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In 1940 , several German @-@ controlled printing houses began operating in occupied Poland , publishing items such as Polish @-@ German dictionaries and antisemitic and anticommunist novels . The Germans prohibited publication of any regular Polish @-@ language book , literary study or scholarly paper . |
The index of banned authors included such Polish authors as Adam Mickiewicz , Juliusz Słowacki , Stanisław Wyspiański , Bolesław Prus , Stefan Żeromski , Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , Władysław Reymont , Stanisław Wyspiański , Julian Tuwim , Kornel Makuszyński , Leopold Staff , Eliza Orzeszkowa and Maria Konopnicka . Banned literature included maps , atlases and English- and French @-@ language publications , including dictionaries . Several non @-@ public indexes of prohibited books were created , and over 1 @,@ 500 Polish writers were declared " dangerous to the German state and culture " . Censorship at first targeted books that were considered to be " serious " , including scientific and educational texts and texts that were thought to promote Polish patriotism ; only fiction that was free of anti @-@ German overtones was permitted . Door @-@ to @-@ door sale of books was banned , and bookstores — which required a license to operate — were either emptied out or closed . Mere possession of such books was illegal and punishable by imprisonment . |
Hence , theatrical productions were also boycotted by the underground . The press was reduced from over 2 @,@ 000 publications to a few dozen , all censored by the Germans . A similar situation faced theaters , which were forbidden by the Germans to produce " serious " spectacles . Ironically , restrictions on cultural performances were eased in Jewish ghettos , given that the Germans wished to distract ghetto inhabitants and prevent them from grasping their eventual fate . As all profits from Polish cinemas were officially directed toward German war production , attendance was discouraged by the Polish underground ; a famous underground slogan declared : " Tylko świnie siedzą w kinie " ( " Only pigs attend the movies " ) . In addition , actors were discouraged from performing in them and warned that they would be labeled as collaborators if they failed to comply . The few Polish films permitted to be shown ( about 20 % of the total programming ) were edited to eliminate references to Polish national symbols as well as Jewish actors and producers . Indeed , a number of propaganda pieces were created for theater stages . Such a thorough destruction of the press was unprecedented in contemporary history . Poles were forbidden , under penalty of death , to own radios . The only officially available reading matter was the propaganda press that was disseminated by the German occupation administration . Several propaganda films were shot in Polish , although no Polish films were shown after 1943 . Cinemas , now under the control of the German propaganda machine , saw their programming dominated by Nazi German movies , which were preceded by propaganda newsreels . All pre @-@ war newspapers were closed , and the few that were published during the occupation were new creations under the total control of the Germans . |
Numerous musical performances were permitted in cafes and churches , and the Polish underground chose to boycott only the propagandist operas . In time , he ordered the creation of the Orchestra and Symphony of the General Government in its capital , Kraków . Visual artists , including painters and sculptors , were compelled to register with the German government ; but their work was generally tolerated by the underground , unless it conveyed propagandist themes . Music was the least restricted of cultural activities , probably because Hans Frank regarded himself as a fan of serious music . Shuttered museums were replaced by occasional art exhibitions that frequently conveyed propagandist themes . |
The development of Nazi propaganda in occupied Poland can be divided into two main phases . Initial efforts were directed towards creating a negative image of pre @-@ war Poland , and later efforts were aimed at fostering anti @-@ Soviet , antisemitic , and pro @-@ German attitudes . |
= = = Soviet occupation = = = |
@ 299 million . After the Soviet invasion of Poland ( beginning 17 September 1939 ) that followed the German invasion that had marked the start of World War II ( beginning 1 September 1939 ) , the Soviet Union annexed the eastern parts ( " Kresy " ) of the Second Polish Republic , comprising 201 @,@ 015 square kilometres ( 77 @,@ 612 sq mi ) and a population of 13 @. Hitler and Stalin shared the goal of obliterating Poland 's political and cultural life , so that Poland would , according to historian Niall Ferguson , " cease to exist not merely as a place , but also as an idea " . |
More than a million Polish citizens were deported to Siberia , many to Gulag concentration camps , for years or decades . The Soviet authorities regarded service to the prewar Polish state as a " crime against revolution " and " counter @-@ revolutionary activity " and arrested many members of the Polish intelligentsia , politicians , civil servants and academics , as well as ordinary persons suspected of posing a threat to Soviet rule . Others died , including over 20 @,@ 000 military officers who perished in the Katyn massacres . |
On 10 February 1940 , the NKVD unleashed a campaign of terror against " anti @-@ Soviet " elements in occupied Poland . In the process , they banned political parties and public associations and imprisoned or executed their leaders as " enemies of the people " . In line with Soviet anti @-@ religious policy , churches and religious organizations were persecuted . The Soviets ' targets included persons who often traveled abroad , persons involved in overseas correspondence , Esperantists , philatelists , Red Cross workers , refugees , smugglers , priests and members of religious congregations , the nobility , landowners , wealthy merchants , bankers , industrialists , and hotel and restaurant owners . Stalin , like Hitler , worked to eliminate Polish society . The Soviets quickly Sovietized the annexed lands , introducing compulsory collectivization . They proceeded to confiscate , nationalize and redistribute private and state @-@ owned Polish property . |
Polish literature and language studies were dissolved by the Soviet authorities , and the Polish language was replaced with Russian or Ukrainian . As Polish @-@ Canadian historian Piotr Wróbel noted , citing British historians M. R. D. Foot and I. C. B. Dear , majority of scholars believe that " In the Soviet occupation zone , conditions were only marginally less harsh than under the Germans . " Polish teachers were not allowed in the schools , and many were arrested . All institutions of the dismantled Polish state , including the Lwów University , were closed , then reopened , mostly with new Russian directors . Polish monuments were torn down . Classes were held in Belorussian , Lithuanian and Ukrainian , with a new pro @-@ Soviet curriculum . The Soviet authorities sought to remove all trace of the Polish history of the area now under their control . In September 1939 , many Polish Jews had fled east ; after some months of living under Soviet rule , some of them wanted to return to the German zone of occupied Poland . The name " Poland " was banned . Soviet Communist ideology became paramount in all teaching . Polish @-@ language books were burned even in the primary schools . |
The Soviets sought to recruit Polish left @-@ wing intellectuals who were willing to cooperate . All publications and media were subjected to censorship . Polish cultural activities in Minsk and Wilno were less organized . These activities were strictly controlled by the Soviet authorities , which saw to it that these activities portrayed the new Soviet regime in a positive light and vilified the former Polish government . Soon after the Soviet invasion , the Writers ' Association of Soviet Ukraine created a local chapter in Lwów ; there was a Polish @-@ language theater and radio station . |
In November 1940 , the Poles of Lwów observed the 85th anniversary of Adam Mickiewicz 's death . The Soviets at first intended to phase out the Polish language and so banned Polish from schools , street signs , and other aspects of life . Soon , however , Stalin decided to re @-@ implement the Russification policies . This policy was , however , reversed at times — first before the elections in October 1939 ; and later , after the German conquest of France . He reversed his decision again , however , when a need arose for Polish @-@ language pro @-@ Soviet propaganda following the German invasion of the Soviet Union ; as a result Stalin permitted the creation of Polish forces in the East and later decided to create a Communist People 's Republic of Poland . The Soviet propaganda @-@ motivated support for Polish @-@ language cultural activities , however , clashed with the official policy of Russification . |
They included Jerzy Borejsza , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Kazimierz Brandys , Janina Broniewska , Jan Brzoza , Teodor Bujnicki , Leon Chwistek , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Halina Górska , Mieczysław Jastrun , Stefan Jędrychowski , Stanisław Jerzy Lec , Tadeusz Łopalewski , Juliusz Kleiner , Jan Kott , Jalu Kurek , Karol Kuryluk , Leopold Lewin , Anatol Mikułko , Jerzy Pański , Leon Pasternak , Julian Przyboś , Jerzy Putrament , Jerzy Rawicz , Adolf Rudnicki , Włodzimierz Słobodnik , Włodzimierz Sokorski , Elżbieta Szemplińska , Anatol Stern , Julian Stryjkowski , Lucjan Szenwald , Leopold Tyrmand , Wanda Wasilewska , Stanisław Wasilewski , Adam Ważyk , Aleksander Weintraub and Bruno Winawer . Many Polish writers collaborated with the Soviets , writing pro @-@ Soviet propaganda . |
Other Polish writers , however , rejected the Soviet persuasions and instead published underground : Jadwiga Czechowiczówna , Jerzy Hordyński , Jadwiga Gamska @-@ Łempicka , Herminia Naglerowa , Beata Obertyńska , Ostap Ortwin , Tadeusz Peiper , Teodor Parnicki , Juliusz Petry . Similarly , Aleksander Wat , initially sympathetic to communism , was arrested by the Soviet NKVD secret police and exiled to Kazakhstan . Some writers , such as Władysław Broniewski , after collaborating with the Soviets for a few months , joined the anti @-@ Soviet opposition . |
= = Underground culture = = |
= = = Patrons = = = |
The Polish Underground State created a Department of Education and Culture ( under Stanisław Lorentz ) which , along with a Department of Labor and Social Welfare ( under Jan Stanisław Jankowski and , later , Stefan Mateja ) and a Department for Elimination of the Effects of War ( under Antoni Olszewski and Bronisław Domosławski ) , became underground patrons of Polish culture . Thus , they sponsored the underground publication ( bibuła ) of works by Winston Churchill and Arkady Fiedler and of 10 @,@ 000 copies of a Polish primary @-@ school primer and commissioned artists to create resistance artwork ( which was then disseminated by Operation N and like activities ) . They compiled reports on looted and destroyed works and provided artists and scholars with means to continue their work and their publications and to support their families . These Departments oversaw efforts to save from looting and destruction works of art in state and private collections ( most notably , the giant paintings by Jan Matejko that were concealed throughout the war ) . Also occasionally sponsored were secret art exhibitions , theater performances and concerts . Polish culture persisted in underground education , publications , even theater . |
Some private publishers , including Stefan Kamieński , Zbigniew Mitzner and the Ossolineum publishing house , paid writers for books that would be delivered after the war . Other important patrons of Polish culture included the Roman Catholic Church and Polish aristocrats , who likewise supported artists and safeguarded Polish heritage ( notable patrons included Cardinal Adam Stefan Sapieha and a former politician , Janusz Radziwiłł ) . |
= = = Education = = = |
Classes were either held under the cover of officially permitted activities or in private homes and other venues . Most notably , the Secret Teaching Organization ( Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska , TON ) was created as early as in October 1939 . More than 90 @,@ 000 secondary @-@ school pupils attended underground classes held by nearly 6 @,@ 000 teachers between 1943 and 1944 in four districts of the General Government ( centered on the cities of Warsaw , Kraków , Radom and Lublin ) . Overall , in that period in the General Government , one of every three children was receiving some sort of education from the underground organizations ; the number rose to about 70 % for children old enough to attend secondary school . Other organizations were created locally ; after 1940 they were increasingly subordinated and coordinated by the TON , working closely with the Underground 's State Department of Culture and Education , which was created in autumn 1941 and headed by Czesław Wycech , creator of the TON . In response to the German closure and censorship of Polish schools , resistance among teachers led almost immediately to the creation of large @-@ scale underground educational activities . By 1942 , about 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 students took part in underground primary education ; in 1944 , its secondary school system covered 100 @,@ 000 people , and university level courses were attended by about 10 @,@ 000 students ( for comparison , the pre @-@ war enrollment at Polish universities was about 30 @,@ 000 for the 1938 / 1939 year ) . Compared to pre @-@ war classes , the absence of Polish Jewish students was notable , as they were confined by the Nazi Germans to ghettos ; there was , however , underground Jewish education in the ghettos , often organized with support from Polish organizations like TON . Students at the underground schools were often also members of the Polish resistance . It is estimated that in some rural areas , the educational coverage was actually improved ( most likely as courses were being organized in some cases by teachers escaped or deported from the cities ) . |
Even some academic research was carried out ( for example , by Władysław Tatarkiewicz , a leading Polish philosopher , and Zenon Klemensiewicz , a linguist ) . Nearly 1 @,@ 000 Polish scientists received funds from the Underground State , enabling them to continue their research . In Warsaw , there were over 70 underground schools , with 2 @,@ 000 teachers and 21 @,@ 000 students . Underground Warsaw University educated 3 @,@ 700 students , issuing 64 masters and 7 doctoral degrees . Warsaw Politechnic under occupation educated 3 @,@ 000 students , issuing 186 engineering degrees , 18 doctoral ones and 16 habilitations . Jagiellonian University issued 468 masters and 62 doctoral degrees , employed over 100 professors and teachers , and served more than 1 @,@ 000 students per year . Throughout Poland , many other universities and institutions of higher education ( of music , theater , arts , and others ) continued their classes throughout the war . |
Some schools semi @-@ openly taught unauthorized subjects in defiance of the German authorities . It was perceived as a much more serious issue in the annexed territories , as it hindered the process of Germanization ; involvement in the underground education in those territories was much more likely to result in a sentence to a concentration camp . The Germans had almost certainly realized the full scale of the Polish underground education system by about 1943 , but lacked the manpower to put an end to it , probably prioritizing resources to dealing with the armed resistance . For the most part , closing underground schools and colleges in the General Government was not a top priority for the Germans . Hans Frank noted in 1944 that although Polish teachers were a " mortal enemy " of the German states , they could not all be disposed of immediately . The German attitude to underground education varied depending on whether it took place in the General Government or the annexed territories . In 1943 a German report on education admitted that control of what was being taught in schools , particularly rural ones , was difficult , due to lack of manpower , transportation , and the activities of the Polish resistance . |
= = = Print = = = |
Books were also sometimes printed . The highest recorded publication volume was an issue of Biuletyn Informacyjny printed in 43 @,@ 000 copies ; average volume of larger publication was 1 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 copies . The Polish underground also published booklets and leaflets from imaginary anti @-@ Nazi German organizations aimed at spreading disinformation and lowering morale among the Germans . There were over 1 @,@ 000 underground newspapers ; among the most important were the Biuletyn Informacyjny of Armia Krajowa and Rzeczpospolita of the Government Delegation for Poland . Other items were also printed , such as patriotic posters or fake German administration posters , ordering the Germans to evacuate Poland or telling Poles to register household cats . In addition to publication of news ( from intercepted Western radio transmissions ) , there were hundreds of underground publications dedicated to politics , economics , education , and literature ( for example , Sztuka i Naród ) . |
There , writers and editors faced similar dangers : for example , almost the entire editorial staff of the underground satirical paper Na Ucho was arrested , and its chief editors were executed in Kraków on 27 May 1944 . The second largest center for Polish underground publishing was Kraków . The underground press was supported by a large number of activists ; in addition to the crews manning the printing presses , scores of underground couriers distributed the publications . The two largest underground publishers were the Bureau of Information and Propaganda of Armia Krajowa and the Government Delegation for Poland . The majority of Polish underground presses were located in occupied Warsaw ; until the Warsaw Uprising in the summer of 1944 the Germans found over 16 underground printing presses ( whose crews were usually executed or sent to concentration camps ) . In addition to Polish titles , Armia Krajowa also printed false German newspapers designed to decrease morale of the occupying German forces ( as part of Action N ) . According to some statistics , these couriers were among the underground members most frequently arrested by the Germans . ( Na Ucho was the longest published Polish underground paper devoted to satire ; 20 issues were published starting in October 1943 . ) Tajne Wojskowe Zakłady Wydawnicze ( Secret Military Publishing House ) of Jerzy Rutkowski ( subordinated to the Armia Krajowa ) was probably the largest underground publisher in the world . |
Novels and anthologies were published by underground presses ; over 1 @,@ 000 works were published underground over the course of the war . Under German occupation , the professions of Polish journalists and writers were virtually eliminated , as they had little opportunity to publish their work . The Underground State 's Department of Culture sponsored various initiatives and individuals , enabling them to continue their work and aiding in their publication . Literary discussions were held , and prominent writers of the period working in Poland included , among others , Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński , Leslaw Bartelski , Tadeusz Borowski , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Maria Dąbrowska , Tadeusz Gajcy , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz , future Nobel Prize winner Czesław Miłosz , Zofia Nałkowska , Jan Parandowski , Leopold Staff , Kazimierz Wyka , and Jerzy Zawieyski . Writers wrote about the difficult conditions in the prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps ( Konstanty Ildefons Gałczyński , Stefan Flukowski , Leon Kruczkowski , Andrzej Nowicki and Marian Piechała ) , the ghettos , and even from inside the concentration camps ( Jan Maria Gisges , Halina Gołczowa , Zofia Górska ( Romanowiczowa ) , Tadeusz Hołuj , Kazimierz Andrzej Jaworski and Marian Kubicki ) . Many writers did not survive the war , among them Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński , Wacław Berent , Tadeusz Boy @-@ Żeleński , Tadeusz Gajcy , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Juliusz Kaden @-@ Bandrowski , Stefan Kiedrzyński , Janusz Korczak , Halina Krahelska , Tadeusz Hollender , Witold Hulewicz , Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski , Włodzimierz Pietrzak , Leon Pomirowski , Kazimierz Przerwa @-@ Tetmajer and Bruno Schulz . |
= = = Visual arts and music = = = |
With the censorship of Polish theater ( and the virtual end of the Polish radio and film industry ) , underground theaters were created , primarily in Warsaw and Kraków , with shows presented in various underground venues . Beginning in 1940 the theaters were coordinated by the Secret Theatrical Council . Underground actors , many of whom officially worked mundane jobs , included Karol Adwentowicz , Elżbieta Barszczewska , Henryk Borowski , Wojciech Brydziński , Władysław Hańcza , Stefan Jaracz , Tadeusz Kantor , Mieczysław Kotlarczyk , Bohdan Korzeniowski , Jan Kreczmar , Adam Mularczyk , Andrzej Pronaszko , Leon Schiller , Arnold Szyfman , Stanisława Umińska , Edmund Wierciński , Maria Wiercińska , Karol Wojtyła ( who later became Pope John Paul II ) , Marian Wyrzykowski , Jerzy Zawieyski and others . Theater was also active in the Jewish ghettos and in the camps for Polish war prisoners . Four large companies and more than 40 smaller groups were active throughout the war , even in the Gestapo 's Pawiak prison in Warsaw and in Auschwitz ; underground acting schools were also created . |
Polish music , including orchestras , also went underground . Patriotic puppet shows were staged . Top Polish musicians and directors ( Adam Didur , Zbigniew Drzewiecki , Jan Ekier , Barbara Kostrzewska , Zygmunt Latoszewski , Jerzy Lefeld , Witold Lutosławski , Andrzej Panufnik , Piotr Perkowski , Edmund Rudnicki , Eugenia Umińska , Jerzy Waldorff , Kazimierz Wiłkomirski , Maria Wiłkomirska , Bolesław Woytowicz , Mira Zimińska ) performed in restaurants , cafes , and private homes , with the most daring singing patriotic ballads on the streets while evading German patrols . Patriotic songs were written , such as Siekiera , motyka , the most popular song of occupied Warsaw . Władysław Szpilman ) and artists likewise performed in ghettos and even in concentration camps . Although many of them died , some survived abroad , like Alexandre Tansman in the United States , and Eddie Rosner and Henryk Wars in the Soviet Union . Jewish musicians ( e.g. |
Although it was impossible to operate an underground radio station , underground auditions were recorded and introduced into German radios or loudspeaker systems . Cafes , restaurants and private homes were turned into galleries or museums ; some were closed , with their owners , staff and patrons harassed , arrested or even executed . Since the Germans also banned Polish sport activities , underground sport clubs were created ; underground football matches and even tournaments were organized in Warsaw , Kraków and Poznań , although these were usually dispersed by the Germans . Underground postage stamps were designed and issued . Some artists recorded life and death in occupied Poland ; despite German bans on Poles using cameras , photographs and even films were taken . These works were reprinted on underground presses , and those intended for public display were plastered to walls or painted on them as graffiti . Polish underground artists included Eryk Lipiński , Stanisław Miedza @-@ Tomaszewski , Stanisław Ostoja @-@ Chrostowski , and Konstanty Maria Sopoćko . Visual arts were practiced underground as well . Many of these activities were coordinated under the Action N Operation of Armia Krajowa 's Bureau of Information and Propaganda . In 1944 three giant ( 6 m , or 20 ft ) puppets , caricatures of Hitler and Benito Mussolini , were successfully displayed in public places in Warsaw . All of these activities were supported by the Underground State 's Department of Culture . Some artists worked directly for the Underground State , forging money and documents , and creating anti @-@ Nazi art ( satirical posters and caricatures ) or Polish patriotic symbols ( for example kotwica ) . |
= = = Warsaw Uprising = = = |
The 10th Underground Tournament of Poetry was held during the Uprising , with prizes being weaponry ( most of the Polish poets of the younger generation were also members of the resistance ) . Cultural life was vibrant among both soldiers and the civilian population , with theaters , cinemas , post offices , newspapers and similar activities available . During the Warsaw Uprising ( August – October 1944 ) , people in Polish @-@ controlled territory endeavored to recreate the former day @-@ to @-@ day life of their free country . Headed by Antoni Bohdziewicz , the Home Army 's Bureau of Information and Propaganda even created three newsreels and over 30 @,@ 000 metres ( 98 @,@ 425 ft ) of film documenting the struggle . |
Eugeniusz Lokajski took some 1 @,@ 000 photographs before he died ; Sylwester Braun some 3 @,@ 000 , of which 1 @,@ 500 survive ; Jerzy Tomaszewski some 1 @,@ 000 , of which 600 survived . |
= = Culture in exile = = |
Other writers working abroad included Jan Lechoń , Antoni Słonimski , Kazimierz Wierzyński and Julian Tuwim . Among musicians who performed for the Polish II Corps in a Polska Parada cabaret were Henryk Wars and Irena Anders . Melchior Wańkowicz wrote about the Polish contribution to the capture of Monte Cassino in Italy . Several Polish painters , mostly soldiers of the Polish II Corps , kept working throughout the war , including Tadeusz Piotr Potworowski , Adam Kossowski , Marian Kratochwil , Bolesław Leitgeber and Stefan Knapp . There were also Polish theaters in exile in both the East and the West . Arkady Fiedler , based in Britain with the Polish Armed Forces in the West wrote about the 303 Polish Fighter Squadron . There were artists who performed for the Polish forces in the West as well as for the Polish forces in the East . The most famous song of the soldiers fighting under the Allies was the Czerwone maki na Monte Cassino ( The Red Poppies on Monte Cassino ) , composed by Feliks Konarski and Alfred Schultz in 1944 . Polish artists also worked abroad , outside of occupied Europe . |
= = Influence on postwar culture = = |
Norman Davies wrote in God 's Playground : " In 1945 , as a prize for untold sacrifices , the attachment of the survivors to their native culture was stronger than ever before . " The wartime attempts to destroy Polish culture may have strengthened it instead . Similarly , close @-@ knit underground classes , from primary schools to universities , were renowned for their high quality , due in large part to the lower ratio of students to teachers . The multicultural nation was no more . The resulting culture was , however , different from the culture of interwar Poland for a number of reasons . The destruction of Poland 's Jewish community , Poland 's postwar territorial changes , and postwar migrations left Poland without its historic ethnic minorities . |
The term denotes an entire generation of Poles , born soon after Poland regained independence in 1918 , whose adolescence was marked by World War II . In their art , they " discovered a new Poland " – one forever changed by the atrocities of World War II and the ensuing creation of a communist Poland . The experience of World War II placed its stamp on a generation of Polish artists that became known as the " Generation of Columbuses " . |
Polish historian Tomasz Szarota wrote in 1996 : Many Polish works of art created since the war have centered on events of the war . Books by Tadeusz Borowski , Adolf Rudnicki , Henryk Grynberg , Miron Białoszewski , Hanna Krall and others ; films , including those by Andrzej Wajda ( A Generation , Kanał , Ashes and Diamonds , Lotna , A Love in Germany , Korczak , Katyń ) ; TV series ( Four Tank Men and a Dog and Stakes Larger than Life ) ; music ( Powstanie Warszawskie ) ; and even comic books – all of these diverse works have reflected those times . Over the years , nearly three @-@ quarters of the Polish people have emphasized the importance of World War II to the Polish national identity . |
Not to mention that politicians constantly make use of it . Educational and training programs place special emphasis on the World War II period and on the occupation . Probably no other country marks anniversaries related to the events of World War II so often or so solemnly . The theme remains an important element in literature and learning , in film , theater and the fine arts . Events and individuals connected with the war are ubiquitous on TV , on radio and in the print media . |
= Arihant @-@ class submarine =
|
They were developed under the US $ 2 @. The Arihant class ( Sanskrit , for Killer of Enemies ) is a class of nuclear @-@ powered ballistic missile submarines being built for the Indian Navy . @ 9 billion Advanced Technology Vessel ( ATV ) project to design and build nuclear @-@ powered submarines . |
Arihant is the first ballistic missile submarine to have been built by a country other than one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . The lead vessel of the class , INS Arihant was launched in 2009 and after extensive sea trials , was confirmed as ready for operations on 23 February 2016 . |
= = History = = |
Following the 1974 Smiling Buddha nuclear test , the Director of Marine Engineering ( DME ) at Naval Headquarters initiated a technical feasibility study for an indigenous nuclear propulsion system ( Project 932 ) . In December 1971 , during the Indo @-@ Pakistani War of 1971 , the US President Richard Nixon sent a carrier battle group named Task Force 74 , led by the nuclear @-@ powered USS Enterprise into the Bay of Bengal in an attempt to intimidate India . The event demonstrated the significance of nuclear weapons and ballistic missile submarines to then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi . In response , the Soviet Union sent a submarine armed with nuclear missiles from Vladivostok to trail the US task force . |
The Indian Navy 's Advanced Technology Vessel project to design and construct a nuclear submarine took shape in the 1990s . The initial intent of the project was to design nuclear @-@ powered fast attack submarines , though following nuclear tests conducted by India in 1998 at Pokhran Test Range and the Indian pledge of no first use , the project was re @-@ aligned towards the design of a ballistic missile submarine in order to complete India 's nuclear triad . Then Defence Minister George Fernandes confirmed the project in 1998 . |
= = Description = = |
They will be the first nuclear submarines designed and built by India . The Arihant @-@ class submarines are nuclear powered ballistic missile submarines built under the Advanced Technology Vessel ( ATV ) project . The complement is about 95 , including officers and sailors . The boats are powered by a single seven blade propeller powered by an 83 MW ( 111 @,@ 000 hp ) pressurised water reactor and can achieve a maximum speed of 12 – 15 knots ( 22 – 28 km / h ) when surfaced and 24 knots ( 44 km / h ) when submerged . The submarines are 112 m ( 367 ft ) long with a beam of 11 m ( 36 ft ) , a draught of 10 m ( 33 ft ) , displacement of 6 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 900 long tons ; 6 @,@ 600 short tons ) and a diving depth of 300 m ( 980 ft ) . |
The submarines are similar to the Akula @-@ class submarine of Russia . The Indian Navy will train on INS Chakra , an Akula @-@ class submarine leased from Russia in 2012 . The submarines have four launch tubes in their hump and can carry up to 12 K @-@ 15 Sagarika missiles with one warhead each ( with a range of 750 km or 470 mi ) or 4 K @-@ 4 missiles ( with a range of 3 @,@ 500 km or 2 @,@ 200 mi ) . |
= = Development = = |
The miniaturized version of the reactor was designed and built by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre ( BARC ) at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research ( IGCAR ) in Kalpakkam . It included a 42 @-@ metre ( 138 ft ) section of the submarine 's pressure hull containing the shielding tank with water and the reactor , a control room , as well as an auxiliary control room for monitoring safety parameters . The reactor subsystems were tested at the Machinery Test Center in Visakhapatnam . The prototype reactor became critical on 11 November 2003 and was declared operational on 22 September 2006 . Facilities for loading and replacing the fuel cores of the naval reactors in berthed submarines were also established . Successful operation of the prototype for three years enabled the production version of the reactor for Arihant . The submarines are powered by a pressurised water reactor with highly enriched uranium fuel . |
The lead vessel underwent a long and extensive process of testing after its launch in July 2009 . On 13 December 2014 , the submarine set off for its extensive sea trials . The propulsion and power systems were tested with high @-@ pressure steam trials followed by harbor @-@ acceptance trials that included submersion tests by flooding its ballast tanks and controlled dives to limited depths . INS Arihant 's reactor went critical for the first time on 10 August 2013 . Tata Power SED built the control systems for the submarine . The detailed engineering of the design was implemented at Larsen & Toubro 's submarine design center at their Hazira shipbuilding facility . The steam turbines and associated systems integrated with the reactor were supplied by Walchandnagar Industries . |
= = Ships in class = = |
The first four vessels are expected to be commissioned by 2023 . The next three ships in the class , after the lead ship , will be larger and have 8 missile launch tubes to carry up to 8 K4 and a more powerful pressurized water reactor than INS Arihant . Exact number of planned submarines remains unclear , according to media reports about three to six submarines are planned to be built . The first boat of the class , INS Arihant is expected to be commissioned by 2016 . A larger follow on class to the arihant class is also planned , these new boats will be capable of carrying 12 to 16 ballistic missiles . In December 2014 , the work on a second nuclear reactor began and the second boat , INS Aridhaman is being prepared for sea trials . |
= = Timeline = = |
= SMS Markgraf =
|
@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @. Markgraf was named in honor of the royal family of Baden . She was formally commissioned into the Imperial Navy on 1 October 1914 , just over two months after the outbreak of war in Europe . Markgraf was armed with ten 30 @. She served in the Imperial German Navy during World War I. SMS Markgraf was the third battleship of the four @-@ ship König class . The name Markgraf is a rank of German nobility and is equivalent to the English Margrave , or Marquess . The battleship was laid down in November 1911 and launched on 4 June 1913 . @ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets and could steam at a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . |
At Jutland , Markgraf was the third ship in the German line and heavily engaged by the opposing British Grand Fleet ; she sustained five large @-@ caliber hits and her crew suffered 23 casualties . Markgraf also participated in Operation Albion , the conquest of the Gulf of Riga , in late 1917 . The ship was damaged by a mine while en route to Germany following the successful conclusion of the operation . Along with her three sister ships , König , Grosser Kurfürst , and Kronprinz , Markgraf took part in most of the fleet actions during the war , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . |
The ships were disarmed and reduced to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . After Germany 's defeat in the war and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , Markgraf and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet were interned by the Royal Navy in Scapa Flow . Unlike most of the scuttled ships , Markgraf was never raised for scrapping ; the wreck is still sitting on the bottom of the bay . On 21 June 1919 , days before the treaty was signed , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . |
= = Construction and design = = |
Fitting @-@ out work was completed by 1 October 1914 , the day she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet . She had cost the Imperial German Government 45 million Goldmarks . At her launching ceremony , the ship was christened by Frederick II , Grand Duke of Baden , the head of the royal family of Baden , in honor of which the ship had been named . Markgraf was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz Weissenburg and built at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen under construction number 186 . Her keel was laid in November 1911 and she was launched on 4 June 1913 . |
She was powered by three Bergmann steam turbines , three oil @-@ fired and twelve coal @-@ fired boilers , which developed a total of 40 @,@ 830 shp ( 30 @,@ 450 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . @ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 9 @. @ 19 m ( 30 ft 2 in ) . Markgraf displaced 25 @,@ 796 t ( 25 @,@ 389 long tons ) as built and 28 @,@ 600 t ( 28 @,@ 100 long tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 175 @. The ship had a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ship had a crew of 41 officers and 1 @,@ 095 enlisted sailors . @ 4 m ( 575 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 19 @. |
@ 5 cm ( 12 @. @ 5 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns and five 50 cm ( 20 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow and two on each beam . The ship 's main armored belt was 350 millimeters ( 14 in ) thick . @ 9 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns , six 8 @. @ 8 cm guns were removed and replaced with four 8 @. @ 8 cm ( 3 @. Markgraf 's 8 @. She was armed with ten 30 @. Her secondary armament consisted of fourteen 15 cm ( 5 @. @ 0 in ) SK L / 50 guns arranged in five twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets each fore and aft and one turret amidships between the two funnels . @ 2 in ) thick ; the main battery turrets and forward conning tower were armored with 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick steel plates . @ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns . The deck was 30 mm ( 1 @. |