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vblagoje

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{ "a_id": [ "cbz5j3b" ], "score": [ 10 ], "text": [ "Fish take oxygen (O2) that is *[dissolved in the water](_URL_1_)*, not the oxygen from the water (H2O) molecule.\n\nFurther, taking out oxygen from water is a chemical reaction, not a nuclear one. While it takes a lot more energy than filtering out oxygen gas from water, [you can do it with a battery](_URL_0_) instead of a nuclear reactor." ] }

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[ [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolysis_of_water", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish#Respiration" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "erejdx2" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "I haven't read much about the use of aliases during the American Civil War, but something called \"bounty jumping\" was indeed a practice people engaged in, and this would likely involve the use of an alias. So during the war, one could earn a bonus for voluntarily enlisting in the army (the idea being that you might get drafted anyway, so you might as well sign up, and earn the bonus you'd miss out on if drafted). Some enterprising individuals took advantage of this practice by enlisting in a unit, collecting their enlistment bounty, then deserting to do it again in a different place with a different unit. And while it wasn't that difficult to do, the penalty if/when caught could be severe. Depending on where the person was, when they did it, and who the C.O. of a unit was (and how strict they were), the penalty for bounty jumping could be anything from fines, imprisonment, to summary execution for desertion. \n\nSo, while I can't answer OP's question directly about why their ancestor used an alias during the American Civil War, it MAY have been because they were collecting enlistment bounties. It may have been something like the ancestor was bounty jumping, but they eventually just settled on a unit that had tighter controls on their soldiers, and monitored movements more closely, or just because they felt like they had a good thing going in that unit and didn't want to risk another jump. It's hard to say with any certainty, but in terms of plausible, possible explanations, this is about the best I could come up with. Using an alias would allow a person to keep enlisting in different units without drawing suspicion on a name that might have started to get flagged if a bounty jumper used it enough times." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cdtr7fx", "cdttd8i" ], "score": [ 11, 2 ], "text": [ "It's usually sugar glass. Here's [the wiki for it](_URL_1_)\n\nIndyMogul also [has a good how-to video](_URL_0_) if you want to make your own.", "Fake bottles. The sound of breaking glass is dubbed in later.\n\nBreaking a real bottle over somebody's head can cut them horribly requiring medical attention." ] }

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[ [ "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=44SGDcOjZH8", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_glass" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dgqfhpe" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Are we? This seems much more like a personal preference than a universal truth. I searched for your question and found an answer [here](_URL_0_). " ] }

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[ [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/35fwqr/eli5_why_is_being_tan_considered_an_attractive/" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d5gm9t8" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "Your understanding is exactly right. Even until the late 1800s the majority of the Chinese literati felt outraged as the notion that their Emperor is addressed as an equal by foreign entities. I will give you a few examples:\n\n1) The rivalry of China and Japan could be traced to the point where Japanese rulers were proclaimed \"Heavenly Ruler\", an epithet which dwarfed the Chinese \"Son of Heaven\". From this alone you can see how seriously this title was treated with in the East Asian traditional culture. \n\n2) A tutor of Empress Tongzhi of Qing, Woren, wrote, upon hearing that foreigners were to be made language teachers in the Tongwen College, actively believed that it was improper that ANY foreigner should be made a teacher, the most respected career in Chinese tradition.\n\n3) Even until the late 1800s, Western nations were still seen as barbaric by the majority of Chinese literati. Westerners were called \"dirty animals\" because it was believed they had reeking body odours. Most of the Chinese simply did not believe they were \"civilized\", and would rather believe the military technology they demonstrated to be brutal and monstrous (linked with the nomadic empires that frequently defeated China's armies in the past) rather than a thing of intellectual and technological advancement.\n\n4) As it could be seen from above, foreign nations were despised and the Chinese, from the Emperor to the people, believed they must be inferior. HOWEVER, the traditional, Confucian monarchical image that Chinese Emperors strived to become was \"kind and generous\" toward its weaker vassal states. So, if the foreign nation in question was weak and subservient, the attitude of \"they are monstrous barbarians\" became \"they are helpless and our magnanimous selves should offer them assistance\". This attitude was literally overnight for the Da Wan, for example. The hardlined, no mercy approach the Hans went with Da Wan occurred ONLY because they would not offer the Han Emperor a really fine horse. Tens of thousands of Han troops died as a result, and once the Da Wan nobility surrendered the kingdom, the Han attitude instantly changed to clemency and they left with a herd of horses, without even so far as entering the city of Da Wan and imposed nothing more to end the war. Another example would be Yang Guang. Yang Guang, Emperor of Sui, believed so much that he must shower his vassals with kindness to show how perfect of a monarch he was, that whenever he held his annual celebration with foreign diplomats, he would offer thousands and thousands of pounds of gold to his vassals. Upon accepting the allegiance of some Turkic hordes, he even went with Turkic tradition to eat in their Khans' tent, allowing them to crown him as the \"Sky Khan\". Similarly, clemency was pursued whenever China was at war with a foreign power that presented itself as weak. \n\n5）Kublai Khan may not be \"Chinese\", but his pursuit to be the best of the \"Son of Heaven\" and his stubborn belief that the entire East Asian region must submit to China lead to some really stupid decisions, such as declaring war on Southeastern nations as far away as Malaysia just because they would not give their tribute on time. \n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\nSources:\n\nKim, Key-Hiuk The Last Phase of the East Asian World Order: Korea, Japan, and the Chinese Empire, 1860-1882 \n\nChang, Jung Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who Launched Modern China \n\nSui Shi\n\nYuan Shi" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cn154wl", "cn1623e" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "according to a roommate who worked at a zoo, they are often fed to other animals. ", "When elephants recently died in my city they simply trucked the bodies to the city landfill and buried them. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c7s683n", "c7s705b", "c7sb0ig" ], "score": [ 20, 10, 3 ], "text": [ "Long-Term Hematopoetic stem cells - These are hematopoetic stem cells that single-handedly have the power to recreate your entire bone marrow and hematopoetic system; we do not know exactly how many of them are there in each human individual, but in mice, for example they just constitute 0.00019% of the cells in just the bone marrow. Yet, they are extremely important (neccessary AND sufficient) for the long term maintenance of the whole hematopoetic system of the mouse (meaning the bone marrow and almost everything that there is in the blood and your immune system). Analogously we might not have more than ten times of that number in humans by best estimates. The most salient aspect of these cells is that in general they almost never divide: in mice these cells seem to divide on average only 5 times in the entire lifetime of the organism.\n\nEven therapy-wise, the study and manipulation of these cells might be the key to a huge number of treatments, including the easy cure of many cancers, HIV & other viral diseases, autoimmune diseases, organ transplant problems, and a lot more! Seriously, if we had one wish and it was that we could master the manipulation of one cell type, it would be this one!\n\nReferences: \n\n[Wilson, Anne, et al. \"Hematopoietic stem cells reversibly switch from dormancy to self-renewal during homeostasis and repair.\" Cell 135.6 (2008): 1118-1129.](_URL_0_)\n\n[Fuchs, Elaine. \"The tortoise and the hair: slow-cycling cells in the stem cell race.\" Cell 137.5 (2009): 811-819.](_URL_2_)\n\n[Nice summary](_URL_1_)", "The ovum is required for reproduction, yet an adolescent female [has only 300,000](_URL_0_) and for the rest of her life may not make any more. ", "I will submit cardiac pacemaker cells. Pretty rare and vital. Pretty weird too, as they are muscle cells that work similar to neurons. _URL_0_" ] }

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[ [ "http://www.cell.com/retrieve/pii/S009286740801386X", "http://www.rndsystems.com/molecule_group.aspx?g=2122&r=7", "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867409005236" ], [ "http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/womens_health_issues/biology_of_the_female_reproductive_system/female_internal_genital_organs.html?qt=&sc=&alt=" ], [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_pacemaker" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c7pnirm" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "The answer to both questions is related.\n\nTransmitting a reasonable facsimile of your voice through radio waves is data-intensive. Compare, for example, the size of a digitally-compressed music file (~5 megabytes) to the size of the transcript of its lyrics (1 kilobyte, less than 1/5000 the size). You could send 5000 text messages for every minute of conversation and use a similar amount of bandwidth.\n\nCell phone carriers are constantly adding bandwidth to their networks, by improving technologies and installing more towers. However, there's no real incentive for them to allocate more of that bandwidth to voice calls by having them transmit at higher quality. The driver of cell network expansion is internet usage. Essentially, the voice works\n\nAnd because you're transmitting so much data at once as a voice call, and receiving as well, you need to have your antenna operating at full power and your phone has to constantly compress and decompress the phone call data in real time. This takes a lot of computation and a lot of power. When using the internet, you receive small bursts at a time, then use that data. Only when you go to a new web page do you need to download again. And web pages are significantly smaller.\n\nIf you want to save battery, send texts and emails." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "fd7kkyj", "fd86rwe", "fd93fmc", "fdabc82" ], "score": [ 757, 3761, 19, 10 ], "text": [ "It's the worst.\n\nOf anything the Australian environment could have gone through in 2020, you could not have picked a worse possible thing than giant mega-fires that cover the entire country. Or perversely, a more perfect thing could not have happened that would so rapidly speed up the effects of Climate Change in our region.\n\nMaybe if we were to let all the nuclear material we store underground in The Outback leak out by accident, that would be pretty bad for everyone. But mega-fires are realistically the next-worst Climate Change-related disaster for Australia, and here's why:\n\n1. We have the largest Ozone Layer hole in the world and it will only grow faster now due to the smoke released by the bush-fires. Firstly, the Ozone Layer isn't a thick blanket like those diagrams at school, it's simply thin, high-altitude air filled with Ozone particles. But the Ozone Layer is very sensitive to other non-Ozone particles being up into it. Smoke and soot particles, when thrown up by bush-fires, continue rising via water vapor thanks to the combusted organic materials, in a process called \"self-lifting\". Upon reaching the Ozone Layer it immediately displaces most of the Ozone particles in that region. As the soot molecules break down inside the water vapor they release Reactive Hydrogen Oxide molecules called \"radicals\" that actively destroy Ozone particles. The mega-fires make sure it continues to worsen, eating away at earth's protection from the sun's radiation. [_URL_5_](_URL_5_)\n2. The effect of the smoke in the air blanketing our cities is extreme due to months-long fires. For example, early December it was reported that Sydney had reached the \"hazardous\" level on the Air Quality Index: 200+. On Wednesday, in Canberra, south of Sydney, it was 5,000. Read that again if you have to. That's the equivalent of smoking an entire 35-pack of cigarettes, and then a few more in a bong with some weed, if you stand outside all day long breathing the air in Canberra. It's been declared a state and national emergency. [_URL_4_](_URL_4_)\n3. In terms of general pollution of the planet, it's unfathomable: it's like Australia has a million extra trucks, cars and jet planes suddenly all driving at once, spewing out so much carbon that it has already travelled across the ocean and discoloured the glaciers in New Zealand to an ugly nicotine colour from the smoke. From the kangaroos in Australia to the hobbits in Middle Earth. But the smoke then continues to travel past New Zealand and around the world via high-altitude air currents, and in the global ocean currents, which further damages not only our dying coral reefs, but marine life wherever it ends up. [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n4. Lastly, the fires have consumed an area larger than both the California wildfires in 2018 and the Amazon wildfires in 2019 combined, which means that much vegetation is no longer producing oxygen now until it regrows. If it regrows. There were bush-fires in early colonial times, but the first drops of rain were reported to bring the immediate regrowth of vegetation in burned land within a few days. But this is 2020, the industrial revolution happened, we learned about the Greenhouse Effect in the 1980's, Global Warming in the 90's, Climate Change in the 2000s... and then we heard about Climate Change all though the 2010s.... still did basically nothing... and now Australia is completely cooked. So if our drought and high temperatures continue, which is a mathematical certainty, the burned areas may not regrow. It's currently raining in Victoria today, and the fires have showed little signs of slowing.\n\nThis is Australia's climate tipping point. We may have a year-round \"fire season\". This might be the new normal.\n\nIf you still don't believe me, watch Chris Hayes explain it with a Google Earth map: [_URL_6_](_URL_2_) \n\nYou can donate today to help the relief efforts, but also as a show of support for Climate Change policy to our leaders who don't think anyone cares: [_URL_3_](_URL_1_)\n\nOr else we may have to change its name from The OUT-BACK to The OUT-BLACK... and not for the old racist joke reason.\n\nLike and Subscribe if you enjoyed this and make sure to leave a comment below about YOUR favourite part of going extinct as a species. See you next time!\n\n(This comment is what happens when you shut down your blog years ago and watch too much Science YouTube...)\n\nUpdate: Thanks for the gold and silver! I'll try to pay it forward :)\n\nUpdate 2: I live in Carlton, an inner-city suburb of Melbourne, Australia. The wind must have just changed directions because all of a sudden it smells like all my neighbours lit their fireplaces at the same time. We can't help but think of Climate Change all the time now. I think that's what drove me to write this comment.", "Hi! Atmospheric chemistry PhD here. I researched wildfire smoke composition and health effects in graduate school. I'm currently doing postdoctoral research in medicine trying to understand the finer details of air pollution toxicity.\n\nHere's a few quick things about wildfire smoke!\n\n**What's in the smoke?**\n\nA complex mixture of fine particulate matter and gasses. The composition is very complicated as there are hundreds to thousands of different compounds that transform as the smoke plume moves from the source. You will find NOx, CO, CO2, lots of organic carbon, black carbon/soot, inorganic salts and a smaller but still significant amount of transition metals (iron, copper, zinc, aluminum among others).\n\n**How does the smoke impact climate?**\n\nThe brown and black wildfire particle absorbs incoming solar radiation and increases warming while the smoke is present. However, the magnitude of warming by wildfire smoke is uncertain and researchers are actively researching this and other impacts on the climate system. Furthermore, the wildfire smoke particles may provide a favorable surface for water molecules to condense on, thereby driving cloud formation. See pyrocumulus clouds.\n\n**How does the smoke impact health?**\n\nWildfire smoke produces toxic gases and fine particulate matter. In general, long and short term exposure of fine particulate matter has been associated with chronic inflammation, increased heart diseases, lung diseases, cancer, and death rates. Recent estimates suggest that \\~80% of air pollution deaths are due to cardiovascular effects. Human and animal studies have consistently shown that particulate matter inhalation produces a pro-inflammatory response. **Recent epidemiological work has suggested that wildfire smoke is MORE TOXIC than urban air pollution particles.** We still don't know the specific chemicals and biological mechanisms associated with the toxic effects of smoke inhalation.\n\n**EDIT, PSA ABOUT RESPIRATORS:** If you are concerned about smoke exposure and are not in immediate threat of fire: Get a respirator that filters fine particulate matter and organic vapors if possible. 3M has some pretty good ones. The white dust masks that strap around your face don't block fine particles and organic gasses from entering your lungs!\n\nBest wishes and hope for the safety of our friends in Australia.\n\n\\*\\*Minor edits for grammar\n\n\\*\\*Edited to say long and short term exposure to particulate matter is associated with detrimental health effects, rather than just long term.", "Here is a live-updated global monitoring stream of air and water variables gathered from various satellites, ground stations, and water-born sensors.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n\n\"About\"link, explaining the resources for the imagery:\n\n_URL_0_", "Hopefully some experts can expand on stuff other than the temporary atmospheric particles. What happens when it lands? [Such as in the sea?](\n_URL_0_)\n\nWhat I'm curious about, is all this ash falling into the sea, will it benefit the reefs with the infusion of nutrients? Or will it smother the sea life?" ] }

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[ [ "https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/118593619/australia-bushfires-more-smoke-on-its-way-to-new-zealand", "https://www.facebook.com/donate/1010958179269977/?fundraiser_source=external_url", "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_b2Hh8g7Xi0", "https://www.facebook.com/donate/1010958179269977/?fundraiser\\_source=external\\_url", "https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6562383/air-quality-in-parts-of-canberra-20-times-above-hazardous-level/", "https://www.sciencenews.org/article/worst-wildfires-can-send-smoke-high-enough-affect-ozone-layer", "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=\\_b2Hh8g7Xi0" ], [], [ "https://earth.nullschool.net/about.html", "https://earth.nullschool.net/#current/chem/surface/level/overlay=so2smass/orthographic=133.33,-23.92,730" ], [ "https://i.imgur.com/3YkJbXg.jpg" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "csflwmo", "csfmo4o" ], "score": [ 3, 2 ], "text": [ "Understanding this is as simple/complicated as understanding the nature of art and catharsis itself.\n\nIf the end goal is to stimulate a psychosomatic response in the viewer, certain tropes prove effective towards that end goal. They're not painting rational life portraits--they're just storytellers, executing their craft with tools from an ancient toolkit. ", "These decisions are madeby the writers so the plot can continue and increase the tension and scares. If the best decisions were mafe every time the characters would escape or defeat the antagonist and the movie would be over pretty quickly. The right decisions are generally made toward the end as the characters have mostly figured out what they are dealing with and have formulated a plan or at least worked out the best way forward." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cii7gul", "cii8mqh" ], "score": [ 148, 33 ], "text": [ "According to a study by the Australian National University, bees are very good at finding their way home, even over long dustances, and often rely on the position of the sun, the polarisation of light in the sky, the panorama view of the horizon and landmarks including towers, mountains or lakes.\n\nFrom that article: “In their forage trips, one way that honeybees use to find their way home is by storing distance and directional information when they venture out,” said Professor Zhang. “In other words, they try to go back the way they came.\"\n\nSo bees rely on landmarks, the sky, and a general bearing of what direction they have traveled and can make it back home, even if it takes them multiple days. Though this probably begins to fail the further they go from the hive.\n\nSource: _URL_0_", "[this question was answered a couple days ago, strangely enough :\\)](_URL_0_)" ] }

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[ [ "http://m.phys.org/news/2011-05-bees-sky-home.html" ], [ "http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2913ei/if_a_bee_were_to_fly_into_my_car_and_join_me_on_a/" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cbxc0gu" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "There are certainly gas-producing organisms that generate methane from garbage, and in fact there are efforts to commercialize this kind of technology (look up 'biogas').\n\nThe problem is these processes are not very efficient. The molecules you are talking about have an extremely high energy density, and it's difficult to coax a living organism into sacrificing its scarce energy budget to making high-energy molecules that it does not consume for its own benefit.\n\nMeanwhile, this stuff is still coming out of the ground for relatively cheap." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e6nqhvn", "e6nqvzl" ], "score": [ 23, 4 ], "text": [ "They do. Various \"QuickCharge\" technologies use higher voltage output (compared to the default 5V) on the charger to allow for faster charging.\n\nSince almost all phones (and other mobile devices) use a USB port (micro-USB or USB-C) for charging, most manufacturers tended to stick to the USB specifications to prevent compatibility issues. These specs have long limited the output voltage to 5V. This means that fast charging solutions tend to not be in compliance with USB specifications.\n\nIn recent year, the USB standards have been expanded with the possibility to use higher voltages for power delivery. This allows devices, such as certain MacBook models, to be charged at higher speeds using spec-compliant USB connections.\n\nBut other than adherence to standards, there's a more practical limitation on fast charging, which is heat generation. Charging requires certain hardware to transform the incoming power to the right voltage for the battery being charged and these charging electronics produce heat. The more power you run through them, the more heat they produce and this heat is detrimental for the operation of the device (especially since mobile devices are so compact and have very limited means to shed heat).\n\nOne way to combat this issue, as employed by OPPO and OnePlus, is to move as much of the power conversion electronics into the charger, which reduces heat generation in the smartphone (but makes the charger run much hotter). But even then there are limitations to how quickly you can charge a battery without it having detrimental effects.", "To add to Rannasha's answer, cells can only charge so fast. It's called the C rate. If the cell is 2ah and can charge at 1C, you can charge it at 2A and it will take 1hour. A 5Ah cell can be charged at 5A (same C rate). Almost all lithium chemistries can handle 1C (the full charge actually takes longer than 1hr, because the last 20% has to be done more slowly).\nThe best cells I know of (in the RC world) have a charge rate of 10C, so they can be charged in 6 minutes. But these cells have a lower cycle life, so if they were in your phone, you could charge the phone very fast, but would need to replace the battery every 6 months or so. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c58106j" ], "score": [ 7 ], "text": [ "I'm not a historian, nor have I read the book, but.. Fear makes otherwise decent people do terrible, terrible things, like collaborating with Nazis. You could point fingers at basically any country that was controlled by the Reich for a period of time and find collaborators, even among the Jews themselves. That's not excusing their actions, of course, but a book like this could be written about any group of people during that time period. \n\nJust my two cents. \n\nEdit: And it seems my view of concentrating blame on one group is shared by at least one reviewer. \n\n_URL_0_" ] }

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[ [ "http://www.amazon.com/review/RWQDZ3TYGS8UI/ref=cm_cr_pr_cmt?ie=UTF8&ASIN=0199731675&nodeID=&tag=&linkCode=#wasThisHelpful" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dl7va44" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Sounds dont get longer the more there is, if you look at the video you can see that the videos arent all playing at the same time, there's a delay in some which can be seen by the wave like motion of the videos in the later parts of the video." ] }

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[ "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wLthw2YWb4s" ]

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{ "a_id": [ "cvqvg2m", "cvqykub" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Just based on a supply and demand logic, I imagine that money would get more valuable...a dollar bill would be equal to a greater amount of commodities. As more \"things\" were produced but the amount of money remained the same, it would seem to me that one unit of money ($1) would be worth an increasing share of product \"X\". I realize my scenario is very simplistic and assumes that more \"things\" would be produced as well as leaving out other factors. Maybe an economist could help.", "Well valuation of other goods would plummet as there would be pretty large deflation. It wouldn't bottom out overnight but it wouldn't be pretty by any means. One of the things that most people aren't considering is that most transactions really don't occur without cash leaving the banking system. \n\nCash in and of itself is thought of as the M0 level of the monetary supply, whereas most money that's sitting in accounts is at the M1 level and can transfer between institutions with no real trouble. \n\nWikipedia has a very good example to give you can idea of these levels. M0\nM0\n\n > Laura has ten US $100 bills, representing $1000 in the M0 supply for the United States. (MB = $1000, M0 = $1000, M1 = $1000, M2 = $1000)\n > \n > Laura burns one of her $100 bills. The US M0, and her personal net worth, just decreased by $100. (MB = $900, M0 = $900, M1 = $900, M2 = $900)\n > M1\n > \n > Laura takes the remaining nine bills and deposits them in her transactional account (checking account or current account by country) at her bank. (MB = $900, M0 = 0, M1 = $900, M2 = $900)\n > \n > The bank then calculates its reserve using the minimum reserve percentage given by the Fed and loans the extra money. If the minimum reserve is 10%, this means $90 will remain in the bank's reserve. The remaining $810 can only be used by the bank as credit, by lending money, but until that happens it will be part of the bank's excess reserves.\n > \n > The M1 money supply increases by $810 when the loan is made. M1 money is created. ( MB = $900 M0 = 0, M1 = $1710, M2 = $1710)\n > \n > Laura writes a check for $400, check number 7771. The total M1 money supply didn't change, it includes the $400 check and the $500 left in her account. (MB = $900, M0 = 0, M1 = $1710, M2 = $1710)\n > \n > Laura's check number 7771 is accidentally destroyed in the laundry. M1 and her checking account do not change, because the check is never cashed. (MB = $900, M0 = 0, M1 = $1710, M2 = $1710)\n > \n > Laura writes check number 7772 for $100 to her friend Alice, and Alice deposits it into her checking account. MB does not change, it still has $900 in it, Alice's $100 and Laura's $800. (MB = $900, M0 = 0, M1 = $1710, M2 = $1710)\n > \n > The bank lends Mandy the $810 credit that it has created. Mandy deposits the money in a checking account at another bank. The other bank must keep $81 as a reserve and has $729 available for loans. This creates a promise-to-pay money from a previous promise-to-pay, thus the M1 money supply is now inflated by $729. (MB = $900, M0 = 0, M1 = $2439, M2 = $2439)\n > \n > Mandy's bank now lends the money to someone else who deposits it on a checking account on yet another bank, who again stores 10% as reserve and has 90% available for loans. This process repeats itself at the next bank and at the next bank and so on, until the money in the reserves backs up an M1 money supply of $9000, which is 10 times the MB money. (MB = $900, M0 = 0, M1 = $9000, M2 = $9000)\n > M2\n > \n > Laura writes check number 7774 for $1000 and brings it to the bank to start a Money Market account (these do not have a credit-creating charter), M1 goes down by $1000, but M2 stays the same. This is because M2 includes the Money Market account in addition to all money counted in M1.\n\nThe downfall now is though that you've entered into a deflationary spiral of which you apparently can't get out of. Now that people are getting rewarded for sitting on their money it behooves them not to purchase as many goods. With lower consumer demand less is produced, which causes many companies of lay off workers or just fold entirely. This creates a ripple effect throughout the economy as demand is now lowered and even less people can find jobs. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "f0nghf9" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "It goes down near where it went up but not precisely, the rotation is variable, but the arm is normally still in the position across the record (from the edge to the centre). Basically the needle follows the grove on the record which is a tight spiral moving in towards the centre, with the bumps in the grooves being where the music is recorded." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c49vzk6" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "A little bit of alcohol might actually be good for you." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e1xkkur", "e1xkoxn" ], "score": [ 3, 7 ], "text": [ "It's shiny, and it's not really all that expensive. Stamp-sized pieces of gold leaf cost less than a dollar each. It's just to look cool.", "Flaunting wealth is often one reason. However, if you consider food to be an art form, putting gold on the plate could be completely a creative expression of the chef. We eat first with our eyes, gorgeous plating goes a long way towards creating a multisensual dining experience." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "crxydk0", "crxypom", "cry22si", "cry4zkj" ], "score": [ 715, 317, 261, 56 ], "text": [ "I have an add-on question. How true was it that the average person 'could barely afford to live'? I've heard anecdotal stories from older relatives of small southern towns being basically unaffected by the depression.", "I think you are going to need a state by state answer. Statistically the number imprisoned almost doubled during the great depression. But congress passed laws to limit the selling of goods produced with prison labor (Notably the Hawes-Cooper Act). But I don't have enough knowledge to address how these twin stresses on the prisons and the prison population were dealt with in any particular locale.\n\nHere are a few sources:\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\nBTW, this period saw the growth in black men being incarcerated grow three times faster than the general population so a state by state analysis should probably consider the racial differences in how prisoners were treated.", "This question was [asked](_URL_2_) and answered last year. Here is a copy of the top comment. by /u/leisure-lee\n\n\n----------------------------------------------------\n\n\nThe Great Depression's incarceration rates were the highest the nation had seen yet. The incarceration rate for federal and state prisons peaked at 137 per 100,000 in 1939. Rates dropped with the beginning of WWII as jobs and military service set the country back on the economic track.\n\n\nThe prison system, in reaction to the rising incarceration rates, responded with a parole system. Known as the Second Great Experiment, it was believed that putting the prisoners to work and/or teaching them a skill would improve them to make it society as a law-abiding citizen. For example, prisoners might be employed to make burlap sacks or in fields to collect foodstuffs. The income went back into the prison system. Once the inmate had proved his transformation, he could be placed on parole.\n\n\nI should also note that the majority of crimes were actually more violent crimes of passion and those related to prohibition. It would be foolish to think that theft was not a problem, but battling the more serious felonies were given priority. Facilities, such as Alcatraz, held particularly dangerous inmates apart from the lesser offenders.\n\n\nThough I have yet to find an account of some one trying to get into prison, I can't imagine this was the course for many, if any, persons. The environment of prisons were extremely unpleasant, low on supplies, uncomfortable, and brutal. Rape, gangs, and abuse from guards and prisoners alike were rampant.\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\n\n[_URL_1_](_URL_1_)", "Not sure if its the location you were thinking of, but it was a common practice in many smaller Canadian towns for the homeless people who rode the rails to ask to spend the night in the local jail, where the personnel often gave them some amount of food, though that was a choice. This was particularly common in the winter to avoid the potential of freezing to death. \n\nSource: Pierre Berton, *The Great Depression.*" ] }

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[ [], [ "http://law.jrank.org/pages/1782/Prisons-History-Modern-prisons.html", "http://www.encyclopedia.com/article-1G2-3408900129/hawes-cooper-act.html" ], [ "http://www.triquarterly.org/reviews/doing-time-depression-everyday-life-texas-and-california-prisons-ethan-blue", "http://monthlyreview.org/2001/07/01/prisons-and-executions-the-u-s-model/", "http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/2d0mqr/did_people_try_and_commit_crimes_during_the_great/" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cbkg2yl" ], "score": [ 7 ], "text": [ "Yes, we experience a tidal force from everything, it's just question of magnitude.\n\n[The tidal force from the Sun is about ~~3%~~ 44% as strong as from the Moon](_URL_0_), because unlike the basic gravitational force, the tidal force drops like 1/r^3\n\nEdit: 44%" ] }

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[ [ "http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/tide.html" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c2qp5sc", "c2qq77e", "c2qp5sc", "c2qq77e" ], "score": [ 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Do you mean taking derivatives using the definition, or using the tricks and rules you can memorize to make it easier/faster?", "I will give it a shot, though I am not for sure what kind of answer you are looking for.\n\nEvery equation can be graphed. \n\n (x^1) are lines \n (x^2) are curves.\n\nYou need to find the slope. \nFor a line the slope is constant and never changes. You can find it no problem with two points in the line.\n\nFor a curve the slope varies throughout the curve and finding the slope we have to use derivation.\n\nthe derivative can be defined as the slope of the tangent line at any particular point on a curve(a line that only touches 1 point on the curve).\n\nIt has been many years since my last Calc class, so please don't be too harsh on the corrections. \n", "Do you mean taking derivatives using the definition, or using the tricks and rules you can memorize to make it easier/faster?", "I will give it a shot, though I am not for sure what kind of answer you are looking for.\n\nEvery equation can be graphed. \n\n (x^1) are lines \n (x^2) are curves.\n\nYou need to find the slope. \nFor a line the slope is constant and never changes. You can find it no problem with two points in the line.\n\nFor a curve the slope varies throughout the curve and finding the slope we have to use derivation.\n\nthe derivative can be defined as the slope of the tangent line at any particular point on a curve(a line that only touches 1 point on the curve).\n\nIt has been many years since my last Calc class, so please don't be too harsh on the corrections. \n" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "drcppc8", "drcv73f", "drcyl8j", "drd0kyv", "drd3zb6", "drdejxy", "drdg8n2", "drdijfp", "drdsd1h", "drdvfwt", "dre5ge0" ], "score": [ 8704, 133, 935, 7, 13, 3, 3, 77, 3, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Intense crying can cause less oxygen to enter the brain, therefore the contractions are like yawning, it’s supposed to allow more oxygen to enter. \n\nSource: I’ve cried once. And took an anatomy class once.", "I haven't done the \"internet research\" on this one but just based on observation it may be diaphragmatic in nature. The nature of those \"hiccups\" may be phrenic nerve overactivity through excessive crying.\n\nOxygen levels/anxiety have too many inconsistencies to be wholly correct. For staters, a baby is more likely to just go blue if he/she has widespread hypoxia. Cerebral hypoxia may lead to a reduction in level of consciousness. Anxiety also seems inconsistent in that those\"hiccups\" may persist despite the subject ceasing crying.\n\nOther random observations that would support a diaphragmatic nature/spasms to the \"hiccups\"\n\n-Excessive crying is essentially prolonged periods of forced exhalations which naturally requires the diaphragm to contact for long periods of time - could explain spasms of a muscle after prolonged use\n-Methods to alleviate the \"post crying hiccups\" are oddly quite similar to alleviating \"normal\" hiccups: valsalva manoeuvre, etc...\n\nSource: doctor.\n\nEdit: Sorry for confusion. Diaphragm is indeed the primary muscle for inspiration.", "Those \"tracheal contractions\" are probably either diaphragmatic or ~~congressional~~ intraabdominal (thanks, Swype) muscle spasms, due to the strain that had been placed on them during the crying jag. \n\nYou know how your legs get wobbly after doing a bunch of squats? Your breathing muscles get wobbly after being worked hard too.", "Crying limits oxygen to brain.\n\nOxygen takes a long time to enter through the alveoli (relative to CO2 diffusion). The longer the oxygen is in the lungs, the more diffusion takes place and the more oxygen gets in your blood.\n\nThe huh-huh-huh causes the oxygen to stay in your lungs just a tad longer, so more oxygen can get in your blood.", "When we experience a state of ongoing trauma, the vagus nerve is generally involved in the freeze response. The dorsal vagus nerve has sympathetic functions inherited from the earliest vertebrates. The ventral vagus and its parasympathetic functions are more of a mammal inheritance, and mammals have complicated investment strategies resulting in weird adaptations. Crying is one such, and it is more or less piggy backing on systems that were never designed for it. In engineering terms, you are likely experiencing a failover mode.", "Aspiring SLP here with some ideas. The tracheal contractions you are talking about are that the vocal folds are not properly abducting (opening) during the inhale to allow for unobstructed breathing. This is likely because of the strong adduction that happens during crying. During the cry, you have a lot of muscular tension in your larynx and neck muscles. In addition, you usually expire past what is known as “Resting Expiratory Level” or REL (it’s the point where your exhale stops when you are breathing normally) which causes significant secondary muscle tension in addition to the tension already involved in the crying. This is also why the breath is so kind of spasmy. When you go past REL, your body does a recoil breath to return to normal lung volume levels. Try it: breath out until you can’t push any more air out and then let your body naturally relax and take in air. You’ll feel tension when you go past REL and you’ll feel the recoil breath to bring you back\n\nAll of this put together leads to what we call Paradoxical Vocal Fold Movement. This means your vocal folds aren’t going where they need to for functionality (usually it happens when your vocal folds don’t open properly when you are trying to breath in). Paradoxical moments can happen to anyone and crying is an excellent example of one. Your vocal folds are staying adducted (closed) during the recoil breath which not only obstructs the airway so you hear the inspiration, but you are actually also vibrating your vocal folds on the inhale which is why you end up with sound. Fun fact, phonating on an inhale (singhaling) is actually really good for your vocal mechanism and is a great way to relieve muscle strain on your voice!\n\nSource: SLP graduate student with a strong background in voice ", "It’s actually your diaphragm that’s contracting. Tracheal contractions would leave you gasping for air and be mildly terrifying.\n\n", "Bit late, but wanted to share this. \n\nWhen we’re stressed or upset, we produce stress hormones and our breathing becomes fast. We’re often told to “take deep breaths” to relax us. That’s why it’s a fundamental part of relaxation activities like yoga and meditation, our rate of breathing has direct effects on the chemicals we produce which determine how we feel. \n\nWhen most of us are asked to take a deep breath, we inhale quickly, pushing our chests out and our shoulders up. But when we do that we only fill the top parts of our lungs. What we *should* be doing is taking in a long and deep breath, with the aim of filling our lungs with as much air as possible. The kind of breath you’d need if you were playing a wind instrument. Air right to the bottom of the lungs, shoulders stay where they are, tummy pushes out. When we do *this*, we’re stretching and controlling our diaphragm, a key muscle responsible for the rate at which we’re breathing. We’re making our body think everything’s fine, there’s no danger, and to be at ease. So our body responds accordingly, balancing out those chemicals and hormones. \n\nThe huh-huh-huh after intense crying is our body doing this for itself. It’s stretching the diaphragm (which has been working overtime while you’ve been crying) and forces deep breaths. This has effects on the production and levels of cortisol, adrenaline and other chemicals and hormones we produce when things are scary or sad. \n\nIt calms us down. \n\nPro tip: hiccups are a spasm of the diaphragm. To get rid of hiccups, breath deeply (the method above) and hold for *as long as you possibly can*, then exhale sharply. While you’re holding your breath, really push the air to the bottom of your lungs. If you can even feel a hiccup while you’re holding your breath, then you don’t have enough air in there. Once you eventually exhale, the hiccups will be gone. It’s the hiccup equivalent of pulling your foot back when your calf cramps, and is the basis for the “receiving a fright” hiccup cure. \n\nBonus tip: breathing in this way when you’re stressed will calm you down and make you feel normal again. But breathing is also linked with sleep hormones, so if you breathe in this way when you’re not stressed, and already feeling normal, you’ll soon find yourself yawning.\n\nSource: this all came from a university professor who gave talks on the effect of stress on the body and how to combat them, and has been invaluable to me for 15 years. ", "Crying is probably an innate neurological mechanism to show to other people signs of being overwhelmed, whether it is by emotional or physical stress, or both. This is certainly a reflex behavior, given how babies cry at birth, and probably becomes more complex in what triggers crying as a person grows and forms complex regulation of their emotions. Crying later in life could facilitate social interactions to address the stressors causing a person (or people) to cry. \n\nPart of the nervous system that controls secretions (the parasympathetic nervous system) goes into overdrive; this is why you cry tears, have copious nasal secretions, and facial flushing. \n\nAs for the breathing, my guess is the part of the nervous system that controls tidal respirations (breathe-in, breathe-out) get pushed strongly towards the breathe-out phase. In babies, this would produce a louder cry due to more air support. In children and adults, trying to breathe in for other reasons (to catch your breath, or to try and talk while crying - which we've all experienced at one memorable time or another) would be like trying to swim against the tide, with the body making your muscles of expiration push air out, but you are trying to push air in. This would explain the clumsiness of breathing during crying, and the \"tracheal contraction\" phenomenon. But, it is definitely not the trachea contracting, because the trachea is a fairly rigid tube like structure reinforced by cartilage and connective tissue. \n\nTL;DR: probably bad coordination between the muscles of breathing-in, controlled voluntarily, and the muscles of breathing out, controlled by a crying reflex.\n\nSource: I'm an Otolaryngologist-Head & Neck surgeon.", "Crying limits oxygen to brain.\n\nOxygen takes a long time to enter through the alveoli (relative to CO2 diffusion). The longer the oxygen is in the lungs, the more diffusion takes place and the more oxygen gets in your blood.\n\nThe huh-huh-huh causes the oxygen to stay in your lungs just a tad longer, so more oxygen can get in your blood.\n\n", "All of the comments are discussing panic attacks, and yet aren't off topic because they're vaguely related to the question. Can we please get a real answer?" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cu8x1nr", "cu8x2lg", "cu8xha0", "cu8xqfs", "cu9066q" ], "score": [ 5, 4, 2, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "Its not, I cant call my cereal frosted flakes. I cant use the image of tony the tiger. But There is nothing to stop me from making \"Frosted cereal shards\" putting them in a blue box and having my mascot be a lion, why would there be? ", "Its not,\nFirst, you'd be surprised how many \"generic\" brands are actually owned by the same company as the name brand.\n\nOther than that, not many foods are patented or trademarked. So it's not illegal for someone to make generic versions.\n\nIf a name brand feels a generic impedes too much on its package designs and such, they have every right to sue, sometimes they win, sometimes they don't. ", "The rule with trademarks is they cannot mislead consumers. If a reasonable person would confuse \"Dr. Peeper\" with \"Dr. Pepper\", then that is trademark infringement.\n\nMr. Pipp, not so much.", "Generic brands have similar products with similar names, but do not copy any of the tradmarkable content. \n\n[Example] (_URL_0_). \n\nThe term \"frosted flakes\" is descriptived. They are flakes of corn that have been covered in a sugar frosting. Kellogs cannot claim to \"own\" a desciption. Nor can they claim to \"own\" blue boxes. They can, however, claim to own the character Tony the Tiger, or the catch phrase \"They're g-r-r-r-eat!\" or the Kellogs logo. That doesn't prevent a competitor from using an cartoon lion on their box. \n\nWith a non-descriptive name, [like \"Froot Loops\"] (_URL_1_), the competator can't just copy that... because \"Froot\" is spelled in a way that's unique and thus trademarkable. Fruit Rings (and arguable \"Fruit Loops\") is an acceptable name because it's descriptive. ", "One thing to know is that brands like Equate (Walmart) are actually literally the same thing, packaged by the same company specifically for walmart. Not all, but a lot. " ] }

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[ [], [], [], [ "http://www.apartment210.com/images/cereal/frostedflakes.jpg", "http://www.apartment210.com/images/cereal/frootloops.jpg" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c8hmi8z", "c8ho3ks" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "The answer is that we know quite a lot about many of the great Chinese masters. However, the history of art in China goes back a deal further than europe. So provenance becomes a major issue. This is particularly the case with the monumental landscape masters of the 10th and 11th centuries. I will mention a few of them below, but first I will mention an exemplary problem - that of Zhang Daqian - a brilliant 20th century painter, scholar and trickster. He was the top chinese scholar in the field, so when he brought out a newly discovered 10th century masterpiece, all had to take note. But he clearly was the *10th century master* behind several of them. He would paint them, then take them to the basement, get them all dusty, stomp on them, burn some edges, forge some imperial seals, etc, then he would unveil them with much fanfare. You seriously have to love this guy! Anyway, on to the original masters: \nLi Cheng - the true father of monumental landscape, but also the most difficult to attribute. His ink on silk work is well documented in writings, but the authenticity of each of the surviving pictures themselves is doubted by at least some art historians. I remember looking at two different Li Cheng attributions at the Metropolitan museum (grad seminar on Song dynasty art). One was entirely vexing. It just seemed disjunct, as if of two minds. Though some had argued vigorously for its authenticity, it just never settled with me. But the other was spectacular. It was mesmerizing, truly, as much or more so than the Leonardos and Raphaels I had seen in florence and rome in years past. I remember thinking that I didn't care whether it was a Li Cheng, because, in the words of my professor, it was what a Li Cheng \"Ought to look like\". He also said that we should all become comfortable with ambiguity if we were to look at chinese pictures. \nThe second master worth looking at is Fan Kuan. [this](_URL_1_) is his most famous work. I cannot add much about him. Great painter. \nThe greatest of all though was Guo Xi. His [Early Spring](_URL_0_) is that rarest of early chinese paintings - signed, dated, almost universally accepted as authentic, and hanging in the Taipei palace museum. This painting is truly the landscape to measure all others both that came before and after. \nI have seen a handful of song dynasty paintings up close, due to sheer luck in choosing the right course! I count those moments among my very luckiest and most special experiences with visual art. Although these artists are extremely well known in China, Korea, and Japan, they are sadly almost totally unknown in the art loving west. \nBeyond the Song there are many wonderful artists, and luckily we know much more about them. Do some searching for great painters of the Ming and Qing, and you will find more than enough to keep you in a wiki vortex for several days. Enjoy!", "You might want to visit this website: _URL_0_\n\nIt is a UWashington page that gives a nice walk though Chinese art history, with plenty of examples." ] }

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[ [ "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Guo_Xi_-_Early_Spring_%28large%29.jpg", "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Travelers_Among_Mountains_and_Streams.png" ], [ "http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/painting/4ptgintr.htm" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c3pvkd4", "c3py61k", "c3pyrfe" ], "score": [ 35, 24, 4 ], "text": [ "A magnet torrent link is a unique set of numbers and letters that describe a specific file, like a fingerprint. Torrent clients can use this fingerprint to ask other clients if they have a file with the same fingerprint. If they do, they can send it from them (peer) to you (peer).", "Nice try, congress...", "atexobject described what magnet links are; why are TPB and other torrent sites switching to them? From a technical standpoint, they take longer to start the download than a .torrent file, because your client has to spend up to a minute trying to find others with the same magnet before you even have a list of files to download. The reason they are gaining popularity is because of legal reasons. You may have heard that TPB was recently fined and the owners are going to spend jail time simply for hosting torrents. The argument of the prosecution was that TPB was a knowing accessory to mass copyright infringement. With magnets, there is an additional level of deniability, since the torrent site does not need to host any .torrent files, and does not even have a list of files, just the fingerprint. So they can try and claim that they did not know what files were being shared." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c8v55lr" ], "score": [ 15 ], "text": [ "They aren't: the genes that **trigger** (specifically, SRY) the male phenotype are on the Y chromosome, but males also have a complete set of female DNA, and ~~many~~ almost all of the distinctly male characteristics are side effects of this trigger alone. And even this is a little bit of a misnomer, as SRY (or lack of SRY) and the Y chromosome do not clearly cut human gender:\n\n[_URL_0_]\n\n[_URL_2_]\n\n[_URL_5_]\n\n[_URL_4_]\n\n\nSRY makes it easier to be a different gender, which arose from a selection for ansiogamy (different types of gametes). This is because having a low energy cost, low success gamete (in humans, male sperm) and a high energy, high success rate gamete (in humans, the female egg) had an overall higher chance of being fertilized and \"mitigate fertilization risks\". There are also theories that competition between the low-cost male gametes contributes to the selection for anisogamy.\n\n[_URL_1_]\n\n[_URL_3_]\n\n" ] }

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[ [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex-determination_system#XX.2FXY_sex_chromosomes", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisogamy", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersex", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_sex#Two-fold_cost_of_sex", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XX_male_syndrome", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRY" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c5hgqom", "c5hjh58" ], "score": [ 10, 2 ], "text": [ "_URL_0_\n\n*Factors not likely related to risk*\n\n*Although not as well-studied as the factors described above, based on the research to date, the factors below are not likely related to breast cancer risk.*\n\n*Bras/underwire bras*\n\n*Scientific evidence does not support a link between wearing an underwire bra (or any type of bra) and an increased risk of breast cancer. There is no biological reason the two would be linked, and any observed relationship is likely due to other factors. A 1991 case-control study found that premenopausal women who did not wear bras had a lower risk of breast cancer than women who did wear bras [487]. However, the authors stated this link was likely due to factors related to wearing a bra rather than the bra itself. The women in the study who did not wear a bra were more likely to be lean and have small breasts, which the authors concluded might account for the link [487].*", "Women with very large breasts are more likely to wear bras all the time (and different, more supportive underwire bras). I know some women with large breasts who don't get screenings specifically because the machine hurts them so much. It's also more difficult to detect lumps.\n\nBasically there are just too many fundamental/tangential differences between the two groups to tease that factor out." ] }

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[ "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?orig_db=PubMed&db=pubmed&cmd=Search&TransSchema=title&term=European%20journal%20of%20cancer" ]

[ [ "http://ww5.komen.org/BreastCancer/FactorsThatDoNotIncreaseRisk.html" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cdzc7pt", "cdzcink", "cdzhoqk" ], "score": [ 2, 5, 2 ], "text": [ "They all glow. If it seemed like they didn't then either they were at different temperatures or the lighting wad different. ", "Aluminum and mercury will glow too if you get them hot enough. Pretty much everything glows (incandesces) at the same temperature, aluminum and mercury just happen to melt before that temperature whereas steel melts at a higher temperature.", "All metals...all substances, in fact, glow the same color at the same temperature.\n\nAluminum and mercury have lower melting powers, so they are not glowing in the visible light range yet. In fact, mercury becomes a gas before it starts glowing.\n\nAs for metals like aluminum and lead, they would glow if you got them hot enough, there just isn't much point to heating them past their melting points." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ekz9eys", "ekza87r" ], "score": [ 4, 4 ], "text": [ "Basically you use the bar to add extra tension to the strings to shift the pitch as you play.", "The correct name is a tremolo bridge. When you push on the bar it removes tention from the strings causing lower notes. Some of them (floating tremolo bridge) you can pull on creating more tension, increasing the pitch." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ccx34uw", "ccx4n3l", "ccx5t0v" ], "score": [ 2, 8, 2 ], "text": [ "Im not very educated with this, but I see no one has commented. I think it mostly has to do with how developed certain parts of the brain that have to do with that are. Sorry it's not much.", "As an audio engineer, I've broken this down a few times. There are two types of people: 1. People who dance to the beat (kick drum and snare) 2. People who dance to the vocal melody/lyrics. \n\n", "My husband has this. Latest research suggests that it's a neurological difference in the left auditory cortex part of the brain. Nobody really knows the exact issue or why some people have it (about 5% of the population) and others don't." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dq1eka1", "dq1icl7" ], "score": [ 3, 3 ], "text": [ "In general it is presumed that the Cambrian Explosion happened essentially in the ocean and maybe to some degree in lakes and rivers. According to wikipedia (_URL_0_) land plants began spreading 490 mya ago and I am quite sure that multicellular animals on land needed those for nutrition.\nAnyways, your theory would not work: The mutation rate is in general a parameter that evolves towards an optimum. If the environment leads to increased mutation rate, all species will evolve some protection mechanisms to the point where the risk of harmful and advantageous mutations is again balanced.", "There was no land based life form in the Cambrian. The earliest life clambered onto land was the Silurian, and then it was a few photosynthesizing slimes, some early plants and arthropods who could withstand the radiation for short times.\n\nIt's not until the Devonian that life on land becomes a real possibility." ] }

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[ [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryophyte" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dxeg9v2", "dxeh0hk", "dxeh6sy" ], "score": [ 5, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "You would need an atmosphere for things like paddles and propellers. Because they have to push air to work.\n\nRocket thrust is different. Equal and opposite reaction, right? The rocket fuel or exhaust goes out the back *and pushes the rocket forward*. The force only has to act on the rocket, not against another medium.", "Rockets propel themselves in a vacuum by expelling matter at high speeds, in the form of burning propellant.\n\nBecause every action has an equal and opposite reaction, the act of throwing the matter from the back pushes the rocket forward with the same force.\n\nFortunately, the rocket is not impeded by friction, and can accelerate continuously, as long as the fuel remains.", "You bring the atmosphere with you.\n\nBoth thrusters and propellers use the equal and opposite force law of physics and are quite similar in how they utilize it. With a propeller, you're repeatedly hitting air or water away from yourself, which pushes you in the opposite direction you're pushing the air/water. It's like pushing against the ground to do a push up. With thrusters, you're basically just throwing gas particles as fast as you can to propel yourself in the opposite direction, but you quickly run out of gas to \"throw\" as you use up your propellant. When in water or atmosphere, you constantly grab and throw the material around you, but in space you only have the material you bring along. You could bring anything, really. A fire extinguisher, a rock, your crewmates, anything can be a propellant, its effectiveness just depends on how massive it is and how hard you throw it." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c380x4o", "c38haey", "c380x4o", "c38haey" ], "score": [ 2, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Correct, since Evolution is a slow process in which the traits of a given generation are passed on (due to their survival), as the Environment changes, so too would the requisites of survival change. \n\nConsider an organism that exists in an ecosystem that is devoid of outside influences: \n\nAs the organism evolves through the generations, its mortality rate drops and there are more organisms in the environment. Eventually the population would reach critical mass, and the organisms would start dying off, except for those who are uniquely adapted to a high population colony, limited food supply or some other feature.\n\nThe previously 'optimal' traits are no longer relevant, as the organisms themselves changed the environment, ergo the system of trait selection continues under the new paradigm.\n\nTLDR; Evolution will always continue as systems are prone to break down and change.", "Aspects of the environmetn such as changing niches and natural disasters will always be changing what is optimal and what is left to select on. Even in an environment where those things are reduced (ie- modern society), we still have mutations, recombination and differential reproduction. The forces working on us in this artificial environement are obviously weaker than those acting in nature, but there will always be geno/phenotypes with advantages over others and novel mutations to provide variation to work with. ", "Correct, since Evolution is a slow process in which the traits of a given generation are passed on (due to their survival), as the Environment changes, so too would the requisites of survival change. \n\nConsider an organism that exists in an ecosystem that is devoid of outside influences: \n\nAs the organism evolves through the generations, its mortality rate drops and there are more organisms in the environment. Eventually the population would reach critical mass, and the organisms would start dying off, except for those who are uniquely adapted to a high population colony, limited food supply or some other feature.\n\nThe previously 'optimal' traits are no longer relevant, as the organisms themselves changed the environment, ergo the system of trait selection continues under the new paradigm.\n\nTLDR; Evolution will always continue as systems are prone to break down and change.", "Aspects of the environmetn such as changing niches and natural disasters will always be changing what is optimal and what is left to select on. Even in an environment where those things are reduced (ie- modern society), we still have mutations, recombination and differential reproduction. The forces working on us in this artificial environement are obviously weaker than those acting in nature, but there will always be geno/phenotypes with advantages over others and novel mutations to provide variation to work with. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c44cuts" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "I've not done research in the matter, but my grandfather volunteered to stay on occupation duty with the Canadian Army. \n\nFrom what he said the days were fairly boring. He was around Baden, so not a Nazi stronghold like Bavaria. The people were broken, trying to rebuild some semblance of life after the war. He was a universal carrier driver, so he ran a lot of errands for his CO, jockeyed engineers around the countryside, went on patrols. The biggest problem they ran into was crime. Society was basically ripped apart, so they spent a lot of time making sure there was no looting. They ran checkpoints looking for war criminals (SS I assume), and basically just went about their days overseeing people trying to get back to normal. He said it wasn't terribly exciting, though one day his CO and some other bigwigs made an announcement that there was going to be a trial and they wanted there to be guards there from every allied country. He declined, because, who cares, right? Turned out it was the Nuremberg Trials. He kicked himself for that one, even though if he went he probably would just have been manning roadblocks on the Pegnitz instead of in Baden, but still, it would have been neat to be a part of.\n\nFrom what I understand, the German people were quite happy to put the war behind them and try to move on with their lives, and the biggest threats were crime, food shortages, and drunkeness driving/outbursts." ] }

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[ "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1v5QCGqDYGo" ]

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{ "a_id": [ "e1rxb89" ], "score": [ 9 ], "text": [ "some of it is diet but more of it is gentics. Asians for example tend to have a lot harder time and are less likely to grow a full on beard as you see it other races\n\nfun fact it was seen as very special if you could in many asian cultures " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c76xs1q", "c76yg1r", "c76zn2u", "c76zsut", "c776siq", "c77bz8y", "c77dwkl" ], "score": [ 41, 78, 24, 660, 5, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "The first big difference I can remember from the top of my head is that the western cavalry was heavily armoured knights on heavily armored horses - the stereotype of heavy cavalry, in other words - while the Muslim forces they opposed tended to more lightly armored cavalry, which had significantly greater mobility (and sometimes bows as well). This effectively meant that battles often centred around whether the crusading army could break their opponents through their devastating (but not particularly mobile) cavalry charge, their key military technology, or if the more mobile opponents could flank/avoid them. Otherwise, my memory fails me a bit - but both crusaders and their opponents had significant numbers of foot troops - particularly as the crusaders lost horses to disease, battles, and so on. The Crusade's actually got a wealth of knowledge about military strategy from both sides - search for information on the Siege of Antioch (1098) for more, that's one of the most significant battles of the [first] Crusade, and has information on interesting tactics that the Muslim forces used (most famously the way which they trapped the crusaders inside Antioch and then besieged them in turn). Sorry if that's a bit vague, it's been quite some time since I've studied the Crusades! ", "At work right now, but the book you must read is Amin Malouf's *the crusades through Arab eyes*. Dated, but unsurpassed.", "One thing that I do remember quite vividly from studying this is the use of water. The Muslims naturally knew were water sources were being locals, and they would position their armies directly in front of it. The Crusaders, starved of thirst would come across their enemies parked out in front of the only water source for miles. This lead to either the troops being angry that their leaders were planning/eating well while they struggled with thirst OR in the case of the French ignoring all tactics and plans and charging. (The French were AWFUL about this, personal honor and what not). \n\nAnother strategy that was previously mention was the use of light cavalry. The Crusaders quickly figured out that rocks or other terrain that restrained movement would be amazing for their heavy cavalry charges. As a result, the Muslim armies were forced into picking open areas that allowed them to pivot and adapt.\n\nLastly, although this is tongue and cheek, their main tactic was actually using tactics...silly French... ", "While moving through Asia Minor the First Crusade was confronted with armies composed almost entirely of cavalry. These Turkic armies consisted largely of light cavalry who fought with bow and arrow from horseback much like their nomadic brethren/ancestors. They used mobility to exhaust and demoralize their opponents in order to break their formation or to separate them. When they had succeeded they would finish the job in a final attack together with the heavy cavalry. While the complete absence of infantry was a typical Turkic thing and not representative for the islamic armies of that era, infantry often played a subordinate role in the eastern armies.\n\n- France, John, ‘Crusading warfare and its adaptation to Eastern conditions in the twelfth century’, *Medieval Warfare 1000-1300*, ed. John France (Aldershot 2006) p. 55\n\n\n\nThe Franks, confronted with an enemy who kept attacking them but didn't let itself be attacked, were forced to adapt their tactics. The best weapon they had against horse-archers were their own bows and, more importantly, their crossbows. However these archers and the Franks main weapon, the heavy cavalry, needed to be protected against enemy fire even when moving(from fortification to fortification). Furthermore it was essential that the enemy wouldn't be able to separate parts of the army.\n\nThe Franks' answer according to Smail was the 'fighting march'. The goal was to have the infantry shield the cavalry from enemy fire while keeping the enemy at a distance with their own (cross)bows.\n\nThis was hard enough when standing still, but the crusaders needed to be able to do this while moving between castles/strongpoints. Therefore they marched in the fighting march formation instead of the normal column formation. Arabic commentary from the period describes the formation as \"a moving castle, where the walls and towers are made of infantry\". The cavalry and supply-train would be moving inside that castle.\n\nDiscipline is very important when using this tactic. Not only did the Franks have to hold their formation under heavy fire(comparable to machine-gun fire when concentrated against a small section of the line) while moving. They also needed to open the formation at the right moment in order to allow the heavy cavalry to perform their *charge-en-masse* when the time was right for the counterattack.\n\n- Smail, R.C., *Crusading warfare 1097-1193* (Cambridge 1995) p. 156\n\n\n\nScholars have given many reasons for the crusaders' use of the *charge-en-masse* as it was rarely used in Europe and often involved just a small detachment. France cites the Franks' need for a psychological superiority or dominance as the main reason. They needed to seem powerfull and fearless to maintain their political and military might. They needed to impress. Personally I think the image the muslims had of the 'famous charge' was a consequence rather than a cause.\nThe reason Bennet suggested seems more plausible. A well-timed cavalry charge was the only offensive weapon they had. They couln't hold indefinitely while using their infantry purely for defense. They had to force a decisive battle, timing was crucial.\n\n- Smail, R.C., *Crusading warfare 1097-1193* (Cambridge 1995) p. 203\n- Bennet, Matthew, ‘The crusaders’ fighting march revisited’, *War in history 8* (2001)\n\n\nDiscipline was kept by assigning soldiers specific places in the formation which they weren't allowed to leave(this wasn't common during this period) unless ordered to. Obviously those who disobeyed were severely punished.\nA second reason was the example set by the members of the military orders. These orders who relied on discipline for their entire way of life were exceptionally good at holding formation when faced with taunts and feigned retreats. For this reason Richard the Lionheart and Louis VII used the military orders as the van- and rearguard of their armies. Templars in the van and Hospitallers in the rear.\n\n- Smail, R.C., *Crusading warfare 1097-1193* (Cambridge 1995) p. 198\n\n\n\nLastly, the crusaders also employed light cavalry of their own. They used locally recruited Turkopoles in essentially the same role as the muslim armies did, though they never had as many of them. \n\n- France, John, ‘Crusading warfare and its adaptation to Eastern conditions in the twelfth century’, *Medieval Warfare 1000-1300*, ed. John France (Aldershot 2006) p. 58-59\n\n\nFor most of the period warfare in the Levant can be characterised by the modern term of low-intensity-conflict. Achieving the primary war-aims(capturing fortifications=land=wealth) was often difficult or impossible so both parties resorted to harassing the enemy and raiding for loot. While for the muslims the *chevauchée* or raid was just part of their strategy in order to weaken the Franks for the eventual siege of a certain castle, for the crusaders raiding became the only way to keep the enemy at bay as the number of crusaders started to dwindle. The Franks were defending an area the size of England and Wales with just 12.000 troops, they were fighting a losing battle.\n", "Check out \"The Muslim Reaction: Ibn al-Athir, The First Crusade (13th cent.)\" from Barbara H Rosenwien, ed., in 'Reading the Middle Ages: sources from Europe, Byzantium, and the Islamic World'. (Peterborough, ON: Broadview, 2006), 296-300. \n\nPrimary source, but remember, it was written almost two centuries later, so there are elements that are likely 'legend-building'/skewed in nature, or, as my first year history students like to assert on a regular basis: 'this source is biased!' ", "I dont want to make a separate post, but on this subject:\n\nHow often and successfully did Richard the Lionhearted actually fight in his crusade (number 3)?", "There's a great book called, \"The Crusades Through Muslim Eyes.\"\n\nIt might be something you would get a lot out of. Good researching!" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d3clhfv", "d3cmlxb" ], "score": [ 12, 2 ], "text": [ "The mass difference comes from the binding energy of the nuclei, via E=mc^(2).", "E=mc^2. To fuse particles, you need to supply a high enough energy for fusion to happen (hence why this only naturally occurs in stars).as you supply energy, you also supply mass, as they are effectively interchangeable forms.\n\nRelated to this is the fact that the most stable nuclei are those with the highest binding energy per nucleon; that is, the ones that require the most energy to 'break apart' into their protons and neutrons. Iron is the most stable of these, at a nucleon number of 56. As you go down the elements to those with lower nucleon numbers, they become more and more unstable. The same is true if you go up the elements to those with higher nucleon numbers. Elements or atoms fuse or fiss to increase their binding energy, thus releasing energy and mass in the process. This is where that mass goes.\n\nNote; electrons, for the most part, do not matter. Fusion happens between the nuclei of atoms, and I would guess at those energies the atoms would be so excited that they would have no electrons at all.\n\nEdit: ignore first paragraph. It's wrong. I was drunk." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ckzojsv", "ckzok19" ], "score": [ 4, 3 ], "text": [ "The heat kills bacteria and other potentially icky things in the water. It's not fool proof but it's better than nothing.", "It kills the bacteria that are in the water. It doesn't necessarily destroy all the toxins that might be in the water, though, so it's not 100% safe even after boiling." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "fmwzwc4", "fmx0jpm" ], "score": [ 5, 5 ], "text": [ "They shut off power to the line and then rebuild it. Power lines are kind of like tinker toys. You just replace the parts that need replaced. Everything from the wire to transformers. If a pole is broken, they cut it off and plant another one.", "I can’t give an answer that will be 100% applicable to your exact situation without seeing it and without seeing how the lines are fed, if it’s in town or the country, three phase, single phase, multiple feeders etc... I’ll give the most common answer for most situations though. So if there are some trees on the line, the lines aren’t broken and are still energized I’ll use an insulated 40’ extendable pole with a cutting blade on the end. I’ll also be wearing rubber gloves, then I’ll cut the branches from the tree and just use the blade to pull the, down if it’s safe to do so, for example if there is just one phase (primary, top wire and neutral, bottom wire). In a more complicated situation, if the lines are still energized and not broken I’ll turn on something called blocking, which will cause the line to trip if I fuck something up. Then I’ll park my bucket truck close by, go up in the basket and put cover up (rubber hoses and blankets) on the lines to protect myself then cut the trees down with a chainsaw (still wearing rubber gloves). And I’ll pull the trees out. \n\nIf the tree fell on the line and knocked out the power it’s all the easier, I’ll physically disconnect the line and leave a hold card so no one reenergizes, then I’ll ground the lines (electrically connect them to the earth) then cut the trees the fuck down. Once all the trees are clear I can add some wire to the broken lines, splice them together, then climb the closest pole, pull of the line and replace out the slack... a little more too it to that with some extra safety shit but that’s the basics.\n\nSource: journeyman powerline technician" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e66989r" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "This depends on the metal! When iron combines with oxygen in the atmosphere, the resulting iron oxide compounds take up much more space than just the metal did, but more importantly they don't have much structural strength. This means that the growing layer of rust on the outside cracks and flakes, creating gaps that let air react with fresh iron underneath. What happens over time is that the oxygen combines with all the metal from the outside in, atom by atom, until it has all turned into flaky crumbly rust and fallen off.\n\nThe other end of the spectrum is something like aluminum, which *does* react with oxygen just like iron does. Aluminum oxide, however, is so much tougher than iron oxides. Aluminum oxide is actually the major part of minerals like sapphire, which is more scratch resistant than glass and is what high-end phone screens and watch faces use. When the outermost layer of aluminum metal reacts with air, it forms a super thin but pretty solid and tough layer of aluminum oxide that actually protects the fresh metal below. After this first layer, the metal stops oxidizing. This is called a passivation layer.\n\nThen of course there are some metals like gold that don't react with oxygen under atmospheric conditions to begin with." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d72nt16" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "This can happen near black holes, where the path of light can be bent so much that it passes the event horizon. However, to modify the path of a distant star back to its direction of origin would require the perfect setup of perfectly placed black holes which is so unlikely as to never happen." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cf5dayq", "cf5dbd6", "cf5dmky", "cf5dr1b" ], "score": [ 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Pregame, are just exhibition games. They are sometimed used to help determine who gets the last few spots on a team's roster. Divisions are groups of 4 teams. There are 4 divisions per conference. Every team in a division plays eachother twice, as well as 8 teams outside of their division. This is how you get big divisional rivalries, since every year you are guaranteed play the same 3 teams. The best team in each of the 8 divisions gets a playoff slot. The wildcard slots are taken by the best teams which didn't win a division.", "What exactly do you mean by \"pre game\"? Preseason games, or what is happening before kickoff?\n\nAs for divisions - the NFL is divided into two conferences (AFC and NFC), and each of those are divided into four divisions of four teams each (North, South, East, and West). They're generally divided based on region of the country, hence the names. Each team plays the other three teams in their division twice over the course of the season, and the one with the highest record automatically gets a spot in the playoffs, so there are often some pretty intense rivalries within divisions.", "Do you mean pre-season games? \"Pre game\" is basically the six hours before a game commentators air and talk about nothing :).\n\nEach team has four pre-season games each year. They are worthless as far as actual impact on the season is concerned; they don't count. However, they are useful for coaches and players to get back into the routine of the game (they've been off for six months) and also serves as a tryout for new players. At the beginning of the year, teams will have around 90 players, which they need to reduce down to 53 players by the time the preseason is done.\n\nThere are 32 teams in the NFL. There are two conferences (The American Football Conference (AFC) and the National Football Conference (NFC)); these two conferences are divided into four divisions each (North, East, South, and West). Each division has four teams. So four teams per division and four divisions per conference = 32 teams.\n\nDuring each season's schedule, a team will play the other teams in their division twice (6 games). They'll also play another division within their own conference once (4 games), and one division in the other conference once each (4 games). Finally, they'll play one game against each division in their conference once, ranked the same as themselves from the previous year (so if a team is ranked #2, they would play the other teams in their conference who are also ranked #2.) Since they're already playing one rotating division, this is two games: so 6 + 4 + 4 + 2 = 16 regular games a season. \n\nWho goes in the playoffs? The team with the best record in each division gets to the playoffs. Then, the top two teams in each conference (regardless of division) *besides* the top-ranked teams goes as well as a \"wild card.\" \n\nSo divisions are important because the winner in each division goes to the playoffs, plus they play their own division more than anyone else (and play them every year).\n\nIf you'd like extended examples, let me know.", "There are 8 4 team divisions split into 2 conferences. The AFC and the NFC. The winner of each conference meets in hue he Super Bowl. The NFL schedule is\n\n2 games (home and away) vs the other 3 teams in your division = 6 games\n\nEveryone in your division plays another division in your conference = 4 games\n\nEveryone in your division plays an entire division in the other conference = 4 games\n\nThen you play 2 games against teams that had a similar record to your teams the previous year (or might be 2-3 year calculation). This way every team in your division play 14 games against the same teams, making the schedules pretty balanced.\n\n\nPreseason games are exhibition games. Teams use them to cut down their roster as they start off preseason camp with with a lot more players and teams have to cut there rosters to 53? (Maybe 52). They have some importance but don't matter really." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cpfyqos", "cpg23l8" ], "score": [ 14, 5 ], "text": [ "Yes but using that logic you are seeing the history of everything. because there is a delay between the object you are looking at and the light hitting that object, reflecting off, and hitting your eye. Similarly there is a delay between when your nerves endings in your eye or skin are triggered and your brain processes them. \nYou not only do you see the past but live in it too\n\nEdit: Spelling", "Yes, you are seeing the Sun slightly off to where it is right \"now\". This is called the [aberration of light](_URL_0_), the deviation is around 20.5 arcseconds (where an arcsecond is 1/3600 of a degree). " ] }

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[ [], [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberration_of_light" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "fb0eoas", "fb2057h", "fb3ch83" ], "score": [ 8379, 43, 12 ], "text": [ "Frosted glass is simply glass with a (chemically) roughened surface which causes the light passing through the pane to diffuse in all directions, instead of letting straight through.\n\n(Scotch) tape is essentially a clear plastic surface coated with a thin layer of transparent adhesive. When you stick it to frosted glass the adhesive fills the small cavities on the glass surface which were made by the chemicals used to frost it. The adhesive thus smoothens the surface, counteracting any diffusion.\n\nThis also means that the tape trick only works on chemically frosted glass, or mechanically frosted glass with a fine texture, because the thin layer of adhesive can only smoothen out relatively small cavities in the glass.\n\nEdit: thanks for the silver!\n\nEdit 2: and thanks for the double silver and the gold!!", "So I could de-frost my bathroom windows with patterned privacy tape, and just the frosted parts of the patterned tape would be visible? If that makes sense\n\nEdit: auto correct issue", "The adhesive on the tape fills in the rough surface smoothing it out allowing light to travel through it without scattering" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cz8a93p" ], "score": [ 11 ], "text": [ "Can you please link this because I can not find that 42,000 English redcoats deserted from an army that averaged about 39,000 soldiers in the colonies during the war?" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cd70up0", "cd728k6" ], "score": [ 2, 3 ], "text": [ "There are two possible answers to this:\n\nOne is that local nobility eventually usurped and displaced them.\n\nThe other is that they assimilated into the local culture.\n\nThe evidence for the later is primarily through Greek style coinage that lasted quite a while, and left a legacy for even longer, and the architectural changes that permeated even outside of the Greek areas. We also have examples from other similar situations throughout history. Generally, when similar events happened, the ruling class eventually assimilated rather than was displaced (and we even have one from India: the Mughals).\n\nI think the odds are that the Greeks eventually intermarried with native nobility and eventually lost their 'Greekness'. The Kingdoms themselves eventually fell to other local powers, either before or after this process was completed. The Greeks themselves were unlikely to have been killed or anything as I said though.\n\n", "[/u/Daeres](_URL_1_) posted a great answer to a similar question yesterday on [/r/badhistory](_URL_0_). I've quoted it here for those who haven't read it yet:\n > Some necessary background- Alexander III of Macedon's conquests (or Alexander the Great if you prefer) in what is now Pakistan and Central Asia were not without impact. Whether you're familiar or not with the aftermath of Alexander the Great's death in 323 BC, suffice to say that eventually these possessions deep in Asia came into the possession of one Seleucus. Alexander already had planted, it seems, several forts with garrisons and colonists in this part of the world. Seleucus had additionally flooded these areas with more Greek settlers and began the construction of additional cities. This got interrupted close to 300 BC by the emergence of a big Empire in India- the Mauryan Dynasty under one Chandragupta Maurya. The easternmost possessions of Seleucus became threatened by the emergence of Chandragupta, and a conflict seems to have been ensued. Much is unknown about these incidents, but it seems the 'Indian' possessions of Seleucus along with others in modern Afghanistan were ceded to Chandragupta. Seleucus, and his dynasty the Seleucids, retained control of what is now northern Afghanistan- these include regions at the time that were called Bactria and Sogdiana.\n\n > Despite the fact that these areas had been conquered/ceded to the Mauryans not two decades after Alexander had conquered them, the Greek communities that had been established there seem to have been incredibly vibrant. We say this because even 60 years later, these communities seem to have been intact. One of our biggest indicators is that their Mauryan rulers erected administrative inscriptions in Greek, of all things, at the site of Old Kandahar. It indicates that they were considered important enough that they were worth courting, and vibrant enough that it was considered worthwhile. It's also good, grammatical Greek as well, rather than what many inscriptions tend to do which is pretty ungrammatical nonsense.\n\n > This is what we'd call the Indo-Greeks- the Greek communities in what at the time was controlled by the Mauryan Empire, and were thus subject to the control of an Indian-centred polity. They're differentiated from other Greeks because their cultural environment and day to day experiences were fundamentally different from others.\n\n > Now, I mentioned Bactria and Sogdiana earlier. These areas were also heavily settled by Greeks, with an existing population of Iranian speaking Bactrians+Sogdians, some settlers that were likely from the neighbouring Scythian societies, and probably Persians left over from the Achaemenid (Persian) Empire's control of the region. The Seleucid Empire kept hold of them, but somewhere around the 240-230s BC the satrap (essentially governor but directly royally appointed) of Bactria became independent. Fast forward to the 190s-180s BC; the Mauryan Empire seems to have fragmented, and the Greek-ruled kingdom of Bactria seems to have dogpiled- this is the situation which leads to the map that /u/caesar10022 posted, where there's an Indo-Greek kingdom sitting in India launching expeditions and conquests. The circumstances in which the Indo-Greeks became partially separated from the Greco-Bactrians who conquered/liberated/sponged them are still not fully comprehended, and it is surprisingly difficult to work out who rules what at any given point. However, by about 140-135 BC all of this had come to an end; the Greco-Bactrian kingdom had been invaded by somebody, probably Scythians or similar peoples to their north. Across a century or so, the various remaining Indo-Greek kingdoms got swallowed up.\n\n > But, and this is where I start to get into the meat of the subject, this is not the end of Greek culture or influence in Central Asia or North-West India. The Greek alphabet was adapted to write the language of Bactria itself (Bactrian, natch), with two additional signs for new signs. The Kushan Empire, which emerged in Bactria and surrounding areas sometime after the last Indo-Greek state was conquered, continued to recognise Greek deities on their coinage for centuries afterwards alongside Iranian and Indic deities (this coinage, by the way, looking very similar to Greek-style coins). They also became enormous patrons of Buddhism, complete with representations of Buddha on their coinage and building enormous stupa complexes across their Empire. These stupas incorporated many Greek architectural elements, including Greek style pillars and representations of certain Greek figures like Hercules and Atlas. Indeed, the Greek connection with Buddhism appears to be even older than this; one King Menander, who seems to have controlled a kingdom including bits of Bactria and the city of Taxila, is believed to be the subject of a Buddhist philosophical text called the Milinda Panha. If this identification is correct, and we believe it to be, that makes Menander an incredibly important early patron of Buddhism. We can see from his coins that he issued bilingual coins as well, some of which may have incorporated Buddhist imagery.\n\n > It is clear that a self identifying Greek culture vanished from these regions eventually, probably by about 300 AD or thereabouts (we are having to guess a little). But the period of Greek settlement and its aftermath left a huge impact in these areas- I'm not arguing they 'civilized' them, Bactria had been building cities and irrigation canals for almost 2000 years by the time Greeks ever arrived there, and India is home to some of the earliest urban sites we are aware of anywhere in the world. However, it would be impossible to deny that Greek culture became part of the tapestry of influences and ideas that underlay many cultures in the area. Hellenistic era Greek culture is as much part of the heritage of Central Asia and Pakistan as it is in the Mediterranean, I would argue. So to argue that the Indo-Greek kingdom is not important is, frankly, rather annoying and silly. In fact, anyone who argues that any culture/state is unimportant to history should be treated as a little suspect.\n\n > To close this rather lengthy rant, there are a number of fairly pretty pictures of much of what I have spoken that I can dig up if people want me to. However, I would also like to point out that if King Menander was indeed the 'Milinda' of the Milinda Panha, then that makes him someone respected both in large parts of Asia and what we'd now consider Europe; in addition to the Buddhist philosophical text, Menander and his reputation were also known to chroniclers of Greek and Roman history in the Mediterranean. Regardless of attempting to evaluating importance, or usefullness, or even morality, the Indo-Greeks and Greco-Bactrians still produced figures respected across an enormous swathe of the world's surface. That is not, I feel, a pair of cultures that sunk gently into the night without pride, achievement, or incident." ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.reddit.com/r/badhistory/comments/1pu0mg/doublewammy_in_rworldnews_all_pederasty_can_be/", "http://www.reddit.com/user/Daeres" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cuk8k2l", "cukb558" ], "score": [ 6, 3 ], "text": [ "The evidence is really much the same as it was before, which is to say that there is not enough evidence to convict someone beyond a reasonable doubt.", "If you consider a \"consensus\" to be what the judicial system of the US has produced than there's not enough evidence to make a conclusion. If you \"consider a \"consensus\" to be what the general public think based on hearsay (news reports) then [this poll](_URL_0_) indicates he's either not guilty or maybe people don't know." ] }

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[ [], [ "http://www.escapistmagazine.com/forums/read/18.870620-Poll-Was-Michael-Jackson-guilty" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dh5nceu", "dh5s9bo" ], "score": [ 10, 3 ], "text": [ "Pressure oscillations. The incoming air compresses the air inside the cab. But because of inertia of the moving air, it compresses it more than the air in the cab can handle, so the inside air rebounds like a spring.\n\nThis happens over and over and you get the whup-whup-whup-whup of the oscillation.\n", "You know how if you blow over the open neck of a bottle and you get a sound? Pretty much exactly that is what's happening, but because your car is considerably bigger than a bottle the oscillation is slow enough (or *low* enough rather) that you can hear each individual pulse of pressure. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c9hvr67" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "We can calculate the average temperature of a planet given its size, [albedo](_URL_0_), distance from the star and the star's luminosity. The habitable zone is simply defined as the range of radii in which water would be liquid at this temperature." ] }

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[ [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cpfyfwq" ], "score": [ 10 ], "text": [ "There are actually cultures, because of their language, that do not use left, right, etc. and only use cardinal directions, like North, South, etc.\nOne of these is an aboriginal tribe that speak,\"Guugu Yimithirr\".\nA bunch of deaf kids in Nicaragua invented their own sign language that didn't include terms for left and right as well." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c7wf2j2", "c7wlzke" ], "score": [ 3, 2 ], "text": [ "Succession laws [were not uniform across medieval Europe](_URL_0_).\n\nDisclaimer: not a historian.", "John I of France (who did not live long) and Alfonso XIII of Spain succeeded posthumously. There are other examples in the earlier middle ages, and a king of Hungary is known as Ladislaus the Posthumous.\n\nJohn earl of Kent was born in 1330, a few weeks after his father, Edmund of Woodstock, had been executed for treason." ] }

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[ [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primogeniture" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "f8f9rql" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "So DNA it's in the nucleus of a cell, all of the Eukaryotic organisms, that's all of the animals, plants, fungi, have their DNA stored in the nucleus, think of DNA as a really long wire, actually 3 football fields kind of big (if my genetics professor is to be believed) and it's super thin, all of that encodes the proteins you make, (that process is long enough for a ELI5) that chain is compressed around specialized proteins, think something like how tape is stored, and that super compressed thing is stored inside the nucleus of the cell, the thing about DNA is that you don't produce or change it, just like an old cassette tape your body reads from it on how to make your proteins, now about Cariotype (DNA photos) what you see there is Chromosomes, when a cell is dividing out has to make a duplicate of the entire DNA, so both the new cells have the exact same DNA when the cell is ready to divide the huge DNA chain gets cut and arranged in these kind of structures that help with the division process and that makes it so both cells get the same pieces of DNA" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cyxbn6b" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "As someone who spent part of a winter vacation in an outdoor hot tub in Garmisch, Germany... it's still ridiculously cold when you get out." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cffd3dz" ], "score": [ 4 ], "text": [ "I'm pretty sure it's not normal to \"eat out\" outside the US. It's for rich people and tourists." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dvqjbaq" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Frequency cannot change at an interface, that would mean you have a discontinuity in energy flow. See for example an animation like this:\n\n_URL_1_\n\nIf frequency changed at an interface then the black lines, representing a maximum of the electric field and thus a maximum in the energy of the wave, would be discontinuous implying energy \"jump somewhere else in space\". If the material does absorb energy from the way that would be reflected as a reduction in amplitude (i.e the height of the maximum) not a discontinuity.\n\nBeyond that are you asking why materials don't have the same dispersion as a vacuum? The dirty secret truth is that light doesn't propagate through a medium at all. Rather, when an oscillating electromagnetic field is applied at the boundary of a material (i.e. light impinges on it) this INDUCES an electrical excitation in the material which carries the energy of the light but is a composite object that depends on the material properties of how a given material polarizes in the face of an applied field. A cartoony animation like this maybe helps:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe thing that is moving in the thick black line ISN\"T an oscillating electric field, rather it is a new object that is the combined effect of an electric field AND the material dependent polarization of the atoms in the material. Now, there are conservation laws for what must happen at such an interface so the new object does inherit some aspects of the original light, but for example although it may have the same momentum it need not have the same direction (refraction) or speed as it ripples its way through the material. What electrical polarization ripple a material accepts is a material dependent property." ] }

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[ [ "https://qph.ec.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-6443253e033527ab9abeebb98a6bf616", "https://www.rp-photonics.com/img/refraction_animated.gif" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "do5rzkl" ], "score": [ 7 ], "text": [ "While you wait for an answer you might be interested in the [\"Pre-Columbian Trade and Contact\"](_URL_1_) section of our [FAQ on Native American History](_URL_3_). \n\nIn particular, you may be interested in [this answer](_URL_2_) by myself, /u/Mictlantecuhtli and /u/retarredroof, [this answer](_URL_4_) by /u/Cozijo, and [this answer](_URL_0_) by myself. " ] }

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[ [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/4rm6k1/indigenous_peoples_of_mesa_verde_in_colorado_and/d52hhl9/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/wiki/nativeamerican#wiki_pre-columbian_trade_and_contact", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/41stro/before_european_contact_how_far_did_trade_routes/cz4xbo9/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/wiki/nativeamerican#wiki_americas_before_columbus_and_native_american_history", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/31xa0q/nonluxury_trade_goods_in_mesoamerica/" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cmrb2nq", "cmrbd7o" ], "score": [ 6, 2 ], "text": [ "Both will work. Hydrogen will work better because it can fill the same volume with less weight, but it will also be worse because it is prone to explosions when exposed to oxygen and sources of ignition (see: Hindenburg).\n\nHelium is preferred when available, but in the Hindenburg's case the Germans were not able to secure enough helium to fill the craft so they redesigned the airship to use hydrogen instead. ", "[This](_URL_0_) is at least one reason why hydrogen isnt used." ] }

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[ [], [ "http://youtu.be/CgWHbpMVQ1U?t=2m29s" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cpqly7d", "cpqm1r9", "cpqm341" ], "score": [ 3, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "low water pressure. the lower fountain works better because the pipe supplying the water is shorter, so it has less distance to travel.", "There is a regulator on the drinking fountain to adjust the height of the water fountain. Periodically it needs to be cleaned to remove the scale. Few if any are regularly cleaned.", "Try blowing water out of a drinking straw, the harder you blow, the faster you run out of water, but the strength and length of the water flow will increase. To save water, they choose to let it dribble." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "fghf93w", "fghgu9n", "fggud3g", "fgguiex", "fggulip" ], "score": [ 20, 3, 183, 34, 9 ], "text": [ "Hold your hand in front of your face and make a 'p' and 'b' sound. You'll notice that a puff of air comes out when you make those sounds. As you might know, air blowing into a microphone is a no bueno, so these filters stop that air from reaching the microphone without entirely cutting out the frequencies that you want to hear.", "When you say certain letters, like 's', or 'p', a puff of air comes out of your mouth. If you're talking to me from a normal distance, the puff of air dissipates before it can get near my eardrums. I only hear the vibrations that you create with your mouth and voice box. But if you speak directly into my ear, or into a microphone, the puff of air will hit my eardrum, or the membrane in the microphone which fulfills the same function. This puff is picked up as a (relatively) loud noise, which sounds similar to someone (briefly) blowing in your ear (because, well, that's basically what it is).\n\nOne way to stop this from happening is to sit or stand further away from the microphone. But that's not a great solution because it also makes the recorded sound weaker. So a better way is to put this little filter between your mouth and the microphone. The filter lets vibrations through very well, but catches and dissipates these little puffs of air before they hit the microphone.", "Pop filter. Stops bilabial sounds like \"b\" or \"p\" from sounding like loud pops. If you've ever heard a low quality youtube video, you know the pop I mean. Basically it smooths out the audio.", "It’s called a pop filter and is supposed to help soften certain consonants. When you sing you are typically louder than you are talking and certain things like s’s become more sibilant and p’s and b’s become more explosive (they’re called plosives after all). The filter is supposed to help regulate those sounds. Otherwise you may get a good volume on everything else but the words ending or starting with an s, b, p, whatever are ungodly loud and stick out against everything else.", "A pop filter. Reduces plosives from getting into audio recordings(plosives are syllables such as p's and b's), whilst still allowing other sound to pass through." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ccy3fhq" ], "score": [ 5 ], "text": [ "There has been about 100 years of fighting over this very question.\n\nVery simplified history here: \n\nNorthern Ireland was created in 1921 after an uprising of Irish Republicans lead to a peace treaty between Ireland and the UK which partitioned the country between the Irish Free State (later the Republic of Ireland) which was mostly Catholic and Northern Ireland, which is made up of 6 or the 9 counties of Ulster, and has a majority Protestant population loyal to Britain.\n\nIn Northern Ireland there is also a large Catholic population that has been historically oppressed and identify themselves as Irish and not British (as the protestants do). This sectarian divide is typically described as Nationalist/Republican for the Catholic and Loyalist/Unionist for the protestants.\n\nThrough much of the 70's and into the 90's there were wide ranging conflicts between these two groups which are known as the troubles. This is where the traditional image of the IRA, amongst other paramilitary groups comes from, though the IRA has been around in multiple different forms since the uprising that lead to the creation of the Free State.\n\nIn 1994, the Provisional IRA issued a cease fire, and in 1998, the Good Friday Agreement was signed, that ostensibly ended the troubles (for the most part). However, there have been instances were splinter groups have disregarded the cease fires (the Omagh bombing for one), but for the most part the major conflicts of the Troubles are in the past. Though there is still some sectarian uprisings traditionally coinciding with the Protestant Marching Season and a recent uproar over the flying of the Irish flag over official buildings (the Union Jack is also still flown).\n\n\nFor you other questions, traditionally the majority of the people of Northern Ireland have wished to remain as part of the UK, though again much of this support comes from the protestant majority, though in recent polls, even a large number of Catholics wish to remain, which could be a result of the recent economic troubles in the Republic. The UK certainly doesn't keep NI for tax purposes as it typically costs the UK far more than it generates in tax income, as unemployment is pretty high.\n\n\n" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "fij1l0s" ], "score": [ 7 ], "text": [ "So while the exact veracity of this anecdote is impossible to verify, I can talk a little bit about the slave trade in Northern Europe at this time in history. \n\nSlavery was an integral part of the Anglo-Saxon world, as well as other cultures and groups in the North Sea world. Scandinavians, Saxons, Frisians, the Irish, Romans, Franks, and so on all engaged in the slave trade, and would continue it for several centuries. It was not outlawed in England until 1102. At this point its likely that most slaves were captured in raids or the small scale wars that were endemic to Europe at this time. Ireland in particular was a common source for slaves, though England was also the site of depredations by Scandinavians as well. \n\nThe slave trade also was quite profitable and prevalent in the Mediterranean world as well. However the Mediterranean economy had undergone a shift, and radical downsizing, in the centuries following the collapse in Roman authority in the west. Slaves were still commonly found in markets in Italy especially but were often sources from what is today the Balkans.\n\nScholars have identified the shift in western Europe's trade network from the broader Mediterranean world to a North/South Axis from Scandinavia down the Rhine towards the Alps. So it is unlikely that large numbers of slaves were being moved from England down to Rome for sale. The supply of slaves in Italy came from elsewhere and the long distance trade of the Roman empire had failed some time in the past. So the exact truth of this anecdote is somewhat suspect. \n\nSlaves were taken by many different groups at this time, and we should try to not ethnicize the slave trade in the Medieval world. Although the white skin of the Angles is played into their need for salvation, slavery, and the slave trade, were not restricted by ethnicity or religion at this time." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ceojt1k", "ceonim2" ], "score": [ 126, 14 ], "text": [ "The freezing response is mediated by a circuit involving the amygdala and a part of the brainstem, the periaqueductal gray. This circuit can coordinate the typical motor output: freezing, jumping, yelping, etc.\n\nAnyone can come up with plausible-sounding evolutionary \"explanations,\" but this can easily spiral into just-so storytelling. **An evolutionary story that sounds good or \"makes sense\" is not a substitute for data.** The important part is the (comparative) neuroanatomy and behavior.\n\nEdit: there was a removed comment that asked whether \"why\" questions are even answerable. Here is the response I was typing before it was removed:\n\n > We can answer \"little\" why: the mechanics of what happens, the steps, the neural substrates, the behavior, etc. \n > \n > It is much harder to answer the \"big\" why: what genetic, developmental, and environmental factors triggered the appearance, prevalence, and conservation of a particular neural circuit and behavior in a mammalian ancestor millions of years ago.", "Without going too deeply into it, the mammalian freezing response is mediated by a downregulation of the activity of the vagus nerve and the feedback loop associated with its sensory function (80% of the vagal function is afferent) via the vagal nerve centers in the brainstem. Normally the nucleus ambiguus (NA) functions to control the upregulation of heart rate, breathing rate and respiratory sinus arrythmia in order to control the increase in oxygen availability and perfusion to the brain and muscles in what is called a focusing event. However, if the stress is high enough (and also in people who have developmental malformation, which can occur for a number of reasons) then the activity of the NA will subordinate to the neighboring (evolutionarily older, i.e. reptilian) structure from which the NA developed, called the DMNX (dorsal motor nucleus of Cranial Nerve X [that is, the Vagus nerve]). This causes the massive downregulation of activity in order to conserve energy and oxgen in preparation of an attack which cannot be countered (freezing/playing dead) that can be seen in many mammals. This decrease in metabolic activity is like a massive parasympathetic response (leading to accute bradycardia and a sensory feedback loop slowing the brain activity). It is also responsible for sudden cardiac arrest (scared to death) during massive stress. The reason mammals die during this type of event is another excellent example of evolution's \"imperfections\"... Mammals have much higher basal metabolic needs than the reptiles who originally evolved the DMNX. This is reminiscent of the origination and pathway of the vagus itself... It \"wanders\" very seemingly inefficiently around the body of mammals (see Dawkins example of this giraffes). For specifics about the nature of the freezing response, read about the Polyvagal Theory. This has been well understood for over 30 years." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cxedk7h" ], "score": [ 7 ], "text": [ "I read a paper a while ago from Stephen Conway that deals with changing perceptions of the relationship between Britain and the Thirteen Colonies during and after the War of Independence. Bear in mind that while his perspective is useful in answering your question, it may not represent the full picture.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n\nEssentially, Conway argues that the British recognition of \"Americans\" as a distinct people (and not merely British colonials) had little to do with the Declaration of Independence, and that in general, the Declaration did not provoke a lot of response from the British public at the time. He surveys British newspapers in the weeks following the Declaration, and notes that while it was widely printed in Britain, it was rarely given prominence or commentary. The amount of response in the British press, whether in papers or in pamphlets was \"unusually\" small.\n\nConway attributes this general lack of interest to the fact that the actual event of the Declaration was not a surprise, and that in comparison to the treason of armed insurrection, the assertion of national independence seemed relatively minor. Government correspondence also indicates that the war, at this point, was still discussed in the language of rebellion, which is to say that the Declaration did not cause either the British public or the British government to regard colonists as anything but dissident British colonials with treasonous leaders.\n\nOn the other hand, those in favour of a conciliatory approach within Britain do seem to have been worried that the Declaration diminished the strength of their arguments, because it clearly outlined American claims to independence, not just to rights as British subjects. But ultimately, Conway comes back to his argument that while the assertions contained in the Declaration of Independence did attract the attention of the British public, the document itself did not - mostly because the ideas contained therein were already known to the British public. As such, it was not one of the motivating factors behind a British (or American) recognition of Americans as a separate people." ] }

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[ [ "http://www.jstor.org/stable/3491638" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "ej363d6", "ej369mw", "ej3c0pm" ], "score": [ 11, 5, 3 ], "text": [ "Snail shells are actually a part of the snail. The more calcium they eat, the quicker they grow. Hermit crabs aren’t born with a shell, so they have to move into a new one as they grow", "Snails shells are part of their bodies so they grow with the snail.\n\nHermit crabs don't have a shell, so they take an old one that somebody else grew. It doesn't grow with them because it's not part of their bodies, it's someone else's shell.", "To add to other answers: crabs are crustaceans which have an exoskeleton, which is very different from a snail’s (gastropod) shell. Even crabs with hard exoskeletons have to shed it (moulting) in order to grow larger." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ct3fvi3" ], "score": [ 12 ], "text": [ "I'm not really sure what you are asking. Are you asking if modern riot tactics can be traced back to the idea of a body of infantry moving as a tight group? Or are you asking if modern riot tactics are deliberately modeled after Roman formations, as in someone sat down and said \"let's emulate Roman heavy infantry on purpose\"? \n\nThe vague and broad idea of infantry with shields fighting as a group is hardly revolutionary and clearly predates the Romans. I know a have a book at home dealing with modern law enforcement the and crowd control that focuses on major riots and civil disturbances over the last fifty years or so, I'll see if I can find anything there about the origins of specific tactics used by riot police and see if there's any clear indicator people tried to emulate the Romans. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ej0lv3q" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "Gold has a resistivity of about 2.44 x 10^-8 ohm-meters. Visible light has frequencies between about 400 and 700 THz. So, using a [skin depth calculator](_URL_0_) the skin depth is only a few nm. For \"fully opaque\" you probably want somewhere between 3 and 5 skin depths.\n\nSo 100 nm is probably overkill. They might have just used that number because it's what their deposition process can reliably produce." ] }

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[ [ "https://www.microwaves101.com/calculators/869-skin-depth-calculator" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "dv73a4n", "dv75m7m", "dv77r4s" ], "score": [ 10, 2, 3 ], "text": [ "There are more atoms in a grain of sand than there are grains of sand on every beach on earth.\n\nI feel using anything but an analogy makes it very hard to understand ", "If an atom is magnified to the size of a grain of salt, a grain of salt is the size of a football stadium.", "[This scale tool](_URL_0_) is a pretty cool way to visualize it, if the analogies aren't quite doing it for you.\n\nYou start at the human scale. Meters. \n\nThen you zoom in. You see an ant. An ant is on the scale of 10^-3 meters tall, meaning a human is 1000 ants tall.\n\nZoom in more. A single silk fiber (or the width of a human hair) is on the order of 10^-5 meters tall. An ant is 100 hairs tall, and a human is 100,000 hairs tall.\n\nZoom more. An HIV virus is 10^-7 meters tall. A human hair is 100 HIV viruses thick. An ant is 10,000 HIV viruses tall. And a human is 10,000,000 HIV viruses tall.\n\nZoom in more. Atoms are on the order of 10^-10 meters tall. An HIV virus is 1,000 atoms thick. A human hair is 100,000 atoms thick. An ant is 10,000,000 atoms tall. And a human is 10,000,000,000, or 10 *billion*, atoms tall.\n\nAin't that some shit.\n\nAnother way to think of it (though it's not the most relateable analogy, but still cool) is that, roughly, an atom is to a human as a human is to the sun. That is, the number of atoms in your body is roughly equal to the number of humans you could fit in the volume of the sun." ] }

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[ [], [], [ "http://htwins.net/scale2/" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cp6n094", "cp96rfl" ], "score": [ 633, 3 ], "text": [ "Wrestling has a long history in Europe, going back to Ancient Greece where wrestling was a pretty popular sport in the Olympiads and it continued on throughout history Early Modern Era, Modern Era, etc. Although very different wrestling from what we think of when we think \"wrestling\", and I mean in both the staged version \"pro wrestling\" and the real athletic version \"amateur wrestling\". It naturally came to America and really a whole culture of professional sports in American began to take off around the 1800s. Specifically Irish immigrants helped bring a more recognizable form of wrestling known as \"[collar and elbow](_URL_0_)\" This is where the contestants lock up with their hands around each others shoulders, and if you watch pro-wrestling you'll instantly recognize this hold as this is how most pro-wrestling matches begin. \n\nAfter the civil war the popularity of this style of wrestling began to spread, and became sort of a popular sport in Union camps during the actual war, and just in general organized sports began to take off in the post war age and specifically the gilded age when large amounts of lower class to middle class city dwelling people began to have the time and disposable income to actually view organized sports. Wrestling during this time was generally a \"sideshow\" act and wrestlers would often be men with some form of training going with circuses and touring putting on matches. During this time one of the first real wrestlers came about, his name was James McLaughlin and he travelled around Europe and the USA putting on matches and sometimes commanding around 1,000 $ per match. Wrestling during this time was not fake, and was quite brutal with McLaughlin supposedly killing two of his opponents. \n\nAround the late 1800s \"Greco-Roman\" wrestling became more popular, it banned all holds below the waist and was generally closer to actual wrestling as opposed to the older collar and elbow which was more of a bare-knuckle style brawl then an actual wrestling match. The new style generally required more muscular contestants as opposed to the older collar and elbow which requried smaller, more agile fighters. \n\nNext came a wrestler named William Muldoon, he was a Greco-Roman style fighter, his importance is that he created an actual championship belt and actually gave other fighters in the sport something to try and achieve as opposed to just going from fight to fight for a couple bucks. For this he's gained the title \"father of modern American wrestling\". Around this time a new style called \"[catch wrestling](_URL_1_)\" which is more submission based wrestling. Its funny that around this time wrestling was considered a more real sport than boxing, which had several famous scandals around it that involved fixing fights; obviously the roles would soon change, but for the moment wrestling was seen as the more real sport. \n\nSo the question then becomes how did the sport become a work? \n\nWell wrestling began to fade in popularity as an actual sport, it was still entertaining but the rise of baseball and football decreased wrestling's appeal as an actual sport. So wrestlers began to make less money and thus they had to tour more and fight more matches. So men like Muldoon, hoping to keep their fame and title, would often work behind the scenes to make sure certain wrestlers won and time limits were instituted to keep older wrestlers from losing long matches to younger opponents. Furthermore wrestling in carnivals became popular and what would happen there is a promoter would offer to pay money to anyone who could beat a certain strong wrestler. Obviously in order to make money they would have to present the wrestler as beatable and thus they would have certain \"plants\" in the audience who the wrestler would get beaten by. This carnival style of wrestling would be an important training ground for future wrestlers in the early/middle 20th century. Carnival wrestling is also why wrestlers use the term \"mark\" to refer to wrestling fans, since perspective customers in a carnival are referred to as marks.\n\nThis carnival wrestling became popular and wrestlers and promoters alike saw that they needed to keep the audience interested and in order to do that they needed to keep up the illusion that outcomes were legitimate. So wrestlers began to become secretive and very protective of the business, especially when dealing with outsiders. They adopted a form a slang, mostly derived from pig Latin when dealing with outsiders. From this we get the term \"Kayfabe\". For those who don't know, Kayfabe refers to the staged nature of wrestling, to \"keep Kayfabe\" is to keep the true nature of the wrestling business secret and pretend that what's happening in the ring is actually real. While the Wikipedia page for Kayfabe says that: \n\n > Though the general public had been aware of the staged nature of professional wrestling for decades,\n\nI would heavily disagree with that, Kayfaybe was generally kept quite strong until the 80s, especially in the southern territories of the USA where wrestling was very popular. In bigger, Northern cities it was a bit harder to keep it secret, but in more rural areas like Tennessee, Florida, the Carolinas, etc. Kayfaybe was quite strong and wrestlers were very protective of the business. For those who are interested look up some older wrestling stories from the 70s and 80s and look at what some older wrestlers did to keep Kayfaybe . Jim Cornette, a relatively well known wrestling figure in the 80s and 90s told a story about how he met two wrestlers in an amusement park. Now in the story lines these wrestlers and Cornette were \"fighting\" so Cornette immediately ran out of the amusement park because they threatened to beat him up in the middle of a huge crowd. The farther you go back the more hilarious it gets. There were some wrestlers in the 30s who nearly got in huge trouble because they refused to testify in court because it would have exposed the business. And the fans took it seriously too, when famous wrestler \"Sgt. Slaughter\" became a bad guy in the 90s he played a character that was an Iraqi sympathizer (I know). And he had to have full times body guards because he was so hated, some people legitimately thought he was an actual Iraqi sympathizer. \n\nFinally kayfabe came to an official end in 1989 when Vince McMahon acknowledged in a court hearing that wrestling was fake in order to get out of paying taxes that other sports like boxing had to pay. Wrestling has since entered a \"reality era\" where its more akin to acting; wrestlers openly break character as soon as they step out of the ring; something that would have been unthinkable nearly 20 years prior.\n\nSo to give a quick recap, it became fixed when carnival style wrestling became far popular than the more sports style wrestling that had been popular before. \n\nThe best source for this is \"Ringside: A History of\nProfessional Wrestling in\nAmerica\" by Scott Beekman \n", "How was the general public generally OK with the gradual revelation that this spectacle presented as a sporting event was completely staged, as compared to other sports-fixing scandals or the game show fixing scandal of the 50s? Especially considering that until fairly recently, pro wrestling had to do its business through state athletic commissions. \n\nWhen you watch modern pro wrestling, it's obviously a scripted entertainment spectacle, but when you watch stuff from the 50s, it was absolutely presented as a legitimate competition. The presentation was similar to how a televised boxing match would be presented (and in fact, many announcers did both boxing and wrestling). Why was this OK, both legally, and with the general public? " ] }

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[ [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collar-and-elbow", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catch_wrestling" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cqloeft" ], "score": [ 8 ], "text": [ "An uneducated public who only reads 144 character tweets for the entire story. A lack of understanding that a few officers fucking up doesn't make us all evil, heartless, bastards with a God complex. \n\nThe medias refusal to show POSITIVE stories and constant push to make every single story negative or \"juicy\" or racial; even if such an undertone doesn't exist \n\nA pissed off police force who feels like Vietnam vets when they came home. Not saying we have the same war horror stories but the reaction many people have to our presence and existence." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e8239us", "e825wsk" ], "score": [ 6, 3 ], "text": [ "The human brain is highly adapted to pattern recognition. Our neurons like to overlay “filters” over things to see patterns from random noise. Do a repetitive sound will sound like a beat and rows of different colours look like stripes. ", "There’s actually a series on Netflix called “Explained” and the very first episode opens by dealing with this specific question. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "fb8vhnm", "fb8wep3", "fb8wx3x", "fb9z1hv" ], "score": [ 3, 2, 11, 3 ], "text": [ "The complexity of the universe does not need to conform to *our* understandings of what complexity and simplicity are. \n\nIn other words, it is irrelevant whether something in the universe is complex or simple *by our standards.* Who cares that it's so complex to us? It is easy to imagine DNA being very *simple* to a far more advanced civilization.", "The Apollo Moon Lander's navigation system only had 32Kb of RAM. That was able to do some pretty complex stuff. \n\nGenetic code is programmed to perform specific tasks. It's a beings mind and memory that would contain the \"life\" data. \n\nThe reason the computers and smartphones use so much data for seemingly little tasks is that they are made to try handle every possible use case. Which leads to wildly inefficient program memory requirements.", "A few key differences between the genetic sequence and a computer sequence:\n1. Computers run in binary. Genes run in quaternary (4 types of nucleic acids). That immediately increases the amount of data you can store exponentially. One step further, gene sequences build amino acids. There are 21 total amino acids that can form thousands of different proteins.\n2. People are made of matter. Matter is comprised of 120-something (the number keeps changing) different elements, each with unique interaction with each other and interactions with groups of other elements, which is even more information than a simple quaternary system. Electricity, on the other hand, is not matter. \n\nThere are various theories about coding data in different voltages or currents or whatever to allow electricity to provide more than a binary system, but we don't have the technology yet (and it may not even be possible).", "If you know some big software, you'd know that when you save a file from them as a project (extension can only be opened by software), the size of the file is much smaller than when you export it to a universal extension. That's because the first file doesn't need to store a lot of information about how to process the file, many of the things in it are compressed in a way that the software can understand.\n\nThe human genome works is that it codes for information that is the end result (proteins) but also codes for the very programs that read these results. And there are several layers of complexity to this. So it codes for proteins that assemble into big complexes that coordinate with other complexes that work in big cellular structure, etc. And then you also got RNA (ribosomal) doing some jobs like making protein from other RNA (mRNA) using other amino acid conjugated RNA (tRNA). \n\nNow on top of that, The true valuable information of the majority of our genome is actually the shape of the proteins. And this shape or conformation is dictated by the laws of nature based on the conditions set up within the cell (the different amino acids interact with one another and depending on the sequence you get a different shape), and is helped by some proteins that assist in folding. When we try to predict how a protein will look like from its sequence, we either use prediction based on previous data (which is not so accurate) or we use computational software that calculates the likely interactions and how the shape likely looks at the end (this is also not so accurate and it takes enormous computational power). It's so hard to calculate but the proteins do it effortlessly, because they don't need to know anything, they just let chemistry guide them to a stable shape. It's like, you'd need insane amounts of information (temperature, pressure, wind, mass distribution, material homogeneity, force, direction of force etc) and do heavy calculations to predict whether a coin toss will give heads or tails or you can just toss it and take the result in an instant. You didn't need the information, you just get what you want.\n\nTL;DR: the genome doesn't need to contain too much data because it is incredibly efficient (it makes the stuff that reads it to begin with and structures the system by compiling several layers of complexity that alone aren't so complex). And the majority of the end result is simply a manifestation of the laws of physics and chemistry that you don't need to code for.\n\nI hope I explained well enough, it's a complicated question" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "csz4lgl", "csz4ly4", "csz4n9o", "csz5bup", "csz7mrv", "csz9893" ], "score": [ 26, 3, 15, 14, 9, 2 ], "text": [ "as far as i know women are just as horny as men. evolution is great, isnt it?", " > Producing as many offspring as possible\n\nNope, human infants are high-maintenance (i.e. you need to take care of them for a few years), so just popping out babies is not a very good survival strategy.", "It's a myth that women aren't as horny as men. They're just horny in different times of their lives, and our societies have shamed women into believing that they're supposed to be the ones refusing sex instead of seeking it.", "\"Men want sex more than women\" is purely cultural. [For more than a thousand years, it was seen as the exact other way around.](_URL_0_)", "Alright, so other people have covered the fact that this has to do with culture, and not evolution, but I want to touch on evolution in general.\n\n\"Why didn't evolution...\" is almost always going to be a pointless question. It's not a stupid question, because nothing is, but it's a question with no good answer.\n\nBecause the only answer is: it just didn't. Let's use the example of 'why didn't evolution make humans with hearing as good as a dog's?'\n\nMaybe no human was ever born with that ability - after all, all evolutionary change is based on random mutations. Maybe a human was born with amazing hearing, but they caught malaria and died before they could breed. Or got eaten by a lion. Or just also happened to be so ugly that nobody bred with them.\n\nThere are too many potential reasons to actually come up with an answer - in the best case scenarios, you can guess at why it would have been a bad thing, but that doesn't make it the right reason.", "It did. Women are just as horny as men, we have just cultivated a myth that they are not in our modern societies through shaming them for expressing their sexuality. " ] }

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[ [], [], [], [ "http://www.alternet.org/sex-amp-relationships/when-women-wanted-sex-much-more-men" ], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cak3y1n", "cak40qj" ], "score": [ 5, 2 ], "text": [ "Raster images (those made up of pixels) have a fixed size. It's like taking a piece of graph paper and coloring in the squares. If you want to make a picture bigger, you only have as much information as was in the original pixels. This makes the image blocky or fuzzy when you zoom in or try to blow it up.\n\nVector images, OTOH, are made up of lines and curves that are mathematically defined. If you ever want to change the size, the vector engine recomputes things. You can scale vector images 'perfectly' at any scale.\n\nRaster images are easier to display & better at capturing photographic detail. Vector images can be significantly more work to create.", "Bitmap uses the word \"map\" for a reason. Ever notice the grid on a map? Well, a bitmap is a grid-based system of developing a picture.\n\nIn bitmap pictures, the data tells the computer, put this color at coordinate (0,0), put this color at (0,1), and so on.\n\nWith vector based images, instead of using a map, the computer uses step-by-step instructions. A vector-based image has instructions such as \"draw a line of thickness x from (0,0) to (5,27)\" or \"Draw a circle of radius 5 centered at (137, 221)\".\n\nAdvantages and disadvantages of each?\n\nWith bitmaps, when you zoom in on the image, say, 5 times to work on detail, you're basically telling the computer to represent each pixel at 5 times it's size, so all zooming in does is give you a blocker picture.\n\nWith vectors, the computer is breaking down instructions, instead of pixel-by-pixel mapping. So, when you zoom in on a vector illustration, everything still looks smooth. The instructions are mathematical (more specifically, geometric), so you can always zoom in and still wind up with a nice-looking picture.\n\nDepending on the complexity of the picture, however, bitmaps can often often have a smaller file size, and are readable by more software than vector images.\n\nIt really bols down to what's important for your project. File size? Detailed appearance? Fine lines? Your ability to work with either type of graphic? Where will it be output? Etc." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e31dcr3" ], "score": [ 3 ], "text": [ "They changed the rules for platinum, so now a certain number of digital track purchases, or a larger number of digital on-demand plays, counts as equal to 1 album sale." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cb3omf5", "cb3otv2", "cb3sr9a" ], "score": [ 3, 18, 6 ], "text": [ "I suppose, in part, because there is no one or no thing to disprove him. There's also the motivation question: That is, why would a person make up all of these things just so that he could get stuck in a Moscow airport and have his passport revoked?", "When Snowden started releasing information, the US government got very upset. You know how sometimes you get upset, even though you don't mean to? Usually it's because there is some truth there. If somebody said something ridiculous, like your brother is a raptor, you wouldn't be mad because you can prove it's not true. Now if they said sometimes you eat boogers when you think nobody is watching, you might be upset and tell them to shut up, because you do eat boogers sometimes and if you do it again I'm sending you to bed.", "After the leak the government started explaning why the revealed actions were justified. They confirmed the accuracy themselves." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c4s83nx", "c4se0hx" ], "score": [ 356, 30 ], "text": [ "Territories in the east were to be governed as something like German colonial provinces called *Reichkommissariaten*, whose inhabitants would be mostly killed off by an engineered famine called the [Hunger Plan](_URL_0_), with the survivors being used as slave labour on German farms or forcibly relocated. \n\nThe Nazis planed to kill off a certain percentage of the inhabitants in different areas; 80-85% of Poles were to be exterminated, 50-60% of Russians, 50% of Czechs, 65% of Ukrainians etc. The survivors of some of the more \"acceptable\" ethnic groups like Czechs, Balts and Ukrainians would be forcibly \"Germanized\". Around 45 million of surviving Eastern Europeans who were not enslaved or starved to death were to be forcibly relocated into Western Siberia, leaving a \"zone of settlement\" in European Russia and Ukraine. Around 13 million were to remain as slave labour. The Nazis planned to relocate something like 10 million Germans (whether by force or willingly isn't clear) in this new *Lebensraum*, but this number was simply not feasible, hence the \"Germanization\" of some of the other ethnic groups. Some writers believe the sterilization experiments done in concentration camps were meant to be implemented on the general population in occupied areas of the east. They planned this all to happen in a timeframe of around 20 years from the 1940s. For more on this topic, look up \"Generalplan Ost\" - the Nazis kept very meticulous details about their plans.\n\nNothing like this was planned for the West. IIRC, Hitler wanted some sort of European commonwealth, like a Fascist version of the EU, and his occupation of the west was supposed to be temporary - he seemed to have no problem recruiting collaborators from the various reactionaries of western Europe. There were no plans that I am aware of for the extermination of Frenchmen or Britons. He originally wanted to ally with Britain (for ridiculous 'racialist' reasons) against the USSR, and would have allowed them to maintain their colonial empire in exchange for his European empire. Nazi Germany didn't really want to conquer the world; they wanted a huge empire in eastern Europe purged of its Slavic and Jewish inhabitants, to make way for a huge German settler population that didn't really exist.", "To piggyback onto this question, is it true that Hitler planned to use Oxford as his western capital and that is why the historic buildings there were not bombed? This is an oft-repeated fact in Oxford, but I haven't been able to find any sources for it." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dtvdtio" ], "score": [ 6 ], "text": [ "Not sure if you're after an explanation of what it does or how it works - I don't think I quite get the maths enough to explain the latter....\n\nI always think about an orchestra. If you have never heard any of the instruments before when you listen to the orchestra you will still hear the sound they make but they're all mixed in together. An expert, though, would be able to pick out the sound of individual instruments and understand the sound they are contributing to the greater whole. They could, for instance, describe the notes that the flutes are playing. A Fourier transform does this sort of thing - it can take a complicated, convoluted mess of signals and separate out the individual components that make up that mess. It would be like recording an orchestra concert and being able to listen back to each individual instrument separately.\n\nApologies if you were after something far more in-depth!" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dikpc55", "dikplft" ], "score": [ 3, 2 ], "text": [ "The printers on currency use the numbers to keep track of how much is printed, so workers can't wander off with some of the product. Coins are heavy, and the amount that could be pocketed wouldn't be worth nearly as much.", "Not only what u/WRSaunders said, but paper currency can be tracked around the country/globe by serial number, which is a way to prevent counterfeiting. \nCounterfeiting coins is a very lengthy process and usually requires not only the mold, but the correct *type of metal*, making the fake coin nearly as valuable as the real one. On top of that, there aren't a whole lot of people willing to go through the effort to counterfeiting quarters, because it would just take too long to see a profit out of it after buying all the equipment, metal, molds, and people to work the line. This is why they don't really need to have serial numbers." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "fh9lhoc" ], "score": [ 16 ], "text": [ "Migraine sufferers have a problem with a specific part of the nervous system the opthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve that causes pain around the eye.\n\nEli5 translation: The brain has 12 major wires. And one specific wire(trigeminal) which also has small wires connected to it: opthalmic(around the eye), mandibular(jaw) and maxillary(lower face). The opthalmic wire has a short(like flickering electricity) that results to pain and light sensitivity.\n\nMy bad /u/TheManRedeemed" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c8edo70" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ " > I feel as though the Holocaust has its roots in something other than antipathy towards Jewish people.\n\nWhy do you feel this way? What's your justification for this idea?\n\n > I can elaborate on this more,\n\nYou should - as it is, it doesn't really follow at all.\n\n > but placing more blame on the enlightenment helps me sleep easier at night.\n\nUnfortunately, historical analysis doesn't work this way. What makes us more comfortable is really irrelevant.\n" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cjyrhro", "cjysrcs", "cjyt833", "cjytlca", "cjywdsc", "cjyx863", "cjyyk7u", "cjz9wvu" ], "score": [ 40, 65, 56, 45, 17, 20, 68, 2 ], "text": [ "Here are some reminders of our rules:\n\n* An in-depth answer is usually more than a sentence or two.\n\n* Suppositions and personal opinions are not a suitable basis for an answer in r/AskHistorians.\n\n* Regardless of the quality of the source you are citing, an answer should not consist only (or primarily) of copy-pasted sections of text from that source. \n\n* A bad answer is not better than no answer at all.", "If you look at the British abolitionist discourse alone, we find, among really obvious sources, William Blake's \"The Little Black Boy\" (1790). Now, admittedly, a lot of abolitionist writing is in fact fairly racist, and Blake's poem seems to participate in *some* of that, but it's fairly more complicated than it seems, and it may actually undercut and ironize the implicit racism in a lot of abolitionist writing (see Alan Richardson, \"Colonialism, Race, and Lyric Irony in Blake's 'The Little Black Boy,'\" *Papers on Language and Literature* 26:2 (1990): 233-248).\n\nBut we shouldn't forget the source from which we would most likely expect such condemnations of racism. How about the slave narratives themselves? Olaudah Equiano published his *Interesting Narrative* in 1789; Ottobah Cugoano published his *Thoughts and Sentiments* in 1787; and the first anti-slavery slave narrative in English, Ukawsaw Gronniosaw's *Narrative* is as early as 1772.\n\nAnd from the same period, there's the most famous image of British abolitionism, the token depicting a kneeling man in manacles, with the legend \"Am I Not a Man and a Brother?\" (Google image-search that phrase, you should get a ton of results). I'm not as clear on the origins of that one, but [according to this website,](_URL_0_) it is at least as early as 1787.\n\nThen there's the ideological hash that is Aphra Behn's *Oroonoko,* published way back in 1688. I can't necessarily claim that it's actually anti-slavery, but it certainly suggests that at least some (exceptional) individuals above and beyond the norm deserve special consideration. It's not saying much, but any crack in racial absolutism is a crack in racist ideology in general, as revealing its fissures.\n\nAnd Shakespeare did make a hero of a sympathetic Moor as early as 1603 (?).\n\nI can't go back much further than this (18th-19th century Britain is my area), but, depending on what you define as \"racism,\" I'm willing to bet it has been condemned for as long as it has existed.", "Modern condemnations of racism are inevitably tied to the issue of slavery. Seventeenth and eighteenth-century Enlightenment arguments about equality contrasted sharply with the reality of New World African slavery. In addition to this intellectual tradition, certain Christian sects were deeply troubled by their experiences with slavery and found them to conflict with the message of Jesus. The earliest denomination to protest against slavery was the Quakers. \n\nIdeas about race and slavery evolve over time, so it is difficult to pinpoint the very earliest proponent of racial egalitarianism. One choice would be the [1688 Germantown anti-slavery protest](_URL_1_). These particular Quakers' argument stemmed from the Golden Rule: \"Now tho they are black, we can not conceive there is more liberty \nto have them slaves, as it is to have other white ones. There is a \nsaying that we shall doe to all men licke as we will be done \nourselves; macking no difference of what generation, descent or \nColour they are.\"\n\nIn 1693 we have a [public letter by Quaker George Keith](_URL_0_), which similarly argues, \"And to buy Souls and Bodies of men for Money, to enslave them and their Posterity to the end of the World, we judge is a great hinderance to the spreading of the Gospel, and is occasion of much War, Violence, Cruelty and Oppression, and Theft & Robery of the highest Nature; for commonly the Negroes that are sold to white Men, are either stollen away or robbed from their kindred, and to buy such is the way to continue these evil Practices of Man-stealing, and transgresseth that Golden Rule and Law, *To do to others what we would have others do to us.*\"\n\nAt the time, these were isolated declarations. By the late 18th century, many Quakers opposed the international slave trade, and many freed their slaves. Many Quakers also participated in the abolition movement of the 19th century. However, slavery was always a divisive issue within the Quaker community. At any rate, the earliest condemnations of racism in America were founded on Christian ethics.\n\nSources are two classic works by David Brion Davis, *The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture*, and *The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution.*", "Check out this [papal bull](_URL_3_) by Nicholas V in 1455, allowing the Portugese \"to reduce pagans and other enemies of Christ to perpetual servitude.\" This was issued in an anti-Islamic Mediterranean context, but was later used to justify various atrocities in the New World. Some people were speaking out against it as early as 1511:\n\n > \"Tell me by what right of justice do you hold these Indians in such a cruel and horrible servitude? On what authority have you waged such detestable wars against these people who dealt quietly and peacefully on their own lands? Wars in which you have destroyed such an infinite number of them by homicides and slaughters never heard of before. Why do you keep them so oppressed and exhausted, without giving them enough to eat or curing them of the sicknesses they incur from the excessive labor you give them, and they die, or rather you kill them, in order to extract and acquire gold every day.\"\n\n--[Antonio de Montesinos](_URL_0_)\n\nGiven that Catholicism is meant to be, well, Catholic, which is to say universal, a debate arose as to whether the natives could be saved, or were inherently sub-human -- the [Valladolid debate](_URL_1_). Some of these questions were settled by [a later papal bull](_URL_2_) from Paul III, which stated emphatically that, so long as they were baptised, the natives were free men and could enter heaven:\n\n > The enemy of the human race, who opposes all good deeds in order to bring men to destruction, beholding and envying this, invented a means never before heard of, by which he might hinder the preaching of God's word of Salvation to the people: he inspired his satellites who, to please him, have not hesitated to publish abroad that the Indians of the West and the South, and other people of whom We have recent knowledge should be treated as dumb brutes created for our service, pretending that they are incapable of receiving the Catholic Faith.\n\n > We, who, though unworthy, exercise on earth the power of our Lord and seek with all our might to bring those sheep of His flock who are outside into the fold committed to our charge, consider, however, that the Indians are truly men and that they are not only capable of understanding the Catholic Faith but, according to our information, they desire exceedingly to receive it. Desiring to provide ample remedy for these evils, We define and declare by these Our letters, or by any translation thereof signed by any notary public and sealed with the seal of any ecclesiastical dignitary, to which the same credit shall be given as to the originals, that, notwithstanding whatever may have been or may be said to the contrary, the said Indians and all other people who may later be discovered by Christians, are by no means to be deprived of their liberty or the possession of their property, even though they be outside the faith of Jesus Christ; and that they may and should, freely and legitimately, enjoy their liberty and the possession of their property; nor should they be in any way enslaved; should the contrary happen, it shall be null and have no effect.\n\nSo that's some arguable anti-racism from the Pope, in 1537.\n", "A very early advocate against the abuse of natives in the New World, and indeed an advocate for the equality (or at least humanity) of all peoples was [Bartolomé de las Casas.](_URL_0_). Las Casas was one of the first Spanish colonists in the New World, he lived in the New World from 1502, saw the atrocities being committed against the native peoples, and became vehemently opposed. At a time when debate raged over whether the indians had souls or were even human, las Casas looked upon them as fully human, and saw slavery and abuse of them as completely unjustifiable. He wrote books defending the natives and criticizing the abuses committed against them. He saw all peoples as equals - criticizing equally African slavery and abuse. He gained much influence in his own time but of course we all know the long term humanitarian outcome in the indies.", "Although the bible provides many examples of (and justifications for) racism and violence between communities/cultures/races, there is a very interesting passage found in Galatians 3:23... \"There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male or female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.\" \n\nFor our purposes, consider Galatians not as religious scripture, but as a historical document. ...That is, as a product of a specific community at a certain time and place. This community was well aware of traditional divisions between people (race, culture, economics, etc.), but attempted to put these divisions aside for a new \"egalitarian social vision.\" As Marcus Borg put it in *Reading the Bible Again for the First Time*, \"The Solidarity in Christ overcomes the primary divisions that Paul knew in his world, including especially (but not only) the sharp social boundary between Jew and Gentile.\" (pg 250)\n\nMost scholars put Galatians original writing sometime around 50, although the earliest known copy is from somewhere around 200.\n\nEdit: Not that the Galatians were good at treating people equally (the letter is calling them out for not doing it), but the community in this case is early Christianity in general and they thought this concept was important enough to keep these passages in their scriptures.", "From Muhammad's final sermon, March 9th 632\n\n**\"Indeed, there is no superiority of an Arab over a non-Arab, nor of a non-Arab over an Arab, nor of a white over a black, nor a black over a white, except by taqwa (piety). \"**\n\nTirmidhi Hadith, Hadith #159\n\nIt is a fairly concise sermon, focused on giving advice to the Muslims before Muhammad's passing, but this section pertains to what your question was.", "I know the Kingdom of Poland had the Statute of Kalisz, giving Jews equal rights within the kingdom (and later the Commonwealth). This was in the mid 1200s IIRC. \n\nKing Kazimierz III the Great also gave out several edicts about Jews being \"people of the King\", and anyone discriminating against them would be executed. He reigned in the 1300s. \n\nI apologize for not having a source, but I'm unsure of how I'd source a historical document. Can someone give me a pointer? " ] }

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[ [], [ "http://revealinghistories.org.uk/who-resisted-and-campaigned-for-abolition/objects/token-am-i-not-a-man-and-a-brother.html" ], [ "http://www.qhpress.org/quakerpages/qwhp/gk-as1693.htm", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1688_Germantown_Quaker_Petition_Against_Slavery" ], [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_de_Montesinos", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valladolid_debate", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sublimis_Deus", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanus_Pontifex" ], [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas" ], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "cydyqqw", "cye1c8o", "cye2d8a", "cye3d7l", "cye3ehr", "cye45jf", "cye49tg", "cye4fkx", "cye5z2a", "cye722o", "cyeae0t", "cyedfs2", "cyeezh3", "cyeh9jy", "cyen8xm", "cyepjxm", "cyesat8", "cyewf37" ], "score": [ 90, 20, 3, 9, 43, 1006, 2, 3, 2, 7, 32, 10, 3, 5, 3, 2, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "There are some basic problems with such prosthetics. Cartilage is way more complex than it seem. Research is not this far yet and you don't want to endanger people with stuff that doesnot work as expected. Another major problem is, that the body doesn't like when new tissue is injected. The human body will reject the transplant in many cases, since the immune system will often classify this new tissue as hostile.\n\nIf you want some deeper information look for biocompatibility and transplant rejection.", "Think about what cartilage has to do. The meniscus in the knee has to take 60-70% of your body weight (which I suspect is higher than average for people with cartilage damage, as it's generally either athletes or overweight people) for a considerable portion of your waking hours, as well as having a pestle-and-mortar action against it under that load tens of thousands of times per day. You can't get in there to lubricate it or repair it other than with surgery. \n\nPlus, it obviously needs to fit perfectly and you need to be able to fit it around all the ligaments. \n\nEDIT: removed anecdote. ", "Don't forget about the different risks involved for both surgeries. A person with a defective heart will gladly pay any sum for a functional heart. Defective cartilage, however, still allows some functionality. Replacement cartilage will have to be superior to the old cartilage, plus make up for all the injuries suffered during surgery and downtime during healing. The demand and the expectations are very different from artificial organs.", "Lots about cartilage, what about herniated discs?\n\nI've read interesting studies with stem cell treatments to rebuild the damaged outer layer, but I haven't done the research to extrapolate any kind of answers relating to OP's question.", "A couple of things: \nWhen we transplant solid organs, it isn't a magic fix. People have to be near death to get a transplant and then have to take a LOT of serious medications to prevent rejection. Miss a couple of days of anti-rejection pills, you end up in the hospital and might die. After about 5-10 years, the transplant quits working. We don't have any way to take your own stem cells and make a real replacement organ that matches you... yet.\n\nWe have really good prosthetic joints. You don't have to take medications to prevent rejection, just install the metal joint and it works.\n\nA lot of the failures of joint replacements are due to problems that don't have to do with the joint. People who are obese wear out their joints faster, whether they are prosthetic or original. The joint is not just the surface that bends, it includes all of the muscles. It takes a LOT of work with physical therapy to fix the damage from the bad joint and get the new joint working.\n\nThere will never be a joint that you can install that will fix all of the pain and movement problems. We are biologic and constantly remodel and have to retrain.", "Ok, first things first :\n\nThe synthethic hearts are not too good. In most cases they are used as \"bridge-to-transplant\" solution, not as an endgame. People don't survive too long on them. Also 3d printing body parts is highly experimental and pretty far from being a standard.\n\nNow, yes we do use mechanical heart valves. They are pretty good. You have to take anti-koagulation medication for the rest of your life, but otherwise you are not really handicapped.\n\nMechanical knee/hip/shoulder/etc replacements are pretty okay as well. You can't do sports with them, but they enable you to live a painless life, which is a pretty big deal for a patient with osteoporosis.\n\nNow, when we replace joints, we don't manufacture human-like structures. We basically build something out of metal, that works like the original, without actually being *like* the original. \n\nHeart valves now are waaaaaaaaay simpler structures as joints or even cartilage. They are basically a few layers of cells that passively move. They don't have vessels, they don't regenerate, they have a very reduced metabolism (low turn over tissue). It's probably the easiest thing in the whole human to replace.\n\nCartilage on the other hand is a highly complicated tissue. It's capable of expanding and compressing, balancing the pressure of our whole body weight (and more, when you do movements like jumping). It's capable of storing water when under low pressure, and releasing it when the pressure rises, and various other things.\n\nManufacturing something like this is far beyond our current knowledge and technical abilities.", "One thing to remember about reddit is people from all over the planet are on here, and what they have access to depends on where they live. \nIf you hold the end of your nose, and feel that flat piece, that is cartilage. That cartilage is being 3D printed for reconstruction surgery. Tracheas, vaginas, bladders, nerve growth guides, are all being 3D printed, many in use, much more in research. \n_URL_0_ \nMany more areas are in research but the discoveries and techniques are coming fast. In our global civilization, what is available is determined by how much coin you have in your pocket. Also, almost all the body part replacement advances are occurring in China.", "You may be interested in [this video](_URL_0_) about an ongoing project at Novartis that was already started back when I was doing my postdoc there.\n\nEssentially people are working on it and there are already good results, but they aren't on the market yet.", "Synthetic cartilage is easy to make. It's hard to get a blood supply to it because of the way cartilage is initially laid out in your body as a fetus. (Essentially it initially has a good blood supply while it's growing, but that blood supply eventually \"recedes\" into the bones). Don't ask me why, some sort of growth factor, I'm sure. But, cut a bone and it'll bleed like stink; cut cartilage - no blood.\n\nIn the end, cartilage ends up being sensitive to damage because it doesn't grow back very well. Some new stem cell therapies where they essentially inject blood products into the cartilage show some promise, but no evidence yet.", "Despite what most media outlets often portray, the field of tissue engineering is still in its infancy. Successful use of engineered tissues have been largely limited to materials of one cell-type and linear functionality, like growing structural cartilage (growing ears) or simple dermal layers (skin repair). \n\nThe major issue that we face is that as a tissue becomes more complex in composition and functionality, so does the process to replicate it artificially and integrate it into a patient. \n\nFor artificial tissue replacements for knees and discs, the state of science is at least a couple decades away from commercial use, even in the more simple applications. ", " A lot of the media reports on 3D printed organs are unsubstantiated and optimistic to put it lightly. It is akin to putting pate in a piping bag and making the shape of the liver and then calling the media and saying \"we 3D printed a liver.\" Just because it is liver tissue and has the shape of the liver does not mean that it is a functional liver. Most researchers I've spoken with agree that 3D printed organs are 30+ years away barring an as of yet unforseen breakthrough. Veins and arteries will be possible much earlier however possibly within several years. \n\nSeveral teams are working on 3D printing cartilage, it is one of the biggest opportunities in 3D printing. Hybrid cartilage is being created and implanted using hydrogels and other materials. 3D Printed scaffolds are being created to grow cartilage on. In vivo testing is being conducted with 3D printed scaffolds and directly 3D printed cartilage. \n\nThe main issues with 3D printing cartilage are in trying to recreate the sheer awesomeness that is cartilage. As you say it \"seems simple enough.\" In reality cartilage is complex. Its made of several different types of fibers and several other stuffs that make it all stick together. In one area a type of fiber is all in a row stuck together with protein. The next area its more of a weave of a different fiber with several different glues. Then theres an area with yet more glues and here the fibers are all lined up in a different direction. To top it all off the closeness of the fibers, amount and concentration is different throughout as well. Cartilage is kind of a super complex better version of carbon fiber. A matrix of a glue and fibers. It is very strong and wear resistant and replicating this and its complex structure is difficult. \n\nThis is a simple diagram to show you this: _URL_0_\n", "Unlike what others have said here, cartilage is actually well-understood from a molecular and biomechanical standpoint, and many researchers working in tissue engineering have been able to replicate somewhat decent synthetic cartilage. It is true that biological design can far outperformed any other version of materials for cartilage. The problem is that not only do you need the proteoglycan molecules and ionic content that form the poroelastic extracellular matrix of cartilage, but for long-term performance you also need the cells within the matrix that regenerate and remodel that cartilage. These cells only make up less than 1% of the cartilage by weight, but they are essential to its long-term function (without them, even normal cartilage would quickly wear out), but approval has not yet been given to transplant an artificial piece of tissue that is made of cells and many other complex molecules (especially if the cells are derived from stem cells or genetically altered to become stem cells or chondrocytes). \n\nThere are, however, many people working on this in the field of tissue engineering, trying to make everything from synthetic hearts, cartilage, bone, liver, kidney, and even neural tissue. Just transplanting stem cells is unlikely to help because they do not have the structure that replicates innate tissues, so you have to combine cells, biomaterials, and architecture. It will happen someday, but there are a lot of pieces of the puzzle to put together to make it work and to get approval to do it. ", "A plastic surgeon I work with is currently performing a study with a medical scientist where they inject liposuctioned fat into badly damaged knee joints. The aim is to see the influence of adipose-derived stem cells on tissue regeneration. Preliminary results are extremely positive, but the mechanisms of action are still not widely understood.\n\nIt's very interesting in the speciality to see the rise of fat grafting and the unintended outcomes of ASCs. Typical liposuction is performed, the formally-trashed fat is repurposed and injected in areas that have suffered age-related volume loss (hands, breasts, face, etc). The guarantee is volume replacement, but most procedures also see regeneration in the treated area presumably due to ASCs, such as the health of the skin of the hand where fat was injected to add volume. You might see some physicians utilize this in marketing (a \"stem cell face lift\"), but no one yet has an understanding of how the ASCs are working, and therefore any legitimate practice stays away from guaranteeing anything in writing.\n\nI don't know much else about ASCs but it seems like these might play a very important role soon with ongoing research.\n", "Physical therapist here. Despite popular belief in this post, there actually is a company regrowing cartilage from a small sample of your own which is used to fill in the holes of chondral defects of a knee. This company has a patent on the technology. I forget who it is but they are in Boston.\n\nWhat you're really asking though is actually unrelated to the structure itself (cartilage, lumbar disk, ect). You're asking about the pain related to these disorders. The problem with your question is that pain is mostly unrelated to imaging findings (lumbar disk herniation on an MRI or arthritis in your knee). There are countless studies showing that up to 90% of our asymptomatic population has positive results on an MRI or xray of the lumbar spine for example, and the numbers are similar for most other body regions.\n\nThis is due to a few causes. Pain is an experience and a perception. People's brains interpret pain in different ways, and the specific neural pathways bringing the information to your brain vary as well. Many people who have pain do not show anything abnormal on imaging studies. This is likely due to either inflammation or hyper-excitable pain-interpreting nerves (basically). These two causes of pain do not require anything to be wrong with a specific structure (like a herniated disk), and they can also be absent in the presence of abnormalities (therefore no pain).\n\nThe interesting thing is that cartilage does not even have any nerves that interpret pain within its structure. Knee arthritis for example is painful because of sub chondral edema (swelling in the underlying bone) and inflammation within the joint which is interpreted as pain by the lining of the joint capsule (a big ligament surrounding the whole knee). Therefore a simple replacement of artificial cartilage isn't really enough to deal with the issue. This is why knee replacements work. Surgeons not only replace the cartilage with metal, but also lop of the area of bone that was swollen underneath.\n\nTL DL: pain is much more complicated than cartilage replacements can handle, but cartilage replacements do actually exist.", "The comments are showing the damage of demonizing pluripotent stem cells in the US since 2000. If you want to see a really good example of the FDA, watch The Dallas Buyers Club, it is about how long and bureaucratic the approval process is in the US. The excuse is safety is paramount but it would be a part time job for somebody to catalog all the pharmaceuticals the FDA has approved in recent years, that, oh, proved fatal in a lot of people. Remember the role of Big Pharma, it is completely driven by profit, patient be damned. \n \n\nIt is taking the Chinese about 4 months to approve new medical treatment including 3D printed bone and cartilage. What is going on is a few years ago, some scientists started taking complete organs like mice hearts, stripping all the cells away to the collagen framework, then growing pluripotent stem cells on that framework. Over time, it is being found out that 3D printed frameworks are more acceptable to stem cell growth and will be absorbed. \n\nThe Chinese are building new ships in about 6 months. It is taking the US three to four years to build a ship, and quite often, it is riddled with manufacturing errors. There is a cross over coming where China goes right by the bumbling, doddering, and aging US. \n\n_URL_0_\nTissue-Engineered Regeneration of Completely Transected Spinal Cord Using Induced Neural Stem Cells and Gelatin-Electrospun Poly (Lactide-Co-Glycolide)/Polyethylene Glycol Scaffolds", "One of the major issues is that cartilage (and other connective tissues like tendons) have very little blood flow and most of the cells that produce the extracellular matrices get their nutrients through diffusion. So that's the obstacle when we aim for a basic recovery, the body has a hard time replacing anything damaged there. But the reason that its hard to make prosthetics for these structures is actually from the same reason. Cartilage and tendons are hard to replace because the processes that their cells conduct to make up their physical properties are highly nuanced. They stretch, tighten and respond to stress very slowly and in very calculated ways because, from a prosthetic point of view, they have a bunch a nanobots that are perfectly calibrated to manufacture and reabsorb tough matrix based on tensile stress and available materials and are finely tuned by hormonal and physical stimuli, and those properties are vital to the function of connective tissue. There just isn't a good synthetic analog for that kind of structure at the moment, especially one that we're willing to stitch onto people's joints.", "In regard to disc herniations in the back, the body is able to resorb and repair the damaged disc in an otherwise healthy individual as long as the stresses that caused the injury are relieved. For example, MRIs have shown that individuals who have disc herniations don't have them 8-10 weeks later if they improve posture and improve strength of the back and core muscles (supervised by a professional).\nIf am individual had chronic back pain that has started due to a disc herniation likely doesn't have the herniation anymore, assuming they have received proper care. The pain they are experiencing now is probably caused more by the person's own fear-avoidance, altered movement patterns, some psychological issues, it any combination of them. \nFixing pain is not as simple as fixing what caused the pain, as 2/3 of back surgeries show no improvement in pain. Pain is a complex system consisting of hundreds and thousands of messages all sent to the brain which then decides if there should be pain or not (to simplify years if study by hundreds of people into one crappy, cell phone-typed sentence).", "I worked in the biomechanics department at the top orthopedic hospital in country. It is one thing to create or print similar tissue in the lab, but it is difficult for the manufactured tissue to have the same physical qualities as real tissue. It must be able to take force and stresses, but still hold shape and not decay over time. It's tough to replicate something that has take millions of years of evolution to create. When I left there in 2010, they were still WAY behind in the tissue game. Prosthetics will be around for quite some time. " ] }

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[ [], [], [], [], [], [], [ "http://3dprinting.com/news/fast-bioprinting-of-human-cartilage-implants/" ], [ "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YorAhFQgdjI" ], [], [], [ "http://www.naturalheightgrowth.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/F3.large_.jpg" ], [], [], [], [ "http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0117709" ], [], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c7oig2t", "c7oio6g", "c7oiqto" ], "score": [ 5, 6, 2 ], "text": [ "In movies the dialogue is sometimes recorded in a studio separately and much of the background sound is special effects added by people called [**Foley artists**](_URL_0_)", "The actors have mics following them everywhere on the set. The mics pick up the dialogue and from the tape made, the sound man can edit out background noises and modify the actor's voice. The recordings are made in multiple tracks and fixing the voices is not much different than how artists record songs. \n\nWhen you see shows where say someone is flying in a chopper and you can hear the pilot speaking normally, the sounds of the chopper are edited out using noise cancelling software. ", "There are multiple microphones around the set, so the get to mix in the best of each. And they can also filter out extraneous noise to some degree. Finally, in necessary, they can re-record part of the dialogue in a studio and edit that in if necessary." ] }

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[ [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foley_artist" ], [], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c1zbr2t", "c1zc0nj", "c1zc8mw", "c1zcdv3", "c1zdih1", "c1zehz0" ], "score": [ 108, 6, 27, 5, 2, 2 ], "text": [ "The way one-way mirrors works is that the glass reflects part of the light, while transmitting some. This work _both ways_. The reason it _acts_ as a one-way mirror is because the side that looks like a mirror is much brighter than the other side. (For example, the interrogation room is brightly lit, while the observation room is dark. Those inside the interrogation room looks at the glass and see their own reflection.) The bright light means that lots of light is reflected, and the intensity of reflected light is much higher than light transmitted from the dark room.\n\nSo, you need to put in a light source inside the box, and look at the box in a dark environment. What you will see is similar to what it looks like if you have a cube made of mirrors, except with one side replaced with plexiglass.\n\nEdit: Something like [this](_URL_0_).\n\nIf it is reversed - the outside is brighter than the inside - then the cube will look like it is constructed of mirrors.\n\nLike [this outdoor toilet](_URL_1_).", "You are on the verge of asking a really interesting question. If you were to have a periodic array of these cubes, you would block some frequencies of light (actually many depending on the angle of incidence). If you look at an opal or a peacock feather you will see it sort of shimmer with different colors. The effect is called a photonic crystal _URL_0_\n\nNow if you were to have this situation you're describing with a monochormatic light source with the color this particular crystal was blocking and turned it on, what would happen? The answer is no light would come out. ", "If your cube was made perfectly the way you specified, that is that ALL light that hit it from the outside traveled into the inside where it is trapped forever, then it would look completely dark. No light could travel from the box to any observer, so it wouldn't look like anything.\n\nNow realistically you can't make an object like that. One-way glass always transmits some light the \"wrong\" way. Your cube would probably look like a device that a few other people have made - some call it an [infinity mirror](_URL_0_). Here is a [great video demonstrating what this looks like in person](_URL_1_).", "[Like this](_URL_0_).\n\nWhat you're talking about is essentially an [Infinity Mirror](_URL_1_) that is a cube. That video I posted isn't exactly what you're talking about; It's just a bunch of Infinity Mirrors that are arranged in a cube, but I believe that what you see when the lights are off in that video (0:06) is similar to what you'd see in your cube. An Infinity Mirror basically turns into a normal mirror behind tinted glass when the light is off. I think that your cube would look like the inside of a box with 5 mirrored walls, behind tinted glass.\n", "Related question: What if you had a sphere, where the interior surface was just a big spherical mirror, and then you got inside it and closed it? What would it look like from the inside, if you turned on a flashlight or something? And what if it was a one-way spherical mirror? How would it appear from the outside?", "[Here's](_URL_0_) a video a band used for a song demonstrating such a room, hope it helps." ] }

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[ "http://i.imgur.com/wFztJ.jpg" ]

[ [ "http://cdn.uberreview.com/wp-content/uploads/mekongcube-3.jpg", "http://www.vvork.com/?p=7956" ], [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonic_crystal" ], [ "http://www.google.com/search?q=infinity+mirror&hl=en&safe=off&prmd=ivns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=g2j1TebPAYbUgQfMprHMCw&ved=0CFYQsAQ&biw=1280&bih=687", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TZkdQeevJu0" ], [ "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x7ZFGCFfRd8", "http://www.youtube.com/results?q=infinity+mirror" ], [], [ "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IpGp-22t0lU" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "et2ilnm" ], "score": [ 34 ], "text": [ " \n\nPracticing historian here. (Moving a lower level comment up and expanding some) \n\nI work in the period both before and after the Gregorian calendar was adopted in the Spanish Empire (1582). Yes you could adjust dates for events occurring under the Julian calendar but then you would be using different dates than those found in the primary sources. Even though I work on both sides of the calendar reform, I never adjust dates. There is no reason to. The dates in the documents are correct.\n\nRemember the switch from the Julian to the Gregorian Calendar ultimately involved skipping a specific number of days to account for drift in seasons since the establishment of the Julian system. The Julian calendar did not precisely account for drift caused by our calendar year of 365 days not mapping on to the actual orbital time of the earth. This means that the switch between the two calendars necessitated a skipping a head of days specific to the time in which the switch occurred. In 1582, the Spanish Empire skipped ahead 10 days in October of 1582. The English didn't switch until the mid 18th century by which point the calendars had drifted to 11 days difference. This also means that calculating a Julian date within the Gregorian system requires variable adjustments. Earlier dates, dates closer to the establishment of the Julian calendar require fewer days difference than modern dates which require more. \n\nThey only time it would make sense to adjust dates in a historical work would be when doing comparative history where one area understudy retained the Julian calendar while the other adopted the Gregorian. In that instance clarity might demand express correlations. A classic example is the death of Shakespeare and Cervantes, great authors of the late 16th century. Both died on April 23, 1616. Yet, they actually died 10 days apart. When Cervantes died the date in the Spanish Empire was Gregorian, and so 10 days before the day in which Shakespeare died in the Julian. \n\nSo to reiterate, historians use the date as recorded in the documents. If necessary adjustments can be made to help clarify in situations when dates between two places come from different calendars. Historians do not as a rule change Julian dates to Gregorian dates. The Battle of Tours occurred on October 10, 732. We do not adjust that a few days forward to be Oct. 14." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cwh73o8" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "The task is certainly massive. Just one comment, as you say there are many and based on my experience I find myself better off with a good generic history that typically would awake my interest in certain periods worth going deeper.\nTo start with? BBC has a good history program.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nOthers may contribute something more scholarly and the resources/book list in the right menu of this Reddit page may be very helpful" ] }

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[ [ "http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/sceptred_isle/" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c6w2tez" ], "score": [ 7 ], "text": [ "The moisture in the leftovers kept them from adhering to the plate. When you leave it out, they dry up and stick to the surface.\n\nBasically, on a very small scale your plate is not a smooth surface, it has peaks and valleys and such. With moist things like sauce, the food particles flow all over these peaks and valleys. As the water evaporates, such particles are no longer suspended and can't flow as easily, so they are sort of interlocked with the rough surface of your plate. This is why dry food like uncooked pasta doesn't just stick to dishes like tape.\n\nSpecial materials like Teflon are engineered to minimize the surface contact between food and dish, thus making them much easier to clean." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c4ahit6", "c4ahpwa", "c4akgb9" ], "score": [ 3, 14, 2 ], "text": [ "*Your* HDTV is 1366x768. Many HDTVs are 1280x720 as they should be.\n\nThe reason your HDTV is a strange resolution is because it was cheaper for the manufacturer to do so (the factory was already making similar screens).", "1024x768 panels already exist. It's cheaper to just cut them longer at 1366 than to make 720 ones. Most 720 screens seem to actually be 768.", "not all HDTVs are 1366x768, also 720 and 1080 don't necessarily determine a fixed resolution. To be considered 720 you need to have at least 720 horizontal lines of pixels (same thing for 1080, you need at least 1080 horizontal lines).\n\nFrom there you get into things like aspect ratio differences (do you want 16:9 or 16:10 aspect, or something that's way different). And like others have said, if you're making screens that have similar numbers it's less work on your production, which in turn saves you money from needing to support something all new instead of semi-new." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ds5bmj5", "ds5c9jh" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "It's not the airport that has to recover, it's the airlines. That makes a big difference and aids in explaining the issue.\n\nLet's say Delta has one flight per day between two cities. On Monday, they cancel the flight, stranding 250 passengers. Tuesday's flight has 15 open seats, so they re-book 15 people. Their partner airline, Air France, has 11 open seats on the same route, so that's another 11 taken care of. This can easily snowball (though we're assuming two well-connected city pairs).\n\nNow let's assume Delta's flight is the *only* flight each day. Well, Delta will ALWAYS have extra aircraft sitting around as spares (whether they're awaiting maintenance checks or because all airlines pad their schedules). Therefore, they can send one of these extra aircraft. For instance, let's say there's one flight per day from Atlanta to Boise, which gets canceled. But Delta also has a plane that sits in Atlanta all day awaiting a flight to Europe at night. They can then take this aircraft while it normally would have been sitting and run and a round-trip to Boise if needed.\n\nLastly, the airline can prioritize key flights to recover. Once the weather improves, the airline can ferry empty aircraft around its network to be ready for the next day and have planes where it needs them most (it may mean sacrificing other flights, but their dispatching and booking systems can handle this easily to determine which cancellations will have the fewest ripples).\n\nTL:DR; There are tons of ways airlines make up the passenger load, from re-booking on other flights, to using other airlines, to bringing in other planes, and even hoping people cancel their plans altogether or change the of their own accord.", "I've been stuck 3 days after a cancellation (Fuck you, British Airways). They put me in a hotel and told me to come back when they had room on their planes again (Seriously, fuck you, British Airways). Lots of people were in the same boat as me, so they ran out of hotel vouchers and expected me to go and find my own hotel at 11pm (Did I mention that I think British Airways should go and fuck themselves?)." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "fn43iz7", "fn47mxc" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ], "text": [ "Metadata depends on the file. For recordings, such as pictures and video, metadata will typically include things like date, time, and camera settings. Metadata in other files such as application ZIP files and movie files will often contain copyright, licensing, and distribution information. \n\nCameras, for instance, may store data within a video file about when it was taken, so that it can organize the files in the built-in video player based on when they were recorded.", "Normally it doesnt change the metadata unless you change them ( for example changing record date in Adobe Lightroom ).\nHopefully ELi5:\nThe metadata itself is stored behind the actual image or document data. For example Your image header ( if you open it in a Hex-Editor ) starts at 0xFF. The image ends at 0xD9. The metadata itself is stored beginning from 0xE0. When you open the image in a viewer. It will only open the parts necessary to view the picture. And if you save it, it only saves the parts you eventually modified." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cdg0xzv" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "Sony is a hardware company.\n\nMicrosoft is a software company.\n\n" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cwvbfia" ], "score": [ 2 ], "text": [ "A PV cell converts light energy into DC electrical energy. \n\nAn inverter converts DC to AC, by switching the DC off and on 60 (or 50) times /second. It usually uses a transformer to convert the chopped AC to 120 (or 240) volts. \n\nIf you are using only DC you may not need an inverter, but most situations have one to convert the variable DC from the solar panel to a stable 12 volts DC. \n\nYou can't make your own. It requires ultra pure silicon, and lots of expensive equipment. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d17dhtv", "d17dp4o" ], "score": [ 9, 3 ], "text": [ "Fantasy football is not like a video game mainly because you don't physically play. It is a lot like betting on horse races. In the beginning of the season you join a league. With friends or with random people. There may be a buy in or some other kind of ante or there might not. You then draft football players. There are different draft rules but those aren't important for a general understanding. You each take turns picking players who you think will do well in the upcoming season. If you think tom Brady is going to have a good year you might draft him as your QB for example. After you have your players you get matched up to play a theoretical game with the players that you drafted agaisnt the players that your opponent drafted. Based on how the drafted players perform IRL they are assigned a point value. After Monday night football the person with the higher point total wins. You then go up agaisnt another person in your league, so on and so forth until you come to the end or the season and depending on your leagues rules there may be a playoff with one winner who gets all the players buy ins. Between each match up and during the week you have the opportunity to trade players and chose your starting lineup based on how players are performing during the season. Hope this kind of helps. Mind the formatting this is from mobile.", "A number of people get together to make a fantasy football \"league\". They take all of the players that currently play professional football and divvy them out between the people playing fantasy football. As the real football season goes along, the real players make notable plays, like running for a touchdown or completing a long pass. When they do, the person who \"owns\" that player in the fantasy league gets points.\n\nThe initial divvying of players usually consists of \"spending\" some sort of virtual currency, where the better players cost more. Throughout the season, the people in the fantasy league might trade players. It is possible to play just for fun or by betting on various outcomes.\n\nIn the US a few years ago, online gambling was outlawed at the federal level. However, fantasy sports were explicitly excluded from that legislation. As such, there has been an explosion in online gambling based on fantasy sports, which is why you hear a lot about it." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d0egj3d", "d0egj8l", "d0empdw", "d0exnif" ], "score": [ 4, 5, 3, 2 ], "text": [ "They detected gravitational waves (variations on gravitation), not sound waves. There are no sounds involved.", "That sound was generated based on other emissions, and is an artificial approximation. Think \"how it could be heard if that was sound waves\" kind of thing.", "They detected gravitational waves, not sound waves. Gravitational waves still have frequency and amplitude like sound. All they did was pretend the wave was sound and encode the data as an MP3 etc.", "Two black holes colliding create gravitational waves. Sound is made of pressure waves. You can digitally convert one into the other." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ca4rd8x", "ca4rhgf" ], "score": [ 3, 2 ], "text": [ "The '2 mile reach' is very arbitrary. I would imagine they define 'reach' as the largest distance without appreciable divergence of the beam. Beyond 2 miles the photons will still continue their journey at the same angles they left the pointer at.\n\nI guess there will be a small amount of scattering and absorption by the atmosphere, but the largest contributor to drop in intensity will be the increase in the spot size due to the divergence of the beam.", "An ideal laser would output perfectly collimated light which means that all the light rays would exit the laser cavity parallel to each other. The better the laser the better the optical cavity used to collomate the light is. In cheap diode lasers like the ones you find in laser pointers the collimation is not very good do to its small optical cavity. Of course there is no ideal laser so in reality some of the rays are going to exit with an angle with respect to the others. The light will therefor spread out in a cone (beam divergence) until at long distances its original intensity is negligible. So the further away the object you shine the laser on is the larger and dimmer the spot will be.\n\nIn air particles are going to cause scattering and further decrease its intensity at longer distances." ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "csiifil", "csiikav", "csiiku7", "csiozyr" ], "score": [ 3, 6, 7, 3 ], "text": [ "The allies completely controlled the Atlantic by that point. The Germans had little in the way of subs or other things out there still to gather intelligence.\n\nAdditionally, there was some espionage and planting of false evidence. The Allies intended to lead the Nazis to believe the attack would come at Calais (the shortest channel crossing) rather than Normandy.\n\nFinally, they did know it was coming, they just didn't know when.", "It didn't.\n\nThey knew it was coming... they knew (roughly) how many men were coming, they knew tanks and airplanes were coming, they even knew that paratroops were very likely...\n\nWhat they didn't know was *when* and *where*. The most obvious point for D-Day was near Calais, where the channel is narrowest. Normandy was considered, but was deemed too far away to be practical. Even if the Allies did land in Normandy... the Germans thought they would have time to re-position.\n\nThe Allies (of course) were aware of this, which is why they gave every indication they could that Calais would be the real target.\n\nMore importantly, it was a small miracle that D-Day happened *at all*. The weather had to be perfect for the landings to occur and the time around D-Day was some of the worst weather the British had seen... but then (almost as if by magic) a 36 hour gap in the storms opened up and the D-Day landing could go through.", "Deception on a scale never before seen. Double agents. False radio transmissions. Fake armies. And even then, the Germans still knew an invasion was coming. But they were greatly misled as to when it would be, where it would be, and how many troops would be a part of it.\n\n[Operation Bodyguard](_URL_0_) is the term for the operation that protected the truth of the Overlord landings until the final hour. It was, in fact, so effective that even *after the Normandy landings were underway*, Hitler delayed sending reinforcements - convinced that a second attack wave would be heading for the Pas de Calais region in northern France.", "Their internet was down, their spy satellites weren't in the right place to get good visuals, and their stealth planes were occupied taking digital pictures over Russia. So basically their tech was all screwed up. " ] }

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[ [], [], [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Bodyguard" ], [] ]

{ "a_id": [ "d5kv55o" ], "score": [ 7 ], "text": [ "I hope this is OK, I'm not a professional historian, but I was a karate-ka for about 20 years. And part of that was reading. So I hope I can provide an in depth answer that satisfies requirements. A lot of my reading comes from Randall Hassell's \"Shotokan Karate: Its History and Evolution\" and Gichin Funakoshi's \"Karate-do Nyumon,\" and his \"Karate-do Kyohan,\" as well as what I can recall from his autobiography \"My Way of Life.\" I don't have the latter in front of me, so it will rely on memory a bit, sorry. \n\nNow, this is told from the perspective a Shotokan Karate, which I understand to be the origin of the name. The beginnings were in Japan, in the Ryukyu islands, specifically Okinawa. The stories of Funakoshi learning Karate from Itosu and Azato, who are part of the history of a fighting style without traditional weapons because of the banning of weapons during the Meijii Restoration...I'm not competent to assess. Hassell says that there are Chinese roots as well for this style. \n\nIn 1924 Funakoshi was asked to teach a small group of Japanese university students (in addition to the private lessons he had been teaching prior. College clubs began coming together around this time. this also led to some splintering of Shotokan, but apparently without rancor. \n\nMasatoshi Nakayama described training with Funakoshi as involving Kata (forms), followed by *Makiwara* practice (a board wrapped in rice rope and setup to practice striking). Hassell quotes him saying \"When he [Funakoshi] selected a kata for us to practice, we would repeat it 50 or 6t0 times, and this was always followed by intense practice on the makiwara. We would punch the makiwara until our knuckles were bloody....the training was so grueling that of the 60 or so freshmen who enrolled with me in 1932, only six or seven of us made it through the first six months of training.\" He notes the around this time Funakoshi began teaching *gohon kumite*, a type of ritualized sparring practice drawn from kata. This evolved into *kihon-ippon kumite* and then into the free sparring techniques over a period of five years. These ideas are through out *Kyohan*. \n\nAnd here is the key crossover moment:\n > in 1953, the U.S. government prevailed upon Funakoshi to demonstrate karate for members of the Strategic Air Command (SAC) at several Far Eastern bases.[From later in the Hassell's book, I think this means Eastern US, I'm not positive on this.] At the age of 83 , this remarkable man boarded a U.S. government plane and, accompanied by Masatoshi Nakayama of Takushoku University, Toshio Kamata of Waseda University, and Isao Obata of Keio University, toured many U.S. air bases and demonstrated karate for thousands of members of SAC.\n\nIf we fast-forward past Funakoshi's death in 1957, we see the development of the Nihon Karate Kyokai (Japanese Karate Association, JKA) as a group that saw themselves as the overseers of Karate in Japan. The JKA began a somewhat divisive process of creating sport Karate. Nakayama talks about the dangers inherent in this creation, saying \"My greatest concern at that time was to ensure that karate, if given a sporting aspect, would not lose it's essence as an art.\" It is around this time (mid 1950's) that the JKA develops it's Instructor Training Program (which, I'm relatively sure continues today, some friends of mine have gone through it in the past few years).\n\nBack to the demonstration at air bases. According to Hassell, the \"American interest was do great that many airmen began seeking instruction, and soon Karate and Judo clubs were established on the bases.\" Nakayama, apparently a big cheese in these demonstrations, begins to see difficulties in education Americans, in large part due to the huge difference in cultures (if you're interested in this, I can't recommend \"Chrysanthemum and the Sword\" enough.) The question of \"Why?\" Hassell notes as a new one for Nakayama. \n\nThe first official JKA instructor in the US was Teruyuki Okazaki who started in Philadelphia in 1961. I'm lucky enough to know a few people who have trained with him and say that he was a remarkable man. The JKA began starting dojo's in cities across the US at this time. Kansas City, New Orleans, Los Angeles, Denver, Hawaii, Chicago, Florida, New Jersey, Arizona. An organization started by Hidetaka Nishiyama, the All American Karate Federation, applied to the AAU in 1970, listing more than 20,000 members at the time. And I think there is your flood gate. \n\nI hope I did justice to the material. Hassell's work is great, but I don't know if you can find it for a reasonable price (I think it is out of print. My copy, a second edition (ISBN 0-911921-09-5) is spiral bound. " ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cl2r61k", "cl2x8iz", "cl2xu2u" ], "score": [ 2, 3, 3 ], "text": [ "well, in the case of Ozone (O^3 ) one oxygen binds with 2 other oxygens. so, i don't have the chemistry behind the conditions needed to bind 3 oxygens together, but I can tell you it requires more energy to bind 3 oxygens than to bind 2 hydrogens to oxygen. \n\nYour question is unclear. You're basically saying, \"one oxygen atom can bind with 2 other atoms, how can 1 oxygen atom bind with 2 oxygen atoms\", and you've already stated that oxygen can bind with 2 atoms, so i dont see where the issue with forming ozone comes from. \n\nSeriously, did you even google ozone? look at the wikipedia page. ", "What you are thinking of is a very simplified picture of lewis-dot structure type bonding, where O has 2 unpaired electrons. Lewis structures are only really a simple tool to get a handle on more complicated concepts. Using the idea of resonance you can help explain ozone. See here: _URL_0_\n\nBut again, as stated before, here you have a central oxygen bonded to 2 other atoms (oxygen as well), so I'm not sure what exactly the question is asking. ", "Oxygen isn't limited to two bonds.\n\nIn covalent compounds oxygen *typically* appears with two bonds to it, since it \"needs\" two electrons to fill its valence shell. However, you can have compounds where there are more than two bonds to oxygen, or a bond to oxygen has bond order > 2.\n\nIn addition to ozone, [carbon monoxide](_URL_0_), the [hydronium ion](_URL_1_) and organic [oxonium](_URL_2_) compounds come to mind. Note the formal charge on the trivalent oxygens.\n\nYou may wonder if there is a limit to the amount of bonds that can be formed, and there is... it's just not two. There are definitely issues of stability and crowding when you start cramming more things around an oxygen atom.\n\nEDIT: Ozone also exhibits something called [resonance](_URL_3_), but this doesn't change the fact that there are effectively three bonds to the central oxygen.\n\n" ] }

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[ [], [ "https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nam8Szygg-g&noredirect=1" ], [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxide", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydronium", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxatriquinane", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonance_%28chemistry%29" ] ]

{ "a_id": [ "c1i0n8k", "c1i0qn3" ], "score": [ 15, 8 ], "text": [ "Yes, a large enough planet will be a gas giant. All planets are made out of star-stuff which is mostly hydrogen (~90%) and helium (~9%) (the same stuff in gas giants). Rocky (terrestrial) planets will lose a large fraction of hydrogen and helium, as the light elements move faster at a given temperature and [have a larger probability to escape (overcome escape velocity)](_URL_0_). Thus hydrogen and helium have largely escaped the Earth's atmosphere, but on Jupiter they haven't largely escaped as its much more massive (and hence the escape velocity sqrt(2GM/r) is much easier to overcome). The rocky part of the planet on a gas giant tends to fall inwards more through [differentiation](_URL_1_) leaving only the gas part on the outer layers.\n\nThe boundary between the two is around 2 earth radii (~8 times the mass of the earth). E.g., shouldn't have gas giants below; or terrestrial planets above -- though it isn't a sharp transition (near the transition the atmosphere will keep more helium/hydrogen, but not as much as a gas giant).", "In an early solar system, 99.9% of matter present is going to be H and He. So for every megaton of terrestrial matter attracted by a forming planet, 1000 times more gas will be collected. \n\n*That* is what makes a gas giant form...a rocky planet doesn't \"turn\" into a gas giant after a certain size...instead it attracts so much gas the rocky bits become trace impurities.\n\nSo what would happen if you created a rocky planet the mass of Jupiter in the absence of H and He? As far as I know, you'd wind up with a really big rock. There would be no breaking point...it would be all about keeping it from attracting enough gas to become a gas giant or even a star.\n\nIf fact, this is the only breaking point I can think of...the point where it would undergo fusion and generate enough heat to vaporize its rock and become some sort of weird star. Stars at 10 solar masses (10,000 Jupiter masses) are capable of fusing carbon, oxygen and silicon, so that would be a starting guess, but I have no idea how this would work in a H/He poor environment. " ] }

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[ [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_escape", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_differentiation" ], [] ]