked._URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Layperson here. weightlifting is exercise, you burn a ton of calories and get some cardio, just stimulating muscles wouldn't raise your heart rate much. Most importantly it's our compound and use several muscle groups, I don't see how you could simulate that with electrical therapy. Plus you get a nice dopamine rush afterwards different from most exercises. I don't see how electrostimulation or other means could make you feel so good relaxed after. Then there's practical reasons, if you were able to get a good \"workout\" from electrical stimulation or other means you wouldn't get the benefit of stronger bones and connective tissue. Lifting weights, especially heavy weights puts a load on your skeletal structure which causes it to improve bone density. I could only imagine the horror of adding 50 pounds of muscle to an average person's frame and watching their bones shatter when they try to show off. You wouldn't get the benefits in balance because you're not training stabilizer muscles, and even if you're 250 pounds of raw muscle you have the grip strength of a 90 pound middle schooler. It's a terrible idea. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Basic reason is because building real muscle requires the nervous system to be on board. Lifters grow muscle mass not just because of the muscle tearing, but because the CNS is training to work with and support those muscles.\n\nIf you just put on artificial muscle mass without loading your CNS, I'd imagine it's likely you'd just lose excess mass fairly quickly after you stopped (as your body wouldn't feel that it needed it).\n\nMaybe if you could stimulate the CNS - if you could force your body to contract opposing muscles (isometric exercises, perhaps) you might be able to get usable muscle along with the CNS benefits. I don't know, though, I'm no scientist.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm marking this as explained. It seems, for those of you who don't wanna read every comment, that it is possible with electrical stimulation but your body would be unable to handle it for multiple reasons (nerve receptivity, bone strength, etc.) Thanks, everyone!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You remember those electric shock things people stuck on that made their muscles flex? I'm feeling like this is what you're asking for. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "it would be more insanely dangerous the more effective it got. powerful muscular contractions are very dangerous - they put a lot of stress on tendons, connective tissue, and bone. the body has a variety of adaptations that down-regulate your strength under conditions that might otherwise cause injury - ie poor mobility, lack of strength in antagonist muscles, etc.\n\nif you could bypass this and increase muscle strength directly, the next thing to happen would probably be 1) tearing connective tissue and/or 2) splintering off bone where the muscle connects. you would go straight to the hospital and cross your fingers that you ever regained full functionality.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Its not true. Its bro science. Its better to stimulate the muscle without the damage because the repair is expensive. \n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are machines, and muscle stimulators that supposedly cause muscle growth, but none of them have shown to be as effective as actual exercise. Exercise not only causes tearing in the muscles, but also works with your nervous system and cardiovascular system, so you would need it to activate all these things without physically harming you, as those electrical stimulators do (there's only so much your nerves can take)\n\nThe real question you should be asking, is if there is a way to chemically replicate exercise, and this we actually do have. A couple of pharmaceutical companies have come up with some very promising chemicals that can do this. Since diabetes is so prevalent nowadays, it only makes sense this is where their research is directed towards. I implore you to look-up chemicals such as GW501516.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You have to understand the benefit of working out is multifactorial. Remember the first time you lifted weights how heavy they were? But remember a wek from then you were lifting significantly more? Thats not because you got stronger, but rather you were able to tune your neural synapses into understanding how much potential is needed to lift a certain weight. This is \"muscle memory.\" Your neurons innervate your muscles, and essentially the more you work out, the stronger you build that signal. The signal will eventually max out and at this point you are actually lifting at your body's maximal potential. After this point, tearing/rebuilding is what continues to build muscle. So if you created a machine that tore muscle, it wouldn't necessarily make you stronger/faster/more agile (because the neural signal will never know how much it can truly deliver), though it might make you look beefed out (which is silly, but you can definitely get chicks). While there are muscle stimulators out there, they do not work as efficiently as a rep done by yourself. Remember that working out also increases the blood/oxygen demand, thus causing a faster heart rate which helps build good cardiovascular health. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For starters, we simply don't understand all the mechanisms behind muscle growth, and the one you've mentioned isn't even necessarily the most important.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Actually Bruce Lee was quite into this idea - through electric charge stimulation. He invented his own machines to do this while he was asleep, at rest, et cetera.... ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's because it's a full body thing, not just the muscle. The central nervous system, the body's nutritional needs/efficiency, and testosterone levels all come into play. \n\nAnd besides, it will always be a matter of the mind. You don't get something out of nothing; thermodynamics and all that. That's just how our physical universe works. Matter cannot be created or destroyed. \n\nThe things we desire must pass through our force of will for them to manifest. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "**First lets redefine how muscles grow.**\n\nMuscle fibers do not tear, they are more like balloons that can be inflated. Your nervous system and individual muscle fibers dictate how much they will be inflated or deflated. \n\n**Conventional muscle growth:** Muscle fibers stimulated on a regular basis will inflate with nutrients/energy. The amount they increase depends on the hormones and how well the fibers react to them. If they are not stimulated on a regular basis the fibers release the nutrients/energy and transform it into something else like fat.\n\n**Artificial muscle growth for size:** To simulate these conditions without actually putting in effort would be difficult because the mechanical movement and energy used are what drives the growth to start with.\n\nUsing an EMS (Electronic Muscle Stimulation) unit does a very specific type of exercise that is like flexing a muscle and staying still. This does help strengthen muscles for physical therapy patients that goals are for stabilization and recovery. \n\nEDIT: clarity \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Short answer we don't know how most things actually work there's always a lot of little nuances that we don't know yet little interactions are actually quite vital are simplistic version would probably fail merely because we actually don't know some of the more detailed mechanisms yet", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's called a smith machine, and it's totally out there! ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "14414679", "title": "Jaw reduction", "section": "Section::::Non-surgical method.:Botox injection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 365, "text": "A convenient method to treat an enlarged muscle is through the use of botox injections. Botox is injected into the enlarged muscle, weakening it so it slowly becomes smaller through atrophy over several months. There is no down-time and improvement is gradual—individuals who interact with the patient may never know that a plastic surgical procedure was performed\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46335535", "title": "Hox genes in amphibians and reptiles", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 787, "text": "If the processes involved in forming new tissue can be reverse-engineered into humans, it may be possible to heal injuries of the spinal cord or brain, repair damaged organs and reduce scarring and fibrosis after surgery. Despite the large conservation of the Hox genes through evolution, mammals and humans specifically cannot regenerate any of their limbs. This raises a question as to why humans which also possess an analog to these genes cannot regrow and regenerate limbs. Beside the lack of specific growth factor, studies have shown that something as small as base pair differences between amphibian and human Hox analogs play a crucial role in human inability to reproduce limbs. Undifferentiated stem cells and the ability to have polarity in tissues is vital to this process.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31472374", "title": "Pyromellitamide gels", "section": "Section::::Artificial muscles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 346, "text": "These types of artificial muscles are made possible by creating synthetic materials which are very similar to the ones which make up human tissues and cells. These artificial materials are so similar that the body does not reject the material and instead allows normal cell growth in the materials which eventually become absorbed into the body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46402433", "title": "Projection micro-stereolithography", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Artificial Tissue.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 1338, "text": "Many reconstructive surgery procedures require new tissues when the original tissues are removed because of illnesses. One way to generate this new tissue is to take one part of tissue from another part of the human body and transfer it to the new site. However, this method causes damage to other organs while generating new tissues. Therefore, fabricating artificial tissues is a preferred approach to solve this problem. The major limitation of this artificial tissue is the absence of the capillary system to transport nutrient and oxygen like the circulatory systems in living organisms. With the ability to fabricate complex 3D structures, the Projection Micro-stereolithography may provide one of the best solutions to this tissue. Like the microactuator, the mold of the artificial tissue is made by CAD. Then the CAD mold is transferred to 2D images and projected to the surface of the polymer resin through a lens. The capillary system is embedded in the tissue during the mold designing process in the CAD mold. The polymer used in fabricating the tissue is semi-permeable, which allows the nutrient and oxygen in the capillary system go into the tissue during the transportation process. The capillary system is shown to have growth promoting function in yeast cells, which illustrate the viability of this artificial tissue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "300778", "title": "Tissue expansion", "section": "Section::::Bone expansion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 968, "text": "Bone is another tissue that can be expanded relatively easily, by using external devices which are slowly separated using mechanical contraptions, so that bone grows in response to elongation (bone distractor). Other techniques and external devices have been studied and have shown some success, such as in the fitbone surgery. This technique was pioneered in 1951 by the Russian physician Ilizarov, and is called the Ilizarov apparatus. It is capable of lengthening limbs in cases of pathological loss of bone, asymmetry of limbs, dwarfism, short stature, etc. In reconstructive and cosmetic surgery, bone expanders have been used to elongate the mandibula in cases of congenital disorders, trauma, tumors, etc. Other newer devices such as the orthofix and intramedullary skeletal kinetic distractor (ISKD) are also used for limb lengthening. It can add over 6 inches per bone, but is expensive, painful, and time-consuming (each procedure lasts around 8–12 months).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18447032", "title": "Muscle contracture", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Surgery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 308, "text": "Surgery is a solution to muscle shortening but other complications may arise. Following muscle lengthening surgery, force production and ROM is usually reduced due to the shift in sarcomere locations between a muscle's maximal and minimal length. Shortening of the surgically lengthened muscle can re-occur.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2040318", "title": "Myosatellite cell", "section": "Section::::Function.:Muscle repair.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 296, "text": "The process of muscle regeneration involves considerable remodeling of extracellular matrix and, where extensive damage occurs, is incomplete. Fibroblasts within the muscle deposit scar tissue, which can impair muscle function, and is a significant part of the pathology of muscular dystrophies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It depends on the species but they use one or more of three strategies to survive the winter:\n\n*Hibernation as an Adult - Females will drop their metabolic rate and survive off stored fat, usually hiding in a hole or something.\n\n*Hibernation as a Larvae - Larvae can also go into hibernation, but need to do so in water.\n\n*Winter hardy eggs - Adult females can lay winter hardy eggs in moist soil and wait for temperatures to increase and hope water arrives where the eggs were laid.\n \nELI5: they hibernate ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Many of them die. Some hibernate, but it is mostly their eggs which survive the winter and hatch into millions of hellions. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yarr, ye forgot yer searchin' duties, for ['twas asked by those what came before ye!](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "60461168", "title": "Airport malaria", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Air traffic and global warming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 587, "text": "With an increase in air traffic volume, higher climate temperatures and humidity, the summers of temperate climates are potentially favourable for mosquitoes. Should temperatures rise in Europe and the United States as a result of global climate change, conditions may become more ideal for mosquito survival, potentially leading to a rise in isolated outbreaks of airport and imported malaria. Uninfected mosquitoes that arrive by flight may also live for long in enough as to feed on an infected person, which could also result in the transmission of malaria in non-endemic countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2077922", "title": "Leptoconops torrens", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 477, "text": "These flies are not known to transmit any disease of humans, pets or livestock, but a closely related fly transmits a virus that causes blue tongue disease of sheep. Even though they do not transmit any diseases their bites are sufficiently annoying to keep people indoors in some areas of California during much of May. They are small enough to crawl under loose clothing without being noticed. Standard mosquito repellents do not appear to be particularly effective on them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37063005", "title": "Effects of global warming on human health", "section": "Section::::Impact on disease.:Impact on infectious diseases.:Impact of warmer and wetter climates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 730, "text": "Mosquito-borne diseases are probably the greatest threat to humans as they include malaria, elephantiasis, Rift Valley fever, yellow fever, and dengue fever. Studies are showing higher prevalence of these diseases in areas that have experienced extreme flooding and drought. Flooding creates more standing water for mosquitoes to breed; as well, shown that these vectors are able to feed more and grow faster in warmer climates. As the climate warms over the oceans and coastal regions, warmer temperatures are also creeping up to higher elevations allowing mosquitoes to survive in areas they had never been able to before. As the climate continues to warm there is a risk that malaria will make a return to the developed world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37789", "title": "Mosquito", "section": "Section::::Ecology.:Distribution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 123, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 123, "end_character": 1430, "text": "The absence of mosquitoes from Iceland and similar regions is probably because of quirks of their climate, which differs in some respects from mainland regions. At the start of the uninterrupted continental winter of Greenland and the northern regions of Eurasia and America, the pupa enters diapause under the ice that covers sufficiently deep water. The imago emerges only after the ice breaks in late spring. In Iceland however, the weather is less predictable. In mid-winter it frequently warms up suddenly, causing the ice to break, but then to freeze again after a few days. By that time the mosquitoes will have emerged from their pupae, but the new freeze sets in before they can complete their life cycle. Any anautogenous adult mosquito would need a host to supply a blood meal before it could lay viable eggs; it would need time to mate, mature the eggs and oviposit in suitable wetlands. These requirements would not be realistic in Iceland and in fact the absence of mosquitoes from such subpolar islands is in line with the islands' low biodiversity; Iceland has fewer than 1,500 described species of insects, many of them probably accidentally introduced by human agency. In Iceland most ectoparasitic insects live in sheltered conditions or actually on mammals; examples include lice, fleas and bedbugs, in whose living conditions freezing is no concern, and most of which were introduced inadvertently by humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2236780", "title": "Aedes aegypti", "section": "Section::::Spread of disease and prevention methods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 217, "text": "BULLET::::1. Although \"Aedes aegypti\" mosquitoes most commonly feed at dusk and dawn, indoors, in shady areas, or when the weather is cloudy, \"they can bite and spread infection all year long and at any time of day.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37789", "title": "Mosquito", "section": "Section::::Ecology.:Activity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 127, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 127, "end_character": 508, "text": "In warm and humid tropical regions, some mosquito species are active for the entire year, but in temperate and cold regions they hibernate or enter diapause. Arctic or subarctic mosquitoes, like some other arctic midges in families such as Simuliidae and Ceratopogonidae may be active for only a few weeks annually as melt-water pools form on the permafrost. During that time, though, they emerge in huge numbers in some regions and may take up to 300 ml of blood per day from each animal in a caribou herd.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37789", "title": "Mosquito", "section": "Section::::Ecology.:Distribution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 125, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 125, "end_character": 315, "text": "Eggs of species of mosquitoes from the temperate zones are more tolerant of cold than the eggs of species indigenous to warmer regions. Many even tolerate subzero temperatures. In addition, adults of some species can survive the winter by taking shelter in suitable microhabitats such as buildings or hollow trees.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I can't tell you much about the numerological implications of the number and the interpretation of Johannes, but I'm going to say something about Roman numbers that might be helpful: \n\nRoman numerals don't use positional notation, but they still represent base-10 - there are symbols for the decimal powers: I, X, C, CD (= later M) and so on, combined with symbols for half of them: V, L, D. Fun fact: the symbols for the half of the decimal powers are simply the letters chopped in half: X > V; C > L; CD > D. DCLXVI (or ΧΞϚ in Greek numerals) when spoken or written out it is *sexcentos sexaginta sex*, *hexakosioi hexekonta hex* in Ancient Greek, (sixhundred sixty six), so it loses none of that remarkableness and in fact has much to do with the number 6. In fact, it allows additional interpretations when written that way, since numbers are written with the same symbols as names are - Johannes remarks that:\n\n > ἀριθμὸς γὰρ ἀνθρώπου ἐστί, καὶ ὁ ἀριθμὸς αὐτοῦ ἑξακόσιοι ἑξήκοντα ἕξ\n\n\"for it is the number of a human, and his number is sixhundredsixtysix\", one interpretation being that you can reconstruct it into the name of a human.\n\nSee also /u/talondearg's answer on Greek numbers and the numerological implications. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The number of the beast appears in our earliest fragment of Revelation, [the Oxyrhynchus Papyri](_URL_0_), as 616, not 666 and both numbers were used by the early church. \n\nIt is thought the numbers are derived from giving numerical values to letters, as a code, and the two different values come from the different Greek and Latin spellings of the name and title \"Nero Caesar\". \n\nAcccording to Bruce M. Metzger in *\"A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament\"*: \n\"Perhaps the change was intentional, seeing that the Greek form Neron Caesar written in Hebrew characters (nrwn qsr) is equivalent to 666, whereas the Latin form Nero Caesar (nrw qsr) is equivalent to 616.\" \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "To build and complement two quite good answers:\n\nThe text this is derived from is Revelation 13:18, I quote below the Greek and an English translation:\n18 ὧδε ἡ σοφία ἐστίν· ὁ ἔχων νοῦν ψηφισάτω τὸν ἀριθμὸν τοῦ θηρίου, ἀριθμὸς γὰρ ἀνθρώπου ἐστίν· καὶ ὁ ἀριθμὸς αὐτοῦ ἑξακόσιοι ἑξήκοντα ἕξ. \n\nHere is wisdom: let the one that has understanding calculate the number of the beast, for is a human number: and its number is 666.\n\nGreek numbers can be represented by words, as in this edition, but it was more common to use letters to symbolise them. P47 reads χ̅ξ̅ϛ̅ whereas a manuscript such as P115 reads χ̅ι̅ϛ̅. The former works out to 666, the latter to 616. Overall the textual tradition for 666 is relatively stronger than that for 616. \nMost attempts to explain the number centre on three methods: (1) That it is purely symbolic, and so should be taken just ‘as is’; (2) that it is chronological, indicating some kind of duration of the beast’s reign, (3) some use of Gematria, in which the correspondence of letters and numbers is used to represent words by the sum of their numerical equivalents.\n\nIn the case of 666, the most common attempt is to identify 666 with Nero. But this depends upon transliterating the Greek form of Nero Caesar into Hebrew and then performing the calculation with this spelling, nrôn qsr. And even this spelling is generally considered a defective form of nrôn qysr, with the letter yodh missing (which is permissible, but not well attested in Hebrew texts with the name of Caesar in them.\nYou can see that this is getting problematic: it assumes that readers, at least some readers, have knowledge of Hebrew not only Greek, and would choose both the right name to transliterate and the appropriate way to transliterate. A lot of contingencies.\n\nA host of other name possibilities, generally in Greek, have also been suggested. \n\nAnyway, I am getting a little beyond your question. In short, there was a base-10 system in use, the number would have been represented with Greek letters (and is in the earliest manuscripts), and 666 is a superior textual tradition.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As a follow up, have humans generally used base 10? and is it for the obvious reason that we have 10 fingers?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1845588", "title": "616 (number)", "section": "Section::::The Number of the Beast.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 643, "text": "666 is generally believed to have been the original Number of the Beast in the Book of Revelation in the Christian Bible. In 2005, however, a fragment of papyrus 115 was revealed, containing the earliest known version of that part of the Book of Revelation discussing the Number of the Beast. It gave the number as 616, suggesting that this may have been the original. One possible explanation for the two different numbers is that they reflect two different spellings of Emperor Nero/Neron's name, for which (according to this theory) this number is believed to be a code. However, other scholars state that the number cannot represent Nero.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15769744", "title": "Therion (Thelema)", "section": "Section::::The Number of Therion and the numerology thereof.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 482, "text": "The Number of the Beast is 666. The number is of prominent significance in the system of Thelema. It is the sum of the numbers inside the 6-by-6 magic square, which is associated with the sun by some Kabbalists, astrologists, and numerologists, who still use it today. According to Crowley, it is a solar number. The Stele of Revealing bore the catalogue number 666 at the time when Crowley discovered it, which was one of the events that led to the writing of the Book of the Law.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9086178", "title": "Number of the Beast", "section": "Section::::Revelation 13:18.:χιϛ.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 364, "text": "\"Papyrus 115\" and \"Ephraemi Rescriptus\" have led some scholars to regard 616 as the original number of the beast. According to Paul Louis, \"The number 666 has been substituted for 616 either by analogy with 888, the [Greek] number of Jesus (Gustav Adolf Deissmann), or because it is a triangular number, the sum of the first 36 numbers (1+2+3+4+5+6+...+36 = 666)\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9086178", "title": "Number of the Beast", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 792, "text": "The number of the beast (, \"Arithmos tou Thēriou\") is a term in the Book of Revelation, of the New Testament, that is associated with the Beast of Revelation in chapter 13, line 18. In most manuscripts of the New Testament and in English translations of the Bible, the number of the beast is \"six hundred and sixty-six\" or (the number not being representable by the repetition of 6 or three times – Greek for 6 is , but is not six hundred sixty-six). Papyrus 115 (which is the oldest preserved manuscript of the \"Revelation\" ), as well as other ancient sources like \"Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus\", give the number of the beast as χιϛ or χιc (transliterable in Arabic numerals as 616) (), not 666; critical editions of the Greek text, such as the Novum Testamentum Graece, note 616 as a variant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9086178", "title": "Number of the Beast", "section": "Section::::Revelation 13:18.:χξϛ.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 357, "text": "The number of the beast is described in Revelation 13:15–18. Several translations have been interpreted for the meaning of the phrase \"Here is Wisdom, Let him that hath understanding count the number of the beast\" where the peculiar Greek word (\"psephisato\") is used. Possible translations include \"to count\", \"to reckon\" and also \"to vote\" or \"to decide\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9086178", "title": "Number of the Beast", "section": "Section::::Interpretations.:Numerical significance.:Jehovah's Witnesses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 428, "text": "Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the beast identified by the number 666 represents the world's unified governments in opposition to God. The beast is said to have \"a human number\" in that the represented governments are of a human origin rather than spirit entities. The number 666 is said to identify \"gross shortcoming and failure in the eyes of Jehovah\", in contrast to the number 7, which is seen as symbolizing perfection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59844", "title": "The Number of the Beast (novel)", "section": "Section::::Plot.:Title.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 425, "text": "In the novel, the biblical number of the beast turns out to be not 666 but formula_1 or 10,314,424,798,490,535,546,171,949,056, the initial number of parallel universes accessible through the continua device. It is later theorized by the character Jacob that the number may be merely the instantly accessible universes from a given location, and that there is a larger structure that implies an infinite number of universes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I too am a big fan of neutrinos. Neutrinos can interact with many subatomic particles. Most of the interactions would be wither a scatter or possibly an absorption. The probability of these events happening are very small due to the small cross section. However, since there are so many neutrinos they do happen daily in our body. You would not be able to fell them. These events typically are very low energy.\n\nI have heard our eyes are able to see single photons. I don't know if that is true, but if an event were to happen in your eye and you were in a dark place like a cave, you could see the light from that reaction. Although that scenario seems unlikely. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When a neutrino interacts with a part of our body, it scatters off a proton or neutron in the nucleus of an atom. It will sometimes scatter elastically, causing the nucleus of the atom to recoil and the atom to become ionized. It can also scatter inelastically, producing secondary particles, such as pions, which decay to photons and muons and so on, which themselves can ionize atoms in your body. Ionizing radiation is not good for your body in large doses, but in small doses there is no danger. This very second atoms in your body are being ionized from cosmic rays and various trace radioactive elements, to a degree much larger than due to neutrinos. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "671090", "title": "Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 320, "text": "One problem with the neutrino conjecture and Fermi's theory was that the neutrino appeared to have such weak interactions with other matter that it would never be observed. In a 1934 paper, Rudolf Peierls and Hans Bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth without interactions with any matter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "633325", "title": "Neutrino astronomy", "section": "Section::::Detection methods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 373, "text": "Since neutrinos interact only very rarely with matter, the enormous flux of solar neutrinos racing through the Earth is sufficient to produce only 1 interaction for 10 target atoms, and each interaction produces only a few photons or one transmuted atom. The observation of neutrino interactions requires a large detector mass, along with a sensitive amplification system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2178474", "title": "Particle identification", "section": "Section::::Neutrinos.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 486, "text": "Neutrinos do not interact in particle detectors, and therefore escape undetected. Their presence can be inferred by the momentum imbalance of the visible particles in an event. In electron-positron colliders, both the neutrino momentum in all three dimensions and the neutrino energy can be reconstructed. Neutrino energy reconstruction requires accurate charged particle identification. In colliders using hadrons, only the momentum transverse to the beam direction can be determined.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28462", "title": "Sudbury Neutrino Observatory", "section": "Section::::Experimental results and impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 487, "text": "On 18 June 2001, the first scientific results of SNO were published, bringing the first clear evidence that neutrinos oscillate (i.e. that they can transmute into one another), as they travel in the sun. This oscillation in turn implies that neutrinos have non-zero masses. The total flux of all neutrino flavours measured by SNO agrees well with the theoretical prediction. Further measurements carried out by SNO have since confirmed and improved the precision of the original result.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3952417", "title": "Neutrino detector", "section": "Section::::Theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 526, "text": "Neutrinos are omnipresent in nature such that every second, tens of billions of them \"pass through every square centimetre of our bodies without us ever noticing.\" Many were created during the big bang and others are generated by nuclear reactions inside stars, planets, and other interstellar processes. Some may also originate from events in the universe such as \"colliding black holes, gamma ray bursts from exploding stars, and/or violent events at the cores of distant galaxies,\" according to speculation by scientists. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21485", "title": "Neutrino", "section": "Section::::Properties and reactions.:Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 328, "text": "Neutrinos traveling through matter, in general, undergo a process analogous to light traveling through a transparent material. This process is not directly observable because it does not produce ionizing radiation, but gives rise to the MSW effect. Only a small fraction of the neutrino's energy is transferred to the material.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2450202", "title": "Kamioka Liquid Scintillator Antineutrino Detector", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 413, "text": "If neutrinos have mass, they may oscillate into flavors that an experiment may not detect, leading to a further dimming, or \"disappearance,\" of the electron antineutrinos. KamLAND is located at an average flux-weighted distance of approximately 180 kilometers from the reactors, which makes it sensitive to the mixing of neutrinos associated with large mixing angle (LMA) solutions to the solar neutrino problem.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sometimes leaked but you can usually get them through the freedom of information act unless it is pending investigation or prosecution.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4762404", "title": "Axon (company)", "section": "Section::::Software.:Evidence.com.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 461, "text": "Evidence.com is a cloud-based digital evidence management system that allows police departments to manage, review, and share digital evidence, particularly video evidence captured with Axon-branded cameras. It includes an automated redaction tool, audit trails for chain of custody purposes, and functionality to share evidence with prosecutors and others. A free version is offered specifically for prosecutors to receive and manage incoming digital evidence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6869687", "title": "Forward intelligence team", "section": "Section::::Similar police units.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 630, "text": "Greater Manchester Police operate a Video Intelligence Unit, whose plainclothes officers confront and video certain freed prisoners as they leave prison after serving their sentences. They also record footage of people involved in anti-social behaviour on the streets. The aim is to give other police officers up to date information on the appearance of people who have broken the law. Video footage thus collected is constantly replayed on TV screens in rooms where officers complete their paperwork. Footage that they have recorded has also been uploaded onto YouTube in an attempt to catch people they believe have reoffended.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26565480", "title": "Powers of the police in Scotland", "section": "Section::::Powers of seizure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 285, "text": "Police have the common law power to seize evidence as part of a criminal investigation. Where it is alleged, or there is a reasonable belief, that any liquid, animal, document or article has a connection to a crime or offence under review, they can be taken by police as a production.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6746867", "title": "Video motion analysis", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 218, "text": "Police and forensic scientists analyse CCTV video when investigating criminal activity. Police use software, such as Kinesense, which performs video motion analysis to search for key events in video and find suspects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27916667", "title": "Video content analysis", "section": "Section::::Law enforcement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 363, "text": "Police and forensic scientists analyse CCTV video when investigating criminal activity. Police use software, such as Kinesense, which performs video content analysis to search for key events in video and find suspects. Surveys have shown that up to 75% of cases involve CCTV. Police use video content analysis software to search long videos for important events.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44432462", "title": "Contaminated evidence", "section": "Section::::Avoiding contamination.:Documentation of the crime scene.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 772, "text": "If available, a video camera is the first step to documenting a crime scene. Videotape can provide a perspective on the crime scene layout which cannot be as easily perceived in photographs and sketches. It is a more natural viewing medium to which people can readily relate, especially in demonstrating the structure of the crime scene and how the evidence relates to the crime. The video camera should have a fully charged battery as well as date and time videotape display functions. The taping should begin with a general overview of the scene and surrounding area. The taping should continue throughout the crime scene using wide angle, close up, and even macro (extreme close up) shots to demonstrate the layout of the evidence and its relevance to the crime scene.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3544795", "title": "Barry Freundel", "section": "Section::::Voyeurism charges and conviction.:Arrest, arraignment and investigation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 452, "text": "On November 12, district prosecutors told a D.C. Superior Court judge they needed more time to investigate and determine if there were additional victims. The court was informed that a web site was being created in order to reach other victims. On January 16, 2015, the prosecution requested another one-month delay to complete their review of all the video evidence obtained from computers seized by police in the hope to identify additional victims.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I hope no one minds an Eastern Orthodox deacon commenting? \n\n\nThe Churches you mention are known as the Oriental Orthodox churches, and are not, in fact, older than the Byzantine and Latin churches. In fact, they split off from the Latin and Byzantine Church during the \u0014[Council of Chalcedon](_URL_0_) over what today is considered simply a gross misunderstanding. As such, both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches are working very hard to restore communion with the Orientals.\u0014 \n\n\nAs far as the theological split goes,it was about the nature of Christ.\n\n\u0014The Chalcedonian orthodox position on Christ, that both Eastern Orthodox and Latin Catholics hold, is that Christ has a human nature and a divine nature. That is to say, he is fully man, and also fully God.\n\nThink of it this way: He's not some specially anointed human, a super-prophet if you will, that just happens to be good at following God's will. He's also not just God walking among mortals, being shielded from the human experiences of temptation or suffering, overpowering evil with his mere presence. No, he's fully man - experiencing all the hardships and sorrows and doubts of human life and death. But also fully God, divine and just and merciful and all that.\n\nThe Orientals insisted that Christ has ONE nature. But, then, which one? Was he man? Or was he God? If we was man, then it makes no sense to worship him. It invalidates everything from the Nicene creed onwards. But, if he was God, then he knows nothing of what humanity is like. How could He, then, have suffered? What meaning does His passion have, and also his resurrection? It also invalidates everything, from the Nicene creed onwards.\n\nIt turns out, after so long, that the Orientals have (ahem) clarified their position. Christ is fully man and fully God. It's just that they didn't think these two aspects of him were ever in conflict. That is to say, he was never divided in opinion, the God side wanting to do one thing, and the Man side wanting to do another. So, it's not *really* one nature, it's just that t*he two natures of mankind and divinity are blended into one perfectly* (miaphysite position).\n\nThe official position today is that the old problem was really just a mistranslation and misunderstanding. Who knows, that might be true - or it may be the greatest retcon in history. I don't know. But, it has allowed both sides of the conflict to make great strides towards unity, at least on the parish level. Many of our priests will now follow a *don't ask, don't tell* policy on receiving orientals into communion because of it, and so will theirs.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your question is based on an incorrect premise and Diarmaid Macolluch's claim (as stated in your post) is incorrect. There oldest church is the One-Holy Apostolic Catholic Church, today with two branches (both claiming to be the original): the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Catholic Church (aka the Eastern Orthodox Church). \n\nThere have been dozens of schisms and heresies in Christian history, such as Donatists and Arians, but these never became their own churches and all eventually faded or healed their schism. The only ones to do that have been the Protestants and the Oriental Orthodox, both of which are far younger than the original Catholic Churches. \n\nEthiopian Christians are most commonly Orthodox, and some would adhere to a splinter of the Orthodox Church called the Oriental Orthodox Church. /u/codesharp answered the Theological differences of the Oriental Orthodox plenty. As far as interaction, there was very little and this is part of why they remained split. The spread of the Caliphates strangled communication between Eastern Christianity and at some point the Orthodox churches were completely cut off from one another.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "320768", "title": "Christian Church", "section": "Section::::History.:Christianity as Roman state religion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 448, "text": "Even after the split of the Roman Empire the Church remained a relatively united institution (apart from Oriental Orthodoxy and some other groups which separated from the rest of the Church earlier). The Church came to be a central and defining institution of the Empire, especially in the East or Byzantine Empire, where Constantinople came to be seen as the center of the Christian world, owing in great part to its economic and political power.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2213191", "title": "Church architecture", "section": "Section::::Divergence of Eastern and Western church architecture.:Eastern Orthodoxy and Byzantine architecture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 651, "text": "Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity began to diverge from each other from an early date. Whereas the basilica was the most common form in the west, a more compact centralized style became predominant in the east. These churches were in origin \"martyria\", constructed as mausoleums housing the tombs of the saints who had died during the persecutions which only fully ended with the conversion of Emperor Constantine. An important surviving example is the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, which has retained its mosaic decorations. Dating from the 5th century, it may have been briefly used as an oratory before it became a mausoleum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6808975", "title": "Christianity in Syria", "section": "Section::::Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 434, "text": "By the thirteenth century, breaks had developed between Eastern or Greek Christianity and Western or Latin Christianity. In the following centuries, however, especially during the Crusades, some of the Eastern churches professed the authority of the pope in Rome and entered into or re-affirmed communion with the Catholic Church. Today called the Eastern Catholic churches, they retain a distinctive language, canon law and liturgy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11572857", "title": "Roman diocese", "section": "Section::::Ecclesiastical dioceses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 1388, "text": "After Licinius and Constantine legalized the Christian religion in 313 in the so-called Edict of Milan, the churches quickly organized themselves into provinces patterned on the Roman civil administration, but they adopted the word \"diocese\" to describe the unit of episcopal jurisdiction equivalent to a provincial, not regional, unit as it was in the civil administration. Church dioceses were smaller than civil as there were so many more bishops than provinces. The regional ecclesiastical unit was the archdiocese. From the 5th to the 7th centuries, as the older secular administrative structure began to falter, the role of the bishops in the western lands of the Empire enabled those lands and their peoples to maintain a semblance of civilization within the successor States of Germanic rulers. The senatorial aristocracy continued in many places to serve as sources of local authority to complement that assumed by the Church, until they too disappeared in the course of the 6th century. The transfer of some authority from secular officials to ecclesiastical leaders was a natural consequence of the close integration of the Church and State, a doctrine known as Caesaropapism, by which emperors, kings, dukes were heads of both to varying degrees. Ecclesiastical administration and jurisdiction often coincided with the Roman civil administration until the latter disappeared.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "430411", "title": "Clerestory", "section": "Section::::History.:Early Christian and Byzantine basilicas.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 309, "text": "Early Christian churches and some Byzantine churches, particularly in Italy, are based closely on the Roman basilica, and maintained the form of a central nave flanked by lower aisles on each side. The nave and aisles are separated by columns or piers, above which rises a wall pierced by clerestory windows.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7515964", "title": "Jordan", "section": "Section::::History.:Classical period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 946, "text": "In 324 AD, the Roman Empire split, and the Eastern Roman Empire–later known as the Byzantine Empire–continued to control or influence the region until 636 AD. Christianity had become legal within the empire in 313 AD and the official state religion in 390 AD, after Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity. Transjordan prospered during the Byzantine era, and Christian churches were built everywhere. The Aqaba Church in Ayla was built during this era, it is considered to be the world's first purpose built Christian church. Umm ar-Rasas in southern Amman contains at least 16 Byzantine churches. Meanwhile, Petra's importance declined as sea trade routes emerged, and after a 363 earthquake destroyed many structures, until it became an abandoned place. The Sassanian Empire in the east became the Byzantines' rivals, and frequent confrontations sometimes led to the Sassanids controlling some parts of the region, including Transjordan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "211143", "title": "List of Christian denominations", "section": "Section::::Terminology and qualification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 947, "text": "Some groups included on this list do not consider themselves denominations. For example, the Catholic Church considers itself the one true church and the Holy See as pre-denominational. The Eastern Orthodox Church also considers itself the original Church and pre-denominational. To express further the complexity involved, the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches were historically one and the same, as evidenced by the fact that they are the only two modern churches in existence to accept all of the first seven ecumenical councils, until differences arose, such as papal authority and dominance, the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the continuance of emperors in the Eastern Roman Empire, and the final and permanent split that occurred during the Crusades with the siege of Constantinople. This also illustrates that denominations can arise not only from religious or theological issues, but political and generational divisions as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'd like to point to [this post I made a few days ago](_URL_0_) for reference.\n\nNotably this bit: \n\n > All men between the ages of 18 and 25 were to be forcibly conscripted for military service -- all men. Men into their 30's would also regularly volunteer or be called upon as well though. If you were fighting your first few years in the military would be one of utter disorganization and panic. Revolutionary hype would be ripe and you and your comrades would feel it. Any officers living a little too luxuriously? Mob them and send them to the guillotine. Your NCO being a little too harsh on you and your mates? That doesn't sound like liberty or fraternity, I don't like being drilled! You'd probably be part of a mob that killed him or stripped him of his power. It is very likely you would be witness or a participant in the murder of an individual whose only crime was being a bit rich, an aristocratic heritage, or was being a bit too strict with you. \n\n > Where you fought doesn't really matter, your life would be hell. Supply issues were rampant as the Royal Armies rather sophisticated supply system would be sacked entirely for being part of the old system. A new administrative service would be created which had a semi-independent status, its *commissaires-ordonnateurs* only responsible to the Republic itself and not the commanders it served. These men, responsible for collecting, storing, preparing, and issuing foodstuffs and clothing along with disbursing money were filled with endless opportunities of larceny. Supplies and cash would frequently vanish before reaching the troops going into the pockets of Revolutionary leaders in Paris. Vincentius Zahn, a pastor in Hinterzarten, watched a French army pass through in 1796 which would be about when the supply issue began to stabilize. So this is the best case scenario you're about to read:\n\n > > One did not see [compared to the Austrian army] so many wagons or so much baggage, such elegant cavalry, or any infantry officers on horseback below the grade of major. [Austrian infantry lieutenants had their own mounts] Everything about these Frenchman was supple and light -- movements, clothing, arms, and baggage, In their ranks marched boys of fourteen and fifteen; the greater part of their infantry was without uniforms, shoes, money, and apparently lacking all organization, if one were to judge by appearances alone. . . These French resembled a savage horde [but] they kept good order, only some marauders who followed the army at a distance . . . terrified the inhabitants.\n\n > You had no shoes most certainly. The Directory in '95 had to pass a special order just to give all the Officers their own shoes and even that wasn't filled out entirely. Your uniform was nonexistent as is mentioned but just a loose collection of tattered blue or white with the French tricolor somewhere on it if you could manage. You had no regular supply of food from the country itself but had to survive off of war. Most early campaigns you would fight in would not be explicit offensives but 'liberating' nearby towns across the Rhine or in North Italy for supplies. Soldiers had no issue foraging on their own French lands as well. If you were a conscript you would most likely abandon your men while marching through familiar land. Many Divisions would lose half their men on extended marches through attrition and desertion alone. \n\n > Artillery and cavalry was restricted mostly to pre-war soldiers who had the training and knowledge to perform those duties. If you were conscripted you were almost certainly put into one of two areas -- light infantry or regular infantry. *Tirailleur* and *Fusilier* respectively. Assuming you did not desert after being thrown into one of these two sections you would get two very separate combat experiences. The post-Revolutionary army was very fond of skirmisher forces for some inexplicable reason. I say that mainly because inexperienced troops are very poor skirmishers. They generally aren't crack shots and flee at the slightest sign of trouble. Yet whole battalions were frequently deployed as entirely skirmishers, a tactic dubbed *\"tirailleur en grandes bandes.\"* If you were part of a skirmisher force you would likely not be thrown directly into the fray. You would be sent on small scale raiding 'missions' with a small number of other skirmisher comrades and an officer as a sort of training exercise. You would raid storage caches or small villages so that you would get used to being under fire in a more controlled environment for your officer to control you. As you would go into battle against a formal Austrian, British, Italian or Prussian army your duty would be constant harassment. \n\n > If you were thrown into the fusiliers you would be heavily drilled about formation. The common trope about Napoleonic warfare are two sides standing in line formation staring each other down 50-100 yards apart and shooting at each other. This is a shitty strategy for the French, pardon my French. Line formation is inefficient for untrained conscripts because, like a phalanx, it requires holding formation and firing in concert -- two things conscripts will not be capable of doing on a few weeks of training under heavy fire. The French military doctrine of this time was one of constant attack -- always being on the offensive. It was the only way they would abuse their manpower advantage. You would be organized into a column of just a few men wide and dozens of men deep. You likely would not fire your weapon once or just once in a battle, as you were charging at full sprint into the enemy line. That is what the column provided -- it gave depth to the line, did not require a lot of organization, and was only used as a formality to charge into shattered and notably *thin* lines of the enemy. British, Austrian, Italian and Prussian troops were professional armies and would fight in that line formation. It would not stand up to constant column charges. \n\n > How would a normal battle go? Well, again, it depended on your position in the army. Again you were most certainly in the infantry if you were just a farmer. Let's imagine it from the enemies shoes. Swarms of skirmishers would begin to envelop your tight, strictly dressed formations firing from cover in completely disorderly formations. When I say swarm, we're talking 2:1 or 3:1 ratios at times. If you stand still, you will be continuously picked off. If you try to fire on them, you will only hit a few as they were extremely scattered. If you tried to charge them they would drift away, still shooting, and follow you when you try to fall back into your strictly disciplined line. \n\n > Eventually your line would be in tatters you, a Brit or Austrian alike, would look up across the horizon. Out of the smoke comes a howling, trampling, massive rush of thousands of men with bayonets extended with the weight of 12 men against every yard of your exhausted line (which were only 3 deep when it all began). Your professional, organized, and chivalrous armies would try their best but they would keep running into issues. A French NCO who was completely outnumbered and outmaneuvered that just failed to recognize his hopeless situation and charged anyway, killing thousands in a last stand. Inexperienced French officers who would show a shocking disregard of accepted military strategy and turn every engagement into a mindless, all out slugfest where fancy tactics and strategy of the non-Revolutionary sides meant nothing and would buckle under the weight of thousands of Frenchmen bearing down on them.\n\n > Back to the French perspective. Let's say, somehow, you survive all of this. It's not unreasonable, many did. You did not get poked with a bayonet or shot in a charge or desert your men or didn't get caught hoarding anything. You survived the '90's into 1799 when the Directory would fall. A hundred battles would harrow you. You would time and time again throw the English and Austrians back in particular. What many tens of thousands died of combat many more would die of your governments incompetence. The patriotic enthusiasm you held in '91 seemed immature and stupid to the ragged veterans of 1799. The bands would play the patriotic airs of those first years of revolution -- *Chant du Départ*, *Ah ça Ira*, and the *Marseillaise*. \n\n > The bands would play and you would sing, but they would mean nothing to you. You were a professional soldier in a professional army now. You, who fought out of pride and comradeship in '91 had spent the last decade learning to loot and murder to survive and would hold little reverence for any person or any idea and especially for that damn Revolution. Your Generals would be a wolf-breed, disrespectful of authority and independent minded. All of you, officers and men together, were survivors. Men of steel, toughened to all the hardship and conditions of the worst wars in history up to that point, thoroughly fed up with the *gros-ventres* -- big bellies -- of the Revolutionary government in Paris who had used and abused you. You had won dozens of victories and thrown the entirety of Europe onto its backfoot but you had no peace, no shoes, and not a square meal in nearly 10 years. It was this army that would make Napoleon Bonaparte First Consul at the beginning of the 19th century. And this army was comprised of you, dangerous metal which would be forged into the Grand Armée -- the greatest military force the world would ever see.\n\nBasically, if I had to make a **tl;dr** of it all? The Revolutionary Armies early on would conscript basically everyone and the more professional, more 'efficient' European armies would simply be overwhelmed. Maneuver and tactics went out the window when you have 3x as many people swarming down on you all shooting wildly into your formation and charging into you, disregarding all casualties. Sheer force of numbers would push the primarily Austrians and British back and allow the French to get early territorial gains in the 1792-1797 First Coalition War. \n\nBy the time of the Second Coalition War between 1798-1802, the goal was not to reinstate the Monarchy but to just at least contain the French from taking more land and at best taking back some of what they gained. Despite getting many early victories with the help of the Russians, they would eventually back out and the British and Austrians primarily would face the reality -- Napoleon was now in charge and was the military genius he is. At his feet lay a military which had been fighting for a decade straight, easily the most experienced and battle hardened group in Europe. As the rest of Europe was playing catch up with the idea of mass conscripted armies, France had perfected it over the past decade of failure and death and had a horrifying combination -- an experienced conscript army led by arguably the most talented general in history. This would allow them to wage multiple wars of aggression throughout the early 19th century and convincingly win them and conquer most of Europe.\n\n----\n\nNotes:\n\nElting, John, *\"Swords Around a Throne: Napoleons Grand Armee\"*\n\nRothenberg, Gunther, *\"The Napoleonic Wars\"*", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If all men into their 30's were fighting, wouldn't that cause a catastrophic drop in births?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44059082", "title": "Siege of Hüningen (1796–97)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 782, "text": "The siege occurred within the French Revolutionary Wars during which Revolutionary France ranged itself against a Coalition that included most of the states with which it shared land or water borders. In particular, France was at odds with the European monarchies, who initially feared for the safety of Louis XVI and his wife, who was the sister of the Holy Roman Emperor. Fighting, which began in 1792, had been inconclusive. Fighting in 1795 had largely favored the Coalition; the Campaign in the Rhineland in 1796, though, had pushed the Coalition forces far into the German states; the Coalition forces had pushed back and, at the end of the summer's fighting in 1796, the Austrian force under command of Archduke Charles had succeeded in pushing the French back to the Rhine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "215994", "title": "Hundred Days", "section": "Section::::Background.:Napoleon's rise and fall.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 699, "text": "The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars pitted France against various coalitions of other European nations nearly continuously from 1792 onward. The overthrow and subsequent public execution of Louis XVI in France had greatly disturbed other European leaders, who vowed to crush the French Republic. Rather than leading to France's defeat, the wars allowed the revolutionary regime to expand beyond its borders and create client republics. The success of the French forces made a hero out of their best commander, Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1799, Napoleon staged a successful coup d'état and became First Consul of the new French Consulate. Five years later, he crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "611740", "title": "French Army", "section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 295, "text": "From 1792, the French Revolutionary Army fought against various combinations of European powers, initially reliant on large numbers and basic tactics, it was defeated bloodily but survived and drove its opponents first from French soil and then overran several countries creating client states.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55361525", "title": "French expedition to Sardinia", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 869, "text": "The French Revolutionary Wars began in April 1792 when the Austrian Empire and Kingdom of Prussia declared war on the newly instituted French Republic. Although the Kingdom of Sardinia, split between Piedmont in Northern Italy and the large Mediterranean island of Sardinia, was not part of this coalition, it was identified as a primary target of French military operations. The island of Sardinia was agriculturally rich and strategically important in the Mediterranean, and it was felt in France that its capture would intimidate the mainland part of the Kingdom and the other nations of the Italian peninsula, and spread republicanism beyond the borders of France. Moreover, a successful attack on the island was thought to be easily achievable, and orders were given for an expeditionary force to assemble at Toulon, the principal French Mediterranean naval base.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8674184", "title": "Battle of Genoa (1795)", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 965, "text": "The French Revolutionary Wars expanded significantly in February 1793 when the National Convention of the newly-formed French Republic declared war on the Kingdom of Great Britain. To defend British commercial interests in the Mediterranean Sea, a Royal Navy fleet was assembled and sent to blockade the French Mediterranean Fleet in their main port of Toulon on the Southern coast of France. On arrival in August 1793, the British fleet found that Toulon was in a state of upheaval due to the Reign of Terror, and the British commander Lord Hood persuaded the citizens to declare for the French Royalist cause and allow British forces to seize the town and the French fleet. Republican forces laid siege to the city and four months of heavy fighting followed until the Royalists and their allies were expelled on 18 December. During the chaotic evacuation of the city most of the French Mediterranean fleet was set on fire by British and Spanish boarding parties.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9836163", "title": "Brabant Revolution", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.:French invasion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 1213, "text": "The War of the First Coalition (1792–1797) was the first major effort of multiple European monarchies to defeat Revolutionary France. France declared war on Austria in April 1792, and the Kingdom of Prussia joined the Austrian side a few weeks later. France was attacked by Prussian and Holy Roman forces from the Austrian Netherlands. Though the French defeated the Austrian army in the Battle of Jemappes in 1792 and briefly occupied the Austrian Netherlands and Liège, they were pushed out by an Austrian counterattack in the Battle of Neerwinden the following year. In June 1794, French revolutionary troops expelled Holy Roman forces from the region for the last time after the Battle of Fleurus. The French government voted to formally annex the territory in October 1795 and it was split into nine provincial \"départements\" within France. French rule in the region, known as the French period (\"Franse tijd\" or \"période française\"), was marked by the rapid implementation and extension of numerous reforms which had been passed in post-Revolution France since 1789. Administration was organised under the French model, with meritocratic selection. Legal equality and state secularism were also introduced.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "868542", "title": "Campaigns of 1796 in the French Revolutionary Wars", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 308, "text": "The French Revolutionary Wars continued from 1795, with the French in an increasingly strong position as members of the First Coalition made separate peaces. Austria and Great Britain were the main remaining members of the coalition. The rebellion in the Vendée was also finally terminated by General Hoche.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It might just be regional, because I only know a couple of people who *don't* use Facebook. Facebook chat seems like the primary method of communication for a lot of people, or is at least tied with texting. I also see a lot of people and organizations using Facebook for planning events. I work in advertising and a lot of my clients also have Facebook pages for promoting their brands.\n\nGranted, I don't have any hard numbers to back that up so my experience is equally anecdotal, but it doesn't seem like Facebook is in any trouble.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "29407218", "title": "List of mergers and acquisitions by Facebook", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 594, "text": "Facebook is a social networking company that has acquired other companies, including WhatsApp. The WhatsApp acquisition closed at a steep $16 billion; more than $40 per user of the platform. Facebook also purchased the defunct company ConnectU in a court settlement and acquired intellectual property formerly held by rival Friendster. The majority of the companies acquired by Facebook are based in the United States, and in turn, a large percentage of these companies are based in or around the San Francisco Bay Area. Facebook has also made investments in LuckyCal and Wildfire Interactive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35930482", "title": "Initial public offering of Facebook", "section": "Section::::Preparation.:Valuation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 291, "text": "The Facebook IPO brought inevitable comparisons with other technology company offerings. Some investors expressed keen interest in Facebook because they felt they had missed out on the massive gains Google saw in the wake of its IPO. LinkedIn stock, meanwhile, had doubled on its first day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35930482", "title": "Initial public offering of Facebook", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Financial.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 680, "text": "The IPO impacted both Facebook investors and the company itself. It was said to provide healthy rewards for venture capitalists who finally saw the fruits of their labor. In contrast, it was said to negatively affect individual investors such as Facebook employees, who saw once-valuable shares become less lucrative. More generally, the disappointing IPO was said to lower interest in the stock by investors. That would make it more difficult for the company to accumulate cash reserves for large future expenditures such as acquisitions. CBS News said \"the Facebook brand takes a pretty big hit for this,\" mostly because of the public interest that had surrounded the offering.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7529378", "title": "Facebook", "section": "Section::::Criticisms and controversies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 139, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 139, "end_character": 287, "text": "Facebook's importance and scale has led to criticisms in many domains. Notable issues include Internet privacy, excessive retention of user information, its facial recognition software, its addictive quality and its role in the workplace, including employer access to employee accounts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35930482", "title": "Initial public offering of Facebook", "section": "Section::::Preparation.:Valuation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 606, "text": "A number of commentators argued retrospectively that Facebook had been heavily overvalued because of an illiquid private market on SecondMarket, where trades of stock were minimal and thus pricing unstable. Facebook's aggregate valuation went up from January 2011 to April 2012, before plummeting after the IPO in May - but this was in a largely illiquid market, with less than 120 trades each quarter during 2010 and 2011. \"Valuations in the private market are going to make it 'difficult to go public'\", according to Mary Meeker, an American venture capitalist and former Wall Street securities analyst.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7529378", "title": "Facebook", "section": "Section::::History.:2006–2012: Public access, Microsoft alliance, and rapid growth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 598, "text": "In February 2011, Facebook announced plans to move its headquarters to the former Sun Microsystems campus in Menlo Park, California. In March 2011, it was reported that Facebook was removing about 20,000 profiles daily for violations such as spam, graphic content and underage use, as part of its efforts to boost cyber security. Statistics showed that Facebook reached one trillion page views in the month of June 2011, making it the most visited website tracked by DoubleClick. According to a Nielsen study, Facebook had in 2011 become the second-most accessed website in the U.S. behind Google.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29503005", "title": "Enterprise social networking", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 280, "text": "The growth of Facebook was a boom in the social networking space. Facebook became a huge corporation that had 1400 employees in 2009; their estimated revenue was US$800 million in 2009. In 2010, it was reported that there were more than 200 social networking websites on the web.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You start storing waste underground and you need to be damn sure there's no groundwater movement that can leach waste into drinking water. That is not possible in the vast majority of mine systems as the geology which accompanies coal formation trends to be fractured and porous. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "On top of the good answer provided by /u/OrbitalPete, much of our rubbish comprises organic materials, such as waste food. Over time, as it decays, organic material releases a number of gases including methane. If this were to happen in a deep underground chamber the methane could build up to high concentrations, and then if a stray spark were to happen (say when someone threw the next load of rubbish down the pit) a huge and potentially devastating explosion could occur.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes, the water thing.\n\nBut you're not replacing one pollutant with another. Coal itself is not a pollutant. Carbon dioxide, sulfur, etc is the pollutant that's in the smoke of coal when burned.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52917186", "title": "Labor and the environment", "section": "Section::::Effects.:Climate change.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 869, "text": "Mining has contributed to many of the air pollutions being released into the air. When mining for these resources, inexperienced employees are creating many detrimental outcomes when mining in the wrong areas or hitting gas leaks. In specifics to coal mines, communities have no choice but to leave their land behind and move due to the expansion of these mines, and the water contamination from mining. These companies are very quick to attain any sort of product through mining that they do not realize the great damage left behind once they have extracted what they need. Acid mine drainage for instance, is just one of the issues that can continue on for decades, as a result of a minimal mining job. Many campaigns are doing their best to ensure that communities find alternative routes to renewable energy to preserve the environment and decrease climate change.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35789430", "title": "Coal mining in Brazil", "section": "Section::::Future.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 654, "text": "Procedures to reclaim abandoned mining sites have also been proposed. Using the coal pit as a landfill for other waste would help limit the areas impacted by mining activity. Using the area for forest and grassland development could help restore the ecosystems damaged by deforestation and contamination. Developing grassland areas and constructing ponds could help stimulate other forms of local economic ability like cattle raising and fishing. Given the extreme degradation caused by mining activities and the tremendous costs of reclaiming affected land and water areas, these measures face a number of challenges in their successful implementation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47223627", "title": "Coal ash basin", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1267, "text": "A coal ash basin or landfill, as the name implies, is an excavated basin for the disposal of coal ash to prevent its release into the atmosphere. Although the use of basins decreases the amount of airborne pollutants, basins pose serious health risks for the surrounding environment. Chemicals contained within samples of coal that do not burn are magnified in concentration within the coal ash. In general, coal ash basins are not lined landfills, and therefore chemicals in the ash can leach into the groundwater, lakes, rivers, and other freshwater sources, accumulating in the biomass of the system. Because of biomagnification, the concentration of these chemicals in animals will increase up a food chain (similarly to mercury in tuna). This can be very dangerous to humans that consume plant or animal life that has been affected by the coal basin. Some substances that can be commonly found in coal ash are arsenic, selenium, cadmium, nickel, lead, and mercury. Many of these, especially heavy metals, can have negative effects on humans when ingested. There are some initiatives, such as the one made by Duke Energy in 2015 to excavate existing coal basins to reduce the environmental effects of coal-burning power facilities on the surrounding environment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "208433", "title": "Open-pit mining", "section": "Section::::Pollutants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 608, "text": "Open-pit mining involves the process of disrupting the ground, which leads to the creation of air pollutants. The main source of air pollutants comes from the transportation of minerals, but there are various other factors including drilling, blasting and the loading and unloading of overburden. These type of pollutants cause significant damage to public health and safety in addition to damaging the air quality. The inhalation of these pollutants can cause issues to the lungs and ultimately increase mortality. Furthermore, the pollutants affect flora and fauna in the areas surrounding open-pit mines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2423894", "title": "Coal pollution mitigation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 352, "text": "Coal pollution mitigation, often called clean coal, is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with the burning (though not the mining or processing) of coal, which is widely regarded as the dirtiest of the common fuels for industrial processes and power generation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1560443", "title": "Fossil fuel power station", "section": "Section::::Conversion of fossil fuel power plants.:Coal pollution mitigation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 1327, "text": "Coal pollution mitigation is a process whereby coal is chemically washed of minerals and impurities, sometimes gasified, burned and the resulting flue gases treated with steam, with the purpose of removing sulfur dioxide, and reburned so as to make the carbon dioxide in the flue gas economically recoverable, and storable underground (the latter of which is called \"carbon capture and storage\"). The coal industry uses the term \"clean coal\" to describe technologies designed to enhance both the efficiency and the environmental acceptability of coal extraction, preparation and use, but has provided no specific quantitative limits on any emissions, particularly carbon dioxide. Whereas contaminants like sulfur or mercury can be removed from coal, carbon cannot be effectively removed while still leaving a usable fuel, and clean coal plants without carbon sequestration and storage do not significantly reduce carbon dioxide emissions. James Hansen in an open letter to then U.S. President Barack Obama advocated a \"moratorium and phase-out of coal plants that do not capture and store CO\". In his book \"Storms of My Grandchildren\", similarly, Hansen discusses his \"Declaration of Stewardship\" the first principle of which requires \"a moratorium on coal-fired power plants that do not capture and sequester carbon dioxide\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2138922", "title": "San Jose, Camarines Sur", "section": "Section::::Infrastructure.:Environmental management.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 180, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 180, "end_character": 286, "text": "On Solid Waste Disposal, the two most common method used to garbage disposal are dumping in an open pit (not burned) and burning. Composting is also adopted while others are being served by the municipal garbage collectors. Majority of the households is equipped with sanitary toilets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Einstein's theory of relativity states that time and velocity are relative to an observers point of view, or reference frame. His special theory is called such because it deals only with inertia reference frames which are reference frames that have no acceleration or change in gravitational potential. His general theory takes into account acceleration and gravity.\n\nSpecial relativity is fairly easy to understand as the highest level math you need is Pythagoras's theorem. General relativity is a lot more complex math and not ELI5 friendly.\n\nSpecial relativity has two postulates, that the speed of light is constant and that the laws of physics don't change between reference frames. Both of these have been proven true. Using this, Einstein showed that moving observers actually have their time dilation and their length in the direction of motion contracted.\n\nSo lets talk about time dilation first. Imagine a clock that works by bouncing a photon between two mirrors. We the know the speed of light and we can measure the distance between the mirrors, this means the time it takes for the photon to bounce is easily calculated. Now what if we have that clock moving at a constant speed? Well the path we see the light take is not longer straight up and down, it's [slanted](_URL_2_). Since the light takes a longer path and the speed of the light is unchanged, this means that it takes a longer amount of time to bounce between the two mirrors. Viola, moving objects experience slower time. An important thing to note, because every observe is stationary in their own reference frame, every observer will see everything else as being dilated instead of themselves.\nSo if you're moving, you only experience slower time from someone else's point of view. However, you also see them as experiencing slower time, because to you they appear to be moving.\n\nNow lets move on to length contraction. This one is a tricky one to explain. It relies on how length is measured correctly. Basically, in order to correctly measure the length of an object, you have to know the position of both its ends at the same time. This isn't too hard to do, but if an observer moving past you saw you do this they would think you messed up. Imagine you have a rod, and you have two friends at either end. You walk to a point equidistant to them and tell them to record their position at the moment they see you flash a light. Since you're equidistant, the light will reach them at the same time. However, to the moving observer the light won't reach your friends at the same time. They won't be synchronized and they'll see you as getting an incorrect measurement.\n\nThis leads to one of the last consequences of special relativity, the simultaneity of relativity. Because moving observers disagree on the timing and lengths of things, no two clocks can be synchronized in different reference frames.\n\n[Minute Physics](_URL_1_) gives a **very** basic overview.\n\n[Doc Physics](_URL_5_) gives a lengthy intro to SR.\n\n[Sixty Symbols](_URL_0_) on length contraction.\n\nGeneral Relativity is a lot more complex. You need a very good understanding of Calculus, Differential Equations, and Multilinear Algebra to actually do the math behind it. But the gist of it is that a change in gravitational potential and acceleration are essentially the same thing and have the same effects. It also states that objects with mass curve space-time around them. This means that the force of gravity objects feel is actually them just following the curvature of space-time around them. This can lead to a whole bunch of wacky effects like gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshirting, and black holes.\n\n[Gravity Visualized](_URL_4_)\n\n[Sixty Symbols](_URL_3_) on Special and General Relativity.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "91100", "title": "Michelson–Morley experiment", "section": "Section::::Light path analysis and consequences.:Special relativity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 478, "text": "The extent to which the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment influenced Einstein is disputed. Alluding to some statements of Einstein, many historians argue that it played no significant role in his path to special relativity, while other statements of Einstein probably suggest that he was influenced by it. In any case, the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment helped the notion of the constancy of the speed of light gain widespread and rapid acceptance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4022767", "title": "Relativity priority dispute", "section": "Section::::Attackers and defenders.:Special relativity.:Harvey R. Brown (2005).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 134, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 134, "end_character": 219, "text": "Harvey R. Brown (2005) (who favors a dynamical view of relativistic effects similar to Lorentz, but \"\"without a hidden aether frame\"\") wrote about the road to special relativity from Michelson to Einstein in section 4:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "427118", "title": "Principle of locality", "section": "Section::::Relativity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 218, "text": "Einstein's quantum theory (currently termed the \"old quantum theory\") is said to be \"relativistic\" because it does \"not\" violate either his general or special theory of relativity: speed of light is a limiting factor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4022767", "title": "Relativity priority dispute", "section": "Section::::Attackers and defenders.:Special relativity.:Olivier Darrigol (2004).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 129, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 129, "end_character": 334, "text": "BULLET::::- In sum, then, Einstein could have borrowed the relativity principle, the definition of simultaneity, the physical interpretation of the Lorentz transformations, and the radiation paradoxes from Poincaré. ... The wisest attitude might be to leave the coincidence of Poincaré's and Einstein's breakthroughs unexplained, ...\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "section": "Section::::Scientific career.:Quantum mechanics.:Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 160, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 160, "end_character": 769, "text": "Einstein was displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925. Contrary to popular belief, his doubts were not due to a conviction that God \"is not playing at dice.\" Indeed, it was Einstein himself, in his 1917 paper that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, who first proposed the fundamental role of chance in explaining quantum processes. Rather, he objected to what quantum mechanics implies about the nature of reality. Einstein believed that a physical reality exists independent of our ability to observe it. In contrast, Bohr and his followers maintained that all we can know are the results of measurements and observations, and that it makes no sense to speculate about an ultimate reality that exists beyond our perceptions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30694430", "title": "Criticism of the theory of relativity", "section": "Section::::Relativity hype and popular criticism.:Accusations of plagiarism and priority discussions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 551, "text": "Some contemporary historians of science have revived the question as to whether Einstein was possibly influenced by the ideas of Poincaré, who first stated the relativity principle and applied it to electrodynamics, developing interpretations and modifications of Lorentz's electron theory that appear to have anticipated what is now called special relativity. Another discussion concerns a possible mutual influence between Einstein and David Hilbert as regards completing the field equations of general relativity (see Relativity priority dispute).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30694430", "title": "Criticism of the theory of relativity", "section": "Section::::Philosophical criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 1078, "text": "Critical responses to relativity were also expressed by proponents of neo-Kantianism (Paul Natorp, Bruno Bauch etc.), and phenomenology (Oskar Becker, Moritz Geiger etc.). While some of them only rejected the philosophical consequences, others rejected also the physical consequences of the theory. Einstein was criticized for violating Immanuel Kant's categoric scheme, \"i.e.\", it was claimed that space-time curvature caused by matter and energy is impossible, since matter and energy already require the concepts of space and time. Also the three-dimensionality of space, Euclidean geometry, and the existence of absolute simultaneity were claimed to be necessary for the understanding of the world; none of them can possibly be altered by empirical findings. By moving all those concepts into a metaphysical area, any form of criticism of Kantianism would be prevented. Other pseudo-Kantians like Ernst Cassirer or Hans Reichenbach (1920), tried to modify Kant's philosophy. Subsequently, Reichenbach rejected Kantianism at all and became a proponent of logical positivism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A lot has to do with where and when your injured.\n\nActive duty and in combat: If it's sever enough you'll go to Walter Reed, otherwise you'll be in a different military hospital, some excellent, some okay, and some barely passable (just like any large dispersed group). \n\nNo longer active duty but with service related injuries, you go to the VA.\n\nNow imagine the differences in both numbers of patients and age/health of those patients. Military hospitals will generally see younger people with acute issues (broken leg, arm blown off, a cough, etc.) Where as VA hospitals will see older parents with chronic conditions. Plus there are millions more veterans then active duty service members. It's not a surprise the VA has issues since they are almost always underfunded and over worked.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It also may have to do with the fact that Walter Reed is where the Senators/Representatives go for care, so of course the standard of care is going to be higher based on who the patient base is. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > awful horrible care a VA hospitals\n\nThe VA provides comparable or superior care compared to non-VA entities in most domains.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n\nIf you google \"outcomes of VA care\" you can find other articles and studies about the topic. This idea that VA hospitals are shitty and provide poor care is largely a myth. Many of them are old and look like shit, but the care they provide is usually comparable to non-VA care.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "45025561", "title": "Army Medical Service (Germany)", "section": "Section::::History and organisation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 524, "text": "The Army Medical Service employs military physicians, nurses, combat medics and other groups, and is traditionally responsible for providing medical humanitarian relief in armed conflicts, including caring for sick or wounded soldiers on the battlefield and operating first aid stations and field hospitals near the frontline, as well as organising transports of patients. Other responsibilities include occupational health services, medical disaster relief and international humanitarian missions in non-combat situations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11812179", "title": "Military building", "section": "Section::::Hospitals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 215, "text": "All of these conditions, plus an increasing number of personnel with families, have led to the construction of full service military hospitals. These hospitals treat both members of the military and their families.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6736104", "title": "Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War", "section": "Section::::Hospitals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 233, "text": "Hospitals in the Washington area became significant providers of medical services to wounded soldiers needing long-term care after being transported to the city from the front lines over the Long Bridge or by steamboat at the Wharf.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42917607", "title": "Veterans Health Administration scandal of 2014", "section": "Section::::Comments from management experts, health care experts, and economists.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 536, "text": "Phillip Longman, author of \"Best Care Anywhere: Why VA Care Would Work Better for Everyone,\" said after visiting VA hospitals nationwide that, as the result of veterans in New England, the Mid-Atlantic and the industrial midwest either dying or retiring to Sunbelt states, there is an imbalance of capacity, with empty beds in some VHA hospitals and waiting lists in others. Compounding this problem, more liberal eligibility standards allow veterans to get treatment for chronic conditions of aging like heart disease and Parkinson's.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "70922", "title": "United States Department of Veterans Affairs", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 506, "text": "The United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) is a federal Cabinet-level agency that provides near-comprehensive healthcare services to eligible military veterans at VA medical centers and outpatient clinics located throughout the country; several non-healthcare benefits including disability compensation, vocational rehabilitation, education assistance, home loans, and life insurance; and provides burial and memorial benefits to eligible veterans and family members at 135 national cemeteries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52145021", "title": "Operational Stress Injury", "section": "Section::::Treatment approaches.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 670, "text": "The military and public safety professions vary widely among differing jurisdictions as to what is available in terms of therapy. Military members in western nations typically are covered to some extent by their respective military health services, or by governmental departments dedicated to providing services to veterans, such as Veterans Affairs Canada or the United States Department of Veterans Affairs. Police, firefighters, paramedics, and other related professions will each have differing health care arrangements and benefits depending on the health services an insurance arrangements in their respective country, state, province, territory, or municipality.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "520289", "title": "Hearing aid", "section": "Section::::Cost.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 241, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 241, "end_character": 284, "text": "Military Veterans receiving VA medical care are eligible for hearing aids based on medical need. The Veterans Administration pays the full cost of testing and hearing aids to qualified military Veterans. Major VA medical facilities provide complete diagnostic and audiology services.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's cold enough, but there is very little CO2 in the atmosphere. You can't look at the sublimination point at 1 atm because the partial pressure of CO2 is much lower. The low partial pressure of carbon dioxide would cause it to subliminate in this environment--some molecules are freezing out, but at the same time others are sublimating and there is no accumulation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "atomfullerene covered your main question, but I'll add that phase transitions are pressure dependent, and carbon dioxide can't exist as a liquid at atmospheric pressure.\n\n[Phase diagram](_URL_0_)\n\nNote that the liquid area is entirely above 5.11 atmospheres. At 1 atmosphere, it transitions directly from solid to gas... This is why it's called dry ice.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "39070352", "title": "Wildlife of Antarctica", "section": "Section::::Environmental conditions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 492, "text": "Around 98% of continental Antarctica is covered in ice up to thick. Antarctica's icy deserts have extremely low temperatures, high solar radiation, and extreme dryness. Any precipitation that does fall usually falls as snow, and is restricted to a band around from the coast. Some areas receive as little as 50mm of precipitation annually. The coldest temperature recorded on Earth was at Vostok Station on the Antarctic Plateau. Organisms that survive in Antarctica are often extremophiles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4097799", "title": "An Inconvenient Truth", "section": "Section::::Scientific basis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 282, "text": "BULLET::::- A study by researchers at the Physics Institute at the University of Bern and the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA) presenting data from Antarctic ice cores showing carbon dioxide concentrations higher than at any time during the past 650,000 years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1157839", "title": "Antarctic ice sheet", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 765, "text": "The icing of Antarctica began in the middle Eocene about 45.5 million years ago and escalated during the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event about 34 million years ago. CO levels were then about 760 ppm and had been decreasing from earlier levels in the thousands of ppm. Carbon dioxide decrease, with a tipping point of 600 ppm, was the primary agent forcing Antarctic glaciation. The glaciation was favored by an interval when the Earth's orbit favored cool summers but oxygen isotope ratio cycle marker changes were too large to be explained by Antarctic ice-sheet growth alone indicating an ice age of some size. The opening of the Drake Passage may have played a role as well though models of the changes suggest declining CO levels to have been more important.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49495570", "title": "Mendel Polar Station", "section": "Section::::Location.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 594, "text": "The whole north-western part of the island – Ulu Peninsula – represents one of the largest ice-free areas of Antarctica. Up to 80% of the island area is free of ice. Thanks to a rain shadow cast by the Antarctic Peninsula, the annual precipitation is low – about –and the occasional snowfall quickly melts and is absorbed into the ground. This is because the station is located on a marine terrace formed by compact fine sand (Regolith). In 2008, the minimum temperature was and the maximum temperature was (mean ); the minimum humidity was 71.2% and the maximum humidity was 88.1% (mean 81%).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "179863", "title": "Climate of Antarctica", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 318, "text": "The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth. The lowest air temperature record on Antarctica was set on 21 July 1983, when was observed at Vostok Station. Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures, with having been observed at the cloud-free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "179863", "title": "Climate of Antarctica", "section": "Section::::Precipitation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 889, "text": "The total precipitation on Antarctica, averaged over the entire continent, is about per year (Vaughan et al., J Climate, 1999). The actual rates vary widely, from high values over the Peninsula (15 to 25 inches a year) to very low values (as little as in the high interior (Bromwich, Reviews of Geophysics, 1988). Areas that receive less than of precipitation per year are classified as deserts. Almost all Antarctic precipitation falls as snow. Rainfall is rare and mainly occurs during the summer in coastal areas and surrounding islands. Note that the quoted precipitation is a measure of its equivalence to water, rather than being the actual depth of snow. The air in Antarctica is also very dry. The low temperatures result in a very low absolute humidity, which means that dry skin and cracked lips are a continual problem for scientists and expeditioners working in the continent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "433085", "title": "Atmospheric circulation", "section": "Section::::Latitudinal circulation features.:Polar cell.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 219, "text": "The polar cell, terrain, and Katabatic winds in Antarctica can create very cold conditions at the surface, for instance the lowest temperature recorded on Earth: −89.2 °C at Vostok Station in Antarctica, measured 1983.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "An API is a defined way for one person's code to interact with another person's code. \"Web API\" means an API that uses the standard systems of the world wide web to interact with each other. For example, you can see reddit's API documentation [here](_URL_0_). It's a list of web addresses you can go to and give certain information, and reddit will respond with the information you're asking about.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27697009", "title": "Application programming interface", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Web APIs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 446, "text": "Web APIs are the defined interfaces through which interactions happen between an enterprise and applications that use its assets, which also is a Service Level Agreement (SLA) to specify the functional provider and expose the service path or URL for its API users. An API approach is an architectural approach that revolves around providing a program interface to a set of services to different applications serving different types of consumers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2915176", "title": "Web API", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 376, "text": "A Web API is an application programming interface for either a web server or a web browser. It is a web development concept, usually limited to a web application's client-side (including any web frameworks being used), and thus usually does not include web server or browser implementation details such as SAPIs or APIs unless publicly accessible by a remote web application.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9989557", "title": "Open API", "section": "Section::::Open APIs on the Web.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 397, "text": "Web APIs are used for exchanging information with a website either by receiving or by sending data. When a web API fetches data from a website, the application makes a carefully constructed HTTP request to the server the site is stored on. The server then sends data back in a format your application expects (if you requested data) or incorporates your changes to the website (if you sent data).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20607333", "title": "API writer", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 558, "text": "An API is a basic library consisting of interfaces, functions, classes, structures, enumerations, etc. for building a software application. It is used by development teams to interact with and extend the software. An API for a given programming language and system may consist of system-defined and user-defined constructs. As the number and complexity of these constructs increases, it becomes very tedious for developers to remember all of the functions and the parameters defined. Hence, the API writers play a key role in building software applications.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27697009", "title": "Application programming interface", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 404, "text": "In computer programming, an application programming interface (API) is a set of subroutine definitions, communication protocols, and tools for building software. In general terms, it is a set of clearly defined methods of communication among various components. A good API makes it easier to develop a computer program by providing all the building blocks, which are then put together by the programmer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57143357", "title": "Glossary of computer science", "section": "Section::::A.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 390, "text": "BULLET::::- Application programming interface – (API) is a set of subroutine definitions, communication protocols, and tools for building software. In general terms, it is a set of clearly defined methods of communication among various components. A good API makes it easier to develop a computer program by providing all the building blocks, which are then put together by the programmer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50336055", "title": "Glossary of artificial intelligence", "section": "Section::::A.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 503, "text": "BULLET::::- Application programming interface – (API) is a set of subroutine definitions, communication protocols, and tools for building software. In general terms, it is a set of clearly defined methods of communication among various components. A good API makes it easier to develop a computer program by providing all the building blocks, which are then put together by the programmer. An API may be for a web-based system, operating system, database system, computer hardware, or software library.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Quite a lot has been published and I'll list some papers below which will be of interest to you but essentially, everything comes down to a chemical equilibrium between carbonate and calcium^i ions on one side, and calcium carbonate (limestone), water, and CO2 on the other (e.g. see [here](_URL_0_)). What this means is that to maximise the rate at which we're producing limestone, you want to maximise the concentration of the reactants (carbonate and calcium ions) in your water, and minimise the amount of carbon dioxide (by increasing the rate at which it degasses).\n\nThis last point is important - you do not want to be using an airtight container because this will allow CO2 to accumulate within the chamber. The rate at which CO2 outgasses from your water depends on the CO2 concentration in the air, which means if CO2 is allowed to build up within the chamber, you are throttling the rate at which CO2 can outgas and hence your speleothem (the technical term for a carbonate structure that grows in a cave) growth rate. \n\nWhen you are preparing the water the speleothem will precipitate from however, you want the opposite to be true - rather than getting CO2 to outgas, you want to get as much CO2 in it as possible. We can use this information to understand why natural speleothems grow in caves (as opposed to random voids in rock^(ii)) in the first place. Respiring organisms in soil release lots of CO2, which dissolves in groundwater to form water high in CO2 (which reacts with the water in further equilibrium reactions to form carbonate and bicarbonate ions). This water is acidic, and is therefore able to dissolve calcium^i containing rocks, providing the source of calcium ions for carbonate precipitation. However, because the CO2 concentration within the soil is so high, rapid carbonate precipitation does not occur. It is only when this water finds its way into a cave, which is ventilated by air from outside so is able to maintain a comparatively low CO2 concentration, that CO2 is able to outgas from the groundwater. This triggers CO2 concentration. \n\nIn terms of how to maximise your artificial speleothem growth rate therefore, you want to get as much carbonate and calcium ions in your source water (for instance by dissolving calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide under high CO2 conditions). You then probably want to maintain a relatively high drip rate (to maximise the ion delivery to your 'cave') but maintain a low CO2 concentration within the 'cave' to encourage carbonate precipitation. \n\nThere are also a number of other factors that affect speleothem growth rate, for which I would suggest you have a read through some of the following papers:\n\nGenty _et al.,_ 2001. _ Intra- and inter-annual growth rate of modern stalagmites_\n\nDreybrodt 1999. _Chemical kinetics, speleothem growth and climate_\n\nBanner _et al.,_ 2007. _Seasonal Variations in Modern Speleothem Calcite Growth in Central Texas, U.S.A._\n\n^i This works for certain other elements as well such as magnesium, but here I'll stick to calcium for simplicity.\n\n^ii Although this also happens.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7921791", "title": "Directional boring", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 394, "text": "The process is suitable for a variety of soil conditions including clay, silt, sand, and rock. Problematic soil conditions include large grain content in the form of coarse gravel, cobbles, and boulders. Other subsurface conditions which can impact the feasibility of Directional Boring/HDD include excessive rock strength and abrasivity, poor rock quality, and rock exhibiting karst features.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1625549", "title": "Orthent", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 543, "text": "Most orthents are found in very steep, mountainous regions where erodible material is so rapidly removed by erosion that a permanent covering of deep soil cannot establish itself. Such conditions occur in almost all regions of the world where steep slopes are prevalent. In Australia and a few regions of Africa, orthents occur in flat terrain because the parent rock contains \"absolutely no weatherable minerals except short-lived additions from rainfall\", so that there is no breaking down of the minerals (chiefly iron oxides) in the rock.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9924698", "title": "Geofact", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 268, "text": "A geofact (a portmanteau of \"geology\" and \"artifact\") is a natural stone formation that is difficult to distinguish from a man-made artifact. Geofacts could be fluvially reworked and be misinterpreted as an artifact, especially when compared to paleolithic artifacts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57014482", "title": "Stone settings (Exmoor)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 227, "text": "Stone settings are a type of monument found in Exmoor, an area of heathland in south-western England. They consist of upright stones that are assembled together either in geometric patterns or seemingly random configurations. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20599049", "title": "Lithographic limestone", "section": "Section::::Origin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 628, "text": "The generally accepted theory for the origin of lithographic and sublithographic limestones is that they were formed in shallow stagnant hypersaline and anoxic lagoons. The combination of mild hypersalinity and low oxygen content is believed to have inhibited the formation of microbial mats and prevented the invasion of bottom dwelling organisms. Microbial mats and bottom dwelling organisms would have left fossils, and bottom dwelling organisms would have churned the accumulating sediment, producing a less homogeneous rock. Stagnancy was required to avoid churning or sculpting of the sediment by currents or wave action.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "221839", "title": "Stalagmite", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 272, "text": "is a type of rock formation that rises from the floor of a cave due to the accumulation of material deposited on the floor from ceiling drippings. Stalagmites may be composed of lava, minerals, mud, peat, pitch, sand, sinter and amberat (crystallized urine of pack rats).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7462235", "title": "Conservation issues of Pompeii and Herculaneum", "section": "Section::::Problems of conservation.:Weathering and erosion.:Plants and animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 649, "text": "The region of Campania in which both sites lie is very temperate and fertile, so many plants thrive even inside the archaeological site. Henri de Saint-Blanquat identifies thirty-one plants in Pompeii, which, after growing in patches of bare earth, grow outward and attack the surrounding buildings, as well as dislodging tiles and mosaics. In particular, ivy grows along the walls, making parts crumble, and the roots undermine the foundations of the buildings. In regions traversed by tourists, their feet trample the plants; in closed-off areas, particularly those closest to unexcavated parts of the cities, this severely damages the buildings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Soldier and amateur military historian here. \n\nFirst we need to talk about load type. Depending on the time frame of resupply and mission. They break down in the following:\n\nFighting Load- Everything a soldier needs as mission essential to enter combat. It is the bare minimum of gear including personal protective equipment, first aid kit, weapon, ammo, water, web gear, and worn clothing. \n\nCombat Load- includes other mission essential gear that can be dropped upon contact with the enemy. This includes extra water, food, and ammo along with some cold and wet weather gear.\n\nThen there is a Sustainment Load, which is what you'd expect to carry long term (3-5 days) on expended ops. Things like portable shelter, change of clothing, personal effects and so forth. \n\nTo do a real basic comparison it might be best to compare what was carried in the fighting load in Normandy vs my experience in Iraq 2003 vs Afghanistan 2011. \n\nA soldier's fighting load at Normandy might include:\n\nM1 Rifle, 80 rounds of .30-06 ball, 2 hand grenades, 1 mine, cartridge belt, bayonet, canteen w/ carrier, helmet, gas mask w/carrier, first aid kit.\n\nIn the invasion of Iraq I carried the following: M16A2 Rifle, 210 rounds of 5.56mm ball and tracer, 7 magazines, Interceptor body armor, fighting load carrier (harness that carries magazine, grenade, and canteen pouches), 2 canteens, 1 grenade, gas mask with carrier, first aid kit, night vision goggles, dust goggles, neck gaiter, ear plugs, camel back, kevlar helmet, and uniform (boots, socks, underwear, undershirt, shirt, trousers). \n\nThis is a fairly straight forward evolution, with the biggest changes being the materials of the equipment becoming more advance, the kevlar vest and helmet, and the night vision equipment. Sometime in the intervening 8 years since I went to Iraq the Defense Department and American public began placing a premium on the protect of our personnel. Most of the equipment I took outside the wire in Afghanistan was to keep me safe. In addition material advances were considerable in the nearly complete decade. Things were made of even more advance materials, and things began to interface as complete systems. It breaks down as follows:\n\nM4A1 rifle (with rail mounting system), 210 rounds of M855A1 enhanced performance round, 7 advance M4/16 magazines, a close combat optic attached to rifle, Improved Outer Tactical Vest (body armor), E-SAPI plates (ceramic protective plates to cover front, back and sides), Advance Combat Helmet w/ protect neck nape and night vision mount, eye protection (ballistic sun glasses), individual first aid kit, tornequet, combat gloves, ammo pouches, theater specific fire retardant uniform (boots, socks, undergarments, trousers, combat shirt), night vision equipment, camel back and squad radio.\n\nedit: Basically the modern soldier still carries all the equivalent equipment as our WW2 counterparts. Those pieces of equipment have evolved to be made of more advance materials that are either tougher, water or fire resistant, lighter, or modular. A smaller portion of equipment would have been too bulky to carry back then (eg pushing radios down to the lowest echelons, rifle optics, and night vision equipment). Most of the new stuff that we carry now is related to personnel protective equipment because who wants to die? This equipment is the heaviest and most expensive portion of individual equipment, excluding weapons. I know of hand that the list price of the IOTV with plates is around $2,500. The ballistic sun glasses are around a hundred. All this protection is expensive, but pays off.\n ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Right...a lot of this has been covered already in this thread, but I'll add what I know.\n\nBy \"average infantry[man]\" I'm going to guess that you're referring to a standard enlisted rifleman. Since the American aspect has been dealt with, I'm going to talk about the evolution of arms and equipment for the two most influential military bodies post-World War II: NATO and the Warsaw Pact.\n\nA caveat before I begin: I know the graphic of which you speak, and the one thing it doesn't account for is inflation. That's the important thing here - even though the cost seems to have gone up dramatically in the last 70 years, in adjusted dollar amounts the growth isn't nearly so dramatic.\n\nNow, to understand the ballooning expenses of equipping the average rifleman in modern militaries, we have to examine the reasons for which their equipment was changed in the first place. So let's go back to World War II, or specifically 1942. This year is critical for the way modern infantry is equipped, for two reasons: the M1 Garand becomes standardized as the US primary infantry weapon, and the MG42 is put into production. On the surface these don't seem like big events, but looks can be deceiving.\n\nThe M1 Garand, built by Mr. John Garand of Quebec, Canada, was actually adopted by the US Army in 1936 as their standard weapon, but American isolationism meant that many units hadn't actually been equipped with this rifle by the outbreak of war in 1941. The branch who got the shortest end of this stick was, as ever, the Marines, who were fighting as late as the summer of 1942 on Guadalcanal with M1903 Springfield rifles which, while excellent, were still slow-firing bolt-action rifles, just like those of the rest of the world.\n\nNow, hold on, if the rest of the world was using these, what's the importance of changing to a new type of firearm?\n\nThe truth is, the M1 Garand was a kind of rifle unseen by the rest of the world: it was *semi-automatic*, which meant that every time you pulled the trigger a round would come out the end, and you could pull that trigger up to eight times before ever having to move either hand to reload. This was a huge advantage over the pull-trigger-grab-bolt-handle-work-bolt-close-bolt-replace-hand-pull-trigger tedium of a bolt action rifle. George S. Patton himself called the M1 Garand \"the greatest battle implement ever devised by man\". To get a sense of how much of an advantage this rifle provided, go watch the ultimate battle of *Saving Private Ryan*. You'll notice that Captain Miller's troops are able to fire a relatively huge amount of rounds as opposed to the Germans, an advantage not to be taken lightly. In fact, the other Great Powers of the war saw this, and by 1943/44 the Soviets and Germans had semi-auto rifles of their own (the G43 and SVT-40). This race for firing speed becomes important in a moment.\n\nThe MG42, on the other hand, is widely considered to be the first \"general purpose machine gun\", or GPMG. These weapons form the backbone of modern infantry formations, but in 1942 they were unheard of. Many nations still relied on water cooled machine guns, which required a team of anywhere from 3-5 men to move and set up, and generally they were pretty unwieldy. Some nations had air cooled machine guns, but these tended to overheat or jam a lot. And then the Germans developed a reliable, but more complicated roller-lock mechanism. This system still forms the basis of many modern weapons, but, as you might guess, it's a hell of a lot more precise and involved than your average bolt-action of the period.\n\nBack to the race in weapons. At the end of World War II, there were really only three nations left in the arms manufacturing business: Britain, the US, and the USSR. And all of them had captured obscene quantities of German technology, and with that came the brass of each nation dreaming of what kind of applications these crazy-Nazi-science prototypes could have. In particular, two weapons were of keen interest to these men: the Fallschirmjagergewehr 42 (FG42) and Sturmtruppengewehr 44 (StG 44). The former was complicated to the point of ostentation, but the latter was quite interesting, primarily because the Germans had, towards the end, cracked the secret of the modern assault rifle: a medium-sized round fed by detachable magazine into a select-fire receiver.\n\nExplaining how far ahead of its time this weapon was is kind of like comparing a Walkman to an iPod: they serve the same basic function, but one is so much more compact and so much more efficient and just so much *better* that nobody ever wants to go back to the old one (hipsters excluded). And this is precisely what happens. By the late 1940s both sides have experimented with the old style of battle rifles with new models: Britain tries one last update in the hopes of reviving its venerable Lee-Enfield, the USSR adopts the SKS, and the US continues with the M1. But this just isn't enough, and in 1947 the Soviets change the game with the AK-47. NATO panics and rushes their new rifle into service; a roughly similar weapon to the Kalashnikov, the FN FAL. Both these rifles are developed fully by 1950, but both take as long as 1955 to be adopted by their developer nations and as long as the 60s for everyone else in their respective spheres of influence to catch on. Only the US resists the trend, sticking with the M14 - essentially an upgraded M1 - until the height of the Vietnam War in the late 60s.\n\nBut even though expenses rack up on these new rifles, the cost isn't actually drastically higher than it was for the World War II era versions. Where equipment gets expensive is in the new essential equipment for Western infantrymen: body armor.\n\nIt's good to note that the Soviets never really liked the idea of body armor. They continued to equip their troops with basically a WWII-style loadout: helmet, rifle, clothes, pack, shovel, etc. Their per-head cost for the infantry was never that much, but then again they had so many people to throw headlong into a war that they didn't really care about survivability of single combatants. NATO did *not* have this luxury: it was pretty well realized by the 70s and 80s that if war ever broke out with the USSR, the Red Army was going to come down on East Germany like a steam roller, and that stopping them would require Allied forces on the ground to hold together longer than seemed humanly possible on an equal playing field. So NATO changed the odds and began relying on what we now call the \"force-multiplier\". This involved increasing both the survivability of individual men and giving them access to ungodly amounts of firepower, namely in the form of fire support.\n\nBy the time of the Vietnam War, the US Army was investing huge amounts of money into developing technologies like Kevlar and in giving radios to units as small as squads and platoons. It's a small wonder that one of the symbols of the Vietnam War is the napalm strike: units as small as a dozen men now had thousands of pounds of high explosives on call, along with their own personal claymore mines, rifles, sidearms (which is a fancy term for pistols or submachine guns), and assorted other items. Special forces were just starting to get access to early forms of night vision. This trend of giving infantrymen eyes and fists in the sky much larger than his own has been steadily increasing for many years, and coupled with the modern necessities that are protective gear like kevlar helmets and body armor, it is probably one of the largest contributions to increased spending per capita for our riflemen.\n\nNow, all that being said, it's probably good to note that you shouldn't trust everything you see on the internet. Even though we do spend more on infantry today than we did three-quarters of a century ago, the real costs in our military are in tanks and aircraft and helicopters and ships and, most of all, maintenance. Good God, most people have no idea how much time and money this last bit really takes. But because military balance sheets aren't public knowledge, we tend to misallocate costs into areas where we only suspect money is going, and this leads to the wildly discrepant figures one finds from a wide variety of sources regarding current military spending. Perhaps we shouldn't try speculating on things on which our frame of reference is quite limited, hmm?\n\nThis is a very Coles notes version, and I've mostly covered rifles, but feel free to ask about anything else regarding this subject you might be inquiring about.\n\nSources: Far too much time reading about the development of modern military equipment.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15068", "title": "Infantry", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 210, "text": "Modern classifications of infantry have expanded to reflect modern equipment and tactics, such as motorised infantry, mechanised or armoured infantry, mountain infantry, marine infantry, and airborne infantry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24983461", "title": "1937 Pattern Web Equipment", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 828, "text": "During the 1930s the introduction of new weapons such as the Bren light machine gun and the planned mechanisation of the British Army led to the need for the development of a new design for the Army's basic load carrying equipment. The introduction of the weapons with high rates of fire meant that soldiers had a requirement to carry more ammunition than previously, while mechanisation meant that soldiers had to be able to move freely within the confines of their vehicles. The increasingly complex nature of combat and different roles that soldiers and members of the other services were being required to undertake, meant that the new design needed to be flexible, thus it was decided that it would consist of interchangeable components, which could be modified to suit the individual needs of a soldier based on his role.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "940322", "title": "Shoemaking", "section": "Section::::History.:Industrial era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 699, "text": "The first steps towards mechanisation were taken during the Napoleonic Wars by the engineer, Marc Brunel. He developed machinery for the mass-production of boots for the soldiers of the British Army. In 1812 he devised a scheme for making nailed-boot-making machinery that automatically fastened soles to uppers by means of metallic pins or nails. With the support of the Duke of York, the shoes were manufactured, and, due to their strength, cheapness, and durability, were introduced for the use of the army. In the same year, the use of screws and staples was patented by Richard Woodman. Brunel's system was described by Sir Richard Phillips as a visitor to his factory in Battersea as follows:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27178", "title": "Shoe", "section": "Section::::History.:Industrial era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 700, "text": "The first steps towards mechanisation were taken during the Napoleonic Wars by the engineer, Marc Brunel. He developed machinery for the mass-production of boots for the soldiers of the British Army. In 1812, he devised a scheme for making nailed-boot-making machinery that automatically fastened soles to uppers by means of metallic pins or nails. With the support of the Duke of York, the shoes were manufactured, and, due to their strength, cheapness, and durability, were introduced for the use of the army. In the same year, the use of screws and staples was patented by Richard Woodman. Brunel's system was described by Sir Richard Phillips as a visitor to his factory in Battersea as follows:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18156739", "title": "History of British light infantry", "section": "Section::::Modern light infantry units.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 552, "text": "By the Second World War, however, new tactics were beginning to be developed for the employment of a more modern form of light infantry. The growing mechanisation of the infantry meant that a distinction was created between normal battalions, which were carried in lorries and often possessed heavy weaponry, and those battalions which did not use them due to terrain or supply conditions. At the same time, the war saw the appearance of new parachute infantry, mountain infantry and special forces units, all lightly equipped and often non-motorised.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18508853", "title": "Military light utility vehicle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 867, "text": "Historically originated in the first half of the twentieth century, when modernisation of armies meant replacing horses and other draft animals through mechanisation, as well as increasing mobility of the infantry, to gain an essential tactical advantage, the nature and operating circumstances for the military's lightest utility vehicles have since changed. In 21st century missions, small arms fire and improvised explosive devices (IEDs) continuously pose highly dangerous threats to mobile infantry, and the military's lightest utility vehicles have frequently become heavier and larger, as a result of addition of armor, for the purpose of crew protection. Designs for modern light military vehicle platforms have to balance manoeuvrability, speed, weapons capability, survivability and transportability – all of high importance to ground troops in operations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25595604", "title": "Military history", "section": "Section::::Periods of military history.:Gunpowder warfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 145, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 145, "end_character": 437, "text": "Over the course of the 18th-19th centuries all military arms and services underwent significant developments that included a more mobile field artillery, the transition from use of battalion infantry drill in close order to open order formations and the transfer of emphasis from the use of bayonets to the rifle that replaced the musket, and virtual replacement of all types of cavalry with the universal dragoons, or mounted infantry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The expanding Earth or growing Earth hypothesis asserts that the position and relative movement of continents is at least partially due to the volume of Earth increasing. Conversely, geophysical global cooling was the hypothesis that various features could be explained by Earth contracting.\n\nAlthough it was suggested historically, since the recognition of plate tectonics in the 1970s, scientific consensus has rejected any significant expansion or contraction of Earth.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The idea that the Earth was expanding (or contracting) as an explanation for common geologic features (e.g. mountain ranges, ocean basins, etc) was abandoned once plate tectonics was developed and provided a more consistent set of explanations that were better supported by data. In the modern, with a variety of tools like GPS, very long baseline interferometry and others, we can directly measure the shape of the Earth and [say with relative certainty that it is neither expanding or contracting](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3646203", "title": "Expanding Earth", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 292, "text": "The expanding Earth or growing Earth hypothesis asserts that the position and relative movement of continents is at least partially due to the volume of Earth increasing. Conversely, geophysical global cooling was the hypothesis that various features could be explained by Earth contracting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24944", "title": "Plate tectonics", "section": "Section::::Development of the theory.:Floating continents, paleomagnetism, and seismicity zones.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 650, "text": "This was immediately followed by a symposium in Tasmania in March 1956. In this symposium, the evidence was used in the theory of an expansion of the global crust. In this hypothesis the shifting of the continents can be simply explained by a large increase in size of the Earth since its formation. However, this was unsatisfactory because its supporters could offer no convincing mechanism to produce a significant expansion of the Earth. Certainly there is no evidence that the moon has expanded in the past 3 billion years; other work would soon show that the evidence was equally in support of continental drift on a globe with a stable radius.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56630559", "title": "Agricultural expansion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 508, "text": "Agricultural expansion describes the growth of agricultural land (arable land, pastures, etc.) in the 21st century as a direct consequence of human overpopulation with an estimated 10 to 11 billion humans by end of this century and the required food and energy security. It is foreseen that most nonagricultural terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems of the world will be affected adversely (habitat loss, land degradation). The intensified food and biofuel production will particularly affect tropical regions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40083369", "title": "Land", "section": "Section::::History of land on Earth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 644, "text": "The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms or, more likely, a rapid growth early in Earth history followed by a long-term steady continental area. Continents formed by plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the Earth's interior. On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years, the supercontinents have formed and broken apart three times. Roughly (million years ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–, then finally Pangaea, which also broke apart .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10158", "title": "Empire", "section": "Section::::Theoretical research.:Circumscription theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 110, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 110, "end_character": 832, "text": "The opportunity for any system to expand in size seems almost a necessary condition for it to remain balanced, at least over the long haul. Far from being impossible or exceedingly improbable, systemic hegemony is likely under two conditions: \"when the boundaries of the international system remain stable and no new major powers emerge from outside the system.\" With the system becoming global, further expansion is precluded. The geopolitical condition of \"global closure\" will remain to the end of history. Since \"the contemporary international system is global, we can rule out the possibility that geographic expansion of the system will contribute to the emergence of a new balance of power, as it did so many times in the past.\" As Quincy Wright had put it, \"this process can no longer continue without interplanetary wars.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2939202", "title": "Earth's inner core", "section": "Section::::Growth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 235, "text": "The Earth's inner core is thought to be slowly growing as the liquid outer core at the boundary with the inner core cools and solidifies due to the gradual cooling of the Earth's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "66618", "title": "The Limits to Growth", "section": "Section::::Conclusions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 225, "text": "1# Given business as usual, i.e., no changes to historical growth trends, the limits to growth on earth would become evident by 2072, leading to \"sudden and uncontrollable decline in both population and industrial capacity\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well, to quote Kipling: \"There is no discharge in the war!\"\nYou didn't go on deployment in the Wehrmacht, you were entitled to, under the best of circumstances, two weeks of leave twice a year (for the Field Army/ combat troops) or once a year (for the Replacement Army/reserves, garrison personnel and other non-combat elements) respectively. Other than that, you served until you were either dead or physically/mentally incapable of performing both, front line(KV) and garrison(GV) duties.\n\nThere were, however, a lot of caveats:\nThere was a certain amount of travel time calculated and added (two days from Russia to western Germany in 1941), but depending on the unpredictable nature of reasons for transportation delays, that time wasn't always enough. So depending on where you were from (leave was always to your home region where you had to \"report in\" once you arrived), where your unit was deployed, and how the transport situation was (overcrowded trains [transportation towards the front had priority over anything going in the other direction], no available ships, delays due to partisan activity and air raids), you might have considerably less time at home. you could also be recalled early, though that was a measure the regime tried to avoid at pretty much all costs, as it was seen as potentially damaging morale not only of the soldiers, but also on the \"homefront\".\n\nextra vacation time of varying length was given for a host of reasons, among them: \n\n* aditional recuperation time from injury/sickness/wounds\n* getting promoted/ receiving an award/ exceptionally good conduct\n* family emergency at home (mostly the really bad stuff - deaths, family bombed out, etc.)\n* reassignment to a new unit/billet\n\nall this, of course, operational situation permitting and at the discretion of you superiors - usually your company command.\n\nas there was extra vacation time, there were also, of course, blanket cancellations of leave for all units for a fixed time (Urlaubssperre). Almost exclusively for operational reasons, this could result in entire army groups/corps' not getting any leave for well over a year. Oftentimes, this coincided with a general news blackout (Nachrichtensperre), which meant that on top of your leave and rest time being cancelled, there was also no mail to be sent or received.\n\nThat covers actual leave (Fronturlaub/Heimaturlaub). A different beast entirely was the time spent away from front line duty, either with the unit (refreshment/refitting/training/deployment to a different theater of operations etc.) or individually (assignment to a different unit, hospital and recuperation time, time-limited teaching assignments and so on). \n\nGenerally, leave was granted liberally and fairly (those who had been without leave the longest would be the next to go on leave), whenever the operational situation permitted it, chiefly for reasons of morale both at home and among the troops. If you didn't fall afoul of the system (revokation of leave was a popular form of non-judicial punishment), and were exceptionally unlucky with your unit/travel situation, you'd seldomly see less than three weeks of accumulated leave time per year, at least until the war started truly turning for Germany - around, say, 1942 or so. Please note that this last number is an educated guess - I've never come across a definitive number, it is my best estimate deduced from a knowledge of the various variables mentioned above and a lot of reading. In the end, it all very much depends on the unit and individual soldier in question. The 4th Panzer Division, just to provide an example, only saw 5 1/2 official rest days on the Eastern Front between June 1941 and March 1942, and the majority of their personnell hadn't been on leave since fall/winter of 1940. At times severe performance issues due to simple burn-out of even the most tried and tested troops were a common theme for combat commanders, especially on the Eastern Front.\n\nSources:\n\nLots of bits and pieces from all kinds of primary and secondary sources, but especially:\n\nC. Hartmann: *Wehrmacht im Ostkrieg*\nK. Richer: *Kavallerie der Wehrmacht*\nM. van Creveld: *Kampfkraft*", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1399077", "title": "March battalion", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 385, "text": "During the later stages of World War II, as the strength of the German \"Wehrmacht\" was increasingly depleted, march battalions became improvized combat units, with an average strength of 800–1,000 personnel in three to five companies, as well as a small headquarters company and a field kitchen. Their equipment often consisted only of small arms (e.g. rifles) and some machine guns. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11161023", "title": "16th Infantry Regiment (United States)", "section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 1077, "text": "For the next three months, the men of the 16th Infantry would experience some of the most grueling fighting of the war in the infamous Hürtgen Forest near Aachen, Stolberg, and Hamich, Germany. After sustaining very heavy casualties from enemy artillery fire and the cold dreary weather, the entire division was sent to a rest camp on 12 December 1944. The stay was short, because Hitler launched Operation Wacht am Rhein four days later and the Battle of the Bulge was on. The division was sent to bolster the northern shoulder of the bulge near Camp Elsenborn. The regiment was ordered to positions near Waywertz. For the next month, the men of the 16th Infantry held defensive positions there, conducted heavy patrolling toward the German positions near Faymonville, and engaged in a number of firefights with troops of the 1st SS Panzer and 3rd Fallshirmjaeger Divisions. All of this was conducted in heavy snows during one of the coldest European winters on record. On 15 January 1945, the Big Red One launched its part of the Allied counteroffensive to reduce the Bulge.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20985007", "title": "Wehrmacht forces for the Ardennes Offensive", "section": "Section::::Mobilization and movements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 864, "text": "The Wehrmacht suffered nearly 750,000 casualties between June and November 1944, forcing the German leadership to recruit from the Kriegsmarine, Luftwaffe, and industry, while extending the call-up age to all males between 16 and 60 years of age. This extension allowed the Germans to increase their manpower in Western Europe from around 410,000 on 1 December to just over 1.3 million on 15 December. These new soldiers were poorly trained, and this was exacerbated by the fact that most did not know of the offensive until days before it was launched, meaning many were not even informed of their objectives. The volksgrenadier divisions ordered to protect the flanks of the three advancing armies were not even properly reinforced, because the Germans found it difficult to detach these units from areas of the front being pressured by the slow Allied advance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "305153", "title": "Battle of Aachen", "section": "Section::::Comparison of forces.:German defenders in Aachen.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1556, "text": "Although reinforcements continued to arrive, LXXXI Corps' units suffered heavily; the 12th Infantry Division had lost half its combat strength between 16–23 September, and the 49th and 275th Infantry Divisions had had to be pulled off the line to recuperate. While German infantry divisions generally had a strength of 15,000–17,000 soldiers at the start of World War II, this had gradually been reduced to an official (table of organization) size of 12,500, and by November 1944, the average actual strength of a \"Heer\" division was 8,761 men. In an attempt to cope with the manpower shortages plaguing the \"Wehrmacht\", the Volksgrenadier divisions were created in 1944. Their average total strength was just over 10,000 men per division. Although about of these were experienced veterans, half were fresh conscripts and convalescents, while the remainder were transferees from the \"Luftwaffe\" and \"Kriegsmarine\". These divisions often received the newest small-arms, but were deficient in artillery and motorization, severely limiting their tactical usefulness. In the case of LXXXI Corps, the 183rd Volksgrenadier Division, though overstrength by 643 men, had only been activated in September, meaning that the division had not had time to train as a unit. The 246th Volksgrenadier Division was in a similar state, many of its personnel having received fewer than ten days of infantry training. All of these deficiencies of personnel were offset somewhat by the inherent strength of the well-planned, well-constructed fortifications surrounding Aachen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24356306", "title": "List of Royal Northumberland Fusiliers battalions in World War II", "section": "Section::::Second World War.:8th Battalion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 380, "text": "The 3rd Infantry Division remained in the UK training for many years until it landed on Sword Beach on 6 June 1944 – D-Day – and fought through the Battle of Normandy (Caen, Bourguébus Ridge, Mont Pinçon), the Netherlands (The Nederrijn) and later the invasion of Germany the (Rhineland and the Rhine), ending the war in Bremen. It was placed in suspended animation in July 1946.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "519489", "title": "Eastern Front (World War II)", "section": "Section::::Forces.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 771, "text": "By July 1943, the Wehrmacht numbered 6,815,000 troops. Of these, 3,900,000 were deployed in eastern Europe, 180,000 in Finland, 315,000 in Norway, 110,000 in Denmark, 1,370,000 in western Europe, 330,000 in Italy, and 610,000 in the Balkans. According to a presentation by Alfred Jodl, the Wehrmacht was up to 7,849,000 personnel in April 1944. 3,878,000 were deployed in eastern Europe, 311,000 in Norway/Denmark, 1,873,000 in western Europe, 961,000 in Italy, and 826,000 in the Balkans. About 15–20% of total German strength were foreign troops (from allied countries or conquered territories). The German high water mark was just before Battle of Kursk, in early July 1943: 3,403,000 German troops and 650,000 Finnish, Hungarian, Romanian and other countries troops.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4672176", "title": "66th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 942, "text": "It was envisioned that the duplicating process and recruiting the required numbers of men would take no more than six months. Some TA divisions had made little progress by the time the Second World War began; others were able to complete this work within a matter of weeks. The 66th Infantry Division finally became active on 27 September 1939, although its constituent units had already formed and had been administered by the 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division. The division was headquartered in Manchester, and was again composed of the 197th, 198th, and 199th Infantry Brigades. Major-General Arthur William Purser was given command, and the division was assigned to Western Command. In November, the division was transferred to Northern Command. On 10 January, Major-General Alan Cunningham was given command of the division. By May, the division was based north of Manchester, spread out across parts of Lancashire and Yorkshire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because there are still secret aspects of the file that cannot be revealed to the public. A file doesn't have to be 100% declassified to be \"declassified\", if that makes sense - it just means that it has to go through the process of being cleared for public release.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They want you to know about it, but not some of the details. Most are under the reason of national security.\n\nThat's like \"we have nukes, the secret code is > !0000! < .\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When a document is \"declassified,\" it means, \"we've taken everything out of it that is still classified as secret.\" When a document is declared \"unclassified,\" it means, \"nothing in here is classified as secret.\"\n\nClassification isn't always \"yes/no\" thing in the US; there are many grades of it, and an individual document can contain many pieces of information that are classified different ways. The Freedom of Information Act, which governs a lot of declassification activity, basically says that, in principle, government agencies should release as much information as possible, so in a document where there are things that can be released, they ought to be released even if other parts have to be held back. In practice this is often left to the discretion of individual agencies or reviewers.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21516138", "title": "Document Exploitation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 777, "text": "Document Exploitation (DOCEX) is the set of procedures used by the United States Armed Forces to discover, categorize, and use documents seized in combat operations. In the course of performing its missions in the War on Terrorism, members of the United States Armed Forces discover vast amounts of documents in many formats and languages. When documents are suspected of containing information of potential intelligence value, rapid and accurate interpretation of the information identifies targets, bolsters success in subsequent operations, and enhances tactical and strategic all-source intelligence efforts. The sheer volume of documents acquired in the course of military operations can overwhelm a unit's capability to extract meaningful information in a timely manner.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3544624", "title": "Retention period", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 628, "text": "Once an applicable retention period has elapsed for a given type or series of information, and all holds/moratoriums have been released, the information is typically destroyed using an approved and effective destruction method, which renders the information completely and irreversibly unusable via any means. Alternatively, it may be converted from one form to another (e.g. from paper to electronic), depending on the defined retention period per format. Information with historical value beyond its \"usable value\" may be accessioned to the custody of an archive organization for permanent or extended long-term preservation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28394155", "title": "Digital forensic process", "section": "Section::::Analysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 630, "text": "Various types of techniques are used to recover evidence, usually involving some form of keyword searching within the acquired image file, either to identify matches to relevant phrases or to filter out known file types. Certain files (such as graphic images) have a specific set of bytes which identify the start and end of a file. If identified, a deleted file can be reconstructed. Many forensic tools use hash signatures to identify notable files or to exclude known (benign) files; acquired data is hashed and compared to pre-compiled lists such as the \"Reference Data Set\" (RDS) from the National Software Reference Library\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2424806", "title": "Sanitization (classified information)", "section": "Section::::Government secrecy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 242, "text": "In the context of government documents, redaction (also called sanitization) generally refers more specifically to the process of removing sensitive or classified information from a document prior to its publication, during declassification.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "731640", "title": "Document retrieval", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 344, "text": "Document retrieval is defined as the matching of some stated user query against a set of free-text records. These records could be any type of mainly unstructured text, such as newspaper articles, real estate records or paragraphs in a manual. User queries can range from multi-sentence full descriptions of an information need to a few words.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51092395", "title": "District Office Manual", "section": "Section::::Organisation of Office.:Disposals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 943, "text": "How long should a government office retain a closed file?. There are different kinds of disposals in government system. Certain files need not be retained at all whereas certain others need to retained. Depending on the importance of the matter, Government has evolved a system retaining them with proper classification. “N. Dis” indicates nil disposal which means that it need not be retained and the original can be returned. If it is marked as “ K. Dis” it means, it has to be kept for three years and later it can be destroyed. “L. Dis.” means it can be destroyed after 1 year . Once the letter is approved by competent authority it'll be fair copied in the fair copying section and immediately dispatched. There is a register in which all these entries are made then and there. The arrangements for storing these records also to be made in every Office. There will be a record clerk who is in charge of storing files and retrieving them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4519583", "title": "Operation Iraqi Freedom documents", "section": "Section::::Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 614, "text": "According to Steven Aftergood of the Federation of American Scientists, the release of the documents \"looks like an effort to discover a retrospective justification for the war in Iraq.\" The Pentagon cautioned that the government \"has made no determination regarding the authenticity of the documents, validity or factual accuracy of the information contained therein, or the quality of any translations, when available.\" The Los Angeles Times notes that \"the documents do not appear to offer any new evidence of illicit activity by Hussein, or hint at preparations for the insurgency that followed the invasion.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is going to get removed but here it is:\n\nFiber is the key. Fiber and water. You have to poop a lot. That's it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Its a cumulative effect. Testosterone loss is a huge cause of weight gain and the ability to lose weight. \r\rHowever old age in general is also a cause. Your metabolism slows down, hormones drop, life habits (like constant stress) begin hitting you harder than ever, and if you didn't have established muscle (aka old man muscle) its extremely hard to get it set in due to the slower processes. In essence, you have to work twice as hard to get half the effect. Things to help are hormone boosters, specialized diets, and *constant* work.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22192109", "title": "Tommy Rainone", "section": "Section::::Amateur career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 693, "text": "\"When I was in the amateurs, I cut a lot of corners. I was having a good time partying, going out and just being young but doing so while half assing it boxing. I stopped boxing a couple a months after turning 23 because I had to make a decision to either continue having fun or to get serious about boxing and i was not mature enough to take the sport serious at that stage in my life. I realized that I could no longer do both. I took a break from boxing deciding that i was threw with the amateurs and would return to the sport to turn pro if and when i was ready to take it serious, i started doing some traveling, lived life with out restriction and just enjoyed myself for three years.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "148249", "title": "Alkaptonuria", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 565, "text": "After the age of 30, people begin to develop pain in the weight-bearing joints of the spine, hips, and knees. The pain can be severe to the point that interferes with activities of daily living and may affect ability to work. Joint-replacement surgery (hip and shoulder) is often necessary at a relatively young age. In the longer term, the involvement of the spinal joints leads to reduced movement of the rib cage and can affect breathing. Bone mineral density may be affected, increasing the risk of bone fractures, and rupture of tendons and muscles may occur.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "63520", "title": "Jane Fonda", "section": "Section::::Personal life.:Health.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 112, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 112, "end_character": 255, "text": "It was in my 40s, and if you suffer from bulimia, the older you get, the worse it gets. It takes longer to recover from a bout ... I had a career, I was winning awards, I was supporting nonprofits, I had a family. I had to make a choice: I live or I die.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1630471", "title": "Late-onset hypogonadism", "section": "Section::::Symptoms, diagnosis, and screening.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 531, "text": "Some men in their late 40s and early 50s develop depression, loss of libido, erectile dysfunction, and other physical and emotional symptoms such as irritability, loss of muscle mass and reduced ability to exercise, weight gain, lack of energy, difficulty sleeping, or poor concentration; many of these symptoms may arise from a midlife crisis or as the results of a long-term unhealthy lifestyle (smoking, excess drinking, overeating, lack of exercise) and may be best addressed by lifestyle changes, therapy, or antidepressants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9788570", "title": "Richard Bryan (rugby union)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 259, "text": "\"When I first did it I didn't realise how long it would be, maybe three or four months, so it was really hard. It was the longest I'd been out injured and it was a struggle watching all the boys playing, it was a case of trying to make the best of a bad job.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16413778", "title": "Ageing", "section": "Section::::Effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 346, "text": "BULLET::::- People over 35 years of age are at increasing risk for losing strength in the ciliary muscle, which leads to presbyopia. and most people experience presbyopia, a difficulty focusing on close objects, by age 45–50. The cause is lens hardening by decreasing levels of -crystallin, a process which may be sped up by higher temperatures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1265734", "title": "Middle age", "section": "Section::::Middle adulthood.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 397, "text": "The body may slow down and the middle aged might become more sensitive to diet, substance abuse, stress, and rest. Chronic health problems can become an issue along with disability or disease. Approximately one centimeter of height may be lost per decade. Emotional responses and retrospection vary from person to person. Experiencing a sense of mortality, sadness, or loss is common at this age.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "_URL_0_\n\n > Despite seeming to converge at a point, the rays are in fact near-parallel shafts of sunlight, and their apparent convergence is a perspective effect (similar, for example, to the way that parallel railway lines seem to converge at a point in the distance).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "534839", "title": "Crepuscular rays", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 729, "text": "Crepuscular rays (; more commonly known as sunbeams, sun rays, splintered light, or god rays), in meteorological optics, are rays of sunlight that appear to radiate from the point in the sky where the Sun is located. Shining through openings in clouds (particularly stratocumulus) or between other objects such as mountains, these columns of sunlit scattering particles are separated by darker shadowed volumes. Despite converging toward the light source, the rays are essentially parallel shafts of sunlit and shadowed particles. Their apparent convergence in the sky is a visual illusion from linear perspective. This illusion is the same as railway lines' or long hallways' appearing to converge at a distant vanishing point.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28779877", "title": "Atmospheric optics", "section": "Section::::Crepuscular rays.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 384, "text": "Crepuscular rays are near-parallel rays of sunlight moving through the Earth's atmosphere, but appear to diverge because of linear perspective. They often occur when objects such as mountain peaks or clouds partially shadow the sun's rays like a cloud cover. Various airborne compounds scatter the sunlight and make these rays visible, due to diffraction, reflection, and scattering.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31692171", "title": "False sunset", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 473, "text": "reflection and refraction of sunlight by small ice crystals in the atmosphere, often in the form of cirrostratus clouds. Depending on which variety of \"false sunset\" is meant, the halo has to appear either above the Sun (which itself is hidden below the horizon) or below it (in which case the real Sun is obstructed from view, e.g. by clouds or other objects), making the upper and lower tangent arc, upper and lower sun pillars and the subsun the most likely candidates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11304576", "title": "Vädersolstavlan", "section": "Section::::Halo display.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 542, "text": "In the painting, the actual sun is the yellow ball in the upper-right corner surrounded by the second circle. The large circle taking up most of the sky is a parhelic circle, parallel to the horizon and located at the same altitude as the sun, as the painting renders it. This is actually a common halo, although a full circle as depicted is rare. Such parhelic circles are caused by horizontally oriented plate ice crystals reflecting sun rays. In order for a full circle to appear sun rays must be reflected both internally and externally.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6906718", "title": "Subsun", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 475, "text": "A subsun or \"sub-sun\" is a glowing spot that can be seen within clouds or haze when observed from above. The subsun appears directly below the sun, and is caused by its light reflecting off of numerous tiny ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere. As such the effect belongs to the family of halos. The region of ice crystals acts as a large mirror, creating a virtual image of the sun which appears below the horizon, analogous to the sun's reflection in a body of water. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26662554", "title": "Aureole effect", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 393, "text": "Although the focused (light) ray cones are actually more or less parallel to each other, the rays from the aureole effect appear to be radiating from the shadow of the viewer’s head due to perspective effects. The viewer's line of sight is parallel and lies within the cones, so from the viewer's perspective the rays seem to be radiating from the antisolar point, within the viewer's shadow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5501897", "title": "Seven rays", "section": "Section::::New Age teachings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 515, "text": "Bailey stated that the seven rays that reach us on Earth locally originate within the \"Solar Logos,\" i.e., the consciousness of the \"Divine Being\" of the Sun. According to Alice A. Bailey and Benjamin Creme, the seven rays are focused to the Solar Logos, through Sirius, the seven stars of the Big Dipper in the Great Bear, and the seven major stars of the Pleiades form the \"Galactic Logos,\" (the consciousness of the \"Divine Being\" of the Milky Way Galaxy), and have their ultimate origin within the mind of God.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They sell it to people who don't know it is in public domain or don't know where to find it for free.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > Does making something into an e-book cost a lot of money even though it is already available online?\n\nYes, is the short answer.\n\nIt's kind of like asking why you get charged for the water that comes out of your tap when it literally falls freely from the sky. The answer in both cases is that getting it into the form you want and delivering it to you in a convenient way takes *work.*", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If somebody is willing to pay for something, someone else is willing to sell it. Often publishers will take books that have passed into the public domain and reformat it with a nice font (or digitize it into an ebook), add an introduction into the front by someone other than the author and then sell it.\nI imagine most people who purchase these classics don't know about project gutenberg, but I'm also sure there is a number of people who don't care and would rather spend the $4.00 than go through the small hassle of downloading through Gutenberg. People will pay premiums for speed and convenience. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If a work is public domain, anyone can take it and charge money for it. Night of the Living Dead is a good example. It's public domain work now, anyone can make a DVD of it and sell it in stores. \n\nMost free public domain ebooks are actually scanned and distrusted by volunteers who feel the work should accessible for free for everyone. A larger company may see the same book and charge for it because of a variety of reasons. Maybe their edition has some editorials. Maybe it's got pictures and diagrams. Or maybe they just figure that if they charge for it, someone will buy it even if there's a free version.\n\nThe interesting thing about public domain work is that you can buy a copy and then distribute it yourself. Completely legal.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25970897", "title": "Apple Books", "section": "Section::::iBooks Store.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 869, "text": "In 2011, an Apple spokesperson announced that \"We are now requiring that if an app offers customers the ability to purchase books outside of the app, that the same option is also available to customers from within the app with in-app purchase.\" Due to the 30% revenue share that Apple receives from the in-app purchase mechanism, the financial viability of competing bookstore apps run by other book retailers is uncertain, even though in many countries, the iBooks Store still does not provide consumers access to any e-books except for free works, such as ones that are in the public domain. Apple's competitor Amazon.com updated its iOS Kindle app in July 2013 to bypass the 30% revenue share by requiring the user to purchase content using the Kindle Store's website instead of using the Kindle app; users can still get free e-books or samples while using the app.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37964116", "title": "E-book lending", "section": "Section::::Alternative lending models.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 543, "text": "Amazon operates a \"Kindle Owners' Lending Library\" that enables paid Amazon Prime users to borrow from a collection of over 600,000 ebooks without any due date, with books being delivered to Kindle and Kindle Fire devices, but not to the free Kindle reading apps for other platforms. The same book can be borrowed by a number of users at the same time, and users may keep a book for as long as they want. Alternatively, the books that are available in the public domain can be downloaded in different formats from many sites like archive.org.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "313833", "title": "Swiss Army knife", "section": "Section::::Further reading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 139, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 139, "end_character": 267, "text": "Of these books, regularly available at this time (as for example on the Amazon web site) are Jackson's \"Collector's Companion\", \"Lubkemann's Whittling Book\", and Young's \"Owner's Manual\". Some of the others occasionally turn up on Amazon and auction sites like eBay.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23916629", "title": "E-book", "section": "Section::::History.:Dedicated hardware readers and mobile software.:Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 472, "text": "Some of the major book retailers and multiple third-party developers offer free (and in some third-party cases, premium paid) e-reader software applications (apps) for the Mac and PC computers as well as for Android, Blackberry, iPad, iPhone, Windows Phone and Palm OS devices to allow the reading of e-books and other documents independently of dedicated e-book devices. Examples are apps for the Amazon Kindle, Barnes & Noble Nook, iBooks, Kobo eReader and Sony Reader.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20698529", "title": "Bombadil Publishing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 236, "text": "The books are primarily sold on the publisher's website and advertised by word-of-mouth, although in some cases they can be bought in shops; in 2011 the company was negotiating with IKEA and ICA to have some books sold at their stores.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53730186", "title": "List of Android app stores", "section": "Section::::Third-party app stores.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 357, "text": "Such app stores are often used by developers to distribute apps that are not allowed in the Play Store, for example because they allow users more access to the system or to offer apps for niche users, such as only free and open-source software (F-Droid) or indie games (Itch.io). They might also serve to distribute \"hacked\" versions of paid apps for free.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16364575", "title": "Rare Book Hub", "section": "Section::::Books For Sale.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 769, "text": "In 2006, the company added an online book listing service known as “Books For Sale.” Booksellers enter their books in the Books For Sale database, which can be searched on the site or through major search engines, including Google Product Search. Similar used book listings are available through websites such as Amazon.com, AbeBooks, Biblio.com, and Alibris. However, differing from those sites, sales are not conducted on the Americana Exchange site. Buyers are sent directly to the listing bookseller via an email form. Listing booksellers pay a fee of $425 annually to list their books and gain access to other services such as the book database. Since the sales are completed by the bookseller rather than on the Rare Book Hub website, no commissions are charged.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Snakes share a common ancestor with modern lizards, which was a legged lizard. Apparently some species actually benefitted from losing their legs, which is where natural selection comes in.\n\n[Certain modern lizards](_URL_0_) provide good example of what the intermediates must've looked like. These species have already switched to \"snake locomotion\" while still retaining tiny vestigial legs\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "29370", "title": "Snake", "section": "Section::::Evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 629, "text": "Many modern snake groups originated during the Paleocene, alongside the adaptive radiation of mammals following the extinction of (non-avian) dinosaurs. The expansion of grasslands in North America also led to an explosive radiation among snakes. Previously, snakes were a minor component of the North American fauna, but during the Miocene, the number of species and their prevalence increased dramatically with the first appearances of vipers and elapids in North America and the significant diversification of Colubridae (including the origin of many modern genera such as Nerodia, Lampropeltis, Pituophis, and Pantherophis).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "522722", "title": "Ophidia", "section": "Section::::Evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 312, "text": "Modern snakes greatly diversified during the Paleocene. This occurred alongside the adaptive radiation of mammals, following the extinction of (non-avian) dinosaurs. The colubrids, one of the more common snake groups, became particularly diverse due to preying on rodents, an especially successful mammal group.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "715934", "title": "Snakebite", "section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Snake venom.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 784, "text": "It has been suggested that snakes evolved the mechanisms necessary for venom formation and delivery sometime during the Miocene epoch. During the mid-Tertiary, most snakes were large ambush predators belonging to the superfamily Henophidia, which use constriction to kill their prey. As open grasslands replaced forested areas in parts of the world, some snake families evolved to become smaller and thus more agile. However, subduing and killing prey became more difficult for the smaller snakes, leading to the evolution of snake venom. Other research on Toxicofera, a hypothetical clade thought to be ancestral to most living reptiles, suggests an earlier time frame for the evolution of snake venom, possibly to the order of tens of millions of years, during the Late Cretaceous.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "522722", "title": "Ophidia", "section": "Section::::Evolution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 615, "text": "Modern snakes are thought to have evolved from either burrowing or aquatic lizards during the mid-Cretaceous period, and the earliest known fossils date to around 112 Ma ago. However, the relationship between modern snake and more primitive snake ancestors, many of which retained hind limbs, is less clear. While many of these \"stem-snakes\" are known from Mesozoic fossils, some of them may be descendants of the earliest true snakes rather than more primitive lineages. Below is a cladogram modified from a study by Wilson \"et al.\" (2010), which found many stem-snakes of other studies to be true snakes instead.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4270223", "title": "Snakes in mythology", "section": "Section::::Immortality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 990, "text": "Some cultures regarded snakes as immortal because they appeared to be reincarnated from themselves when they sloughed their skins. Snakes were often also associated with immortality because they were observed biting their tails to form a circle and when they coiled they formed spirals. Both circles and spirals were seen as symbols of eternity. The circle was particularly important to Dahomeyan myth where the snake-god Danh circled the world like a belt, corsetting it and preventing it from flying apart in splinters. In Egyptian myth, the state of existence before creation was symbolised as Amduat, a many-coiled serpent from which Ra the Sun and all of creation arose, returning each night and being reborn every morning. Also, the snake biting its tail (Ouroboros) symbolised the sea as the eternal ring which enclosed the world. In Egypt the snake has healing abilities. Hymns and offerings were made to it since it was believed that the Goddess could manifest through the snake. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29370", "title": "Snake", "section": "Section::::Evolution.:Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 968, "text": "There is fossil evidence to suggest that snakes may have evolved from burrowing lizards, such as the varanids (or a similar group) during the Cretaceous Period. An early fossil snake relative, \"Najash rionegrina\", was a two-legged burrowing animal with a sacrum, and was fully terrestrial. One extant analog of these putative ancestors is the earless monitor \"Lanthanotus\" of Borneo (though it also is semiaquatic). Subterranean species evolved bodies streamlined for burrowing, and eventually lost their limbs. According to this hypothesis, features such as the transparent, fused eyelids (brille) and loss of external ears evolved to cope with fossorial difficulties, such as scratched corneas and dirt in the ears. Some primitive snakes are known to have possessed hindlimbs, but their pelvic bones lacked a direct connection to the vertebrae. These include fossil species like \"Haasiophis\", \"Pachyrhachis\" and \"Eupodophis\", which are slightly older than \"Najash\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "522722", "title": "Ophidia", "section": "Section::::Evolution.:Origins.:Burrowing Lizard Hypothesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 959, "text": "There is fossil evidence to suggest that snakes may have evolved from burrowing lizards, such as the varanids (or a similar group) during the Cretaceous Period. An early fossil snake, \"Najash rionegrina\", was a two-legged burrowing animal with a sacrum, and was fully terrestrial. One extant analog of these putative ancestors is the earless monitor \"Lanthanotus\" of Borneo (though it also is semiaquatic). Subterranean species evolved bodies streamlined for burrowing, and eventually lost their limbs. According to this hypothesis, features such as the transparent, fused eyelids (brille) and loss of external ears evolved to cope with fossorial difficulties, such as scratched corneas and dirt in the ears. Some primitive snakes are known to have possessed hindlimbs, but their pelvic bones lacked a direct connection to the vertebrae. These include fossil species like \"Haasiophis\", \"Pachyrhachis\" and \"Eupodophis\", which are slightly older than \"Najash\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A popular model of motivation requires two things: an incentive (something of value), and the belief that you will get that thing. So, what is going on in your brain is an appraisal of value (I want that thing) and an assessment of your ability to do what is needed to get that thing.\n\nGoal-setting plays a large role. You don't just \"have motivation\". You have to have motivation to do something. Motivation has a direction, it's not a state-of-being.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Motivation has two types. Extrinsic, where something outside the person is the motivator, such as grades, a job, status, money, or physical incentive. It's a temporary motivator because once the incentive is achieved, you have to find a new incentive. The other type is intrinsic motivation, which is something a person has internally for motivation. This would be like having a desire to do something, or enjoying it and wanting to do more. It's a longer lasting motivator, because it comes from within.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can't speak about what's happening at a biological level, but on a practical level, you can predict motivation by answering 3 questions.\n \n1. If I put in effort will I perform? (self confidence) \n2. If I perform will I get the desired outcomes? (confidence in surroundings) \n3. Do I care? \n \nTo get a quantifiable estimate of motivation, you can rate each question from 0 to 1 then multiply them together. If you're experiencing a lack of motivation, it's because one or more of these questions has a 0 (or close to it) rating. \n \nBasically, if you want to be motivated, you need to care about it, believe in yourself, and trust your environment.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What one calls motivation will depend heavily on the context in which it's being used (academic, psychology, neuroscience, etc). We can talk about motivation in terms of the lack thereof - in other words, from a behavioral point of view, what would happen if motivation wasn't present? BJ Fogg, a behavior design researcher out of Stanford, says 3 things need to be present for someone to perform a behavior: motivation to perform a behavior, the ability to perform a behavior, and a \"trigger\" that sets the behavior off. So motivation is the thing that's missing if, despite the person having the ability and a salient trigger being present, the behavior is not performed. More on Fogg and his model [here] (_URL_0_)\n\nAt the neuroscience level, there's a whole lot of stuff that need to come together and I will not pretend to understand it all. If you explore the intarwebz to discover what happens in the brain when people feel motivated, you'll likely come across a neurotransmitter called dopamine. Often people will say things like \"dopamine is the happiness chemical\" or \"dopamine is the motivation chemical.\" These may be partially true, but nothing in the brain is quite that simple.\n\n[Here's a great article on what dopamine probably does around motivation.](_URL_1_) The idea is that dopamine is present in your brain right about when you're about to get a reward. A few common models of why this is: dopamine is around when you like stuff - This is disproven in mice; dopamine is present when you're learning how to get a reward - this is also disproven. He settles on the theory that dopamine is present when you really want to get something, more specifically when you want to perform a behavior to get the reward (note that the interesting thing here is that this is independent of whether you actually *like* the reward or even know how to get it). \n\n**TL;DR Motivation is required for someone to perform a behavior, so you can think of it as what's missing when everything else required for a behavior is present (Ability, Trigger). What happens in our brains is super complicated and we're only just starting to get a good idea, dopamine probably plays a central role, but be very very skeptical when you read stuff about neuroscience in anything but a scientific journal (including this post).**", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The short answer: Dopamine. \n\"Whats going on in the brain\" biologically when we feel motivated is that the brain is releasing dopamine which signals for us to go do things that feel good. Researchers used to think that dopamine was just what made us feel the pleasure itself, but more recently they've found that the brain releases dopamine to motivate us to go seek out pleasure and to avoid pain. For example, when you feel compelled to eat a pint of ice cream, thats dopamine saying \"It'll feel so good... do it\" and when you feel compelled to avoid an unpleasant conversation, thats dopamine again saying \"that's not going to be pleasurable, let's steer clear of that.\" \nIt helps to explain why some people feel \"compelled\" to do things that they really know they shouldn't. Teenagers, for example have more extreme levels of dopamine that make them do all sorts of things that feel good that they know they shouldn't do. \nOf course, when you start talking about serious, long-term motivation, it gets more complex, but the big idea is still the same. When you are motivated to go work out (even though you don't want to, and it sucks) that comes from a domaine signal based on the reward you give yourself for doing it (I went to the gym, I deserve a pat on the back). You'll feel good about yourself if you go, and berate yourself if you don't, so dopamine motivates you put on your gym shoes to get the reward. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Okay, so [your brain has a bunch of parts right?](_URL_0_) One part is your Cingulate Gyrus, which is a loop shaped part of your brain in the middle. This part is part of the Limbic System, which is the area where emotion and memory is processed.\n\nSo all of this brain area is getting signals from other places in your brain (your senses and thoughts) all the time. Like a computer with a bunch of input, it makes a bunch of outputs. It sends all this info to the Basal Ganglia. The Basal Ganglia funnels this info into the Thalamus, the relay center of your brain, which then relays it back to specific areas in the Limbic System. This *Reward Loop* goes on all the time, and in parallel with other loops like Cognition(thinking), and Motor(voluntary movement).\n\nHow motivation works. You do a task, and other cortical areas send info to the Limbic System which sends that info through the Basal Ganglia. When you finish a task, the reward loop is set off, which releases neurotransmitters like Serotonin and Dopamine into pleasure centers of your brain (mainly Amygdala). These make you feel good. This also gets sent to the Hippocampus, which is where memory gets processed, so you *remember* feeling good for finishing something.\n\nWhen you feel good for finishing something, you're more likely to do it again. This is how addiction works. Motivation is essentially addiction to finishing tasks. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There were 69 comments when I [came](_URL_0_) here.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Wow. lol.\n\n > CSS IN ELI5 ADDS MANY FEATURES! There are many features, both form and function, that are embedded in ELI5's CSS. Disabling CSS will not allow you to circumvent locked threads or enable any hidden functionalities. The CSS implemented exclusively adds functionality and extra features. If there is something wrong with the CSS that you would like us to fix, let us know, please! We may be able to help. Thanks! If you're unable to change CSS on your browser, we’re sorry for this intrusive message!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How ironic that i have an exam in 3 hours from now, and my textbook is ooen in front of me while i browse reddit.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The truth is no one knows, motivation is the most mysterious area in psychology/neuroscience.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Dopamine, but consider this as well. Everything you do in your life is based on probabilities. The reason your brain confidently reaches for a doorknob to open a door is because it knows at a subconscious level that turning the knob will remove the door as an obstacle at a very high percentage. This data is used as proof that turning the door knob will yield the desired result. In the same sense, doing things that require more motivation, increases your motivation. As you accomplish task that were labelled as having a low probability of success, they serve as proof that task with a low probability of success are actually possible and it makes the subject more comfortable with the concept and thus more likely to go through with the task.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The desire for recognition from your learned reference group. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The hard part is that sometimes when you do all those things you still get depressed.\n\nFor example, I was training for a marathon, running and lifting daily. I ate relatively healthy, worked 40 hours a week and kept socializing with people. I also went on a few dates here and there. Believe it or not I was also smoking a few cigarettes a day.\n\nNo drugs though since I'm an alcoholic and addict. \n\nAnd then suddenly I lost all motivation. One day I decided not to run and go easy on myself. \n\nMy motivation slowly leached away. While I didn't completely lose it and slide into a depressive abyss, I can relate to people that say that some days you just can't for some reason even though you know you should or have to.\n\nI missed the marathon but still work out regularly. I'm anti getting prescribed drugs so I try to handle my depression holistically.\n\nHonestly, post heavy drug use the lows aren't as low but they still come just as suddenly.\n\nThe highs, well, are never as high as they used to be ; )", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I just finished writing my thesis paper on procrastination (I procrastinated massively during its conception), and am now 3 days away from my undergrad exam (and still procrastinating). While I am somewhat versed in the workings of procrastination I have a general understanding of motivation. The central problem of motivation is that it is not a well-defined monolithic construct, it is nuanced, its borders are fuzzy, not all motivation is made equal. We do not posses one big motivation, we are filled by hundreds of mini-motivations, each battling it out, one carriage pulled by tens of rowdy bulls, each vying for its own different path. For example, motivation is intertwined with emotion: this is somehow foreshadowed in its latin roots, motivation comes from *movere*, to move, sharing roots with emotion, *e - movere*, \"moving outward\". We move things and we are moved by things.\n\n1) The antiquated and flabby **instinct theory** simply proposes that what we do is a function of some inner instinct that we are born with. Killers have an instinct for violence, gluttons have an instinct for eating, and so on. It explains virtually nothing besides \"it's in my nature to do so\", but it gets one thing right:\n\n*I. We engage in certain behaviours because of inner drives.*\n\n > Instinct theory comes from the works of William James and William McDougall, I do not have definitive direct sources, except sloppily cobbled together first year courses.\n\n2) Behaviorist's **drive theory** follows this train of thought, arguing we have ten to twenty inner drives that influence our behaviour profoundly. If you're smelling bagels and your stomach's rumbling inner peace can go take a hike. A drive is basically a disturbance in the bodys homeostatis, the longer it exists the harder it pulls you towards its satisfaction: hunger, thirst, adequate nutrition, absence of pain, are all drives. Parapharisng Hull and Hebb, almost all drives are \"tissue needs\". The literal tissue in you needs stuff in the environment to survive: fluids, nutrients and vitamins, oxigen, salts, all the \"good stuff\" of existence. The theory is right in a certain aspect:\n\n*II. On one hand, we are strongly influenced by these viscerogenic needs.*\n\nHowever, it also states that sex is one of these basal \"tissue need\", and what you told yourself during adolescence notwithstanding, no one ever died from lack of sex. While it is a need of general individual well-being, it is not a need of well-being in the pure physiological sense. When you frustrate a basic biological need for long enough you die (the definition of basic), they are the *sine qua non* conditions of biological persistence. Thusly, we may derive another idea:\n\n*III. On the other hand, we strive for things beyond simple biological existence, we have psychological needs.*\n\nHow else would we want to see a scary movie, or ride a roller-coaster, or engage in other such bizarre activity that brings nothing to our biological homeostasis?\n\n > Hebb, D. O. (1955). Drives and the C.N.S. (conceptual nervous system). Psychological Review, 62, 243-254.\n\n > Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior: An introduction to behavior theory. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.\n\n3) Maslow compounds this in his **hierarchy of needs**: we have 5 levels of needs from the most basic to the most sophisticated: Physiological, Safety, Love/Belonging, Esteem and Self-Actualization. In order to have needs of a certain level we must first adequately satisfy all the needs below it. For example, the need for Esteem, be it self-esteem by mastering some human endeavour, of esteem from others, from recognition, will not be so strong if you don't have a stable place to live, or the certainty of tomorrow's meal, or the belonging to a group, or a significant other. The theory doesn't have strong validity as individuals are unique and tend to jump around this pyramid. However a new idea we may derive is that:\n\n*IV. Humans are perpetually wanting animals.*\n\nThere is no end-game condition to human wanting and motivation. That's why quintillionaires don't soak their behinds in their diamond studded pools all day and still want more. That is, there is no end-game final satisfaction for these psychological needs, the biological ones can be temporarily fully dealt with, and most often are.\n\n > Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–96.\n\n > Maslow, A. H., Frager, R., & Cox, R. (1970). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row.\n\n4) Coming from economics is the **hyperbolic reduction model** ambitiously trying to answer the basic question: \"Why do we want what we want when we want it?\". Technically we would derive maximum utility from those Larger Later (LL) goals we so often postpone in order to pursue Sooner Smaller (SS) pleasures, like writing on the interwebs instead of studying. The answer is that we weigh the *perceived* value of a goal, and not its true there-you-go-it's-yours-now value. The fact that we have to wait for something will discount its value, hyperbolicly so. It's one thing to choose an apple today instead of two apples tomorrow, than to choose an apple after a year instead of two apples after a year and a day. As in page 6 of this [paper](_URL_1_). What you see there is a modelling of motivation, we work for the LL goal and not the SS ones because temporal disconting is acting uniformly. That is, until the hyperbolic curve of SS pops over that of LL (the point where the two curves intersect), now in this point of *preference reversal* we are more likely to pursue SS goals, they are more nearer, like in the apple example above.\nThe hyperbolic model has its faults, however the basic idea is:\n\n*V. We have time-inconsistent wantings. What today-me wants might not be what a-month-later-me wants, sometimes even at the cost of a months work of today-me.*\n\n > Ainslie, G. (2010). Procrastination, the basic impulse. The thief of time: Philosophical essays on procrastination, 11-27.\n\n > Ainslie, G. (2012). Pure hyperbolic discount curves predict “eyes open” selfcontrol. Theory and Decision, 73(1), 3-34.\n\n > Ainslie, G. W. (1992). Picoeconomics: The strategic interaction of successive motivational states within the person. New York: Cambridge University Press.\n\n > Mazur, J. E. (1987). An adjusting procedure for studying delayed reinforcement. In M. L. Commons & J. E. Mazur (Eds.), The effect of delay and of intervening events on reinforcement value: Quantitative analyses of behavior, vol. 5: 55–73. Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.\n\n5) Going into organisational psychology, Vroom's **VIE model**, Valence, Instrumentality, Expectancy sheds new light on how we would select our new endeavours. We have an *expectancy* that our attributes might be good enough to secure a goal, we have an *instrumentality* that our employer will notice this and will reward us. The reward has a certain *valence*, how well we perceive it, how valuable it is to us. Expectancy and instrumentality are probabilities ranging from 0 to 1, valence ranges from -1 to +1, 0 being a neutral, \"I don't care\" stance on the reward. The probability of engaging in such a responsibility is calculated like so for each possible action:\n\n*Utility = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence*\n\nThe action with the most utility (as above described) being the one selected.\nOutside the organisational sphere we may dispense with instrumentality, absorbing it into expectancy, and shaping Valence into Value (perceived value, mind you) we have:\n\n*Utility = Expectancy x Value*\n\n*VI. The expected chance of fulfilling a goal and the perceived value of that goal play a major part in selecting it as our course of action. \"Never give up, never surrender\" only works in conjunction with high vale and expectancy*\n\n > Van Eerde, W., & Thierry, H. (1996). Vroom's expectancy models and workrelated criteria: A meta-analysis. Journal of applied psychology, 81(5), 575.\n\n > Lawler III, E. E., & Suttle, J. L. (1973). Expectancy theory and job behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 9(3), 482-503.\n\n > Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation.\n\n6) Finally, **cumulative prospect theory** (Tversky and Kahneman) nuances this. We are more sensible to losing than to winning (loss aversion), and we are more likely to overweigh low odds and underweigh medium to high odds. In other words, expectancy does not influence us [liniarly](_URL_0_), neither does value.\n\n*VII. We are more moved by loss than by gain, and more probable to overestimate our low chances and overestimate our medium to high chances.*\n\n > Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1986). Rational choice and the framing of decisions. Journal of business, S251-S278.\n\n > Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1992). Advances in prospect theory: Cumulative representation of uncertainty. Journal of Risk and uncertainty, 5(4), 297-323.\n\n7) Drawing on all of the above points, Steel and König devise the **temporal motivation theory** where:\n\n*Utility = (Expectancy x Value)/(Impulsivity x Delay)*\n\nThey integrate the last 3 of the above theories and drive theory, adding also that impulsivity may interact with delay, increasing its discounting effects.\n\n*VIII. We are impulsive animals, our prefrontal cortices, coupled with our propensity for language usually inhibit these tendencies... usually.*\n\n > Steel, P., & König, C. J. (2006). Integrating theories of motivation. Academy of Management Review, 31(4), 889-913.\n\n > Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: a meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological bulletin, 133(1), 65.\n\nA note, I am not an expert on the field, I am a mere dilettante that sifted through some scientific sources. The literature on the subject is vast, absolutely massive, the above being feint highlights of the most popular theories and models.\n\nEdit: formatting\n\nEdit2: some major sources", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I have heard that one of the defining traits of depression is that your brain either isn't producing dopamine to allow you to make dopamine related decisions or isn't recognizing whatever you do produce. \n \nAnd when someone is depressed but takes a drug that suddenly motivates them (like adderall) it sometimes reverse-triggers happiness even though it's not an anti-depression drug. \n \nWould be interested if someone could speak a little more in depth about this.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's some evidence to suggest that dopamine is responsible in part for motivation, not just pleasure and reward. The spike in dopamine from drug use creates intense motivation to get more of the drug. When someone with PTSD is exposed to a trigger stimulus, the person experiences a dopamine spike and has a tendency to treat the stimulus like a real threat. Schizophrenia is a thought disorder characterized by high dopamine levels and command hallucinations (a voice commanding you to do something and an intense urge to do it). Thoughts a typical person might dismiss become truth because of the flood of neurotransmitters in the brain. For example: my heart is pounding and my palms are sweaty and I feel really afraid. I see someone frowning in my direction, so they must want to hurt me. My body is telling me that I'm in danger, so I need to identify the danger and get away from it.\n\nConversely, a person with depression tends to have low dopamine and can't find a reason to do anything because their body isn't responding to stimuli that would normally trigger dopamine production.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Motivation is \n\n\n1) Imagination and Visualization \n\n2) Assigning Value and Creating a Reward \n\n3) Perseverance, using your emotional side of your brain to create Willpower \n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\n-----\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\n**TLDR:** [Quick summary by yaminokaabii](_URL_0_)\n > First, you imagine a future possibility and make that real to yourself. \n > Second, you analyze the costs of getting to that reward/possibility, and your brain tricks itself into assigning lots of positive feelings towards it. \n > Third, while in the process of getting to that reward, the brain eventually wears itself out - but keeping at it for as long as you can, that is perseverance.\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\n**In the post below I am now going to try to explain simply what I mean by these terms, I used right above this TLDR. There is not going to be any new ideas just an explanation of those ideas. It will be long but I will try to keep it simple. I will try to explain in English and everyday language but after doing so I may put down some brain jargon which you really don’t need to know or remember. I do so for some people may want to learn more about it. I will try to give you a warning when I use brain jargon so you understand this is not really important to understanding the bigger concept.**\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\nYou use 3 different techniques of your brain to create motivation. These techniques use very different parts of your brain and a failure of one will lead to no motivation or low motivation. Some people such as ADHD people can have a failure of all 3 techniques. (More on ADHD later in a response to this post).\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\n----\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\n1) The first part is **Imagination and Visualization.** With this part you imagine the future benefit, such as something good or something bad. You imagine it, and you use your brain to make this future benefit very real in your mind. So real that you can see it, you can touch it, you can feel it, you can smell it, you can taste it. The more senses you use imagination and visualization, the more real it seems to your brain. By using the imagination and sensory parts of your brain together as a team, your body can overrule the part of the brain that deals with the present, the now, what is happening right this very second part with you and your environment.\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\n---\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\n2) The second part is **Assigning Value and Creating Rewards**, this is done by the computer part of your brain, the analytical part, the part that is in the very front part of your brain. This is the part of the brain that humans have but animals do not or they just have a very basic form. This part of the brain is called the cerebral cortex. Your brain assigns a value of how useful or good this future task brings to you. It assigns a number on how good this task is. It also assigns a cost (a guess) to the amount of effort or work you will probably have to expend in the present and near future to get the reward, in other words how much work you have to do. In effect your brain is doing a math problem on how much work to how much reward you can get.\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\nOnce your brain has this number of how much gain you are going to get vs how much work you will have to expend, the thought now goes to the emotional side of your brain. Your brain creates positive emotions / compulsions about this future goal to counteract the negative emotions / compulsions. You use your emotional and instinctual parts of your brain to do things like hunger, thirst, heat regulation (sweating), heart rate, ability to block out pain/feel pain, etc. In effect your rational frontal part of the brain the cerebral cortex tricks your body into making and feeling the good feelings right now so you don’t let the bad feelings win out. Thus you are able to do something that make cause a short term loss but allows you to do a long term gain.\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\n*Brain Jargon for this section, you do not need to remember this.* There is a reason why dopamine receptors are extremely prominent in the front part of your brain (cerebral cortex) and your emotional center (with dopamine specifically a part of the brain called the hypothalamus, there are other parts of the brain that are considered emotional but dopamine does not have many receptors there).\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\n----\n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\n3) The last part of motivation is **Perseverance or what some people call willpower**. This is controlled by your emotional part of your brain. What happens is your emotional part of your brain is feeling the deprivation of resources such as the loss of energy, you feeling tired, you feeling hot and sweaty, etc. Your body is trying to conserve resources, your body is trying to not die right now and save resources for the future so you do not die later due to lack of planning. You have perseverance or willpower, how much your body can take *before it has to bail* for continuing to do this long term action will actually hurt you not help you. In effect perseverance is pushing your limits to the max, going at it till you can’t take anymore. \n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\n*Once you surpass your perseverance limit your body instantly snaps and activates your mind again going back to number 1.* When you have no more perseverance energy, when you have no more willpower your body snaps and reformulates. It activates adrenaline which creates focus but focus that is prioritized the short term, your brain can't think long term anymore, it deals only with the present. Your brain goes back to step number 1 and does a recalculation but this calculation great empathizes short term gains and losses and has an aversion to long term gains and losses. **If your body activates adrenaline it is game over for long term planning and motivation, nothing you can do can change this.** The only way you can regain motivation is to wait for the adrenaline to wear off, reimagine the positive benefits, make those positive benefits real and start over with number 1. \n\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\n\n*Brain Jargon for this section, you do not need to remember this.* Perseverance is controlled slightly by dopamine but more so by a neurotransmitter called norepinephrine. Norepinephrine is very similar to Adrenaline chemically but how it affects your body is radically different. In effect **Norepinephrine is the anti-adrenaline.** Adrenaline gives you your ability to focus right now in the present. Norepinephrine gives you the ability to have persistence in doing the long term action the long term goal that may deplete short term resources. Once your perseverance ends, your body releases adrenaline to give you focus that prioritizes the short term the here and now, and you break and do the opposite of what you were doing before. In effect Norepinephrine and Adrenaline have a feedback loop, they regulate each other.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Usually they're out to kill their half-demon younger brother.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "682482", "title": "Human", "section": "Section::::Psychology.:Motivation and emotion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 102, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 102, "end_character": 812, "text": "Motivation is the driving force of desire behind all deliberate actions of humans. Motivation is based on emotion—specifically, on the search for satisfaction (positive emotional experiences), and the avoidance of conflict. Positive and negative is defined by the individual brain state, which may be influenced by social norms: a person may be driven to self-injury or violence because their brain is conditioned to create a positive response to these actions. Motivation is important because it is involved in the performance of all learned responses. Within psychology, conflict avoidance and the libido are seen to be primary motivators. Within economics, motivation is often seen to be based on incentives; these may be financial, moral, or coercive. Religions generally posit divine or demonic influences.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "231202", "title": "Sociotechnical system", "section": "Section::::Topics.:Motivation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 712, "text": "Motivation in psychology refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior. Motivation is a temporal and dynamic state that should not be confused with personality or emotion. Motivation is having the desire and willingness to do something. A motivated person can be reaching for a long-term goal such as becoming a professional writer or a more short-term goal like learning how to spell a particular word. Personality invariably refers to more or less permanent characteristics of an individual's state of being (e.g., shy, extrovert, conscientious). As opposed to motivation, emotion refers to temporal states that do not immediately link to behavior (e.g., anger, grief, happiness).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15450", "title": "Industrial and organizational psychology", "section": "Section::::Topics.:Motivation in the workplace.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 827, "text": "Motivation involves three psychological processes: arousal, direction, and intensity. Arousal is what initiates action. It is often fueled by a person's need or desire for something that is missing from his or her life, either totally or partially. Direction refers to the path employees take in accomplishing the goals they set for themselves. Intensity is the amount of energy employees put into goal-directed work performance. The level of intensity often reflects the importance and difficulty of the goal. These psychological processes involve four factors. First, motivation serves to direct attention, focusing on particular issues, people, tasks, etc. Second, it serves to stimulate effort. Third, motivation influences persistence. Finally, motivation influences the choice and application of task-related strategies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "232495", "title": "Motivation", "section": "Section::::Psychological theories.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 570, "text": "Motivation can be conceived of as a cycle in which thoughts influence behaviours, drive performance affects thoughts, and the cycle begins again. Each stage of the cycle is composed of many dimensions including attitudes, beliefs, intentions, effort, and withdrawal which can all affect the motivation that an individual experiences. Most psychological theories hold that motivation exists purely within the individual, but socio-cultural theories express motivation as an outcome of participation in actions and activities within the cultural context of social groups.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "232495", "title": "Motivation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 956, "text": "Motivation is the reason for people's actions, willingness and goals. Motivation is derived from the word \"motive\" which is defined as a need that requires satisfaction. These needs could be wants or desires that are acquired through influence of culture, society, lifestyle, etc. or generally innate. Motivation is one's direction to behaviour, or what causes a person to want to repeat a behaviour, a set of force that acts behind the motives. An individual's motivation may be inspired by others or events (extrinsic motivation) or it may come from within the individual (intrinsic motivation). Motivation has been considered as one of the most important reasons that inspires a person to move forward in life. Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious factors. Mastering motivation to allow sustained and deliberate practice is central to high levels of achievement e.g. in the worlds of elite sport, medicine or music.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "91820", "title": "Instructional design", "section": "Section::::Motivational design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 216, "text": "Motivation is defined as an internal drive that activates behavior and gives it direction. The term motivation theory is concerned with the process that describe why and how human behavior is activated and directed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "232495", "title": "Motivation", "section": "Section::::Psychological theories.:Socio-cultural theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 751, "text": "Motivation can develop through an individuals involvement within their cultural group. Personal motivation often comes from activities a person believes to be central to the everyday occurrences in their community. An example of socio-cultural theory would be social settings where people work together to solve collective problems. Although individuals will have internalized goals, they will also develop internalized goals of others, as well as new interests and goals collectively with those that they feel socially connected to. Oftentimes, it is believed that all cultural groups are motivated in the same way. However, motivation can come from different child-rearing practices and cultural behaviors that greatly vary between cultural groups.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A quantum mechanical understanding of materials was necessary to develop the transistor and the entire computer revolution that came from it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The most obvious thing I can think of right now is that GPS would either not exist at all, or work very differently from the system we have now. The positioning calculations must account for relativistic effects.\n\nNuclear fission might be affected too, although there are quite a few naturally-occuring fission reactors, so it might just have been discovered by accident.\n\nParticle physics would be mostly non-existent (or based almost completely on trial and error), without respecting relativistic effects.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm fairly sure that someone else would've discovered what he did if he hadn't.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "philosophical answer is daily life would've moved on as the days before Einstein. From a technology and scientific point of view, we will be missing a tool that would help us to understand stuff like chemistry, and gravity. I am sure we can still try to figure out how it works, but there would not be one seemingly general theory that would answer them all (I know his theory doesn't explain everything such as quantum behavior). The way I look at it is, what if hammer was never invented? We just try to work around the problem and come up other tools to solve the problem", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Special and general relativity still don't really affect our daily lives since very few things require either super-time precision, travel at speeds near light, or are near very very heavy objects. I'm sure there's a few things, (and there's a HELL of lot of physics we wouldn't understand), but I can't think of much in everyday life that'd be affected.\n\nI think the more applicable discovery of Einstein to our everyday life is probably his lesser known discovery of the photo-electric effect. The discovery that light is divided into discrete packets called photons is absolutely essential to create a lot of modern day technology. The laser certainly comes to mind. Without the laser, we'd have much slower worldwide communications, and likely be limited to slower and more expensive copper circuits.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16736", "title": "Kurt Gödel", "section": "Section::::Career.:Princeton, Einstein, U.S. citizenship.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 502, "text": "Albert Einstein was also living at Princeton during this time. Gödel and Einstein developed a strong friendship, and were known to take long walks together to and from the Institute for Advanced Study. The nature of their conversations was a mystery to the other Institute members. Economist Oskar Morgenstern recounts that toward the end of his life Einstein confided that his \"own work no longer meant much, that he came to the Institute merely ... to have the privilege of walking home with Gödel\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4022767", "title": "Relativity priority dispute", "section": "Section::::Special relativity.:Comments by Lorentz, Poincaré, and Einstein.:Einstein.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 260, "text": "It is now known that Einstein was well aware of the scientific research of his time. The well known historian of science, Jürgen Renn, Director of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science wrote on Einstein's contributions to the Annalen der Physik:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20469826", "title": "Illana Katz", "section": "Section::::History.:Additional autism efforts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 877, "text": "By this time, Katz had spent six years researching the life of theoretical physicist Albert Einstein, the last two years being a collaboration with Dr. Edward Ritvo. In their research, Katz and Ritvo discovered that Einstein's parents had been very worried about him when he was a baby. Born with an unusually large head similarly to many children with autism, Einstein's grandparents thought he was a dolt, in part because he was a late talker and did poorly in school. Einstein additionally \"was a loner, solitary, suffered from major tantrums, had no friends and didn't like being in crowds.\" In 1995, Katz and Ritvo published their 1995 book, \"In a World of His Own: A Storybook About Albert Einstein\". In \"In a World of His Own\", Katz and Ritvo review the life of Albert Einstein in view of the features of the autistic spectrum to conclude that Einstein did have autism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23797095", "title": "Religious and philosophical views of Albert Einstein", "section": "Section::::Philosophical beliefs.:Opinions on philosophers.:David Hume.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 362, "text": "Einstein was an admirer of the philosophy of David Hume; in 1944 he said \"If one reads Hume’s books, one is amazed that many and sometimes even highly esteemed philosophers after him have been able to write so much obscure stuff and even find grateful readers for it. Hume has permanently influenced the development of the best philosophers who came after him.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "section": "Section::::Life and career.:1933: Immigration to the US.:Refugee status.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 660, "text": "Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two assistants watch over him at his secluded cottage outside London, with a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein, published in the \"Daily Herald\" on 24 July 1933.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47300169", "title": "Sybe I. Rispens", "section": "Section::::Peter Debye Controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 349, "text": "In Rispens’ 2006 book, \"Einstein in Nederland: Een intellectuele biografie\" (Einstein in the Netherlands: An Intellectual Biography), he revealed that during the period of 1933-1945, Albert Einstein was upset by Nobel Prize winning chemist Peter Debye, whom Einstein believed to be serving the Third Reich more than he considered ethically correct.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42314944", "title": "János Plesch", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 326, "text": "He also became famous as the doctor and friend of many leading personalities in the scientific, social, and artistic worlds of his day. For example, he was a close friend and doctor to Albert Einstein for 25 years. His biography contains two chapters that provide one of the most intimate glimpses of Einstein ever published.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The bubbles have something to do with the oxygen being gassed out especially if the water is cold, since cold water holds more oxygen. And the taste is CO2 being dissolved in the water over the period of time which creates a chemical compound H₂CO₃ - carbonic acid. So the increase of the acid changed the taste of the water. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "176148", "title": "Spa, Belgium", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 285, "text": "Pliny the Elder noted \"In Tongrie, country of Gaul, there is a famous source, whose water, while sparkling bubbles, a ferruginous taste that is, however, feel that when we finished drinking. This water purges the body, cures fevers and dispels calculous affections.\"(C lib.XXXI VIII).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "239918", "title": "Tap water", "section": "Section::::Potable water supply.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 500, "text": "Tap water can sometimes appear cloudy, often mistaken for mineral impurities in the water. It is usually caused by air bubbles coming out of solution due to change in temperature or pressure. Because cold water holds more air than warm water, small bubbles will appear in water. It has a high dissolved gas content that is heated or depressurized, which reduces how much dissolved gas the water can hold. The harmless cloudiness of the water disappears quickly as the gas is released from the water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5220330", "title": "Paper cup", "section": "Section::::Manufacture.:Waterproofing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 324, "text": "Originally, paper cups for hot drinks were glued together and made waterproof by dropping a small amount of clay in the bottom of the cup, and then spinning at high speed so that clay would travel up the walls of the cup, making the paper water-resistant. However, this resulted in drinks smelling and tasting of cardboard.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "478666", "title": "Antibubble", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 523, "text": "Just as soap bubbles, with air inside and air outside, have negative buoyancy and tend to sink towards the ground, so antibubbles, with water inside and air outside have positive buoyancy and tend to rise towards the water surface. But again, just as soap bubbles can be filled with a lighter gas to give them positive buoyancy, so antibubbles can be filled with a heavier liquid to give them negative buoyancy. Using a drinking straw to drop droplets of sugar solution onto soapy water will produce antibubbles that sink.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6740960", "title": "Cheerios effect", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 433, "text": "In fluid mechanics, the Cheerios effect is the phenomenon that occurs when floating objects that don't normally float attract one another. Wetting, an example of the \"Cheerios effect,\" is when breakfast cereal clumps together or clings to the sides of a bowl of milk. It is named after the common breakfast cereal Cheerios and is due to surface tension. The same effect governs the behavior of bubbles on the surface of soft drinks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5170889", "title": "Bubbles (video game)", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1131, "text": "\"Bubbles\" is an action game where the player controls the protagonist, a soap bubble, from a top-down perspective. The object is to clean a kitchen sink by maneuvering over ants, crumbs, and grease spots to absorb them before they slide into the drain. As the bubble absorbs more objects, it grows in size, eventually acquiring first eyes and then a smiling mouth. At the same time, sponges and scrub brushes slowly move around the sink, cleaning it on their own in competition with the player. Touching either of these enemies costs a player one life unless the bubble is large enough to have a complete face. In this case, the enemy will be knocked away and the bubble will shrink. Sponges and brushes can be knocked into the drain for bonus points, eliminating them from play. Two other enemies in the sink are stationary razor blades and roaches that crawl out of the drain. Contact with a blade is always fatal, while the bubble can safely touch the roach only while carrying a broom, which will kill the roach with one hit. The broom can be acquired by running over a cleaning lady who appears in the sink from time to time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "901260", "title": "Close-packing of equal spheres", "section": "Section::::Filling the remaining space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 465, "text": "Spherical bubbles in soapy water in a fcc or hcp arrangement, when the water in the gaps between the bubbles drains out, also approach the rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb or trapezo-rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb. However, such fcc or hcp foams of very small liquid content are unstable, as they do not satisfy Plateau's laws. The Kelvin foam and the Weaire–Phelan foam are more stable, having smaller interfacial energy in the limit of a very small liquid content.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Smartphones are very small. They are built with components that have to fit very tightly together, otherwise there either won't be room inside the case, or the components might interfere with each other, or the heat dispersal won't be effective and the phone will overheat. The same problem applies to laptops too, which usually only let you replace a few components such as the RAM and peripherals.\n\nThe concept of a [modular smartphone](_URL_0_) is in development, but so far there have been very few practical implementations.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "42756649", "title": "Bring your own operating system", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 608, "text": "By allowing users to bring their own operating system there are significant cost savings to be made by organisations who commonly have many on-site users and are obliged to provide them with computer hardware to allow them to perform specific tasks as there is no longer a need to install a hard drive in each computer. Upgrading and maintaining many PC computers has also become easier as companies only need to supply users with new pen drives containing the operating system boot images rather than having to re-image every PC with the latest build of the operating system thus eliminating upgrade costs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9445932", "title": "Goldbricking", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 205, "text": "Smartphones have greatly reduced the need for employees to use company computers/Internet access for personal matters, also making it harder for companies to restrict or track workers' Internet activity. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35924721", "title": "Samsung Galaxy Ace 2", "section": "Section::::Samsung Galaxy Ace 2 x / Trend.:Software.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 480, "text": "Since these phones run Android 4.0, they are still supported by cloud, communications and social networking services that push the latest versions of their apps, which have in some cases been designed with only the newest hardware in mind. Such applications hog system resources and cause the phones to run slowly. As a remedy, phone owners can replace those apps with less resource-hungry equivalents, or remove them entirely and use a web browser to access the services' sites.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12610483", "title": "Android (operating system)", "section": "Section::::Development.:Update schedule.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 1030, "text": "The extensive variation of hardware in Android devices causes significant delays for software upgrades, with new versions of the operating system and security patches typically taking months before reaching consumers, or sometimes not at all. The lack of after-sale support from manufacturers and carriers has been widely criticized by consumer groups and the technology media. Some commentators have noted that the industry has a financial incentive not to upgrade their devices, as the lack of updates for existing devices fuels the purchase of newer ones, an attitude described as \"insulting\". \"The Guardian\" complained that the method of distribution for updates is complicated only because manufacturers and carriers have designed it that way. In 2011, Google partnered with a number of industry players to announce an \"Android Update Alliance\", pledging to deliver timely updates for every device for 18 months after its release; however, there has not been another official word about that alliance since its announcement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33496160", "title": "Mobile app", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 526, "text": "Developing apps for mobile devices requires considering the constraints and features of these devices. Mobile devices run on battery and have less powerful processors than personal computers and also have more features such as location detection and cameras. Developers also have to consider a wide array of screen sizes, hardware specifications and configurations because of intense competition in mobile software and changes within each of the platforms (although these issues can be overcome with mobile device detection).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "507143", "title": "Upgrade", "section": "Section::::Risks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 824, "text": "A further risk of software upgrades is that they can brick the device being upgraded, such as if power fails while the upgrade is in the middle of being installed. This is an especially big concern for embedded devices, in which upgrades are typically all-or-nothing (the upgrade is a firmware or filesystem image, which isn't usable if it's only partially written), and which have limited ability to recover from a failed upgrade. Solutions to this generally involve keeping multiple copies of firmware, so that one can be upgraded while the other remains intact as a backup, but there are still holes which can cause this to fail. Tools such as Sysup and SWUpdate provide more complete solutions that implement upgrades in a safe atomic way, and reduce or eliminate the need to customize bootloaders and other components.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45063324", "title": "Keepod", "section": "Section::::Impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 757, "text": "The majority of people around the world still do not have access to personal computing. Many of the current efforts to bridge the digital divide are failing and it is difficult for organizations to make a dent in this large demand. The idea of providing a “laptop per child” sounds feasible in theory, but there is merely not enough funding to do so. Other initiatives to provide students with mobile devices, such as cell phones and tablets, are struggling to provide a fulfilling educational experience, especially if students aspire to go into the professional world. The distribution of relatively expensive mobile devices can pose a danger to many students in low income communities throughout the world, as children become potential targets of crime.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The effects of sleep are primarily related to brain function, and that recuperation does not happen from just laying down all night. If you actually needed a physical break then that would help (but chances are you probably didn't).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm not sure about just laying there resting, but [Hypnagogia](_URL_0_) is similar to that but you are actually dreaming and will feel rested afterwards. You end up being fully conscious but will hallucinate and sometimes you will be paralyzed.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "54607857", "title": "Autoimmune disease in women", "section": "Section::::Non-pharmacological treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 456, "text": "BULLET::::- Get enough rest. Rest allows body tissues and joints the time they need to repair. Sleeping is a great way to maintain health and helps both body and mind. Lack of sleep, stress levels and symptoms might get worsen. Immunity to other infections or diseases is reduced when sleep is not adequate. Rest contributes to the ability to handle the stressors and problems. Many people need at least 7 to 9 hours of sleep each day to feel well-rested.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2708147", "title": "Slow-wave sleep", "section": "Section::::Problems associated with slow-wave sleep.:Effects of sleep deprivation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 450, "text": "J. A. Horne (1978) reviewed several experiments with humans and concluded that sleep deprivation has no effects on people’s physiological stress response or ability to perform physical exercise. It did, however, have an effect on cognitive functions. Some people reported distorted perceptions or hallucinations and lack of concentration on mental tasks. Thus, the major role of sleep does not appear to be rest for the body, but rest for the brain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18597893", "title": "Sleep deprivation", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Insomnia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 101, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 101, "end_character": 558, "text": "Sleep is known to be cumulative. This means that the fatigue and sleep one lost as a result, for example, staying awake all night, would be carried over to the following day. Not getting enough sleep a couple days cumulatively builds up a deficiency and that's when all the symptoms of sleep deprivation come in. When one is well rested and healthy, the body naturally spends not as much time in the REM stage of sleep. The more time one's body spends in REM sleep, causes one to be exhausted, less time in that stage will promote more energy when awakened.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14471554", "title": "Bed rest", "section": "Section::::Adverse effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 488, "text": "Prolonged bed rest has long been known to have deleterious physiological effects, such as muscle atrophy and other forms of deconditioning such as arterial constriction. Besides lack of physical exercise it was shown that another important factor is that the hydrostatic pressure (caused by gravity) acts anomalously, resulting in altered distribution of body fluids. In other words, when getting up, this can cause an orthostatic hypertension, potentially inducing a vasovagal response.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28445", "title": "Sleep apnea", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Central sleep apnea.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 370, "text": "While sleeping, a normal individual is \"at rest\" as far as cardiovascular workload is concerned. Breathing is regular in a healthy person during sleep, and oxygen levels and carbon dioxide levels in the bloodstream stay fairly constant. Any sudden drop in oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide (even if tiny) strongly stimulates the brain's respiratory centers to breathe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2465588", "title": "Cataplexy", "section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Theories for episodes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 360, "text": "A phenomenon of REM sleep, muscular paralysis, occurs at an inappropriate time. This loss of tonus is caused by massive inhibition of motor neurons in the spinal cord. When this happens during waking, the victim of a cataplectic attack loses control of his or her muscles. As in REM sleep, the person continues to breathe and is able to control eye movements.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13180913", "title": "Nicky Scarfo Jr.", "section": "Section::::Early years in the Scarfo crime family.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 236, "text": "My father says, he says, this one is definitely my responsibility. He can't rest. ... I told him, I says, \"I ain't resting till it's f-ing done\"... How can I rest? How could I sleep at night? ... It's always eating at me, eating at me.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > How does the computer decide what to delete first?\n\nTypically the delete command will assume that the sequence does not matter, so it just uses the most easily or quickly available one. Most likely, it will just call a routine to list the contents and delete them in that order, and that routine by default lists them simply in the order the filesystem returns them. Probably in the order in which they were added to the directory, but it really depends on the implementation details of the filesystem.\n\n > what gives the computer the ability to delete one file but not touch everything else?\n\nThat's not an ability but a side-effect of the fact that it has to do something for each file, and can only do one (or a few) things at a time.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A folder is just a special kind of file that contains a list of other files. When you delete the folder, it will go down that list and delete files one by one, then delete the folder at the end.\n\nNote that the list is not in any particular order. Your file browser will take that list and sort it in whatever order you choose. That means it won't be obvious which file will be first, they could be deleted in just about any order.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "55380", "title": "Disk partitioning", "section": "Section::::Partition recovery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 694, "text": "When a partition is deleted, its entry is removed from a table and the data is no longer accessible. The data remains on the disk until being overwritten. Specialized recovery utilities, may be able to locate \"lost\" file systems and recreate a partition table which includes entries for these recovered file systems. Some disk utilities may overwrite a number of beginning sectors of a partition they delete. For example, if Windows Disk Management (Windows 2000/XP, etc.) is used to delete a partition, it will overwrite the first sector (relative sector 0) of the partition before removing it. It still may be possible to restore a FAT or NTFS partition if a backup boot sector is available.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51250465", "title": "Asymmetric numeral systems", "section": "Section::::Remarks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 531, "text": "The final state of encoding is required to start decoding, hence it needs to be stored in the compressed file. This cost can be compensated by storing some information in the initial state of encoder. For example, instead of starting with \"10000\" state, start with \"1****\" state, where \"*\" are some additional stored bits, which can be retrieved at the end of the decoding. Alternatively, this state can be used as a checksum by starting encoding with a fixed state, and testing if the final state of decoding is the expected one.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55380", "title": "Disk partitioning", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1134, "text": "Disk partitioning or disk slicing is the creation of one or more regions on secondary storage, so that each region can be managed separately. These regions are called partitions. It is typically the first step of preparing a newly installed disk, before any file system is created. The disk stores the information about the partitions' locations and sizes in an area known as the partition table that the operating system reads before any other part of the disk. Each partition then appears to the operating system as a distinct \"logical\" disk that uses part of the actual disk. System administrators use a program called a partition editor to create, resize, delete, and manipulate the partitions.. Partitioning allows the use of different filesystems to be installed for different kinds of files. Separating user data from system data can prevent the system partition from becoming full and rendering the system unusable. Partitioning can also make backing up easier. A disadvantage is that it can be difficult to properly size partitions resulting in having one partition with much free space and another nearly totally allocated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "886722", "title": "Transcoding", "section": "Section::::Re-encoding/recoding.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 512, "text": "BULLET::::- Editing: If one wishes to edit data in a compressed format (for instance, perform image editing on a JPEG image), one will generally decode it, edit it, then re-encode it. This re-encoding causes digital generation loss; thus if one wishes to edit a file repeatedly, one should only decode it \"once,\" and make all edits on that copy, rather than repeatedly re-encoding it. Similarly, if encoding to a lossy format is required, it should be deferred until the data is finalised, e.g. after mastering.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2079265", "title": "Undeletion", "section": "Section::::Mechanics.:FAT file systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 591, "text": "When a file is \"deleted\" using a FAT file system, the directory entry remains almost unchanged except for the first character of the file name, preserving most of the \"deleted\" file's name, along with its time stamp, file length and — most importantly — its physical location on the disk. The list of disk clusters occupied by the file will, however, be erased from the \"File Allocation Table\", marking those sectors available for use by other files created or modified thereafter. In case of FAT32, it is additionally erased field responsible for upper 16 bits of file start cluster value.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23039636", "title": "File carving", "section": "Section::::Motivation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 252, "text": "When a file is deleted, only the entry in the file system metadata is removed, while the actual data is still on the disk. After a format and even a repartitioning it might be that most of raw data is untouched and can be recovered using file carving.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31595644", "title": "Partition refinement", "section": "Section::::Data structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 361, "text": "A partition refinement algorithm maintains a family of disjoint sets . At the start of the algorithm, this family contains a single set of all the elements in the data structure. At each step of the algorithm, a set is presented to the algorithm, and each set in the family that contains members of is split into two sets, the intersection and the difference .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The integrity of the materials used in the high-end glasses is much higher compared with the low-end. If you just try on a pair of high-end sunglasses at the store the difference is very noticeable.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Quality of construction and materials, quality of design, polarization, anti reflective, longevity, and of course branding. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When you're 106 miles from Chicago, you have a full tank of gas, half a pack of cigarettes, and it's dark, cheap Wal-Mart sunglasses just won't do.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "74844", "title": "Glasses", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 516, "text": "Sunglasses allow for better vision in bright daylight, and may protect one's eyes against damage from excessive levels of ultraviolet light. Typical sunglasses lenses are tinted for protection against bright light or polarized to remove glare; Photochromatic glasses are clear in dark or indoor conditions, but turn into sunglasses when in they come in contact with Ultraviolet light. Most over the counter sunglasses do not have corrective power in the lenses; however, special prescription sunglasses can be made.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "173759", "title": "Sunglasses", "section": "Section::::Functions.:Further functions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 234, "text": "While non-tinted glasses are very rarely worn without the practical purpose of correcting eyesight or protecting one's eyes, sunglasses have become popular for several further reasons, and are sometimes worn even indoors or at night.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "173759", "title": "Sunglasses", "section": "Section::::Fashion (alphabetically).:Oversized.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 97, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 97, "end_character": 305, "text": "Oversized sunglasses, because of their larger frames and lenses, are useful for individuals who are trying to minimize the apparent size or arch of their nose. Oversized sunglasses also offer more protection from sunburn due to the larger areas of skin they cover, although sunblock should still be used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "173759", "title": "Sunglasses", "section": "Section::::Construction.:Frames.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 693, "text": "Some sports-optimized sunglasses have interchangeable lens options. Lenses can be easily removed and swapped for a different lens, usually of a different color. The purpose is to allow the wearer to easily change lenses when light conditions or activities change. The reasons are that the cost of a set of lenses is less than the cost of a separate pair of glasses, and carrying extra lenses is less bulky than carrying multiple pairs of glasses. It also allows easy replacement of a set of lenses if they are damaged. The most common type of sunglasses with interchangeable lenses has a single lens or shield that covers both eyes. Styles that use two lenses also exist, but are less common.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7497745", "title": "Glare (vision)", "section": "Section::::Reducing factors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 481, "text": "Sunglasses are often worn to reduce glare; polarized sunglasses are designed to reduce glare caused by light reflected from non-metallic surfaces such as water, glossy printed matter or painted surfaces. An anti-reflective treatment on eyeglasses reduces the glare at night and glare from inside lights and computer screens that is caused by light bouncing off the lens. Some types of eyeglasses can reduce glare that occurs because of the imperfections on the surface of the eye.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "531820", "title": "Luxottica", "section": "Section::::Criticism.:Monopolistic pricing practices.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 993, "text": "The company has been criticised for the high price of its brand-name glasses, such as Ray-Ban, Oakley, and several others. A 2012 \"60 Minutes\" segment focused on whether the company's extensive holdings in the industry were used to keep prices high. Luxottica owns not only a large portfolio of brands (over a dozen) such as Ray-Ban and Oakley but also retailers such as Sunglass Hut and Oliver Peoples, the optical departments at Target and Sears, as well as key eye insurance groups including the second largest glasses insurance firm in the US. It has been accused of operating a complete monopoly on the optical industry and overcharging for its products—for example, temporarily dropping competitor Oakley from its frame design list, then, when the company stock crashed, purchasing the company, then increasing the prices of its Ray-Ban sunglasses. In addition, it has been argued that, by owning the vision insurance company EyeMed, it also controls part of the buyers' market as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "531861", "title": "Ray-Ban", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 308, "text": "Ray-Ban is an American brand of sunglasses and eyeglasses created in 1936 by the American company Bausch & Lomb. The brand is known for their Wayfarer and Aviator lines of sunglasses. In 1999, Bausch & Lomb sold the brand to the Italian eyewear conglomerate, Luxottica Group, for a reported US $640 million.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The manmade satelites that aren't in a graveyard orbit will eventually reenter the atmosphere and burn up. Eventually the ones in the graveyard orbit will too but that will be quite a while. There isn't enough matter currently orbiting the earth to form rings comparable to our solar neighbours, save for the moon. #notascientist", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22320627", "title": "2009 satellite collision", "section": "Section::::Fallout.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 485, "text": "By December 2011, many pieces of debris were in a steady orbital decay towards Earth, and expected to burn up in the atmosphere within one or two years. By January 2014, 24% of the known debris had decayed. In 2016, \"Space News\" listed the collision as the second biggest fragmentation event in history, with Kosmos-2251 and Iridium 33 producing respectively 1,668 and 628 pieces of cataloged debris, of which 1,141 and 364 pieces of tracked debris remain in orbit as of January 2016.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34457630", "title": "List of reentering space debris", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 338, "text": "List of large reentering space debris is a list of man made objects reentering Earth's atmosphere by mass (see space debris). They are typically destroyed by reentry heating, but some components can survive. Most of these objects are relatively small; larger objects have survived but usually break up into smaller pieces during reentry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "266344", "title": "Space debris", "section": "Section::::Threats.:To Earth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 296, "text": "Although most debris burns up in the atmosphere, larger objects can reach the ground intact. According to NASA, an average of one cataloged piece of debris has fallen back to Earth each day for the past 50 years. Despite their size, there has been no significant property damage from the debris.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1045142", "title": "Debris", "section": "Section::::Space.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1076, "text": "\"Space debris\" usually refers to the remains of spacecraft that have either fallen to Earth or are still orbiting Earth. Space debris may also consist of natural components such as chunks of rock and ice. The problem of space debris has grown as various space programs have left legacies of launches, explosions, repairs, and discards in both low Earth orbit and more remote orbits. These orbiting fragments have reached a great enough proportion to constitute a hazard to future space launches of both satellite and manned vehicles. Various government agencies and international organizations are beginning to track space debris and also research possible solutions to the problem. While many of these items, ranging in size from nuts and bolts to entire satellites and spacecraft, may fall to Earth, other items located in more remote orbits may stay aloft for centuries. The velocity of some of these pieces of space junk have been clocked in excess of 17,000 miles per hour (27,000 km/h). A piece of space debris falling to Earth leaves a fiery trail, just like a meteor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16781106", "title": "Particulate pollution", "section": "Section::::Space debris.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 830, "text": "Space debris is classified by size and operational purpose, and divided into four main subsets: inactive payloads, operational debris, fragmentation debris and microparticulate matter. Inactive payloads refer to any launched space objects that have lost the capability to reconnect to its corresponding space operator; thus, preventing a return to Earth. In contrast, operational debris describes the matter associated with the propulsion of a larger entity into space, which may include upper rocket stages and ejected nose cones. Fragmentation debris refers to any object in space that has become dissociated from a larger entity by means of explosion, collision or deterioration. Microparticulate matter describes space matter that typically cannot be seen singly with the naked eye, including particles, gases, and spaceglow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "266344", "title": "Space debris", "section": "Section::::Characterization.:Size.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 581, "text": "There are estimated to be over 128 million pieces of debris smaller than as of January 2019. There are approximately 900,000 pieces from one to ten cm. The current count of large debris (defined as 10 cm across or larger) is 34,000. The technical measurement cutoff is c. . Over 98 percent of the 1,900 tons of debris in low Earth orbit (as of 2002) was accounted for by about 1,500 objects, each over . Total mass is mostly constant despite addition of many smaller objects, since they reenter the atmosphere sooner. Using a 2008 figure of 8,500 known items, it is estimated at .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23950607", "title": "HTV-1", "section": "Section::::Operation.:Departure from the ISS and Re-entry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 237, "text": "It is believed that some of the surviving debris from the HTV would have likely fallen in a rectangular area stretching across the Pacific Ocean between New Zealand and South America, according to the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "\"Relatively thin\" is still 20-30 miles of rock on average for continental crust. That's a lot of padding between us and the heat.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We do.\n\nHowever, the minor constant heat exuding from the core of the earth generally pales in comparison to the daily fluctuations and temperature differences on the surface. However, if you get below the surface of the earth (deep caves for instance), then the daily and seasonal fluctuations go away and you get a constant temperature.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Solid rock is an excellent insulator. [Take a look at this bit of lava here](_URL_2_). The interior is somewhere around 1,200°C. The air is much, much colder than that, so almost immediately on contact with the air, the surface of the lava cools to below 800°C. It becomes solid and black. But this only happens to the outer few millimeters of the lava. Inside, it's still 1,200°C, which can be seen when the frozen skin is punctured.\n\n[If you look at where a volcanologist digs into lava with a hammer, you can see that just inside the \"skin\", it's still very hot, even though the outside froze very quickly](_URL_1_). That means that the interior of the flow only loses a lot of heat to the outside when the skin is broken. The volcanologist also only really feels the worst of the heat when the interior is exposed; they can't stay close to it for very long once it's broken. It also means that blockier flows [like this](_URL_0_) can be more uncomfortable to stand next to even though they might be cooler on average.\n\nBecause of how good an insulator rock is, the interior of a lava flow can remain molten for days, months, or even years if it's thick enough, even though it looks completely solid on the outside. I've walked on 11 month old flows that would burn your feet if you stood still too long.\n\nThe crust does something similar for the earth; heat escapes through it very, very slowly in most places, so near the surface, the loss of heat to the atmosphere vastly overwhelms the supply of heat from below.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "145700", "title": "Crust (geology)", "section": "Section::::Earth's crust.:Structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 355, "text": "The crust is a thin shell on the outside of the Earth, accounting for less than 1% of Earth's volume. It is the top component of lithosphere: a division of Earth's layers that includes the crust and the upper part of the mantle. The lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates that move, allowing heat to escape from the interior of the Earth into space. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2554979", "title": "Geothermal gradient", "section": "Section::::Heat flow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 490, "text": "The Earth's crust effectively acts as a thick insulating blanket which must be pierced by fluid conduits (of magma, water or other) in order to release the heat underneath. More of the heat in the Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is by conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs in the oceans due to the crust there being much thinner and younger than under the continents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "113728", "title": "Geothermal energy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 488, "text": "Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core–mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of the mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "533487", "title": "Energy development", "section": "Section::::Renewable sources.:Geothermal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 65, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 65, "end_character": 484, "text": "Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core-mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1079866", "title": "Mantle (geology)", "section": "Section::::Earth's mantle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 437, "text": "The Earth's mantle is a layer of silicate rock between the crust and the outer core. Its mass of 4.01 × 10 kg is 67% the mass of the Earth. It has a thickness of making up about 84% of Earth's volume. It is predominantly solid but in geological time it behaves as a viscous fluid. Partial melting of the mantle at mid-ocean ridges produces oceanic crust, and partial melting of the mantle at subduction zones produces continental crust.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44248590", "title": "Grotta Gigante horizontal pendulums", "section": "Section::::Measurements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 292, "text": "The Earth's crust is the outer brittle layer of our planet, on average thick in continental areas. This moves up and down by ten centimeters during the time of 12 and 24 hours due to the attraction of Moon and Sun, and is accompanied by a local tilting of some parts in a billion of radians.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41077022", "title": "Earth's internal heat budget", "section": "Section::::Global internal heat flow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 868, "text": "The structure of the Earth is a rigid outer crust that is composed of thicker continental crust and thinner oceanic crust, solid but plastically flowing mantle, a liquid outer core, and a solid inner core. The fluidity of a material is proportional to temperature; thus, the solid mantle can still flow on long time scales, as a function of its temperature and therefore as a function of the flow of Earth's internal heat. The mantle convects in response to heat escaping from Earth's interior, with hotter and more buoyant mantle rising and cooler, and therefore denser, mantle sinking. This convective flow of the mantle drives the movement of Earth's lithospheric plates; thus, an additional reservoir of heat in the lower mantle is critical for the operation of plate tectonics and one possible source is an enrichment of radioactive elements in the lower mantle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In short, yes. [This section] (_URL_0_) of the FAQ may be helpful.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Never heard of accidental genocides. Do they exist? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6995889", "title": "Armenian Genocide denial", "section": "Section::::Legislation.:Legal issues in denial cases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 1099, "text": "The first person convicted in a court of law for denying the Armenian genocide is Turkish politician Doğu Perinçek, found guilty of racial discrimination by a Swiss district court in Lausanne in March 2007. At the trial, Perinçek denied the charge thus: \"I have not denied genocide because there was no genocide.\". After the court's decision, he said, \"I defend my right to freedom of expression.\" Ferai Tinç, a foreign affairs columnist with Turkey's \"Hürriyet\" newspaper, commented, \"we find these type of [penal] articles against freedom of opinion dangerous because we are struggling in our country to achieve freedom of thought.\" Perinçek appealed the verdict. In December 2007, the Swiss Federal Court confirmed the sentence given to Perinçek. Perinçek then appealed to the European Court of Human Rights, and in 2013 the Court ruled that Perinçek's freedom of expression, as enshrined in Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, had been violated. The European Court of Human Rights's Grand Chamber ruled in favour of Perinçek on 15 October 2015. (see Perinçek v. Switzerland).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6995889", "title": "Armenian Genocide denial", "section": "Section::::Academic consensus condemning genocide denial.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 367, "text": "The Armenian genocide is a contemporary current issue, given the persistent aggressive denial of the crime by the Turkish government-not withstanding its own judgment in courts martial after the first World War, that its leading ministers had deliberately planned and carried out the annihilation of Armenians, with the participation of many regional administrators.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12001341", "title": "Armenian Genocide recognition", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1013, "text": "Armenian Genocide recognition is the formal acceptance that the systematic massacres and forced deportation of Armenians committed by the Ottoman Empire from 1915 to 1923 constituted genocide. The consensus of historians and academic institutions on Holocaust and genocide studies recognize the Armenian Genocide. However, despite the recognition of the genocidal character of the massacre of Armenians in scholarship as well as in civil society, some governments have been reticent to officially acknowledge the killings as genocide because of political concerns about their relations with the Republic of Turkey, the successor state of the Ottoman Imperial authorities which perpetrated the genocide. The governments of Turkey and its close ally The Republic of Azerbaijan are the only ones that directly deny the historical factuality of the Armenian Genocide, and both are adamantly opposed to the recognition of the genocide by other nations, threatening economic and diplomatic consequences to recognizers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12001341", "title": "Armenian Genocide recognition", "section": "Section::::Parliaments and governments.:Position of the United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 134, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 134, "end_character": 1259, "text": "In 1951, the United States Department of State did actually exemplify the Armenian case as one of the committed acts of genocide in recent past. This view is evident in the written statement by United States given to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) that year, observing that: \"The Genocide Convention resulted from the inhuman and barbarous practices which prevailed in certain countries prior to and during World War II, when entire religious, racial and national minority groups were threatened with and subjected to deliberate extermination. The practice of genocide has occurred throughout human history. The Roman persecution of the Christians, the Turkish massacres of Armenians, the extermination of millions of Jews and Poles by the Nazis are outstanding examples of the crime of genocide. This was the background when the General Assembly of the United Nations considered the problem of genocide.\" That USA later dramatically changed this position and has consistently refrained from officially use the term \"genocide\" about the WWI events can be ascribed to the rise of the Cold War era and Turkey's NATO membership along with the disappearance of Raphael Lemkin as a strong human rights advocate from the ranks of the US State Department.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40114214", "title": "Witnesses and testimonies of the Armenian Genocide", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 537, "text": "Witnesses and testimony of the Armenian Genocide provide an important and valuable insight into the events during and after the Armenian Genocide. The Armenian Genocide was prepared and carried out by the Ottoman government in 1915 and the following years. As a result of the genocide, Armenians living in their ancestral homeland (at the time in the Ottoman Empire) were deported and systematically killed. The Republic of Turkey today denies the genocide, although the systematic massacres are recognized as genocide by most scholars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "140376", "title": "Armenian Genocide", "section": "Section::::Eyewitness accounts and reports.:Ottoman Empire and Turkey.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 132, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 132, "end_character": 511, "text": "Although many documents related to systematic massacres were destroyed during and after the genocide, Turkish historian Taner Akçam states that the \"Turkish sources we already possess provide sufficient information to prove that what befell the Armenians in 1915 was a Genocide.\" Historian Ara Sarafian similarly notes that \"the available Ottoman materials, especially when used alongside alternative sources (such as United States records or Armenian survivor accounts), support the Armenian Genocide thesis.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "140376", "title": "Armenian Genocide", "section": "Section::::Terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 674, "text": "In 2005, the International Association of Genocide Scholars affirmed that scholarly evidence revealed the \"Young Turk government of the Ottoman Empire began a systematic genocide of its Armenian citizens – an unarmed Christian minority population. More than a million Armenians were exterminated through direct killing, starvation, torture, and forced death marches\". The IAGS also condemned Turkish attempts to deny the factual and moral reality of the Armenian Genocide. In 2007, the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity produced a letter signed by 53 Nobel Laureates re-affirming the Genocide Scholars' conclusion that the 1915 killings of Armenians constituted genocide.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "What books or what were you reading that said that? There were definitely soldiers who served the Abraham Lincoln Brigade who then served in WW2 for America. \n\nHere's one example: _URL_0_\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1323516", "title": "Military history of Australia", "section": "Section::::Inter-war years.:Spanish Civil War, 1936–39.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 735, "text": "A small number of Australian volunteers fought on both sides of the Spanish Civil War, although they predominantly supported the Spanish Republic through the International Brigades. The Australians were subsequently allocated to the battalions of other nationalities, such as the British Battalion and the Lincoln Battalion, rather than forming their own units. Most were radicals motivated by ideological reasons, while a number were Spanish-born migrants who returned to fight in their country of origin. At least 66 Australians volunteered, with only one—Nugent Bull, a conservative catholic who was later killed serving in the RAF during the Second World War—known to have fought for General Francisco Franco's Nationalist forces.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "578303", "title": "Mackenzie–Papineau Battalion", "section": "Section::::History.:1938.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 613, "text": "The way home was arduous. The Canadian government continued its policy of ignoring or prosecuting the veterans of Spain, in accordance with the Foreign Enlistment Act. Money had to be scratched together to get them home; some were arrested in France. It was not until January 1939 that the government agreed the combatants could return to Canada. Upon their return to Canada, many were investigated by the RCMP and denied employment. A good number of the Mac-Pap veterans fought in the Second World War, but a number were prohibited due to \"political unreliability\" being categorized as \"premature antifascists\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36245064", "title": "Anti-Filipino sentiment", "section": "Section::::Incidents by country.:United States.:History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 765, "text": "World War II was a significant turning point for American views towards Filipinos. During the early period of the war, Filipinos were prohibited to join the army. However, in 1942, President Franklin Roosevelt allowed Filipinos to serve in the armed forces. Many Filipinos fought with Americans in Asia and Europe while some opted to be civilians involved in mobilization efforts during the war. Filipinos earned acceptance and admiration by the end of the war. The United States recognized and affirmed the Filipinos' right to citizenship with the amended Nationality Act of 1940. Through the amendment, non-citizens who joined the military were given opportunity to attain citizenship. About ten thousand Filipinos became American citizens through the amendment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "351724", "title": "Blue Division", "section": "Section::::History.:Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 466, "text": "Fifty percent of officers and NCOs were professional soldiers given leave from the Spanish army, including many veterans of the Spanish Civil War. Many others were members of the Falange (the Spanish Fascist party). Others felt pressure to join because of past ties with the Republic or—like Luis García Berlanga, who later became a well-known cinema director—to save relatives in prison from execution. The division also included a number of Portuguese volunteers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50904307", "title": "New Zealand–Spain relations", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 394, "text": "From 1936-1938, volunteers from New Zealand, set off for Spain to assist the Republican faction during the Spanish Civil War. Over thirty New Zealanders were to fight the war and at least five were killed fighting in Spain. The New Zealand government was officially neutral during the war, however, a group of nurses from the country were deployed to Spain to assist the International brigade.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10124277", "title": "Puerto Ricans in World War II", "section": "Section::::Lead-up to World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 569, "text": "Before the United States entered World War II Puerto Ricans were already fighting on European soil in the Spanish Civil War. The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started following an attempted \"coup d'état\" committed by parts of the army, led by the Nationalist General Francisco Franco, against the government of the Second Spanish Republic. Puerto Ricans fought on behalf of both of the factions involved, the \"Nationalists\" as members of the Spanish Army and the \"Loyalists\" (Republicans) as members of the Abraham Lincoln International Brigade.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8007721", "title": "Roter Frontkämpferbund", "section": "Section::::History.:Under the Third Reich.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 320, "text": "Of those who survived or avoided arrest, many followed the call of the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). They joined the of the International Brigades to fight against the Nationalist rebels. During World War II former Red Front fighters fought in the Soviet Red Army against Nazi Germany.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If by smaller scales you are talking about superclusters of galaxies then yes, there is a small measurable effect. However even the short distance between the Milky Way and Andromeda is too short for the expansion of the universe to be measurable. The gravity between the galaxies is much stronger and drowns out any expansion of space.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5985207", "title": "Expansion of the universe", "section": "Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Scale factor.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 1238, "text": "At a fundamental level, the expansion of the universe is a property of spatial measurement on the largest measurable scales of our universe. The distances between cosmologically relevant points increases as time passes leading to observable effects outlined below. This feature of the universe can be characterized by a single parameter that is called the scale factor which is a function of time and a single value for all of space at any instant (if the scale factor were a function of space, this would violate the cosmological principle). By convention, the scale factor is set to be unity at the present time and, because the universe is expanding, is smaller in the past and larger in the future. Extrapolating back in time with certain cosmological models will yield a moment when the scale factor was zero; our current understanding of cosmology sets this time at 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years ago. If the universe continues to expand forever, the scale factor will approach infinity in the future. In principle, there is no reason that the expansion of the universe must be monotonic and there are models where at some time in the future the scale factor decreases with an attendant contraction of space rather than an expansion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46868626", "title": "Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment", "section": "Section::::Method.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 508, "text": "Maps of large-scale structure can be used to measure the expansion history of the Universe because sound waves in the early Universe, or baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO), have left slight overdensities in the distribution of matter on scales of about 500 million light-years. This characteristic BAO scale has been well-measured by experiments like \"Planck\" and can therefore be used as a 'standard ruler' to determine the size of the Universe as a function of time, thereby indicating the expansion rate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5985207", "title": "Expansion of the universe", "section": "Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Measurement of expansion and change of rate of expansion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 868, "text": "In principle, the expansion of the universe could be measured by taking a standard ruler and measuring the distance between two cosmologically distant points, waiting a certain time, and then measuring the distance again, but in practice, standard rulers are not easy to find on cosmological scales and the timescales over which a measurable expansion would be visible are too great to be observable even by multiple generations of humans. The expansion of space is measured indirectly. The theory of relativity predicts phenomena associated with the expansion, notably the redshift-versus-distance relationship known as Hubble's Law; functional forms for cosmological distance measurements that differ from what would be expected if space were not expanding; and an observable change in the matter and energy density of the universe seen at different lookback times.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37064343", "title": "Symphony No. 3 \"Universe\"", "section": "Section::::Movements.:I- Expansion of the Universe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 551, "text": "The theory of the expansion of the universe is a mark in the 21st Century's science of astrophysics. The vastness (13.4 Billion Light Years) of space is getting bigger; starting with The Big Bang through to today. Fazıl Say's music also seeks an enlargement of space, reflecting the mathematics of rhythm and harmony as an expansion. The increase in scale appears as 3/8+4/8+5/8+6/8+7/8. There is symbolism in the major tonality (nature), minor tonality (humans), and atonality (chaos) that is covered intensely throughout the first part of Universe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5985207", "title": "Expansion of the universe", "section": "Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Measurement of expansion and change of rate of expansion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 1053, "text": "The first measurement of the expansion of space came with Hubble's realization of the velocity vs. redshift relation. Most recently, by comparing the apparent brightness of distant standard candles to the redshift of their host galaxies, the expansion rate of the universe has been measured to be H = . This means that for every million parsecs of distance from the observer, the light received from that distance is cosmologically redshifted by about . On the other hand, by assuming a cosmological model, e.g. Lambda-CDM model, one can infer the Hubble constant from the size of the largest fluctuations seen in the Cosmic Microwave Background. A higher Hubble constant would imply a smaller characteristic size of CMB fluctuations, and vice versa. The Planck collaboration measure the expansion rate this way and determine H = . There is a disagreement between the two measurements, the distance ladder being model-independent and the CMB measurement depending on the fitted model, which hints at new physics beyond our standard cosmological models.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12558", "title": "Galaxy", "section": "Section::::Larger-scale structures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 113, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 113, "end_character": 803, "text": "On the largest scale, the Universe is continually expanding, resulting in an average increase in the separation between individual galaxies (see Hubble's law). Associations of galaxies can overcome this expansion on a local scale through their mutual gravitational attraction. These associations formed early in the Universe, as clumps of dark matter pulled their respective galaxies together. Nearby groups later merged to form larger-scale clusters. This on-going merger process (as well as an influx of infalling gas) heats the inter-galactic gas within a cluster to very high temperatures, reaching 30–100 megakelvins. About 70–80% of the mass in a cluster is in the form of dark matter, with 10–30% consisting of this heated gas and the remaining few percent of the matter in the form of galaxies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31880", "title": "Universe", "section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Age and expansion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 842, "text": "There are dynamical forces acting on the particles in the Universe which affect the expansion rate. Before 1998, it was expected that the expansion rate would be decreasing as time went on due to the influence of gravitational interactions in the Universe; and thus there is an additional observable quantity in the Universe called the deceleration parameter, which most cosmologists expected to be positive and related to the matter density of the Universe. In 1998, the deceleration parameter was measured by two different groups to be negative, approximately -0.55, which technically implies that the second derivative of the cosmic scale factor formula_2 has been positive in the last 5-6 billion years. This acceleration does not, however, imply that the Hubble parameter is currently increasing; see deceleration parameter for details.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because some therapies don't work on the cancer, just like some drugs don't work. For example, my mom also has Pancan (stage IV - was given six months to live THREE YEARS AGO and is in complete remission). They did a number of procedures on her but she always did a chemo combo of tarceva and gemzar. They did very targeted radiation but only on a very small area. They also resected a couple tumors out of her belly fat.\n\nI asked the oncologist about proton therapy and they said flat out there's no evidence proton therapy works on her type of cancer. So it was quickly ruled out.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's a VERY LONG path from curing cancer in a petri dish to an animal to human testing to widely available treatments to the public.\n\nSomewhere along the way, they may discover that you can kill cancer cells with Chemical X, but when they did further testing, it also killed the host, which is not something that they want.\n\n[Science reporters want big headlines that get attention and \"Cancer cured\" gets more readers than \"Science continues slow methodical progress toward small but palpable improvement as the following 40 pages will show in mind-numbing detail with needlessly obtuse prose and confusing graphs.\"](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because surgeries, chemo and radiation *work*.\n\nThe breakthroughs you've read about are usually just clickbait. Cancer doesn't have a singular cure.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Many of the breakthroughs are new versions of surgery, chemo, or radiation that are more effective or have fewer side effects...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Those new treatments are chemo...\n\nNot all chemo is the same. We have much better drugs than we did 30 years ago. For example, in 1975, a patient diagnosed with breast cancer had a 75% chance of being alive after 5 years. Today, that's over 90%. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "53338", "title": "Cervical cancer", "section": "Section::::Treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 510, "text": "The treatment of cervical cancer varies worldwide, largely due to access to surgeons skilled in radical pelvic surgery, and the emergence of fertility-sparing therapy in developed nations. Because cervical cancers are radiosensitive, radiation may be used in all stages where surgical options do not exist. Surgical intervention may have better outcomes than radiological approaches. In addition, chemotherapy can be used to treat cervical cancer, and has been found to be more effective than radiation alone.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56466", "title": "Neurofibromatosis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 275, "text": "There is no known prevention or cure. Surgery may be done to remove tumors that are causing problems or have become cancerous. Radiation and chemotherapy may also be used if cancer occurs. A cochlear implant or auditory brainstem implant may help some who have hearing loss.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57637198", "title": "Cancer in adolescents and young adults", "section": "Section::::Prognosis.:Education.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 696, "text": "People who reported their cancer treatment was “very intensive” and those who had quit work or school after being diagnosed were more likely to report that cancer negatively affected their work and school after diagnosis, with more than 50% reporting problems with memory and attentiveness. Almost three-quarters of adolescents and young adults with cancer who had been studying or working returned to school or work within one to three years after a diagnosis. Reasons for educational disruption and lower educational attainment given by adolescents and young adults in qualitative interviews included missing school, not taking required tests, and feeling as if they had been “left behind.\"”\" \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20936195", "title": "Acromegaly", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Selection of treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 262, "text": "Radiation therapy is generally used for patients whose tumors are not completely removed by surgery, for patients who are not good candidates for surgery because of other health problems, and for patients who do not respond adequately to surgery and medication.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37284", "title": "Brain tumor", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Chemotherapy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 109, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 109, "end_character": 713, "text": "Patients undergoing chemotherapy are administered drugs designed to kill tumor cells. Although chemotherapy may improve overall survival in patients with the most malignant primary brain tumors, it does so in only about 20 percent of patients. Chemotherapy is often used in young children instead of radiation, as radiation may have negative effects on the developing brain. The decision to prescribe this treatment is based on a patient's overall health, type of tumor, and extent of the cancer. The toxicity and many side effects of the drugs, and the uncertain outcome of chemotherapy in brain tumors puts this treatment further down the line of treatment options with surgery and radiation therapy preferred.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5955888", "title": "Non-small-cell lung carcinoma", "section": "Section::::Treatment.:Early/non-metastatic NSCLC.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 653, "text": "If the person has a small, but inoperable tumor, they may undergo highly targeted, high intensity radiation therapy. New methods of giving radiation treatment allow doctors to be more accurate in treating lung cancers. This means less radiation affects nearby healthy tissues. New methods include Cyberknife and stereotactic body radiation therapy(SBRT). Certain people that are deemed to be higher risk may also receive adjuvant (ancillary) chemotherapy after initial surgery or radiation therapy. There are a number of possible chemotherapy agents which can be selected however most will involve the platinum-based chemotherapy drug called cisplatin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32819131", "title": "Cancer pain", "section": "Section::::Management.:Psychological.:Psychosocial interventions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 337, "text": "A person's adjustment to cancer depends vitally on the support of their family and other informal carers, but pain can seriously disrupt such interpersonal relationships, so people with cancer and therapists should consider involving family and other informal carers in expert, quality-controlled psychosocial therapeutic interventions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I touch on the fallout some in [this broader answer](_URL_0_) which may be of interest.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21546927", "title": "Conclusion of the American Civil War", "section": "Section::::Camp Napoleon Council (May 26, 1865).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 443, "text": "The Native American tribes of the Indian Territory realized that the Confederacy could no longer fulfill its commitments to them. Therefore, the Camp Napoleon Council was called to draft an agreement to present a united front as they negotiated a return of their loyalty to the United States. Native American tribes further west, many of them also at war with the United States troops, were also invited to take part, and several of them did.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3367838", "title": "Camp Napoleon Council", "section": "Section::::Purpose of the council.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 444, "text": "The Native American tribes of the Indian Territory realized that the Confederacy could no longer fulfill its commitments to them. Therefore, the Camp Napoleon Council was called to draft an agreement to present a united front as they negotiated a return of their loyalty to the United States. Native American tribes further west, many of them also at war with the United States troops, were also invited to take part, and several of them did. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1445574", "title": "Assiniboine", "section": "Section::::Interactions with other tribes.:The Iron Confederacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 553, "text": "The confederacy became the dominant force on the northern plains. It posed a major threat to Indian nations not associated with it, such as the Shoshone and Crow further south. Its members also attacked European-American settlements on the Plains. The eventual decline of the fur trade and overhunting of the bison herds by Canadian and American hunters, which destroyed the Confederacy nations' most important food source, led to the defeat and breaking up of the confederacy. It engaged in military action with Canada during the North-West Rebellion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21810388", "title": "Choctaw in the American Civil War", "section": "Section::::Background.:Reasons Why the Choctaw Sided with the Confederacy.:Choctaw Nation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 370, "text": "Several reasons explain why the Indians sided with the Confederacy: (1) They believed the United States was on the verge of collapse, (2) They were neglected by the United States, (3) William H. Seward, the United States Secretary of State, advocated the seizing of Indian lands, (4) Their main agent was an advocate for the South, and (5) Their laws supported slavery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "455170", "title": "Confederate Arizona", "section": "Section::::Secession.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 737, "text": "After the start of the American Civil War, support for the Confederacy was strong in the southern part of the New Mexico Territory. Some residents felt neglected by the United States government. They worried about the lack of sufficient troops to fight the Apache. These Native Americans were defending their territory against encroaching white settlement, fighting off ranchers and mining camps all over Traditional Arizona. This became open warfare following the February 3-9, 1861 Bascom Affair, that brought Cochise into the war. Arizona settlers were also disturbed by the closing of the Butterfield Overland Mail route and their stations in March 1861, which had connected the Arizona frontier colonies to the East and California.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1706419", "title": "Praying Indian", "section": "Section::::Praying Indians in the Revolutionary War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 589, "text": "Unlike other Native groups such as the Iroquois Confederacy, the Praying Indians were cohesive and steadfast in their support for the colonists. The Iroquois Confederacy had several factions, most of which supported the British during the Revolutionary War but some that decided to fight with the colonists. That inevitably led to clashes involving previously aligned groups, when Native tribes on the opposite sides of the conflict met on the field of battle. For example, the Battle of Oriskany on August 6, 1777 saw Loyalist Seneca soldiers fighting against colonially aligned Oneidas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1055471", "title": "Northwest Indian War", "section": "Section::::Background.:Formation of the confederacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 598, "text": "Co-operation among the Native American tribes forming the Western Confederacy had gone back to the French colonial era. It was renewed during the American Revolutionary War. The confederacy formally came together in Autumn 1785 at Fort Detroit, proclaiming that the parties to the confederacy would deal jointly with the United States, forbidding individual tribes from dealing directly with the United States, and declaring the Ohio River as the boundary between their lands and those of American settlers. This determination was renewed in 1786 at the Wyandot (Huron) village of Upper Sandusky. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's because making some of those special authenticating things require very specific materials and tools which are not commercially available. That means that when a person tries to make a counterfeit bill, he/she needs to inspect all the materials very thoroughly if the bill needs to look complitely authentic. It requires a lot of knowledge for example to be able to determine the composition of the bill paper and then making it yourself.\n\nIt is not exacly about the cost of making those features, but more like not knowing how to make them and not being able to get the proper tools.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Money is like a cake. You have slices of it, and it's delicious. But what's it made out of? Well, there's a tricky question. Eat the cake and find out? You can try. Hell, let's say you do it. You somehow know every single ingredient in the cake. More still, you somehow know the exact measurments.\n\n But if you put that all in a bowl, would it make a cake? Well no, there is stirring and preheating and the perfect cook time. Then, getting beyond the basic cooking process, you have butt loads of frosting. And the cake decorator is that guy who can make like, castles out of frosting.\n\nHappy baking", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1751521", "title": "Counterfeit United States currency", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 209, "text": "However, these numbers are based on annual seizure rates on counterfeiting, and the actual stock of counterfeit money is uncertain because some counterfeit notes successfully circulate for a few transactions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5486119", "title": "Promotional United States fake currency", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 469, "text": "Promotional United States fake currency is faux \"currency\" that makes no assertion of being legal tender. This money is often created by individuals as a way to promote practical jokes, or social statements. It is legal to print so long as it makes no assertion, whether by appearance or statement, of authenticity. Promotional United States fake currency is not to be confused with counterfeit currency or conflated with legitimate currency that has been demonetized.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1751521", "title": "Counterfeit United States currency", "section": "Section::::Materials and Prevention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 290, "text": "In the United States, counterfeiters in small operations develop the fake currency using tools which often include; printers, an iron, and green colored water. Upon collecting bills, the Federal Reserve checks all notes, destroying any whose appearance fails to fit that of a federal bill.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1757560", "title": "Currency detector", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 312, "text": "The process involves examining the coins and/or notes that have been inserted into the machine, and conducts various tests to determine if the currency is counterfeit. Because the parameters are different for each coin or note, these currency acceptors must be correctly programmed for each item to be accepted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14429995", "title": "Balance puzzle", "section": "Section::::Variations.:With a reference coin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 212, "text": "If two coins are counterfeit, this procedure, in general, does not pick either of these, but rather some authentic coin. For instance, if both coins 1 and 2 are counterfeit, either coin 4 or 5 is wrongly picked.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5486119", "title": "Promotional United States fake currency", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 722, "text": "The United States has never issued a million dollar bill. However, many businesses print million dollar bills for sale as novelties. Such bills do not assert that they are legal tender. The Secret Service has declared them legal to print or own and does not consider them counterfeit. The Libertarian Party makes an annual tradition of handing out informational fliers made to look like $1,000,000 bills on April 15 to draw attention to its anti-income tax platform. A notable example of a 7-figure bill is currency from \"The Mad Magazine Game\" which features a $1,329,063 bill that serves as an Old Maid in the game. Players compete in this game to lose all their money. The bill features a portrait of Alfred E. Neuman.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "485022", "title": "Counterfeit banknote detection pen", "section": "Section::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 303, "text": "US counterfeiters bleach small denominations and print more valuable bills on the resulting blank paper to evade this test, although changes to the currency since 2004 have made this method easier to detect. This is one reason that many currencies use different sized notes for different denominations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The simple answer: There's a demand for said products.\n\nThere's a demand for those products, even if there is no proof that the products actually work.\n\nThere are tons of people using treatments that science hasn't prooved to be working (e.g. homeopathy). \n\nThe other side of the simple answer: Legal obligations. If you sell a non-approved product, you are legally obliged to say so on the label.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They are believed to have beneficial effects but haven't gone through the testing needed to prove it, or haven't conclusively showed any benefits during testing. It can also mean that the company selling the product just doesn't have permission to say it does have approved therapeutic properties. As for why stores are selling them, that's because they still make money off the product. Lots of people still believe there are benefits to supplements and such, despite labels like that, and many supplements do have a legitamate effect", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because they sell.\n\nThere is no better explanation. Drug stores have the right to sell anything that is legal, and that disclaimer just means it doesn't claim to be medicine; this means it doesn't go through incredibly stringent (and costly) testing regimens. And a lot of people are after \"alternative medicine\" and other bullshit, so that stuff sells.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36472280", "title": "List of off-label promotion pharmaceutical settlements", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 484, "text": "The following are settlements reached with US authorities against pharmaceutical companies to resolve allegations of \"off-label\" promotion of drugs. Under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, it is illegal for pharmaceutical companies to promote their products for uses not approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and corporations that market drugs for off-label indications may be subject to civil liability under the False Claims Act as well as criminal penalties.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1757480", "title": "Cosmeceutical", "section": "Section::::Criticism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 370, "text": "To avoid inquiry and punitive action by the United States Federal Trade Commission, cosmeceuticals which do not intend to be regulated as drugs by the FDA are carefully labeled to avoid making statements which would indicate that the product has drug properties. Any such claims made regarding the product must be substantiated by scientific evidence as being truthful.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8037104", "title": "Direct-to-consumer advertising", "section": "Section::::Types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 255, "text": "The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifies a \"Product claim\" advertisement as one that identifies the name and trademark brand of the medication, and contains at least one approved indication for the drug, and claims surrounding its benefits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13608226", "title": "No Free Lunch (organization)", "section": "Section::::Advocacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 347, "text": "The group claims that doctors preferentially prescribe drugs that are marketed to them over better or cheaper options because they are beholden to drug companies from which they accept gifts. Some doctors argue that they are not influenced by drug company marketing and that it is thus not necessary to refuse gifts from pharmaceutical companies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32690302", "title": "Pharmaceutical fraud", "section": "Section::::Types of fraud.:Off-label marketing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 1321, "text": "Though physicians may prescribe drugs for off-label usage known as off-label marketing, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) prohibits drug manufacturers from marketing or promoting a drug for a use that the FDA has not approved. A manufacturer illegally “misbrands” a drug if the drug's labeling includes information about its unapproved uses. A drug is deemed misbranded unless its labeling bears adequate directions for use. The courts have agreed with the FDA that the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA) requires information not only on how a product is to be used (e.g., dosage and administration), but also on all the intended uses of the product. In 2004, whistleblower David Franklin prevailed in a suit under the False Claims Act against Warner-Lambert, resulting in a $430 million settlement in the Franklin v. Parke-Davis case. It was the first off-label promotion case successfully brought under the False Claims Act in U.S. history. Oral statements and materials presented at industry-support scientific and educational activities may provide evidence of a product's intended use. If these statements or materials promote a use that is inconsistent with the product's approved labeling, the product is misbranded under the FDCA for failure to bear labeling with adequate directions for all intended uses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "998103", "title": "Bioequivalence", "section": "Section::::Bioequivalence issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 629, "text": "While the FDA maintains that approved generic drugs are equivalent to their branded counterparts, bioequivalence problems have been reported by physicians and patients for many drugs. Certain classes of drugs are suspected to be particularly problematic because of their chemistry. Some of these include chiral drugs, poorly absorbed drugs, and cytotoxic drugs. In addition, complex delivery mechanisms can cause bioequivalence variances. Physicians are cautioned to avoid switching patients from branded to generic, or between different generic manufacturers, when prescribing anti-epileptic drugs, warfarin, and levothyroxine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41369501", "title": "Mutual Pharmaceutical Co. v. Bartlett", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 323, "text": "Mutual Pharmaceutical Co. v. Bartlett, 570 U.S. ___ (2013), is a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States holding that generic drug manufactures cannot be held liable under state law for not adequately labeling medication when federal law prohibits them from changing the label from the original brand name drug.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Simple explanation given to me I'm on a heart medication and diuretic (increased peeing = water and sodium levels decreased in blood) \n\nSodium is a known to cause fluid retention aka the more sodium you take in the more water stays in the body and not filtered out. \n\nso high salt = high amount of water in blood.\n\nlets say that water changes to 1 gallon of blood will be 1 gallon + water content so lets say 1 gallon of water.\n\nWell now your 1 Gallon volume circulatory system now has 2 gallons in it causing increased pressure on veins and making your heart work twice if not three times as hard to pump double the fluid content through your body.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "People with hypertension benefit from a low salt diet, although it's not clear that salt causes hypertension.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18132000", "title": "Low sodium diet", "section": "Section::::Health effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 465, "text": "Advising people to eat a low salt diet, however, is of unclear effect in either hypertensive or normal tensive people. In 2012, the British Journal \"Heart\" published an article claiming that a low salt diet appears to increase the risk of death in those with congestive heart failure, but the article was retracted in 2013. The article was retracted by the journal when it was found the two of the studies cited contained duplicate data that could not be verified.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "512662", "title": "Cardiovascular disease", "section": "Section::::Prevention.:Diet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 740, "text": "A 2014 Cochrane review found unclear benefit of recommending a low-salt diet in people with high or normal blood pressure. In those with heart failure, after one study was left out, the rest of the trials show a trend to benefit. Another review of dietary salt concluded that there is strong evidence that high dietary salt intake increases blood pressure and worsens hypertension, and that it increases the number of cardiovascular disease events; both as a result of the increased blood pressure \"and\", quite likely, through other mechanisms. Moderate evidence was found that high salt intake increases cardiovascular mortality; and some evidence was found for an increase in overall mortality, strokes, and left ventricular hypertrophy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22025300", "title": "Specific appetite", "section": "Section::::Specific appetite in humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 667, "text": "There is very little strong evidence for specific appetite in humans. However, it has been demonstrated that humans have the ability to taste calcium, and indirect evidence supports the idea that patients on kidney dialysis who develop hypocalcemia prefer cheese with greater amounts of calcium added. Exercise also increases the preference for salt. Some diseases, including Gitelman syndrome and the salt-wasting variant of Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, impair the kidney's ability to retain sodium in the body and cause a specific craving for sodium. Extreme sodium depletion in human volunteers has been demonstrated to increase the desire for high-salt foods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1605200", "title": "Salt", "section": "Section::::Edible salt.:Sodium consumption and health.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 616, "text": "Because consuming too much sodium increases risk of cardiovascular diseases, health organizations generally recommend that people reduce their dietary intake of salt. High sodium intake is associated with a greater risk of stroke, total cardiovascular disease and kidney disease. A reduction in sodium intake by 1,000 mg per day may reduce cardiovascular disease by about 30 percent. In adults and children with no acute illness, a decrease in the intake of sodium from the typical high levels reduces blood pressure. A low sodium diet results in a greater improvement in blood pressure in people with hypertension.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29825613", "title": "Salt and cardiovascular disease", "section": "Section::::Hypertension and cardiovascular disease.:Current trends and campaigns.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 1031, "text": "Despite the scientific uncertainty, most physicians and clinical scientists, the European Food Safety Authority and the US Centers for Disease Control recommend that consumers use less salt in their diets, mainly to reduce the risk of high blood pressure and associated cardiovascular diseases in adults and children. Of the nine medical guidelines surveyed by Trinquart and others in 2016, seven prescribed sodium reduction to lower cardiovascular disease incidence (issued by the US-based Institute of Medicine, American Heart Association, American College of Cardiology, World Health Organization and Japanese Society of Hypertension), and two stated that there was insufficient evidence to issue a recommendation on sodium intake as it relates to cardiovascular disease (UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition, and the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force). None of the surveyed guidelines were deemed to rule against the link between sodium intake and cardiovascular disease.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15558462", "title": "Dietary Guidelines for Americans", "section": "Section::::Criticisms of the 2015–2020 Guidelines.:Dietary salt restriction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 477, "text": "A Committee of the National Academies Institute of Medicine evaluated the evidence about dietary salt intake and health. Overall, the committee found evidence that higher salt intake was associate with increased risk of cardiovascular disease. However, the Committee also found that the evidence did not support the claim that lowering sodium intake in the general population to less than 2,300 mg/day was associated with a lower risk of death nor with a higher risk of death.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1605200", "title": "Salt", "section": "Section::::Edible salt.:Sodium consumption and health.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 840, "text": "More recent evidence is showing a much more complicated relationship between salt and cardiovascular disease. According to a systematic review of multiple large studies, \"mortality caused by levels of salt the association between sodium consumption and cardiovascular disease or mortality is U-shaped, with increased risk at both high and low sodium intake\" The findings showed that increased mortality from excessive salt intake was primarily associated with individuals with hypertension. The levels of increased mortality among those with restricted salt intake appeared to be similar regardless of blood pressure. This evidence shows that while those with hypertension should primarily focus on reducing sodium to recommended levels, all groups should seek to maintain a healthy level of sodium intake of between 4 and 5 grams a day . \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Wittgenstein's [private language argument](_URL_0_) might be interesting to you. That, and of course the vast literature following it.\n\n**Edit:** Better link.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Actually, there is very good reason to believe that while there may be some differences in perception from person to person, and large differences when dichromacy or other forms of color blindness is considered, people do NOT see colors very differently from one another. That is, as long as neither one of us is colorblind, I do NOT see red where you see blue or purple where you see green.\n\n\nHow can this ever be proven? Lets drop the philosophy 101 crap about there being no way to \"know\" what's going on in somebody else's head. If you hand out samples of Phenylthiocarbamide to 30 people, and half of them say they taste nothing and half run to the sink to wash out their mouths, I can say say that I *do* know something about what it's like to be the person who just tasted the stuff. Yeah, they could be putting on a show, or I could be a brain in a jar, but that doesn't mean we don't have hard evidence that the people who tasted the chemical felt pretty much the same thing, on the inside, because everything about their behavior and their description of what they tasted matches. That's considered evidence, and for science, that's the best we can ever get. \n\nNext, let's consider sound.\n\nIs it possible that I could be walking around hearing high notes where you hear low notes? Could my sound spectrum be inversed from yours?\n\nNo. because there's a smooth transition from beats so low you can tell that it's made of vibrations in the air to a high sharp pitch. It would be impossible to invert it without losing that smooth transition. \n\nColors! As long as your wiring is standard, green acts as opponent to red, red and green combine to make yellow, which acts as opponent* to blue, black is opponent to white, which is hard to distinguish from yellow. There is a structure behind how colors are related to each other, it's based on how neurons are physically connected to each other, and switching any colors would screw up the map. When the map does get screwed up, you can tell scientifically- color blindness tests, for example. \n\n(* opponent= stare at one color, look away and see the other) \n\nSo could I see blue where you see green? Sure, if it's just a change on the margin, and maybe if we did we'd draw the lines this chart a little differently: _URL_0_ . It's a change, but it's observable, not part of the higher mysteries. \n\nWe'd also draw different charts based on what language we speak. Or what system we were asked to use. In one of my favorite psych experiments, which I learned about in school but can't recall the name of, first one researcher showed that people from an area in Iran whose language described colors differently labeled colors in a completely different way, and therefore must be perceiving differently. Years later, the theory was destroyed when it was shown that anyone could label colors in this unusual way if they were told about the other naming system and asked to use it. oops. \n\nBut back to your proposition. Could we look at that same chart and see something completely different? Not without being able to to tell. What if your blue was my green and vice versa? We agree there's a big area called blue. It's opponent to the upper left area is called yellow. Now when these two colors are placed next to each other in a gradient, what do we see? With blue and yellow, we see gray, the color of rocks and halfway between black and white. With green and yellow, it's yellow-green, and we do not stop in gray along the way. \nThat's an observable, scientifically recordable difference that would occur if blue and green were switched. Therefore, we can know! ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "367639", "title": "Intra-species recognition", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 511, "text": "Among human beings, the sense of sight is usually in charge of recognizing other members of the same species, with maybe the subconscious help of smell. In particular, the human brain has a disproportionate amount of processing power dedicated to finely analyze the features of a human face. This is why we are able to distinguish basically all six billions of human beings from each other (barring look-alikes), and a human being from a similar species like some anthropomorphic ape, with only a quick glance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3052977", "title": "List of unsolved problems in philosophy", "section": "Section::::Epistemology.:Qualia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 633, "text": "This extends to all areas of the physical reality, where the outside world we perceive is merely a representation of what is impressed upon the senses. The objects we see are in truth wave-emitting (or reflecting) objects which the brain shows to the conscious self in various forms and colors. Whether the colors and forms experienced perfectly match between person to person, may never be known. That people can communicate accurately shows that the order and proportionality in which experience is interpreted is generally reliable. Thus one's reality is, at least, compatible to another person's in terms of structure and ratio.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5626", "title": "Cognitive science", "section": "Section::::Scope.:Perception and action.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 664, "text": "Perception is the ability to take in information via the senses, and process it in some way. Vision and hearing are two dominant senses that allow us to perceive the environment. Some questions in the study of visual perception, for example, include: (1) How are we able to recognize objects?, (2) Why do we perceive a continuous visual environment, even though we only see small bits of it at any one time? One tool for studying visual perception is by looking at how people process optical illusions. The image on the right of a Necker cube is an example of a bistable percept, that is, the cube can be interpreted as being oriented in two different directions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25269475", "title": "Sense data", "section": "Section::::The nature of sense data.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 887, "text": "The idea that our perceptions are based on sense data is supported by a number of arguments. The first is popularly known as the argument from illusion. From a subjective experience of perceiving something, it is theoretically impossible to distinguish perceiving something which exists independently of oneself from an hallucination or mirage. Thus, we do not have any direct access to the outside world that would allow us to reliably distinguish it from an illusion that caused identical experiences. Since (the argument claims) we must have direct access to some specific experiential entity in order to have the percepts that we do, and since this entity is not identical to the real object itself, there must be some sort of internal mental entity somehow correlated to the real world, about which we afterwards have perceptions, make judgments, etc. This entity is a sense-datum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5664", "title": "Consciousness", "section": "Section::::Scientific study.:Phenomenology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 897, "text": "Despite the large amount of information available, many important aspects of perception remain mysterious. A great deal is known about low-level signal processing in sensory systems. However, how sensory systems, action systems, and language systems interact are poorly understood. At a deeper level, there are still basic conceptual issues that remain unresolved. Many scientists have found it difficult to reconcile the fact that information is distributed across multiple brain areas with the apparent unity of consciousness: this is one aspect of the so-called binding problem. There are also some scientists who have expressed grave reservations about the idea that the brain forms representations of the outside world at all: influential members of this group include psychologist J. J. Gibson and roboticist Rodney Brooks, who both argued in favor of \"intelligence without representation\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25140", "title": "Perception", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 454, "text": "Although the senses were traditionally viewed as passive receptors, the study of illusions and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems actively and pre-consciously attempt to make sense of their input. There is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process unnecessary.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "211627", "title": "Thomas Hill Green", "section": "Section::::Thought.:What is man?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 1768, "text": "Human experience consists, not of processes in an animal organism, but of these processes recognised as such. That which we perceive is from the outset an apprehended fact—that is to say, it cannot be analysed into isolated elements (so-called sensations) which, as such, are not constituents of consciousness at all, but exist from the first as a synthesis of relations in a consciousness which keeps distinct the \"self\" and the various elements of the \"object,\" though holding all together in the unity of the act of perception. In other words, the whole mental structure we call knowledge consists, in its simplest equally with its most complex constituents, of the \"work of the mind.\" Locke and Hume held that the work of the mind was \"eo ipso\" [by that very act] unreal because it was \"made by\" humans and not \"given to\" humans. It thus represented a subjective creation, not an objective fact. But this consequence follows only upon the assumption that the work of the mind is arbitrary, an assumption shown to be unjustified by the results of exact science, with the distinction, universally recognised, which such science draws between truth and falsehood, between the real and \"mere ideas.\" This (obviously valid) distinction logically involves the consequence that the object, or content, of knowledge, viz., reality, is an intelligible ideal reality, a system of thought relations, a spiritual cosmos. How is the existence of this ideal whole to be accounted for? Only by the existence of some \"principle which renders all relations possible and is itself determined by none of them\"; an eternal self-consciousness which knows in whole what we know in part. To God the world is, to humans the world becomes. Human experience is God gradually made manifest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Pixels turn completely white (transparent) when you switch them off. When your screen cracks a conductor that is wired in series is severed, thus pixels are powered off while background light keeps running. The black blotch is the result of messed up polarizing filter and/or pixels cracking and leaking (thus the name liquid crystal display).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "13141219", "title": "Defective pixel", "section": "Section::::Variations.:Tape automated bonding (TAB) faults.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 708, "text": "If an LCD is subjected to physical shock, this could cause one or more TAB connections to fail inside the display. This failure is often caused by horizontally flexing the chassis (e.g., while wall-mounting or transporting a display face up/down) or simple failure of the adhesive holding the TAB against the glass. TAB faults require replacement of the LCD module itself. If these connections were to fail, the effect would be that an entire row or column of pixels would fail to activate. This causes a horizontal or vertical black line to appear on the display while the rest of the display would appear normal. The horizontal failure runs from edge-to-edge; the vertical failure runs from top-to-bottom.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "279631", "title": "Crash (computing)", "section": "Section::::Application crashes.:Crash to desktop.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 259, "text": "Some computer programs, such as \"StepMania\" and BBC's \"Bamzooki\", also crash to desktop if in full-screen, but displays the error in a separate window when the user has returned to the desktop. Crashes are usually caused by website failure or system failure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "616886", "title": "Flicker (screen)", "section": "Section::::Occurrence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 757, "text": "In LCD screens, the LCD itself does not flicker, it preserves its opacity unchanged until updated for the next frame. However, in order to prevent accumulated damage LCD displays quickly alternate the voltage between positive and negative for each pixel, which is called 'polarity inversion'. Ideally, this wouldn't be noticeable because every pixel has the same brightness whether a positive or a negative voltage is applied. In practice, there is a small difference, which means that every pixel flickers at about 30 Hz. Screens that use opposite polarity per-line or per-pixel can reduce this effect compared to when the entire screen is at the same polarity, sometimes the type of screen is detectable by using patterns designed to maximize the effect.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6806", "title": "Computer memory", "section": "Section::::Management.:Early computer systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 370, "text": "This approach has its pitfalls. If the location specified is incorrect, this will cause the computer to write the data to some other part of the program. The results of an error like this are unpredictable. In some cases, the incorrect data might overwrite memory used by the operating system. Computer crackers can take advantage of this to create viruses and malware.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2632880", "title": "Screen tearing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 557, "text": "The artifact occurs when the video feed to the device is not in sync with the display's refresh rate. This can be due to non-matching refresh rates—in which case the tear line moves as the phase difference changes (with speed proportional to difference of frame rates). It can also occur simply from lack of sync between two equal frame rates, in which case the tear line is at a fixed location that corresponds to the phase difference. During video motion, screen tearing creates a torn look as edges of objects (such as a wall or a tree) fail to line up.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13141219", "title": "Defective pixel", "section": "Section::::Stuck versus dead pixels.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 626, "text": "Stuck pixels, unlike dead pixels, have been reported by LCD screen owners to disappear, and there are several popular methods purported to fix them, such as gently rubbing the screen (in an attempt to reset the pixel), cycling the color value of the stuck pixel rapidly (in other words, flashing bright colors on the screen), or simply tolerating the stuck pixel until it disappears (which can take anywhere from a day to years). While these methods can work on some stuck pixels others cannot be fixed by the above methods. Also, some stuck pixels will reappear after being fixed if the screen is left off for several hours.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3429677", "title": "Quickclear", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1113, "text": "One problem with the system is that the heating elements can sometimes stop working, leaving one side of the screen uncleared. If this is the result of burn out, total replacement of the screen is the only remedy as the wires are actually embedded in the glass, (as opposed to a rear defogger, which can usually be repaired with conductive paint). The problem is sometimes caused by the power cable coming loose from its mounting near the base of the screen. The loose cable then catches on the windscreen wiper mechanism and fatigues over time. The remedy is then to reattach the wire to the foil at the base of the screen, but this can be problematic since the system requires such high current (~30 amps). Some owners have been known to smash the screen and submit a fraudulent insurance claim for stone damage, as Quickclear screens are expensive replacement parts and many insurance policies offer a low excess (deductible) for windscreen damage. This type of screen is also known to cause serious problems with tollway recording tags unless the tag is placed in the correct area behind the rearview mirror.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's easy to look back and wonder what they were thinking, I agree. Temperance advocates had various advantages. There does seem to have been enormous enthusiasm, a deep conviction among the Temperance forces that banning alcohol would save most families from destruction, enable men to lead productive, long lives, and save huge mounts of money ( at a time when most manufacturing jobs were pretty harsh and life pretty hard, it was also easier to point a finger at alcoholism being a cause of so much misery, instead of questioning if perhaps working hours were too long and wages too low). The movement itself was also tied to Christianity ( ergo, The Women's Christian Temperance Union) at a time when perhaps most Americans' social lives, friends, were tied to belonging to a church ( though some churches, like the Lutherans and Episcopalians, were not keen on the idea). But maybe one of the key political reasons was the strategy developed by Wayne Wheeler of the Anti-Saloon League to campaign against any politician who did not toe the line and sign onto the Temperance movement. Once political leaders learned that a stellar record of public service didn't matter to the ASL, that they would try ( and often would succeed) in turning out of office any senator, congressman, governor, etc. who did not vote their way, they were immensely powerful. It was the first single-issue advocacy group: decades later Gun Rights and Anti-abortion groups would use the same technique.\n\nThere was also not a very unified, strong opposition.The brewers and distillers didn't really mount an effective counter-campaign, and people who simply liked to drink did not form into cohesive advocacy groups, either.\n\nOkrent: Last Call\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just as a general comment, there are lots of events in history that seem \"crazy\" to a contemporary observer. One of the lessons of history that for some reason is difficult to stick is that people in different cultures and times had wildly different values from the ones you or I may have. To project our values back on them is a common fallacy and leads to second-hand interpretations that are at odds with the primary sources of the time.\n\nSo while the passing of Prohibition might seem incredible to you today, and sparks a natural curiousity to be encouraged, it should also be a good reminder that your answer lies in realizing first that what those people thought and believed and valued was probably just completely different from you, and your answer will be partially in finding out just what those differences are.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "70131", "title": "Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 550, "text": "The Twenty-first Amendment (Amendment XXI) to the United States Constitution repealed the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which had mandated nationwide Prohibition on alcohol. The Twenty-first Amendment was proposed by Congress on February 20, 1933, and was ratified by the requisite number of states on December 5, 1933. It is unique among the 27 amendments of the U.S. Constitution for being the only one to repeal a prior amendment, as well as being the only amendment to have been ratified by state ratifying conventions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27560802", "title": "Dry state", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1041, "text": "Following two unsuccessful attempts at national prohibition legislation (one in 1913 and the other in 1915), Congress approved a resolution on December 19, 1917, to prohibit the manufacture, sale, transportation, and importation of alcoholic beverages in the United States. The resolution was sent to the states for ratification and became the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. On January 8, 1918, Mississippi became the first state to ratify the amendment and on January 16, 1919, Nebraska became the 36th state to do so, securing its passage with the required three-fourths of the states. By the end of February 1919, only three states remained as hold-outs to ratification: New Jersey, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. The National Prohibition Act, also known as the Volstead Act, was enacted on October 18, 1919. Prohibition in the United States went into effect on January 17, 1920. Nationwide prohibition was repealed in 1933 with the passage of the Twenty-first Amendment on February 20 and its ratification on December 5.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24856", "title": "Prohibition", "section": "Section::::North America.:United States.:18th Amendment to the Constitution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 857, "text": "In December 1917, Congress submitted a constitutional amendment on nationwide prohibition to the states for ratification. The new constitutional amendment prohibited \"the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes\". It was ratified and became law on January 16, 1919, assuring its passage into law. On October 28, 1919, Congress passed the National Prohibition Act, also known as the Volstead Act, which provided enabling legislation to implement the Eighteenth Amendment. When the National Prohibition Act was passed on October 28, 1919, thirty-three of the forty-eight states were already dry. After a year's required delay, national prohibition began on January 16, 1920.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1957652", "title": "66th United States Congress", "section": "Section::::Constitutional amendments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 295, "text": "BULLET::::- January 16, 1919: Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, declaring the production, transport, and sale of alcohol (though not the consumption or private possession) illegal, was ratified by the requisite number of states (then 36) to become part of the Constitution\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "369155", "title": "Roaring Twenties", "section": "Section::::End of the Roaring Twenties.:Repeal of Prohibition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 164, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 164, "end_character": 305, "text": "The 21st Amendment, which repealed the 18th Amendment, was proposed on February 20, 1933. The choice to legalize alcohol was left up to the states, and many states quickly took this opportunity to allow alcohol. Prohibition was officially ended with the ratification of the Amendment on December 5, 1933.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31671", "title": "Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution", "section": "Section::::Calls for repeal.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 695, "text": "In February 1933, Congress adopted a resolution proposing the Twenty-first Amendment, which repealed the 18th Amendment and modified the Volstead Act to permit the sale of beer. The resolution required state conventions, rather than the state legislatures, to approve the amendment, effectively reducing the process to a one-state, one-vote referendum rather than a popular vote contest. That December, Utah became the 36th state to ratify the amendment, achieving the necessary majority for repeal. A few states continued statewide prohibition after 1933, but by 1966 all of them had abandoned it. Since then, liquor control in the United States has largely been determined at the local level.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41375336", "title": "Politics of New England", "section": "Section::::Notable laws and political movements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 224, "text": "Connecticut and Rhode Island were the only states in the union not to ratify the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, also known as prohibition. Prohibition became the law of the land on January 16, 1919.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Almost every wild animal will host a wide variety of parasites for its entire life. Some of these are relatively innocuous - for example [eyelash mites](_URL_3_) in humans. Some are much [less pleasant](_URL_2_).\n\nIntestinal worms are very common - almost universal - in most species of wild mammals.\n\nFleas are the same. In your example of wolves, a pup is likely to catch them from other pack members soon after birth. They will live with these for their whole lives.\n\n[Parasitology](_URL_1_) is absolutely fascinating and utterly gross. The deepest truth is that you can't understand any organism on its own - you have to look at the whole environment it lives in, and you will always find parasites. In fact, [there are more parasite species than host species.](_URL_0_)\n\nWhat are you hosting today?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25480850", "title": "Dog flea", "section": "Section::::Prevention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 525, "text": "Removing fleas from the pets is not a difficult task considering the advent of products which are designed not only to kill fleas, but also to offer protection from further infestations. Flea-control products are available in once-a-month topicals, dog collars, sprays, dips, powders, shampoos, and injectable and oral products. All these products contain an insecticide as an active ingredient which kills the fleas when coming into contact with them. Fleas absorb the insecticide which either paralyzes them or kills them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25480850", "title": "Dog flea", "section": "Section::::Prevention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 616, "text": "Removing the fleas in indoor environments mainly consists of removing them mechanically. This can be done by a thorough vacuuming, especially in places where fleas are more likely to be found, such as below drapes, the place where the pet sleeps, and under furniture edges. Vacuuming can remove an estimated 50% of flea eggs. After vacuuming, using a specially designed product is recommended to kill the remaining fleas and to stop the development of eggs and larvae. The products available on the market may include carpet powders, sprays or foggers, which contain adult insecticides and insect growth regulators.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52159046", "title": "Flea treatments", "section": "Section::::For pets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 336, "text": "Flea adults, larvae, or eggs can be controlled with insecticides. Lufenuron is a veterinary preparation (known as Program) that attacks the larval flea's ability to produce chitin, necessary for the adult's hard exoskeleton, but it does not kill fleas. Flea medicines need to be used with care because many of them also affect mammals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25480850", "title": "Dog flea", "section": "Section::::Prevention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 482, "text": "Preventing flea infestations must include eliminating the parasites from the yard or kennel areas, the two places where fleas are most likely to occur. Dog houses, patios or porches are some of the outdoor areas in which it is more likely to find fleas and those should be thoroughly cleaned. Fleas can also be carried by wild animals, such as opossums, chipmunks and raccoons. One is recommended to discourage these wild animals from their property and pets by never feeding them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25480850", "title": "Dog flea", "section": "Section::::Prevention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 309, "text": "Every female flea on the pet is likely to have laid eggs in the environment in which the pet lives. Therefore, effective prevention and control of flea infestations implies having removed the fleas from both indoor and outdoor environments, from all pets, and keeping immature forms of fleas from developing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25480850", "title": "Dog flea", "section": "Section::::Prevention.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 364, "text": "A very important part of flea prevention is to persist with the same control measures for as long as possible. Though the cleaning process was successful, fleas in incipient stages likely still exist around the house or on the pet. The lifecycle of fleas can take up to six months, so maintaining the prevention measures for as long as half a year is recommended.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52159046", "title": "Flea treatments", "section": "Section::::For pets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 668, "text": "Contemporary commercial products for the topical treatment of flea infestations on pets contain pesticides such as imidacloprid, permethrin, and (S)-methoprene. All flea-control products are recommended to be used at least half-yearly because the lifecycle of flea and tick can last to up to 6 months, and by using one of the flea and tick control products for so long, the infestation is highly prevented and, in the end, stopped. Although all these products are effective in fighting against flea and tick infestations, they have different active ingredients and, because cats cannot metabolize some of the compounds of the product, care must be taken in their use.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > **Why didnt the civil war have armor?**\n\nThe American Civil War did see many experiments in body armor; Bashford Dean in [Helmets and Armor in Modern Warfare](_URL_1_) 58-59 notes:\n\n > It is known that breastplates were worn more or less frequently during the American Civil War. In the museum in Richmond, there is preserved such a \"suit\" of armor, Fig. 15, which at the time of the siege was taken from a dead soldier in one of the trenches. He was shot in the side or back, for the breastplate, it appears, was not penetrated. This armor was of northern origin. Further inquiry shows that a factory for the making of such defenses was established at New Haven about 1862. The metal employed was a mild steel, .057 inch thick, and the \"suit\" weighed about seven and one half pounds. While no tests of this armor are available, we estimate from the thickness of its metal, assuming that it is a \"mild\" steel, that it would have stopped a 230-grain pistol ball traveling at the rate of 500 foot seconds.\n\nWhat the American Civil War did not see was formal adoption and issuing of such armor to all troops; and with good reason. The South faced shortages of metal and material throughout the war, and couldn't afford it; the North probably could have afforded it, but it wasn't worth it. To quote [Sarah Weicksel](_URL_0_):\n\n > In theory, the vests were appealing. As one soldier wrote: \"To be 'iron clad' when the bullets should fly as thick as hail! What more could a soldier ask?\" (Walker, History of the Eighteenth Regiment Conn. Volunteers, 21). In actuality, however, the vests proved to be failed objects on multiple levels, ranging from ease of use to their effectiveness. Although advertisers claimed that the vests were \"simple\" and \"light,\" soldiers found them extremely cumbersome due to their inflexibility and weight. Colonel Charles F. Johnson of New Jersey explained to his wife: \"the only objection that I have to them is that they are so confounded heavy for this season of the year\" (quoted in Pelka, ed., The Civil War Letters of Colonel Charles F. Johnson, 112). Many soldiers' letters and memoirs recounted the abandonment of bullet proof vests along the march, where they littered the side of the road along with other unwanted gear. [...] The vests did provide some degree of protection, judging from the bullet-shaped dents in surviving vests. But they were ineffective in close combat, and, as Johnson rightly pointed out, wearing a vest could have resulted in an even more deadly wound if a man was shot at close range, whether from immediate impact, or an infection festering around the bits of cloth and metal that the bullet pushed into his body.\n\nThese are more or less the same issues Dean noted that soldiers and military armorers faced in WWI (and why, he also says, armor was generally abandoned in the first place): against firearms, any kind of body armor that was thick enough to be of any protective value was, generally, too heavy and cumbersome to be born for long, and probably too expensive to equip troops with.\n\n > **Wasn't close quarters fighting common?**\n\nNot really. While it is true that some fighting did undoubtedly come down to hand-to-hand and bayonet fencing, there were very few bayonet wounds during the Civil War, and fewer wounds from swords, the troops just rarely came in to that kind of contact. Robert L. O'Connell in [Of Arms and Men: A History of War, Weapons, and Aggression](_URL_2_) wrote:\n\n > Despite frequent expressions of confidence by commanders on both sides, the bayonet played a minuscule role in the killing during the Civil War. Not only were most bayonet charges turned aside by rifle fire, but even when they did succeed, the defending troops almost invariably ran away before these weapons could be employed.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "251485", "title": "Battle of Hampton Roads", "section": "Section::::Background.:Birth of the ironclads.:CSS \"Virginia\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 532, "text": "When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Confederate Secretary of the Navy Stephen R. Mallory was an early enthusiast for the advantages of armor. As he looked upon it, the Confederacy could not match the industrial North in numbers of ships at sea, so they would have to compete by building vessels that individually outclassed those of the Union. Armor would provide the edge. Mallory gathered about himself a group of men who could put his vision into practice, among them John M. Brooke, John L. Porter, and William P. Williamson.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1334113", "title": "Body armor", "section": "Section::::History.:Late modern use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 558, "text": "Metal armor remained in limited use long after its general obsolescence. Soldiers in the American Civil War (1861–1865) bought iron and steel vests from peddlers (both sides had considered but rejected it for standard issue). The effectiveness of the vests varied widely—some successfully deflected bullets and saved lives but others were poorly made and resulted in tragedy for the soldiers. In any case the vests were abandoned by many soldiers due to their weight on long marches as well as the stigma they got for being cowards from their fellow troops.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59347399", "title": "United States Zouave Cadets", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 519, "text": "During the American Civil War, more than 50 zouave units existed in the Union Army alone, with additional zouave forces raised by the Confederate States. However, units inspired by the Chicago Zouaves later found the zouave uniform impractical in combat conditions with the colorful chasseur trousers making easy targets of their wearers. During the American Civil War, zouave units soon switched to more conventional uniforms, though, in the post-war era zouave-style uniforms gradually reappeared among some militia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2147", "title": "Armour", "section": "Section::::Personal.:History.:Later.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 570, "text": "Though the age of the knight was over, armour continued to be used in many capacities. Soldiers in the American Civil War bought iron and steel vests from peddlers (both sides had considered but rejected body armour for standard issue). The effectiveness of the vests varied widely—some successfully deflected bullets and saved lives, but others were poorly made and resulted in tragedy for the soldiers. In any case the vests were abandoned by many soldiers due to their weight on long marches as well as the stigma they got for being cowards from their fellow troops.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1141753", "title": "Flak jacket", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 630, "text": "During World War I, a number of British and American officers recognized that many casualties could be avoided if effective armor were available. Isolated efforts at developing armor were made, and soldiers could make individual purchases or efforts, but there was no armor issued to the troops. As it is today, issues of weight, cost, availability of materials and/or environmental stability complicated the issue of developing armor that would also be effective. For example, soft armor made of silk was tried on a small scale based on Japanese designs, but this material did not last well under harsh environmental conditions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20738865", "title": "Military forces of the Confederate States", "section": "Section::::Uniforms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 332, "text": "The Uniforms of the Confederate States military forces were the uniforms used by the Confederate Army and Navy during the American Civil War from 1861 to 1865. The uniform varied greatly due to a variety of reasons, such as location, limitations on the supply of cloth and other materials, and the cost of materials during the war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50502333", "title": "Armies in the American Civil War", "section": "Section::::Weapons.:Weapons in the Overland Campaign.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 132, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 132, "end_character": 569, "text": "The variety of weapons available to both armies during the Civil War is reflected in the battles of the Overland Campaign. To a limited extent, the Army of Northern Virginia's infantry had more uniformity in its small arms than the Army of the Potomac. In fact, some regiments of the famous Pennsylvania Reserves Brigade were still equipped with smoothbore muskets. In any case, both armies relied heavily on the Springfield and Enfield, which were the most common weapons used (although almost every other type of Civil War small arms could be found in the campaign).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A very similar question was just asked a few days ago, you may want to search for answers here:\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30211084", "title": "France–Monaco relations", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1245, "text": "Only in 1419 did Monaco gain control of its own sovereignty from French control after Lambert Grimaldi convinced the French king Charles VIII to grant it independence. King Louis XII recognized Monaco in 1512 with the signing of a document that also declared a perpetual alliance with the king of France. Following rule by Spain, in the early 1600s Monaco prospered again under Honoré II who strengthened ties with France, a relationship that lasted in this capacity for the next two hundred years. In the Treaty of 2 February (1861) Prince Charles III ceded Monegasque sovereignty over the towns of Menton and Roquebrune (now Roquebrune-Cap-Martin) in exchange for full independence from France. Following World War I, a treaty signed on 27 July 1919, as well as Article 436 of the Treaty of Versailles, put Monaco under limited French protection once again and affirmed the special relationship. This relationship continues to the present day with the French government taking responsibility for Monaco's defence, while the latter has only a small police force. A mutual legal agreement and a common regime was also set between the two countries; they also signed the Treaty of 1945 and the Agreement of 1963 on furthering their relationship.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19261", "title": "Monaco", "section": "Section::::Relations with other countries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 157, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 157, "end_character": 545, "text": "Monaco made a special agreement with France in 1963 in which French customs laws apply in Monaco and its territorial waters. Monaco uses the euro but is not a member of the European Union. Monaco shares a border with France but also has about of coastline with the Mediterranean sea. Two important agreements that support Monaco's independence from France include the Franco-Monégasque Treaty of 1861 and the French Treaty of 1918 (see also Kingdom of Sardinia). The United States CIA Factbook records 1419 as the year of Monaco's independence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5756685", "title": "Monarchies in Europe", "section": "Section::::Current monarchies.:Descriptions.:Monaco.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 842, "text": "Monaco has been ruled by the House of Grimaldi since 1297. From 1793 until 1814, Monaco was under French control; the Congress of Vienna designated Monaco as being a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia from 1815 until 1860, when the Treaty of Turin ceded the surrounding counties of Nice and Savoy to France. Menton and Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, part of Monaco until the mid-19th century before seceding in hopes of being annexed by Sardinia, were ceded to France in exchange for 4,000,000 French francs with the Franco-Monegasque Treaty in 1861, which also formally guaranteed Monaco its independence. Until 2002, Monaco would have become part of France had the house of Grimaldi ever died out; in a treaty signed that year, the two nations agreed that Monaco would remain independent even in such a case. The current monarch is Albert II.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "151441", "title": "Foreign relations of Monaco", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 655, "text": "The Principality of Monaco is a sovereign and independent state, linked closely to France by the Treaty of July 1918, which was formally noted in Article 436 of the Treaty of Versailles of 1919. The foreign policy of Monaco is one illustration of this accord: France has agreed to defend the independence and sovereignty of Monaco, while the Monegasque Government has agreed to exercise its sovereign rights in conformity with French interests, whilst at the same time maintaining complete independence. Since then, the relations between the sovereign states of France and Monaco have been further defined in the Treaty of 1945 and the Agreement of 1963.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "302084", "title": "Decolonization", "section": "Section::::History.:Ottoman Empire.:Montenegro.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 576, "text": "The independence of the Principality of Montenegro from the Ottoman Empire was recognized at the congress of Berlin in 1878. However, the Montenegrin nation has been de facto independent since 1711 (officially accepted by the Tsardom of Russia by the order of Tsar Petr I Alexeyevich-Romanov. In the period 1795–1798, Montenegro once again claimed independence after the Battle of Krusi. In 1806, it was recognized as a power fighting against Napoleon, meaning that it had a fully mobilized and supplied army (by Russia, through Admiral Dmitry Senyavin at the Bay of Kotor ).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19262", "title": "History of Monaco", "section": "Section::::Protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 450, "text": "During this time there was unrest in the towns of Menton and Roquebrune, which declared independence, hoping for annexation by Sardinia and participation in the Italian Risorgimento. The unrest continued until the ruling prince gave up his claim to the two towns (some 95% of the country), and they were ceded to France in return for four million francs. This transfer and Monaco's sovereignty was recognised by the Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1861.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4982339", "title": "Monaco succession crisis of 1918", "section": "Section::::No sovereign: no sovereignty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 513, "text": "The solution was an unequal treaty between France and Monaco which formalized and rendered permanent the latter's position as a client state: Not only did it require Monaco to conduct its foreign relations in consultation with or through France, but it obliged the dynasty to obtain French authorization for marital alliances or changes in succession, and declared that should the throne become vacant Monaco would become an official protectorate under French jurisdiction — while retaining nominal independence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]