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= = Service history = = |
Following her commissioning on 1 October 1914 , Markgraf conducted sea trials , which lasted until 12 December . The ships returned to the North Sea on 11 February , too late to assist the I Scouting Group at the Battle of Dogger Bank . By 10 January 1915 , the ship had joined III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet with her three sister ships . On 22 January 1915 , III Squadron was detached from the fleet to conduct maneuver , gunnery , and torpedo training in the Baltic . |
The first such operation — Markgraf 's first with the fleet — was a fleet advance to Terschelling on 29 – 30 March ; the German fleet failed to engage any British warships during the sortie . Markgraf and the rest of the fleet remained in port until 29 May , when the fleet conducted another two @-@ day advance into the North Sea . Another uneventful operation followed on 17 – 18 April , and another three days later on 21 – 22 April . In the aftermath of the loss of SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank , Kaiser Wilhelm II removed Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl from his post as fleet commander on 2 February . On 11 – 12 September , Markgraf and the rest of III Squadron supported a minelaying operation off Texel . Admiral Hugo von Pohl replaced him as commander of the fleet ; von Pohl carried out a series of sorties with the High Seas Fleet throughout 1915 . Another uneventful fleet advance followed on 23 – 24 October . |
Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer became commander in chief of the High Seas Fleet on 18 January 1916 when Admiral von Pohl became too ill from liver cancer to continue in that post . Reports of British submarines in the area prompted the retreat of the I Scouting Group . The battlecruiser Seydlitz struck a mine while en route to the target , and had to withdraw . On 24 April , the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group conducted a raid on the English coast . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the sortie of the Grand Fleet from its base in Scapa Flow , also withdrew to safer German waters . A short artillery duel ensued before the Harwich Force withdrew . Another sortie followed three weeks later on the 26th , with another on 21 – 22 April . The other battlecruisers bombarded the town of Lowestoft unopposed , but during the approach to Yarmouth , they encountered the British cruisers of the Harwich Force . Markgraf and the rest of the fleet sailed in distant support . The first of Scheer 's operations was conducted the following month , on 5 – 7 March , with an uneventful sweep of the Hoofden . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the British Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . |
= = = Battle of Jutland = = = |
The four ships made up the V Division of the III Battle Squadron , and they were the vanguard of the fleet . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . Markgraf was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the Battle of Jutland which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . Markgraf was the third ship in the German line , behind her sisters König and Grosser Kurfürst and followed by Kronprinz . The III Squadron was followed by the Helgoland and Nassau classes of the II Battle Squadron ; in the rear guard were the obsolescent Deutschland @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the I Battle Squadron . The III Battle Squadron was the first of three battleship units ; directly astern were the Kaiser @-@ class battleships of the VI Division , III Battle Squadron . |
The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , König 's crew spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . Shortly before 16 : 00 the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of Vice Admiral David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given . |
Markgraf continued to engage Tiger until 18 : 25 , by which time the faster battlecruisers managed to move out of effective gunnery range . At 18 : 10 , one of the British ships scored a 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) shell hit on Markgraf . During this period , two more 15 @-@ inch shells hit Markgraf , though the timing is unknown . Malaya fired a torpedo at Markgraf at 19 : 05 , but the torpedo missed due to the long range . The other two shells failed to explode and caused negligible damage . Around the same time , Markgraf engaged a cruiser from the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron before shifting her fire back to the 5th Battle Squadron for ten minutes . Markgraf and her two sisters fired their secondary guns on British destroyers attempting to make torpedo attacks against the German fleet . Markgraf opened fire on the battlecruiser Tiger at a range of 21 @,@ 000 yards ( 19 @,@ 000 m ) . The hit at 18 : 10 struck on a joint between two 8 @-@ inch @-@ thick side armor plates ; the shell burst on impact and holed the armor . Shortly thereafter , the destroyer Moresby fired a single torpedo at Markgraf and missed from a range of about 8 @,@ 000 yd ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) . The main deck was buckled and approximately 400 t ( 390 long tons ; 440 short tons ) of water entered the ship . During this period , the battleships Warspite and Valiant of the 5th Battle Squadron fired on the leading German battleships . |
Simultaneously , the British III and IV Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . Markgraf and her sisters fired heavily on the British cruisers , but even sustained fire from the battleships ' main guns failed to drive them off . Under a hail of fire from the German battleships , Defence exploded and sank ; credit is normally given to the battlecruiser Lützow , though Markgraf 's gunners also claimed credit for the sinking . Shortly after 19 : 00 , the German cruiser Wiesbaden had become disabled by a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible ; Rear Admiral Paul Behncke in König attempted to position his four ships to cover the stricken cruiser . @ 5 cm and 15 cm guns at the armored cruiser Defence . Markgraf fired both her 30 @. The obsolescent armored cruisers of the 1st Cruiser Squadron also joined in the melee . |
The second shell penetrated Princess Royal 's 6 @-@ inch belt armor , ricocheted upward off the coal bunker , and exploded under the 1 @-@ inch deck armor . The crew for the left gun were killed , the turret was disabled , and the explosion caused serious damage to the upper deck . Warrior foundered on the trip back to port the following morning . The two shells killed 11 and wounded 31 . At the same time , Markgraf 's secondary guns fired on the cruiser Warrior , which was seriously damaged by 15 heavy shells and forced to withdraw . Markgraf then fired on the battlecruiser Princess Royal and scored two hits . The first hit struck the 9 @-@ inch armor covering " X " barbette , was deflected downward , and exploded after penetrating the 1 @-@ inch deck armor . |
The explosion seriously injured two and killed the rest of the gun crew . @ 5 @-@ inch Armor @-@ Piercing , Capped ( APC ) shells and scored a hit with the last salvo . The shell exploded upon impacting the armor protecting the No. The shell failed to penetrate but holed the armor and disabled the gun . A heavy shell nearly struck the ship at the same time , and at 19 : 44 , a bent propeller shaft forced Markgraf 's crew to turn off the port engine ; naval historian John Campbell speculated that this shell was the one that damaged the shaft . 6 15 cm gun casemate . Around 19 : 30 , Admiral John Jellicoe 's main force of battleships entered the battle ; Orion began firing at Markgraf at 19 : 32 ; she fired four salvos of 13 @. Her speed dropped to 17 or 18 kn ( 31 or 33 km / h ; 20 or 21 mph ) , though she remained in her position in the line . |
Shortly after 20 : 00 , the German battleships engaged the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron ; Markgraf fired primarily 15 cm shells . Due to her reduced speed , Markgraf turned early in an attempt to maintain her place in the battle line ; this , however , forced Grosser Kurfürst to fall out of formation . After successfully withdrawing from the British , Scheer ordered the fleet to assume night cruising formation , though communication errors between Scheer aboard Friedrich der Grosse and Westfalen , the lead ship , caused delays . The shell failed to explode and shattered on impact on the 8 @-@ inch side armor , causing minimal damage . Markgraf fell in behind Kronprinz while Grosser Kurfürst steamed ahead to return to her position behind König . Several British light cruisers and destroyers stumbled into the German line around 21 : 20 . The fleet fell into formation by 23 : 30 , with Grosser Kurfürst the 13th vessel in the line of 24 capital ships . In the ensuing short engagement Markgraf hit the cruiser Calliope five times with her secondary guns . In this period , Markgraf was engaged by Agincourt 's 12 @-@ inch guns , which scored a single hit at 20 : 14 . Two of the adjoining 14 @-@ inch plates directly below the 8 @-@ inch armor were slightly forced inward and some minor flooding occurred . The heavy fire of the British fleet forced Scheer to order the fleet to turn away . |
Heavy fire from the German battleships forced the British destroyers to withdraw . But gunners aboard Grosser Kurfürst correctly identified the vessels as hostile and opened fire while turning away to avoid torpedoes , which prompted Markgraf to follow suit . At 05 : 06 , Markgraf and several other battleships fired at what they thought was a submarine . Markgraf initially held her fire as the identities of the destroyers were unknown . Around 02 : 45 , several British destroyers mounted a torpedo attack against the rear half of the German line . |
Upon reaching Wilhelmshaven , Markgraf went into harbor while several other battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead . Repair work was completed by 20 July . In the course of the battle , Markgraf had fired a total of 254 shells from her main battery and 214 rounds from her 15 cm guns . She was hit by five large @-@ caliber shells , which killed 11 men and wounded 13 . The High Seas Fleet managed to punch through the British light forces without drawing the attention of Jellicoe 's battleships , and subsequently reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . The ship was transferred to Hamburg where she was repaired in AG Vulcan 's large floating dock . |
= = = Subsequent operations = = = |
The ship was then temporarily assigned to the I Scouting Group for the fleet operation on 18 – 19 August . By 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the decidedly close engagement at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports . The British were aware of the German plans , and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . Following repairs in July 1916 , Markgraf went into the Baltic for trials . Due to the serious damage incurred by Seydlitz and Derfflinger at Jutland , the only battlecruisers available for the operation were Von der Tann and Moltke , which were joined by Markgraf , Grosser Kurfürst , and the new battleship Bayern . |
Light forces were sent to recover the vessels , and III Squadron , which was in the North Sea en route to Wilhelmshaven , was ordered to cover them . For most of 1917 , Markgraf was occupied with guard duties in the North Sea , interrupted only by a refit period in January and periodic unit training in the Baltic . Two days later , the ship formally rejoined III Squadron . Markgraf was present for the uneventful advance in the direction of Sunderland on 18 – 20 October . Unit training with the III Squadron followed from 21 October to 2 November . On the 5th , a pair of U @-@ boats grounded on the Danish coast . During the operation , the British submarine J1 torpedoed both Grosser Kurfürst and Kronprinz and caused moderate damage . |
= = = Operation Albion = = = |
The II Squadron consisted of the four König @-@ class ships , and was by this time augmented with the new battleship Bayern . The Admiralstab ( Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . Along with nine light cruisers , three torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and six zeppelins . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . The IV Squadron consisted of the five Kaiser @-@ class battleships . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . |
Three British C @-@ class submarines where also stationed in the Gulf . Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . The Irben Strait , the main southern entrance to the Gulf of Riga , was heavily mined and defended by a number of coastal artillery batteries . The garrison on Ösel numbered nearly 14 @,@ 000 men , though by 1917 it had been reduced to 60 to 70 percent strength . |
On the 17th , Markgraf left Tagga Bay to rejoin her squadron in the Gulf of Riga , but early on the following morning she ran aground at the entrance to Kalkgrund . After the successful amphibious assault , III Squadron steamed to Putziger Wiek , although Markgraf remained behind for several days . Markgraf fired on the battery located on Cape Ninnast . The ship was quickly freed , and she reached the III Squadron anchorage north of Larina Bank on the 19th . The operation began on 12 October , when Moltke and the four König @-@ class ships covered the landing of ground troops by suppressing the shore batteries covering Tagga Bay . The next day , Markgraf steamed to Moon Sound , and on the 25th participated in the bombardment of Russian positions on the island of Kynö . The ship returned to Arensburg on 27 October , and two days later was detached from Operation Albion to return to the North Sea . |
The work was completed at the Imperial Dockyard from 6 to 23 November . She missed an attempted raid on a British convoy on 23 – 25 April 1918 , as she was in dock in Kiel from 15 March to 5 May for the installation of a new foremast . After repairs were completed , Markgraf returned to guard duty in the North Sea . Markgraf struck a pair of mines in quick succession while in the Irben Strait and took in 260 metric tons ( 260 long tons ; 290 short tons ) of water . The ship continued on to Kiel via Neufahrwasser in Danzig ; she then went on to Wilhelmshaven , where the mine damage was repaired . |
= = = Fate = = = |
The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated , " I no longer have a navy . " Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy in order to obtain a better bargaining position for Germany , despite the expected casualties . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . However , many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships , including Markgraf , mutinied . Markgraf and her three sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . |
Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to von Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any conditions . The massive flotilla consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and enlisted men . Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , most of the High Seas Fleet ships , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , were interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . |
The British soldiers in the guard detail panicked in their attempt to prevent the Germans from scuttling the ships ; they shot and killed Markgraf 's captain , Walter Schumann , who was in a lifeboat , and an enlisted man . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the first opportunity . Von Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . In total , the guards killed nine Germans and wounded twenty @-@ one . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . The remaining crews , totaling some 1 @,@ 860 officers and enlisted men , were imprisoned . Markgraf sank at 16 : 45 . |
Owing to the fact that the steel that composed their hulls was produced before the advent of nuclear weapons , Markgraf and her sisters are among the few accessible sources of low @-@ background steel , which has occasionally been removed for use in scientific devices . The outbreak of World War II in 1939 put a halt to all salvage operations , and after the war it was determined that salvaging the deeper wrecks was financially impractical . Markgraf and her two sisters had sunk in deeper water than the other capital ships , which made any salvage attempt more difficult . Markgraf was never raised for scrapping , unlike most of the other capital ships that were scuttled . Markgraf and the other vessels on the bottom of Scapa Flow are a popular dive site , and are protected by a policy barring divers from recovering items from the wrecks . The rights to future salvage operations on the wrecks were sold to Britain in 1962 . |
= Coldrum Long Barrow =
|
The Coldrum Long Barrow , also known as the Coldrum Stones and the Adscombe Stones , is a chambered long barrow located near to the village of Trottiscliffe in the south @-@ eastern English county of Kent . Constructed circa 4000 BCE , during Britain 's Early Neolithic period , today it survives only in a ruined state . |
Although representing part of an architectural tradition of long barrow building that was widespread across Neolithic Europe , the Coldrum Stones belong to a localised regional variant of barrows produced in the vicinity of the River Medway , now known as the Medway Megaliths . Of these , it is in the best surviving condition , and lies near to both Addington Long Barrow and Chestnuts Long Barrow on the western side of the river . Three further surviving long barrows , Kit 's Coty House , the Little Kit 's Coty House , and the Coffin Stone , are located on the Medway 's eastern side . Archaeologists have established that the monument was built by pastoralist communities shortly after the introduction of agriculture to Britain from continental Europe . |
Osteoarchaeological analysis of these remains has shown them to be those of at least seventeen individuals , a mixture of men , women , children and adults . As with other barrows , Coldrum has been interpreted as a tomb to house the remains of the dead , perhaps as part of a belief system involving ancestor veneration , although archaeologists have suggested that it may also have had further religious , ritual , and cultural connotations and uses . Within the eastern end of the tumulus was a stone chamber , into which human remains were deposited on at least two separate occasions during the Early Neolithic . Built out of earth and around fifty local sarsen megaliths , the long barrow consisted of a sub @-@ rectangular earthen tumulus enclosed by kerb @-@ stones . At least one of the bodies had been dismembered prior to burial , potentially reflecting a funerary tradition of excarnation and secondary burial . |
After limited reconstruction , in 1926 ownership was transferred to heritage charity The National Trust . Local folklore grew up around the site , associating it with the burial of a prince and the countless stones motif . It is open without charge to visitors all year around . After the Early Neolithic , the long barrow fell into a state of ruined dilapidation , perhaps experiencing deliberate deposition in the late medieval period , either by Christian zealots or treasure hunters . The ruin attracted the interest of antiquarians in the 19th century , while archaeological excavation took place in the early 20th . |
= = Name and location = = |
The nearest car park to Coldrum Lane can be found off of Pinesfield Lane in Trottiscliffe . The tomb can be reached along a pathway known as Coldrum Lane , which is only accessible on foot . The Coldrum Stones are named after a nearby farm , Coldrum Lodge , which has since been demolished . Another nearby village is Addington , which is located one and a quarter miles away . The monument lies in a " rather isolated site " north @-@ east of the nearby village of Trottiscliffe , about 500 metres from a prehistoric track known as the Pilgrim 's Way . |
= = Context = = |
= = = Early Neolithic Britain = = = |
The region of modern Kent would have been a key area for the arrival of continental European settlers and visitors , because of its position on the estuary of the River Thames and its proximity to the continent . Archaeologists have been unable to prove whether this adoption of farming was because of a new influx of migrants coming in from continental Europe or because the indigenous Mesolithic Britons came to adopt the agricultural practices of continental societies . Either way , it certainly emerged through contact with continental Europe , probably as a result of centuries of interaction between Mesolithic people living in south @-@ east Britain and Linear Pottery culture ( LBK ) communities in north @-@ eastern France . The Early Neolithic was a revolutionary period of British history . Beginning in the fifth millennium BCE , it saw a widespread change in lifestyle as the communities living in the British Isles adopted agriculture as their primary form of subsistence , abandoning the hunter @-@ gatherer lifestyle that had characterised the preceding Mesolithic period . |
Environmental data from the area around the White Horse Stone supports the idea that the area was still largely forested in the Early Neolithic , covered by a woodland of oak , ash , hazel / alder and Maloideae . Although a common material culture was shared throughout most of the British Isles in this period , there was great regional variation regarding the nature and distribution of settlement , architectural styles , and the use of natural resources . Although witnessing some land clearance , Britain was largely forested in this period , and it is unclear what level of deforestation the area of Kent had experienced in the Early Neolithic ; widespread forest clearance only took place on the chalklands of south @-@ east Britain in the Late Bronze Age . Throughout most of Britain , there is little evidence of cereal or permanent dwellings from this period , leading archaeologists to believe that the Early Neolithic economy on the island was largely pastoral , relying on herding cattle , with people living a nomadic or semi @-@ nomadic way of life . Between 4500 and 3800 BCE , all of the British Isles came to abandon its former Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherer lifestyle , to be replaced by the new agricultural subsistence of the Neolithic Age . |
= = = The tomb building tradition = = = |
Across Western Europe , the Early Neolithic marked the first period in which humans built monumental structures in the landscape . These were tombs that held the physical remains of the dead , and though sometimes constructed out of timber , many were built using large stones , now known as " megaliths " . The construction of these collective burial monumental tombs , both wooden and megalithic , began in continental Europe before being adopted in Britain in the first half of the fourth millennium BCE . Individuals were rarely buried alone in the Early Neolithic , instead being interned in collective burials with other members of their community . |
For this reason , historian Ronald Hutton termed these monuments " tomb @-@ shrines " to reflect their dual purpose . Many archaeologists have suggested that this is because Early Neolithic people adhered to an ancestor cult that venerated the spirits of the dead , believing that they could intercede with the forces of nature for the benefit of their living descendants . The Early Neolithic people of Britain placed far greater emphasis on the ritualised burial of the dead than their Mesolithic forebears had done . Thus , it has furthermore been suggested that Early Neolithic people entered into the tombs – which doubled as temples or shrines – to perform rituals that would honour the dead and ask for their assistance . Archaeologist Robin Holgate stressed that rather than simply being tombs , the Medway Megaliths were " communal mouments fulfilling a social function for the communities who built and used them . " |
Many archaeologists have suggested that the construction of such monuments reflects an attempt to stamp control and ownership over the land , thus representing a change in mindset brought about by Neolithicisation . Many archaeologists have subscribed to the idea that these tomb @-@ shrines served as territorial markers between different tribal groups , although others have argued that such markers would be of little use to a nomadic herding society . In Britain , these tombs were typically located on prominent hills and slopes overlooking the surrounding landscape , perhaps at the junction between different territories . Instead it has been suggested that they represent markers along herding pathways . Archaeologist Caroline Malone noted that the tombs would have served as one of a variety of markers in the landscape that conveyed information on " territory , political allegiance , ownership , and ancestors . " Others have suggested that these monuments were built on sites already deemed sacred by Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherers . |
Archaeologists have differentiated these Early Neolithic tombs into a variety of different architectural styles , each typically associated with a different region within the British Isles . Passage graves , characterised by their narrow passage made of large stones and one or multiple burial chambers covered in earth or stone , were predominantly located in northern Britain and southern and central Ireland . These earthen long barrows were typically constructed of timber because building stone was scarce in southern Britain ; archaeologist Aubrey Burl argued that these timber tombs might have been " even more eye @-@ catching " than their stone counterparts , perhaps consisting of " towering carved poles , flamboyantly painted " , but that evidence of such sculptures has not survived . Alternately , across northern Ireland and central Britain long chambered mounds predominated , while in the east and south @-@ east of Britain , earthen long barrows represented the dominant architectural trend . The Medway Megaliths represent just one of these regional groups within the wider West European tradition of tomb building in this period . |
= = = The Medway Megaliths = = = |
Archaeologists Brian Philp and Mike Dutto deemed the Medway Megaliths to be " some of the most interesting and well known " archaeological sites in Kent , while archaeologist Paul Ashbee described them as " the most grandiose and impressive structures of their kind in southern England " . Grouped along the River Medway as it cuts through the North Downs , they constitute the most south @-@ easterly group of megalithic monuments in the British Isles , and the only megalithic group in eastern England . Although now all in a ruinous state and not retaining their original appearance , at the time of construction the Medway Megaliths would have been some of the largest and most visually imposing Early Neolithic funerary monuments in Britain . |
The eastern group consists of Kit 's Coty House , Little Kit 's Coty House , the Coffin Stone , and several other stones which might have once been parts of chambered tombs . It is not known if they were all built at the same time , or whether they were constructed in succession , while similarly it is not known if they each served the same function or whether there was a hierarchy in their usage . They can be divided into two separate clusters : one to the west of the River Medway and the other on Blue Bell Hill to the east , with the distance between the two clusters measuring at between 8 and 10 km . The western group includes Coldrum Long Barrow , Addington Long Barrow , and the Chestnuts Long Barrow . |
Each had a stone chamber at the eastern end of the mound , and they each probably had a stone facade flanking the entrance . The Medway long barrows all conformed to the same general design plan , and are all aligned on an east to west axis . Early Neolithic builders would have selected blocks from the local area , and then transported them to the site of the monument to be erected . The chambers were constructed from sarsen , a dense , hard , and durable stone that occurs naturally throughout Kent , having formed out of silicified sand from the Eocene . |
This variation might have been caused by the tomb @-@ shrines being altered and adapted over the course of their use ; in this scenario , the monuments would represent composite structures . Such common architectural features among these tomb @-@ shrines indicate a strong regional cohesion with no direct parallels elsewhere in the British Isles . For instance , they would have been taller than most other tomb @-@ shrines in Britain , with internal heights of up to 10 ft . Nevertheless , as with other regional groupings of Early Neolithic tomb @-@ shrines ( such as the Cotswold @-@ Severn group ) , there are also various idiosyncrasies in the different monuments , such as Coldrum 's rectilinear shape , the Chestnut long barrow 's facade , and the long , thin mounds at Addington and Kit 's Coty . |
Ashbee noted that their close clustering in the same area was reminiscent of the megalithic tomb @-@ shrine traditions of continental Northern Europe , and emphasised that the Medway Megaliths were a regional manifestation of a tradition widespread across Early Neolithic Europe . It seems apparent that the people who built these monuments were influenced by pre @-@ existing tomb @-@ shrines that they were already aware of . He nevertheless stressed that a precise place of origin was " impossible to indicate " with the available evidence . John H. Evans instead suggested an origin in Germany , and Ronald F. Jessup thought that their origins could be seen in the Cotswold @-@ Severn megalithic group . Whether those people had grown up locally , or moved into the Medway area from elsewhere is not known . Based on a stylistic analysis of their architectural designs , Stuart Piggott thought that they had originated in the area around the Low Countries , while Glyn Daniel instead believed that the same evidence showed an influence from Scandinavia . |
= = Design and construction = = |
The monument originally consisted of a sarsen stone chamber , covered by a low earthen mound , which was bounded by prostrate slabs . It is located on the edge of a large lynchet scarp , although it is difficult to ascertain what views would have been possible from the monument at the time of construction , due to a lack of information on how densely forested the vicinity was . However , if the area was not highly wooded , then 360 ° views of the surrounding landscape would have been possible . Archaeologist Sian Killick suggested that the Coldrum Long Barrow might have been built within view of a nearby settlement , and that this " may have been a key factor in the experience of ceremonies and rituals taking place at the tombs and may also have defined a link between the tomb builders and the landscape . " The monument 's axis points toward both the North Downs and the Medway Valley , which is similar to the other Medway Megaliths . As such , the archaeologist Paul Ashbee asserted that the monument could be divided into three particular features : the chamber , the barrow , and the sarsen stone surround . |
As such , the barrow is a " truncated wedge @-@ shape " . At its broader , eastern end , where the chamber is located , the monument measures 15 metres ( 50 feet ) , while at the narrower , western end , it is 12 metres ( 40 feet ) in breadth . It had been built using about 50 stones . The megalithic builders responsible for the Coldrum Stones positioned it on the top of a small ridge adjacent to the North Downs , and constructed it facing eastward , towards the River Medway . The barrow is sub @-@ rectangular in plan , and about 20 meters ( 64 feet ) in length . |
@ 5 metres ( 13 feet ) in length , and 1 @. The western end of the chamber is closed off with a slab measuring about 14 feet , 6 inches wide , with a thickness of 1 foot and a depth of around 8 feet . The chamber of the monument measures 4 @. @ 7 metres ( 5 feet 6 inches ) in width , although it was potentially much larger when originally constructed . Excavation has revealed that flint masonry was used to pack around the chamber and support its sarsens ; twentieth @-@ century renovation has seen this largely replaced with cement , allowing the stones to continue standing upright . Conversely , the chamber 's southern side consists of a single slab , measuring 11 feet , 4 inches in length , 7 feet , 3 inches in depth , and 1 foot , 9 inches in depth at its thicker , eastern end . In its current state , the northern side of the chamber is made up of two slabs , one being 8 feet long , 7 feet , 6 inches deep , and 1 foot , 9 inches thick , and the other 5 feet long , 6 feet deep , and 2 feet thick . A collapsed , broken slab lies at the opening eastern end of the chamber . The chamber 's internal height would have been at least 2 metres ( 6 feet 6 inches ) . It is also possible that a largely rectangular slab at the bottom of the slope had once been part of the eastern end of the chamber . |
It is also possible that there was a portal stone atop the chamber , as was apparent at Kit 's Coty House and Lower Kit 's Coty House . Many of the larger slabs of stone that have fallen down the slope on the eastern end of the monument may have been parts of this facade or portal . It is possible that there was a facade in front of the chamber , as is evident at other chambered tombs in Britain , such as West Kennet Long Barrow and Wayland 's Smithy . |
In the nineteenth @-@ century , the mound was higher on the western end of the tomb , although this was removed by excavation to reveal the sarsens beneath during the 1920s . It is likely that in the Early Neolithic , the mound had a quarry ditch surrounding it , and it is inside this ditch that the kerb @-@ stones now sit . The earthen mound that once covered the tomb is now visible only as an undulation approximately 1 foot , 6 inches in height . |
The kerb @-@ stones around the tomb display some patterning ; those on the northern side are mostly rectilinear , while those on the southern side are smaller and largely irregular in shape . It is probable that there was an ancillary dry @-@ stone wall constructed using blocks of ironstone from the geological Folkestone beds , as is evident at Chestnuts Long Barrow . Given that such blocks of stone rarely occur naturally , it may have been quarried . |
A concave line of abrasion and polishing can be found on both one of the central kerb @-@ stones on the western end of the monument and a kerb @-@ stone on the south @-@ east of the monument . Similar evidence for the sharpening of tools has been found at West Kennet Long Barrow , as well as later prehistoric monuments such as Stonehenge . It is possible that these tools were sharpened for use in cutting and carving the timber levers and struts which would have been used in erecting the stones and constructing the tomb . These have been attributed to the sharpening of flint and other stone axe @-@ blades on these sarsens . |
It may be that this represents the remnants of another such monument which has had its stones removed or buried . Several large sarsens to the south of the Coldrums might represent the remnants of a further such tomb , since destroyed . However , it is possible that another chambered tomb was located nearby ; a razed , elongated earthen mound with an east @-@ west orientation is located in a hollow at the foot of the downs just under a quarter of a mile to the north of the Coldrum Stones . Coldrum Long Barrow is comparatively isolated from the other Medway Megaliths ; in this it is unique , given that the other surviving examples are clustered into two groups . |
= = Human remains = = |
= = = Demographics = = = |
He published his results in 1913 , in a paper largely concerned with discerning racial characteristics of the bodies . Excavations conducted in the early 20th century have led to the methodical discovery and removal of what was believed to be the remains of twenty @-@ two human individuals . Ashbee suggested that given its size and comparisons with other long barrows , such as Fussell 's Lodge , the Coldrum tomb could have housed the remains of over a hundred individuals . These remains were examined by Sir Arthur Keith , the conservator of the museum at the Royal College of Surgeons . |
These were then further identified as probably belonging to nine adults ( probably five males and four females ) , two sub @-@ adults , four older children , and two younger children ( one around five years old , the other between 24 and 30 months old ) . Disputing earlier conclusions , it stated that the minimum number of individuals was seventeen . A subsequent re @-@ analysis of the bones was conducted in the early 21st century , and published in the Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society in 2013 : the project presented " osteological analysis , Bayesian modelling of radiocarbon dates , and carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis to inform on the demography , burial practices , diet and subsistence , and chronology of the Coldrum population " . |
Keith had suggested that the crania he examined displayed similar features , which he attributed to the different individuals belonging to " one family - or several families united by common descent . " Similar observations had been made regarding the crania from other long barrows in Britain , although osteoarchaeologists Martin Smith and Megan Brickley noted that this was not necessarily representative of a family group . Instead , they stated that it would also be consistent with " a population that was still relatively small and scattered " , in which most individuals were interrelated . |
Wysocki 's team noted that in all but one case , the fracture morphologies are consistent with dry @-@ bone breakage . Three of the skulls exhibited evidence that they had experienced violence ; a probable adult female had an unhealed injury on the left frontal , while an adult of indeterminate sex had an unhealed fracture on the left frontal , and a second adult female had a healed depressed fracture on the right frontal . |
In the case of the older individuals whose remains were interned in the tomb , the tooth enamel was worn away and the dentine had become exposed on the chewing area of the crowns . Although this data is difficult to interpret , it was identified as probably reflecting a terrestrial diet high in animal protein that over time was increasingly supplemented with freshwater river or estuarine foods . Isotope analysis of the remains revealed δ13C values that were typical of those found at many other Southern British Neolithic sites , albeit with significantly higher values of δ15C , which grew over time . |
It then suggested that after an interval of either 60 – 350 years ( 95 % probability ) or 140 – 290 years ( 68 % probability ) , further depositions of human remains were made inside the tomb . This second phase probably began in 3730 – 3540 cal BCE ( 95 % probability ) or 3670 – 3560 cal BCE ( 68 % probability ) . The radiocarbon dating of the human remains does not provide a date for the construction of Coldrum Long Barrow itself ; it is possible that the individuals died either some time before or after the monument 's construction . Radiocarbon dating of the remains suggested Early Neolithic activity began at the site during 3980 – 3800 calibrated BCE ( 95 % probability ) or 3960 – 3880 cal BCE ( 68 % probability ) , when the first human remains were buried at the site . |
= = = Post @-@ mortem deposition = = = |
However , they further suggested that the lack of such cut @-@ marks on certain bones was suggestive that the body had already undergone partial decomposition or the removal of soft tissues prior to the process of dismemberment . None of the criteria that osteoarchaeologists deem diagnostic of cannibalism were found on the bones . Cut @-@ marks were identified on a number of the bones ( two femora , two innominates , and one cranium ) , with osteoarchaeological specialists suggesting that these had been created post @-@ mortem as the bodies were dismembered and the bones removed from their attached ligaments . The precision of the cut @-@ marks suggests that this dismemberment was done carefully ; " they do not suggest frenzied hacking or mutilation . " |
This cut @-@ marked human bone assemblage represented the largest yet identified from within a Neolithic long barrow in Southern Britain , although similar evidence for dismemberment has been found from a number of other Neolithic British sites , such as West Trump , Eyford , Aldestrop , and Haddenham . These practices may have been accompanied by necrophagy , shamanism , or magical practices , direct evidence for which does not survive . There are two possibilities for how this material developed . The first is that the bodies of the dead were excarnated or exposed to the elements , followed by a secondary burial within the tomb . The second is that they were placed in the tomb , where the flesh decomposed , before the bodies were then rearranged within the tomb itself . |
On the basis of an example discovered at Kit 's Coty House , Ashbee thought it apparent that the contents of the Coldrum 's chamber would have been compartmentalised by medial slabs , which served the same purpose as the side chambers of West Kennet and Wayland 's Smithy . The inclusion of occupational debris over the bones was not unique to the site but common in chambered tombs from southern England . |