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[ "Not long ago, phishing attacks were fairly easy for the average Internet user to spot: Full of grammatical and spelling errors, and linking to phony bank or email logins at unencrypted (http:// vs. https://) Web pages. ", "Increasingly, however, phishers are upping their game, polishing their copy and hosting scam pages over https:// connections — complete with the green lock icon in the browser address bar to make the fake sites appear more legitimate.", "\n\nAccording to stats released this week by anti-phishing firm PhishLabs, nearly 25 percent of all phishing sites in the third quarter of this year were hosted on HTTPS domains — almost double the percentage seen in the previous quarter.", "\n\n“A year ago, less than three percent of phish were hosted on websites using SSL certificates,” wrote Crane Hassold, the company’s threat intelligence manager. “", "Two years ago, this figure was less than one percent.”", "\n\nAs shown in the examples above (which KrebsOnSecurity found in just a few minutes of searching via phish site reporting service Phishtank.com), the most successful phishing sites tend to include not only their own SSL certificates but also a portion of the phished domain in the fake address.", "\n\nWhy are phishers more aggressively adopting HTTPS Web sites? ", "Traditionally, many phishing pages are hosted on hacked, legitimate Web sites, in which case the attackers can leverage both the site’s good reputation and its SSL certificate.", "\n\nYet this, too, is changing, says PhishLabs’ Hassold.", "\n\n“An analysis of Q3 HTTPS phishing attacks against PayPal and Apple, the two primary targets of these attacks, indicates that nearly three-quarters of HTTPS phishing sites targeting them were hosted on maliciously-registered domains rather than compromised websites, which is substantially higher than the overall global rate,” he wrote. “", "Based on data from 2016, slightly less than half of all phishing sites were hosted on domains registered by a threat actor.”", "\n\nHassold posits that more phishers are moving to HTTPS because it helps increase the likelihood that users will trust that the site is legitimate. ", "After all, your average Internet user has been taught for years to simply “look for the lock icon” in the browser address bar as assurance that a site is safe.", "\n\nPerhaps this once was useful advice, but if so its reliability has waned over the years. ", "In November, PhishLabs conducted a poll to see how many people actually knew the meaning of the green padlock that is associated with HTTPS websites.", "\n\n“More than 80% of the respondents believed the green lock indicated that a website was either legitimate and/or safe, neither of which is true,” he wrote.", "\n\nWhat the green lock icon indicates is that the communication between your browser and the Web site in question is encrypted; it does little to ensure that you really are communicating with the site you believe you are visiting.", "\n\nAt a higher level, another reason phishers are more broadly adopting HTTPS is because more sites in general are using encryption: According to Let’s Encrypt, 65% of web pages loaded by Firefox in November used HTTPS, compared to 45% at the end of 2016.", "\n\nAlso, phishers no longer need to cough up a nominal fee each time they wish to obtain a new SSL certificate. ", "Indeed, Let’s Encrypt now gives them away for free.", "\n\nThe major Web browser makers all work diligently to index and block known phishing sites, but you can’t count on the browser to save you:\n\nSo what can you do to make sure you’re not the next phishing victim?", "\n\nDon’t take the bait: Most phishing attacks try to convince you that you need to act quickly to avoid some kind of loss, cost or pain, usually by clicking a link and “verifying” your account information, user name, password, etc. ", "at a fake site. ", "Emails that emphasize urgency should be always considered extremely suspect, and under no circumstances should you do anything suggested in the email.", "\n\nPhishers count on spooking people into acting rashly because they know their scam sites have a finite lifetime; they may be shuttered at any moment. ", "The best approach is to bookmark the sites that store your sensitive information; that way, if you receive an urgent communication that you’re unsure about, you can visit the site in question manually and log in that way. ", "In general, it’s a bad idea to click on links in email.", "\n\nLinks Lie: You’re a sucker if you take links at face value. ", "For example, this might look like a link to Bank of America, but I assure you it is not. ", "To get an idea of where a link goes, hover over it with your mouse and then look in the bottom left corner of the browser window.", "\n\nYet, even this information often tells only part of the story, and some links can be trickier to decipher. ", "For instance, many banks like to send links that include ridiculously long URLs which stretch far beyond the browser’s ability to show the entire thing when you hover over the link.", "\n\nThe most important part of a link is the “root” domain. ", "To find that, look for the first slash (/) after the “http://” part, and then work backwards through the link until you reach the second dot; the part immediately to the right is the real domain to which that link will take you.", "\n\n“From” Fields can be forged: Just because the message says in the “From:” field that it was sent by your bank doesn’t mean that it’s true. ", "This information can be and frequently is forged.", "\n\nIf you want to discover who (or what) sent a message, you’ll need to examine the email’s “headers,” important data included in all email. ", "The headers contain a lot of information that can be overwhelming for the untrained eye, so they are often hidden by your email client or service provider, each of which may have different methods for letting users view or enable headers.", "\n\nDescribing succinctly how to read email headers with an eye toward thwarting spammers would require a separate tutorial, so I will link to a decent one already written at About.com. ", "Just know that taking the time to learn how to read headers is a useful skill that is well worth the effort.", "\n\nKeep in mind that phishing can take many forms: Why steal one set of login credentials for a single brand when you can steal them all? ", "Increasingly, attackers are opting for approaches that allow them to install a password-snarfing Trojan that steals all of the sensitive data on victim PCs.", "\n\nSo be careful about clicking links, and don’t open attachments in emails you weren’t expecting, even if they appear to come from someone you know. ", "Send a note back to the sender to verify the contents and that they really meant to send it. ", "This step can be a pain, but I’m a stickler for it; I’ve been known to lecture people who send me press releases and other items as unrequested attachments.", "\n\nIf you didn’t go looking for it, don’t install it: Password stealing malware doesn’t only come via email; quite often, it is distributed as a Facebook video that claims you need a special “codec” to view the embedded content. ", "There are tons of variations of this scam. ", "The point to remember is: If it wasn’t your idea to install something from the get-go, don’t do it.", "\n\nLay traps: When you’ve mastered the basics above, consider setting traps for phishers, scammers and unscrupulous marketers. ", "Some email providers — most notably Gmail — make this especially easy.", "\n\nWhen you sign up at a site that requires an email address, think of a word or phrase that represents that site for you, and then add that with a “+” sign just to the left of the “@” sign in your email address. ", "For example, if I were signing up at example.com, I might give my email address as krebsonsecurity+example@gmail.com. ", "Then, I simply go back to Gmail and create a folder called “Example,” along with a new filter that sends any email addressed to that variation of my address to the Example folder.", "\n\nThat way, if anyone other than the company I gave this custom address to starts spamming or phishing it, that may be a clue that example.com shared my address with others (or that it got hacked!). ", "I should note two caveats here. ", "First, although this functionality is part of the email standard, not all email providers will recognize address variations like these. ", "Also, many commercial Web sites freak out if they see anything other than numerals or letters, and may not permit the inclusion of a “+” sign in the email address field.", "\n\nTags: Crane Hassold, Let's Encrypt, PhishLabs, phishtank.com" ]

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[ "Q:\n\nTransformations of sparse dataframe subsets\n\nI often find myself needing to apply a small number of rule-based transformations to dataframes based on certain conditions, typically a fixed number of fields having certain values. ", "The transformations can modify any number of columns, usually one to three. ", "The number of rows involved in these transformations is small compared to the total number of rows in the data frames. ", "Currently I am using ddply but the performance is lacking because ddply modifies all rows. ", "\nI am looking for a way to solve this problem in an elegant, generic manner taking advantage of the fact that only a small number of rows needs to be changed. ", "Below is a simplified example of the types of transformations I'm dealing with. ", "\ndf <- data.frame(Product=gl(4,10,labels=c(\"A\",\"B\", \"C\", \"D\")), \n Year=sort(rep(2002:2011,4)), \n Quarter=rep(c(\"Q1\",\"Q2\", \"Q3\", \"Q4\"), 10), \n Sales=1:40) \n> head(df)\n Product Year Quarter Sales\n1 A 2002 Q1 1\n2 A 2002 Q2 2\n3 A 2002 Q3 3\n4 A 2002 Q4 4\n5 A 2003 Q1 5\n6 A 2003 Q2 6\n> \ntransformations <- function(df) {\n if (df$Year == 2002 && df$Product == 'A') {\n df$Sales <- df$Sales + 3\n } else if (df$Year == 2009 && df$Product == 'C') {\n df$Sales <- df$Sales - 10\n df$Product <- 'E'\n }\n df\n}\n\nlibrary(plyr)\ndf <- ddply(df, .(Product, Year), transformations)\n\n> head(df)\n Product Year Quarter Sales\n1 A 2002 Q1 4\n2 A 2002 Q2 5\n3 A 2002 Q3 6\n4 A 2002 Q4 7\n5 A 2003 Q1 5\n6 A 2003 Q2 6\n\nInsted of hard-coded conditionals I'm using a pairlist of conditional and transformation functions, e.g., the code below, but that's not a meaningful improvement.", "\ntransformation_rules <- list(\n list(\n condition = function(df) df$Year == 2002 && df$Product == 'A',\n transformation = function(df) {\n df$Sales <- df$Sales + 3\n df\n }\n )\n)\n\nWhat are some better ways to approach this problem?", "\n\nA:\n\nI don't think you need to use plyr for this problem at all. ", "I think you can simply use ifelse() and take advantage of the fact that R is vectorized and get the same result.", "\nSince your function directly modifies the Sales column, I made a copy of it like so before running plyr: df2 <- df. ", "I also had my example make a new column Sales2 instead of overwriting the Sales column.", "\nAnd then rewrote your function like this:\ndf2$Sales2 <- with(df2, ifelse(Year == 2002 & Product == \"A\", Sales + 3,\n ifelse(Year == 2009 & Product == \"C\", Sales - 10, Sales)))\n\nAnd testing whether or not the output is equal:\n> all.equal(df$Sales, df2$Sales2)\n[1] TRUE\n\nAnd comparing the system timing between the two shows that the vectorized version avoiding ddply is much faster:\n> system.time(df <- ddply(df, .(Product, Year), transformations))\n user system elapsed \n 0.012 0.000 0.012 \n> system.time(df2$Sales2 <- with(df2, ifelse(Year == 2002 & Product == \"A\", Sales + 3,\n+ ifelse(Year == 2009 & Product == \"C\", Sales - 10, Sales))))\n user system elapsed \n 0 0 0 \n\nSo, unless I'm missing something - you can avoid plyr all together here and get some nice speed improvements. ", "If ifelse() proves too slow, you could write up some boolean functions to go even faster, though I doubt that will be necessary.", "\n\n" ]

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[ "Q:\n\nFactor $x^ 5 - x^4 - x^ 2 - 1$ modulo $16$, and over $\\mathbb{Q }$\n\nFrom ARTIN algebra books chapter $12$ question $4.19$:\nFactor $x^ 5 - x^4 - x^ 2 - 1$ modulo $16$, and over $\\mathbb{Q }$ \nMy works : I have check in $\\mathbb{Z}_{16}$ as $x^ 5 - x^4 - x^ 2 - 1$ is irreducible in modulo $16$, that $f(0)=-1, f(1) =-2,........,f(15)\\neq 0$.\nNow on over $\\mathbb{Q}$ that is $f(x)=x^ 5 - x^4 - x^ 2 - 1$ that is by fundamental theorem of algebra every odd degree has atleast one root. ", "So $f(x)$ is reducible in $\\mathbb{Q}$.\nAs I know don't the root ?", "\nAny hints/solution will be appreciated.", "\n\nA:\n\nNote that $x=11=-5$ is a root of $p(x):=x^5-x^4-x^2-1$ in $R:=(\\mathbb{Z}/16\\mathbb{Z})$. We then see that\n$$x^5-x^4-x^2-1=(x+5)(x^4-6x^3-2x^2-7x+3)\\tag{*}$$\nover $R$. We claim that this is the unique factorization of $p(x)$ over $R$ into irreducible factors.", "\nTaking $p(x)$ modulo $2$, we can factor it into\n$$(x+1)(x^4+x+1)\\,.\\tag{#}$$\nSince $x^4+x+1$ is an irreducible polynomial over the field $\\mathbb{F}_2=(\\mathbb{Z}/2\\mathbb{Z})$, we conclude that both factors in (*) are also irreducible over $R$. \nFurthermore, (#) tells us that any nontrivial factorization over $R$ of $p(x)$ has a linear factor. ", " Since $x=-5$ is the only root in $R$ of $p(x)$, (*) is the unique factorization of $p(x)$ into irreducible factors. ", " (Note that, in modulo $m$ with $m$ being a composite integer, sometimes a polynomial can be factorized into irreducible factors in many ways. ", " For example, $$x^2-1=(x-1)(x+1)=(x-3)(x+3)$$ in modulo $8$.)\n\n To show that $q(x):=x^4+x+1$ is irreducible over $\\mathbb{F}_2$, we note that $q(x)$ has no roots in $\\mathbb{F}_2$. Therefore, if it were reducible, then it would be factored into two irreducible quadratics. ", " There is only one irreducible quadratic over $\\mathbb{F}_2$, which is $x^2+x+1$. This would mean $$x^4+x+1=\\left(x^2+x+1\\right)^2=x^4+x^2+1\\,,$$ which is absurd.", "\n\nWe can use (#) to prove that $p(x)$ is irreducible over $\\mathbb{Q}$. If $p(x)$ were reducible over $\\mathbb{Q}$, then it would be reducible over $\\mathbb{Z}$ by Gauss's Lemma, whence $p(x)$ would, by (#), have a linear factor, whence an integer root. ", " However, any integer root of $p(x)$ would have to be $\\pm1$ by the Rational Root Theorem, but $$p(-1)= -4\\neq 0\\text{ and }p(+1)=-2\\neq 0\\,,$$ so we have a contradiction.", "\n\n" ]

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[ "Glenea caninia\n\nGlenea caninia is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. ", "It was described by Heller in 1926 on the basis of a specimen obtained from Karwar by T.R.D. Bell. ", "It is known from peninsular India in the Western Ghats and associated mountain forests.", "\n\nThese beetles are about 1.1 to 1.5 cm long. ", "The forehead and cheeks clothed in yellowish white pubescence. ", "The elytra have a broad post-median band of yellow hairs. ", "The species is closely related to G. galathea of which this was once considered as a subspecies.", "\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n Types\n\nCategory:Glenea\nCategory:Beetles described in 1926" ]

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[ "Collagen fibril characteristics at the corneo-scleral boundary and rabbit corneal stromal swelling.", "\nThe aim of this investigation was to reassess the impact of the scleral rim on the swelling of the mammalian corneal stroma and to investigate the ultrastructural features of the scleral rim and corneal stromal tissues. ", "The epithelium and endothelium were removed from corneas excised from three-month-old female rabbits. ", "The resulting preparations consisted of the corneal stroma plus a surrounding scleral rim, excised corneal stroma or a nine-millimetre button of central corneal stroma. ", "These preparations were immersed in a 35 mM bicarbonate-buffered mixed salt solution (equilibrated with five per cent CO2-air, pH 7.54 at 37 degrees Centigrade for nine hours. ", "Some sclero-corneal preparations were fixed for light or transmission electron microscopy. ", "The initial rate of swelling of corneal stromal buttons was greatest at 127 +/- 8 per cent per hour, less for complete stromal preparations (118 +/- 9 per cent per hour) and least for sclero-stromal preparations (76 +/- 12 per cent per hour). ", "The swelling continued over three to nine hours but sclera preparations swelled up to 40 per cent with no further swelling. ", "Light microscopy demonstrated that the sclero-corneal rim tissue limited the swelling of the posterior corneal stroma. ", "TEM sections of the episclera and sclera indicate that most fibril bundles show a radial orientation to the cornea. ", "There are marked anterio-posterior differences in the collagen fibrils of the scleral surround that are distinctly different from previous reports. ", "Average fibril diameters were 62.8 +/- 7.9 nm in the episclera, 122.4 +/- 18.9 nm, 133.5 +/- 51.9 nm and 56.5 +/- 11.2 nm in the anterior, mid- and posterior scleral stroma, compared to an average fibril diameter of 33.5 +/- 3.5 nm for the posterior corneal stroma. ", "When there is a scleral rim in place, the swelling of the corneal stroma is substantially less than for isolated corneal stroma. ", "The effect can be attributed to the absence of a cut-edge effect for the sclero-corneal stromal preparation but the unique and largely radial arrangement of the collagen fibrils in the scleral rim plays a part in limiting the swelling of the adjacent corneal stroma. ", "The heterogeneous nature of this sclero-corneal interface requires further investigation to define the mechanism of the effect." ]

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[ "Apoptotic Effects of Sanguinarine on the Organ of Corti 1 Cells: Comparison with Cisplatin.", "\nSanguinarine is an alkaloid obtained from the root of Sanguinaria canadensis and other plants from the Papaveraceae family and is well known to possess a broad range of biological functions, such as antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and antineoplastic activities. ", "We aimed to specify the in vitro effect of sanguinarine on the House Ear Institute-Organ of Corti 1 (HEI-OC1) cells and to compare this effect with the ototoxic effect of cisplatin (CDDP). ", "We performed cell proliferation assay for determining the in vitro effect of sanguinarine alone and compared it with the effect of cisplatin. ", "Flow cytometry annexin-V apoptosis detection was performed. ", "We found that sanguinarine and CDDP inhibited the cell growth in a dose-dependant manner in HEI-OC1 cells after 24 h of incubation. ", "In sanguinarine-treated group, apoptosis was 6.6%, necrosis was 26.7%, and the cell viability was 66.7%. ", "Further, in CDDP-treated group, apoptosis was 5.6%, necrosis was 45.4%, and the cell viability was 48.7%. ", "According to the annexin-V apoptosis detection results, we found that sanguinarine caused 3.9% apoptosis and 1.3% necrosis, while CDDP caused 2.9% apoptosis and 20% necrosis on HEI-OC1 cells. ", "Our findings suggested that lower doses of sanguinarine are promising antineoplastic agents, which did not indicate any toxic effect on HEI-OC1 cells. ", "Application of these data to clinical practice requires further support by in vivo studies." ]

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[ "Samantha Bentley is a female pornstar currently ranked number 1,717 at PORN.COM. ", "With 2,657 total videos available, Samantha Bentley's videos have been viewed 4,163 times. ", "Born in London, England, United Kingdom on October 8, 1987, this 5'4\" tall black, brown has blue eyes and small breasts." ]

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[ "Roger Yap\n\nRogelio \"Roger\" Yap (born August 3, 1977) is a Filipino former professional basketball player. ", "He last played for the Manila Stars of the Maharlika Pilipinas Basketball League (MPBL).", "\n\nHe was drafted by Purefoods in 2001 as the ninth pick overall. ", "He is also a former PBL MVP. ", "He is known as a power point guard who can grab rebounds and has a great touch from the perimeter.", "\n\nHe is best known for his playing years as the starting point guard with Purefoods, now known as San Mig Coffee.", "\n\nStatistics\n\nCorrect as of February 18, 2017\n\nSeason\n\n|-\n| align=\"left\" | 2001\n| align=\"left\" | Purefoods\n| 33 || 26.0 || .369 || .160 || .419 || 1.8 || .7 || .8 || .1 || 3.7\n|-\n| align=\"left\" | 2002\n| align=\"left\" | Purefoods\n| 35 || 16.4 || .336 || .240 || .586 || 2.1 || 2.3 || .5 || .1 || 3.7\n|-\n| align=\"left\" | 2003\n| align=\"left\" | FedEx\n| 41 || 22.3 || .409 || .351 || .780 || 2.9 || 2.5 || 1.7 || .2 || 7.1\n|-\n| align=\"left\" | 2004-05\n| align=\"left\" | Shell\n| 71 || 24.2 || .432 || .302 || .713 || 3.7 || 3.6 || 1.2 || .3 || 9.0\n|-\n| align=\"left\" | 2005-06\n| align=\"left\" | Purefoods\n| 57 || 28.5 || .361 || .230 || .631 || 4.2 || 4.0 || 1.6 || .2 || 7.1\n|-\n| align=\"left\" | 2006-07\n| align=\"left\" | Purefoods\n| 38 || 26.8 || .407 || .233 || .622 || 3.2 || 3.0 || 1.1 || .3 || 7.1\n|-\n| align=\"left\" | 2007-08\n| align=\"left\" | Purefoods\n| 48 || 28.0 || .399 || .234 || .639 || 4.8 || 3.8 || 1.2 || .3 || 7.5\n|-\n| align=\"left\" | 2008-09\n| align=\"left\" | Purefoods\n| 28 || 22.3 || .316 || .190 || .756 || 3.9 || 2.9 || 1.1 || .2 || 4.9\n|-\n| align=\"left\" | 2009-10\n| align=\"left\" | Purefoods/B-Meg Derby Ace\n| 64 || 27.4 || .411 || .328 || .731 || 4.6 || 4.0 || 1.0 || .4 || 10.0\n|-\n| align=\"left\" | 2010-11\n| align=\"left\" | B-Meg\n| 39 || 28.4 || .355 || .200 || .779 || 4.0 || 4.0 || 1.2 || .3 || 7.0\n|-\n| align=\"left\" | 2011-12\n| align=\"left\" | B-Meg\n| 20 || 19.6 || .447 || .200 || .808 || 3.1 || 2.5 || .5 || .2 || 4.6\n|-\n| align=\"left\" | 2012-13\n| align=\"left\" | Barako Bull\n| 15 || 19.4 || .465 || .294 || .704 || 2.8 || 1.8 || .6 || .3 || 6.0\n|-\n| align=\"left\" | Career\n| align=\"left\" |\n| 489 || 25.0 || .394 || .266 || .689 || 3.6 || 3.2 || 1.1 || .3 || 7.1\n\nReferences \n\nCategory:1977 births\nCategory:Living people\nCategory:Barako Bull Energy players\nCategory:Basketball players from Cebu\nCategory:Cebuano people\nCategory:Filipino men's basketball players\nCategory:Magnolia Hotshots players\nCategory:Maharlika Pilipinas Basketball League players\nCategory:Philippine Basketball Association All-Stars\nCategory:Point guards\nCategory:Shell Turbo Chargers players\nCategory:Shooting guards\nCategory:University of San Jose–Recoletos alumni\nCategory:College basketball players in the Philippines" ]

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[ "L eave it to Edgar Wright to redefine the way we see our favorite films. ", "With Shaun of the Dead, he put a comedic spin on zombie horror. ", "And with Hot Fuzz, he added tinges of terror and black humor to the action-thriller. ", "But with Baby Driver, the writer/director has outdone himself, creating a masterfully orchestrated genre mashup that's surely destined to become a cult classic.", "\n\n\n\nA gripping heist flick, an edge-of-your-seat car chase thriller and a starry-eyed romance all rolled into one, with ample bits of sly comedy to boot, the movie follows a talented getaway driver named Miles (Ansel Elgort), who prefers to go by the name Baby. ", "The go-to-guy for underworld mover-and-shaker Doc (Kevin Spacey), Baby lost both his parents in a tragic car accident that also left him with a case of tinnitus. ", "Consequently, he's always listening to songs on his iPod — actually, he has several — just so he can drown out the persistent \"hum in the drum.\"", "\n\n\n\nAlready anxious to leave his criminal past in the dust, Baby's plans to emancipate himself from Doc's gang are accelerated when he meets the sweet Debora (Lily James), a waitress who also happens to work at the same diner as his late mom, a once-aspiring singer for whom Baby still holds fond memories. ", "Before you know it, Baby and Debora have fallen madly in love and dream of driving off into the sunset together. ", "However, the lovebirds soon find the brakes slammed on their romantic getaway when Doc pulls Baby back in for the old cliché that is \"one more job.\"", "\n\n\n\nWhat follows is anything but clichéd, though, as Baby Driver takes viewers on a high-speed cinematic joy ride that drifts around corners instead of hugging the road, refusing to adhere to the norms of any of the many genres it so gleefully borrows from. ", "Whether you're an adrenaline junkie or a sucker for sugary romances, odds are that you'll find something to like here, as the film serves as one big melting pot, skillfully toe-tapping around the tonal differences that separate, say, musicals and thrillers, sometimes time and time again within the same scene.", "\n\n\n\nOf course, it's a boon that the cast here is as great as they are. ", "And it's not just Elgort and James, whose extremely watchable chemistry plays a huge role in drawing audiences into their characters' predicament. ", "Spacey's Doc proves imposing, yet strangely likeable, and avoids the lure of recreating another Frank Underwood type of persona, while the inclusion of Jon Hamm, Jamie Foxx, Jon Bernthal and Eiza González as members of Doc's rotating squad of thugs makes for an impressive and diverse supporting cast who threaten to steal the movie at any moment.", "\n\n\n\nLast, but most certainly not least, there's the music that drives the film, which ranges from Jon Spencer Blues Explosion's \"Bellbottoms\" to Queen's \"Brighton Rock.\" ", "It's an eclectic, soulful and rocking mix of tunes that you might not otherwise find on the same playlist, but Wright uses the soundtrack's unpredictability to his advantage, integrating it into the heartbeat of the narrative, giving Baby Driver an energy that spans from the opening heist to the closing credits. ", "Suffice to say, when it's all said and done, you'll never listen to these songs the same way again.", "\n\n\n\nBaby Driver releases June 28th, 2017 from Sony Pictures. ", "The film has an MPAA rating of R for language throughout and violence. ", "Its runtime is 1 Hr. ", "53 Mins.", "\n\n" ]

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[ "Requiem (Bruckner)\n\nThe Requiem in D minor, WAB 39, is a Missa pro defunctis composed by Anton Bruckner in 1849.", "\n\nHistory \nThe Requiem in D minor, a setting of the Missa pro defunctis for mixed choir, vocal soloists, three trombones, one horn, strings and organ with figured bass, was composed by Bruckner in memory of Franz Sailer, the notary of the St. Florian Monastery, who bequeathed Bruckner a Bösendorfer piano. ", "The Requiem was premiered on 15 September 1849 in the St. Florian Monastery, a year after Sailer's death. ", "A second performance occurred on 11 December 1849 in the Abbey of Kremsmünster. ", "The manuscript is archived in the St. Florian Monastery.", "\n\nIn 1892, Bruckner revised the score and gave it to Franz Bayer. ", "Bayer performed it on 4 December 1895 in Steyr for the funerals of parish priest Johann Evangelist Aichinger. ", "The Österreichische Nationalbibliothek acquired the revised score from Bayer's widow in 1923.", "\n\nSetting \n Introit: Requiem – Andante, D minor\n Sequence: Dies irae – Allegro, D minor\n Offertorium\n Domine – Andante, F major\n Hostias – Adagio, B-flat major: Chorale by divided man voices and trombones\n Quam olim – Con spirito, F minor: Double fugue, ending in F major\n Sanctus – Andante, D minor\n Benedictus – Andante, B-flat major - a solo horn replaces the bass trombone\n Agnus Dei and Communion\n Agnus Dei – Adagio, D minor\n Requiem – Adagio, D minor: Chorale a cappella\n Cum sanctis – Alla breve, D minor, ending in D major\nTotal duration: about 37 minutes\n\nThe Requiem is most likely Bruckner's \"first truly large-scale composition and probably his first significant work.\" \"[", "It] is amazing what he achieved, especially if we look at the great double fugue of the Quam olim Abrahae, written at least six years before he even commenced his thorough contrapuntal studies with Simon Sechter!\" \"", "The Requiem was Bruckner's first larger-scale composition and also his first work with orchestra. [", "When reviewing it in 1892,] as a highly self-critical seventy-year-old, Bruckner passed judgement on the work as follows: ('It is not bad!').\"", "\n\nThere is clear influence of Mozart throughout the work. [", "There] are many passages reminiscent of what was even then, in 1848/49, a past age (the very opening points irresistibly to Mozart's Requiem in the same key), and though the very inclusion of a figured bass for organ continuo strikes one as backward looking, there are already several flashes of the later, great Bruckner to come.[Despite it] is by no means a perfect masterpiece... [it] can be said to be the first full demonstration that the young man was a composer of inestimable promise. ... [", "The] expressively reticent opening of the opening of the Requiem, with his softly shifting syncopations in the strings ... already faintly anticipates one or two of his own symphonic passages in the two earlier D minor symphonies, for instance Nos. '", "0' and 3... [We] cannot escape the solemn beauty of this music, which already has the authentic atmosphere of natural genius.", "\n\nDuring the years following the composition of the Requiem, Bruckner wrote a number of small choral works as well as two works on a larger canvas: a Magnificat (1852) and the Missa solemnis in B-flat minor (1854). ", "Strangely enough these do not quite measure up to the qualities inherent in the earlier Requiem.", "\n\nVersions and editions \nBruckner made a slight revision of the score in 1892. ", "He gave Franz Bayer the revised score. ", "Bayer performed the revised work on 4 December 1895 in Steyr for the funerals of the parish priest Johann Evangelist Aichinger. ", "The Österreichische Nationalbibliothek could acquire the revised score from Bayer's widow in 1923.", "\n\nThere are three different editions in the Gesamtausgabe:\n Haas edition (1930/31), together with the Missa solemnis. ", "Haas added a lot of dynamics markings, but ignored some of Bruckner's hairpins \n Nowak edition (1966). ", "Nowak corrected Haas' oversights but retained antique clefs for the vocal parts (different C-clefs for soprano, alto and tenor)\n Rüdiger Bornhöft edition (1998). ", "Bornhöft modernised the clefs (treble for all but bass) and corrected minor errors.", "\n\nSelected discography \nThe Requiem remains still somewhat in the background of other Bruckner's works. ", "Most of the about 20 recordings of it are live performances, which were not brought to the commercial market.", "\n\nAccording to Hans Roelofs, Schönzeler's 1970 LP recording, which was a true pioneer work, has, in spite of subsequent recordings, hold his status. ", "Matthew Best's CD recording is currently still the reference. ", "Farnberger's recording (1997) with the St. Florianer Sängerknaben, which was recorded in the St. Florian Abbey, provides the listener with a whiff of authenticity. ", "Out of the more recent recordings, Roelofs picks out Janssens' recording of 2006 with the Laudantes Consort, and Susana Acra-Brache's recording of 2010 with the Grupo Vocal Matisses.", "\n\n Hans-Hubert Schönzeler, Requiem & 4 Orchestral Pieces, Alexandra Choir, London Philharmonic Orchestra, Robert Munns (Organ) – LP: Unicorn UNS 210, 1970\n Hans Michael Beuerle, Requiem in D minor, Laubacher Kantorei and Instrumental-Ensemble Werner Keltsch – LP: Cantate 658 231, 1972.This LP has been transferred to CD: Klassic Haus KHCD 2011-092, 2011 (with Psalm 146 by Wolfgang Riedelbauch).", "\n Friedrich Wolf, Anton Bruckner – Requiem, Choir and Orchestra of St Augustin, Vienna, Martin Haselböck (Organ) – LP: Philips Fontana 6599 855, 1974 \n Herbert Ermert, Anton Bruckner - Requiem d-Moll, Bach-Gemeinschaft Bonn, Siegerland-Orchester, Ludger Lohmann (Organ) – LP: Aulos FSM-53 552 AUL, 1980 - transferred to CD: Aulos AUL 66122 (with Cherubini's Requiem)\n Jürgen Jürgens, Anton Bruckner – Music of the St. Florian Period (II), Monteverdi-Chor, Camerata Academica Hamburg, Werner Kaufmann (Organ), 1985.This historical, previously not issued performance has recently been transferred to CD: BSVD-0111, 2012 (Bruckner Archive Production)\n Matthew Best, Bruckner - Requiem, Psalm 112 & Psalm 114, Corydon Singers, English Chamber Orchestra, Thomas Trotter (organ) – CD: Hyperion CDA66245, 1987\n Franz Farnberger, Anton Bruckner in St. Florian – Requiem & Motetten, St. Florianer Sängerknaben, Instrumentalensemble St. Florian, Andreas Etlinger (Organ) – CD Studio SM D2639 SM 44, 1997\n Guy Janssens, A history of the Requiem - Part III, Laudantes Consort, Benoît Mernier (Organ) – CD: Cypres CYP 1654, 2006 (with Maurice Duruflé’s Requiem)\n Susana Acra-Brache, Anton Bruckner: Requiem, Ave Maria & Te Deum, Grupo Vocal Matisses and In-Art Orquestra – CD/DVD: Issue of the Ensemble Musica Sacra, 2010.", "\n Łukasz Borowicz, Anton Bruckner: Requiem, RIAS Kammerchor, Akademie für Alte Musik Berlin – CD: Accentus ACC30474, 2019 - Cohrs edition based on the 1849 version\n\nReferences\n\nSources \nAnton Bruckner, Sämtliche Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe – Band 15: Requiem d-Moll – Missa solemnis b-Moll, Dr. Benno Filsen Verlag GmbH, Robert Haas (Editor), Augsburg-Vienna, 1930\n Anton Bruckner: Sämtliche Werke: Band XIV: Requiem d-Moll (1849), Musikwissenschaftlicher Verlag der Internationalen Bruckner-Gesellschaft, Leopold Nowak (Editor), Vienna, 1966 / revised new edition, Rüdiger Bornhöft (Editor), Vienna, 1998\n Uwe Harten, Anton Bruckner. ", "Ein Handbuch. , ", "Salzburg, 1996. .", "\n Keith William Kinder, The Wind and Wind-Chorus Music of Anton Bruckner, Greenwood Press, Westport, Connecticut, 2000\n Cornelis van Zwol, Anton Bruckner – Leven en Werken, Thot, Bussum (Netherlands), 2012.", "\n\nExternal links \n Requiem d-Moll, WAB 39 Critical discography by Hans Roelofs \n \n Live performances of the Requiem:\n Christian Radner with the Choir and Orchestra of the Landesmusikschule and the Kirchenmusikverein of Schwanenstadt (21-03-2010) on their website: Anton Bruckner – Requiem in d-Moll\n Maija Breiksa with the Biberist Contrapunkt Chor (2012) on YouTube: Anton Bruckner - Requiem in d-Moll WAB39\n\nCategory:Masses by Anton Bruckner\nCategory:1849 compositions\nBruckner\nCategory:Music for orchestra and organ\nCategory:Compositions in D minor" ]

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[ "The Independent Democratic Conference (IDC) – led by Bronx Sen. Jeff Klein – was a group of 8 NY State Senators who were elected to office as Democrats but who formed a coalition with Republicans, thereby blocking most progressive legislation in NY for over 7 years.", "\n\nIn the September 13, 2018 Democratic primary, after an unprecedented grassroots campaign, 6 IDC Senators including Klein were defeated by progressive challengers backed by No IDC NY. [", "New York Times]\n\n" ]

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[ "Salvador Caetano\n\nGrupo Salvador Caetano, SGPS, SA or simply Salvador Caetano is a Portuguese holding based in Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal that controls some enterprises on vehicle assembly, components and distribution business.", "\n\nIt had a turnover of €1.6 billion in 2012 and is responsible for 6,000 jobs, besides Portugal, in the United Kingdom, Spain, Germany, Cape Verde and Angola.", "\n\nHistory\n\nThe roots of Grupo Salvador Caetano can be traced, in 1946, to Salvador Fernandes Caetano (1926-2011) (then with the name \"Martins, Caetano & Irmão, Lda.\", ", "in the coachbuilding sector, becoming the first coachbuilder in Portugal (Salvador's brother (irmão), Alfredo Caetano, some years afterwards, founded another coachbuilding company, named after him: recently the company was renamed as Starbus, as well as Mr. Joaquim Martins who founded JD Martins).", "\n\nIn 1965, the workshops in Oliveira do Douro were inaugurated and in 1971, Salvador Caetanos's first industrial unit for vehicle assembly was built in Ovar.", "\n\nIn 1968, Salvador Caetano became the importer of Toyota, introducing the brand in Portugal. ", "Since 2003, they are assembling the Dyna medium truck for export to several West European markets.", "\n\nIn 1982, Baviera, the importer of BMW in Portugal, was acquired by Salvador Caetano.", "\n\nOn 27 June 2011, the company founder, Salvador Fernandes Caetano, died. ", "Caetano's achievements brought him several commendations from both the Portuguese and the Japanese government.", "\n\nGrupo Salvador Caetano\n\nGrupo Salvador Caetano (SGPS), SA is the parent company that controls the group and is responsible for managing the holdings, as well as setting the strategy and coordinating all activities of business, which consists of three main business units, organized by three sub-holdings:\n Toyota Caetano Portugal SA, which aggregates the business and industrial representation of Toyota and Lexus. ", "Its economic activity is focused on managing imports of Toyota, in manufacturing and export to Europe the model Toyota Dyna and Hilux, as well as the production of mini-bus Caetano Optimo;\n Salvador Caetano Auto (SGPS), SA, which aggregates the business of retail multi-brand car to the Iberian market. ", "It represents the major investment that the group has been engaged on multi-brand car retail in the Iberian Peninsula, through sustained growth based on a plan of acquisitions and joint ventures;\n Salvador Caetano.", "Com (SGPS), SA, which is the business in the area of information technology.", "\n\nAs well as:\n Caetano Bus, SA, for the production of buses: COBUS (airport) and CAETANO (urban, intercity and touring) to the world.", "\n Caetano Components, SA, for the production of components for automobile industry.", "\n\nGrupo Salvador Caetano is responsible for about 50 companies, in Portugal, UK, Spain, Germany, Cape Verde and Angola.", "\n\nCaetano UK Limited\n\nSalvador Caetano (UK) Limited was established in 1984 as an associated United Kingdom company of Salvador Caetano. ", "It specialises in both the marketing of new own-brand vehicles and used vehicles of other coachbuilders, along with repairs.", "\n\nThe initial location was in rented premises on Weedon Road in Northampton, England. ", "In 1986, the company was briefly associated with The Moseley Group, based in Loughborough, England, which bought a proportion of the UK business. ", "This link was short-lived, being cancelled a few months afterwards.", "\n\nThe company moved to a purpose-built facility in Heather, Leicestershire, England in 1989, built on land acquired from (and located next to) Reliant Coaches Limited, which it subsequently purchased in 1998.", "\n\nAlso, in 1998, the company set up a new company S C Coachbuilders Ltd, which was based at a factory in Waterlooville, England, acquired from administrators acting on behalf of Universal Vehicles Group. ", "The site was developed to include a repair facility and parts warehouse, as well as new vehicle production. ", "However, production of new bodywork ceased in 2007 and the site was sold in 2009.", "\n\nIn 2006, after a management restructure, the UK division started operating under the name of Caetano UK Limited.", "\n\nProducts\n\nCurrent\n\n Compass (S C Coachbuilders)\n Cobus 3000 (Airport)\n Optimo (Minibus)\n Nimbus (S C Coachbuilders)\n CityGold (Urban: Standard and Articulated versions)\n CI 200 (Inter-Urban/Inter-City)\n Slimbus (S C Coachbuilders)\n Cutlass (School coach use only)\n Enigma (Touring coach introduced in late 90's to replace Gaia and Delta range)\n Levante\n Winner (coded as CT600)\n\nHistorical\n\nBetween 1983 and 1988, Caetano also built trolleybuses for the Coimbra trolleybus system and the Porto trolleybus system, both in Portugal.", "\n\nOther products made in past\n Estoril (Touring coach from 1960s/1970s)\n Alpha (Touring coach from 1970s/1980s. ", "Produced over 5 generations, known as Alpha, Alpha 77, Alpha 79, Alpha 80 and Alpha 81. ", "It was a best seller in Portugal)\n Beta (Touring Coach from 1980s/1990s, available also in Super-High-Decker (SHD) version (known as Beta 3700) and Double-decker (known as Super Beta 4000). ", "Comprised 2 generations, Beta I and Beta II)\n Delta (Touring Coach introduced in early 1990s, produced over 3 generations, Delta I, II and III)\n Ovar (Minibus)\n Gaia (Introduced in late 1980s for Intercity/Entry-Touring range, also available with articulated version, produced over 3 generations, Gaia I, II, III)\n Algarve (UK version of Delta II)\n Codenamed Urban and Interurban buses (from 1970s ahead).", "\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Salvador Caetano Group official website\n Caetano UK Limited official website\n\nCategory:Bus manufacturers of Portugal\nCategory:Trolleybus manufacturers\nCategory:Portuguese brands\nCategory:Multinational companies headquartered in Portugal\nCategory:Electric vehicle manufacturers of Portugal" ]

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[ "Introduction {#Sec1}\n============\n\nProgress in identifying mechanisms of human disease and new therapeutic approaches has been steady over the last 20 years, but limited in pace by several factors that govern discovery and innovation. ", "These factors include choice of time-consuming experimental approaches based on phenotypes exhibited by gene knock-out animals, incremental exploration of steps in known signaling pathways without quantitative consideration of connectivity to important cellular outcomes, and single-target approaches. ", "Quantitative systems analysis of cell signaling networks gives new perspective into mechanistic events that will lead to the development of novel experimental strategies and therapeutic concepts.[@CR1],[@CR2],[@CR7],[@CR14],[@CR16],[@CR24],[@CR26] This quantitative modeling approach promises a more thorough exploration of possible disease mechanisms. ", "Individual groups have shown this with the construction of small (5--20 species) system-level models for selected protein signaling pathways, illustrating that this approach is critical for: (1) quantitatively determining the relative significance of two signaling events with regard to an important cell behavior[@CR16],[@CR26]; (2) understanding the role of feedback loops in a signaling system[@CR3],[@CR16]; and (3) testing current drugs and identifying new targets based on system-level properties.[@CR26] Even though these models are based on a deep body of experimental research and developed with well-defined methodology, this approach has not yet been broadly adopted and used by experimentalists. ", "Despite the unique perspective gained from a systems approach, models are viewed as difficult to construct due to unavailability of quantitative parameter values[@CR10] and uncertainty regarding appropriate model boundaries.", "\n\nHere, we illustrate how even small, simple computational models rapidly integrate the best available experimental data, providing new mechanistic insight and corresponding new experimental strategies and therapeutic concepts. ", "We constructed eight small (4--25 species) ordinary differential equation (ODE)-based models (we term 'modules') (Fig.", " [1](#Fig1){ref-type=\"fig\"}) relevant to addiction, Alzheimer's disease (AD), cancer, diabetes (DM), heart disease, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), malaria, and tuberculosis (TB) (Table [1](#Tab1){ref-type=\"table\"}). ", "Together these diseases account for four of the six leading causes of disease-related death for adults in the United States (58% of all deaths per year (2.5 million people) CDC data, 2006), and four of the top ten leading causes of death for adults in low-income countries (26.5% of deaths per year (8 million people) WHO data, 2002). ", "Because our models were small (constrained to 4--25 species), we were able to construct them over a short, 6-month time period. ", "We built these small models under the assumption that a system-level analysis would guarantee new insight into the system, regardless of the amount of current information available and irrespective of the specific boundaries chosen for a given module. ", "Each one was designed based on important questions in the current literature, validated where possible against published experimental data, and subjected to a sensitivity analysis to identify key parameters. ", "Results were used to suggest new directions for future experimental research. ", "Creation of eight models at once also allowed for comparative analysis of system-level properties of all eight signaling pathways. ", "Altogether our results suggest new experimental strategies and therapeutic concepts relevant to these diseases, provide a basis for comparative study of system-level properties of cell signaling networks, and promote future broad adoption and widespread use of small-module computational analysis for writing the next generation of experimental roadmaps for known diseases and other important biological processes.", "Figure 1Module schematics. (", "a) Addiction: Drug-induced dopaminergic PKA input stimulates ΔfosB accumulation in the brain to increase addictive behavior. (", "b) Alzheimer's disease: Inherited alterations in PS1 and combine with elevated GSK3 activation to increase production of plaque components. (", "c) Cancer: Deregulation of Akt elevates formation of the MTORC1 complex to increase G1-phase cell cycle progression. (", "d) Diabetes: Altered availability of metabolic ligands alters the balance of transcriptional complexes involved in hepatic lipid oxidation and lipid synthesis. (", "e) Heart disease: Angiotensin both stimulates and inhibits fibrotic cardiac remodeling via AT1R and AT2R receptors, respectively. (", "f) HIV: HIV produces Vif to promote degradation of the innate immune response protein APOBEC3G and increase the release of infectious virus. (", "g) Malaria: Glycophosphatidylinositols (GPIs) from *P. falciparum* initiate an immune response and activation of NFκB. (h) Tuberculosis: *M. tuberculosis* produces ManLam and SapM, two virulence factors that interfere with host endosomal phagocytosis. (*", "green dotted arrow*) indicates enzymatic activation, (*red dotted arrow*) indicates enzymatic inhibition, (*brown arrow*) indicates degradation (*null sign*) or production, *pink circles* represent species altered in disease state, *blue circles* represent quantified outputTable 1Representative findings and associated new experimental strategies and therapeutic conceptsNew understandingSuggested experimental strategies and therapeutic concepts**Addiction: PKA and Darp32 in Δfosb accumulation (12, 7, 22)** 1. ", "Raised basal PKA in addiction models of females versus males does not alter Δfosb accumulation dynamics, but does slightly elevate the Δfosb magnitude (Figure S6)A. Suggests investigation of gender differences in addictive behavior that could be the result of a \\~2 *μ*M increase in Δfosb magnitude among females 2. ", "There is a specific range of PKA input doses in which Darp32 phosphorylation is maximal. ", "This suggests a specific dose at which positive reinforcement of drug-taking behavior is optimized (Figure S8)B. Suggests *in vivo* experiments to validate this range, as well as experiments to determine whether the range shifts with long-term drug use**Alzheimer's disease: Presenilin-1 and GSK-3 in amyloid plaque and neurofibrillary tangle formation (14, 11, 23)** 3. ", "No single change to a module component is able to considerably alter both the Aβ42/Aβ40 ratio and the phospho tau (p-tau)/tau ratio (Figure S11)C. Multi-targeted therapy would be necessary to reduce both components known to be involved in plaque formation 4. ", "Over-activation of GSK3 by PI3K cannot account for the elevated p-tau/tau ratio (\\>0.33) observed in Alzheimer's patients but increased GSK3 concentration can (Figures S11, S13)D. Suggests investigation of transcriptional regulation of GSK3 as well as search for other kinase candidates that phosphorylate tau**Cancer: Akt/mTOR in cell cycle control (7, 5, 14)** 5. ", "mTOR activation is more sensitive to parameters involved in TSC interactions than mTOR interactions (Figure S16)E. Suggests a shift in focus from the mTOR inhibitors currently being used to the design of novel TSC inhibitors 6. ", "mTORC1 negative feedback to doubly phosphorylated Akt makes the system robust to PP2A deregulation (Figure S17)F. Experiments should investigate whether the mTORC1 negative feedback loop is altered in cancerous cells**Diabetes: Hepatic PPARα/LXRα nuclear signaling in lipid metabolism (7, 10, 20)** 7. ", "Glucose:LXRα:RXR heterodimers are uniquely sensitive to LXRα and PPARα concentration and would be considerably altered by feedback loops that increase them, whereas other heterodimers would not be (Fig.", " [2](#Fig2){ref-type=\"fig\"}, S25)G. These feedback loops should be investigated to see if they cause increased LXRα signaling in diabetic patients 8. ", "PPARα agonist drug efficacy is highly dependent on agonist nucleoplasmic concentration, not on agonist binding affinity for PPARα. ", "PPARα agonism could disrupt PPARα:LXRα complexes and activate LXRα signaling, especially in high glucose (diabetic) conditions (Figures S29, S30)H. PPARα agonist drug design should focus more on controlling nucleoplasmic concentration of the drug rather than binding affinity for PPARα. ", "Studies should investigate whether PPARα agonists increase LXR signaling in diabetic patients**Heart disease: angiotensin II signaling in fibrotic cardiac remodeling (16, 12, 24)** 9. ", "AT2R signaling is anti-fibrotic but AT2R-specific agonists would not be effective at inhibiting fibrotic remodeling due to saturation of AT2 receptors and downstream phosphatases (Figure S34)I. Therapies should focus more on inhibiting Ang II production or increasing AT2R receptor availability as opposed to blocking AT1R activity or stimulating AT2R activity 10. ", "Ang II signaling responses are deactivated by delayed negative feed-forward control (Figure S42)J. Fibrotic cardiac remodeling may be explained by AT~1~R stimulation beyond the control of AT~2~Rs**HIV: bolstering innate APOBEC3G response to HIV--Vif (4, 4, 12)** 11. ", "While degradation rate of the A3G--Vif complex can impact the release of infectious HIV, A3G--Vif binding is 10 times more important (S47A)K. Exploring changes to the APOBEC3G--Vif interaction should be more effective than altering the degradation pathways 12. ", "Innate A3G production above 1 *μ*M/h effectively shuts down HIV production, while an antibody to Vif is only predicted to be effective at high production rates (due to an excess of Vif available) (Figure S48)L. Therapeutic interventions to increase APOBEC3G should be more effective than targeting Vif**Malaria: negative feedback regulation of TLR1/2 signaling (24, 13, 60)** 13. ", "Negative regulators maintain periodicity of NFκB and TNFα but reduce average TNFα concentration (Figure S52)M. Knock-down of negative regulators including IRAKM, TRAIL, TLRs, or MyD88s should cause sustained TNFα and NFκB concentrations and exacerbate malaria in an animal model 14. ", "The magnitude of initial malaria GPI insult alters NFκB frequency and amplitude in the wild-type model (Figure S53)N. Exposing macrophages to an increasing range of malaria GPI should reveal a threshold at which NFκB dynamics switch from sustained oscillations to steady production**Tuberculosis:*M. tuberculosis*interference with endosomal phagocytosis (20, 5, 9)** 15. ", "Binding of virulence factor ManLam to EEA1 is more effective than the dephosphorylation of PI3P by lipid phosphatase SapM in reducing EEA1:Rab5:GTP:PI3P formation and preventing the efficient recruitment of EEA1 to the phagosomal membrane (Figure S56)L. ManLam is a higher-priority drug target as compared to SapM. Therapeutic strategies should focus on development of inhibitors to selectively target ManLamNumbers in parenthesis are the number of elementary species, derivative species and reactions, respectively, for each module. ", "A complete description of the all findings for each module can be found in Supporting Information\n\nMethods {#Sec2}\n=======\n\nModule Design and Implementation {#Sec3}\n--------------------------------\n\nWe constructed each module with a workflow that is readily implemented for any disease and its associated signaling network. ", "Details regarding the following design and implementation of specific modules can be found in Supporting Information. ", "We use a detailed description of the diabetes module here as an illustrative example. ", "First, we identified a major signaling pathway relevant to each of the eight major diseases and then designed a small (4--25 species) bounded module to generate insight into questions raised by the current experimental literature. ", "Each module was constructed to quantify an important output as a function of upstream interactions known to be altered in the respective disease state (Fig.", " [1](#Fig1){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "For example, we designed our diabetes module around peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) and liver X receptor alpha (LXRα), two nuclear receptors that act as nutrient sensors to activate genes involved in hepatic lipid oxidation and synthesis, respectively (Fig.", " [1](#Fig1){ref-type=\"fig\"}d). ", "The PPARα receptor is also the target of PPARα agonists currently used clinically to treat dyslipidemia and stimulate the lipid oxidation pathway. ", "Our goal was to quantify transcriptional complex formation output as a function of known upstream protein binding interactions and metabolic ligands (free fatty acids (FFA), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), oxysterols, and glucose) that are altered in the diabetic state. ", "Figure [1](#Fig1){ref-type=\"fig\"} depicts species altered in the disease state and quantified output for each module.", "\n\nOverall our goal in the design of each module was to give insight into questions raised by the current experimental literature. ", "In the diabetes module example: What is the main mechanism by which one pathway is able to suppress the other, counteracting pathway? ", "Is it (1) PPARα and LXRα competition for the retinoid X receptor (RXR) partner required for formation of both types of transcriptional complexes[@CR9],[@CR30]; or (2) the formation of the PPARα:LXRα complex?[@CR29],[@CR31] What is the role of the recently identified LXRα ligand glucose,[@CR20] which has an LXRα binding affinity that is five orders of magnitude weaker than any other known ligand? ", "What is the most effective way to improve PPARα agonist drug design and stimulate transcriptional complex formation in the PPARα lipid oxidation pathway? ", "Our module quantitatively integrates species concentration and binding affinity information to reveal information about these events that was not accessible with isolated experimental work.", "\n\nEven though our model did not include all possible known interactions of PPARα and LXRα in the hepatocyte nucleus, this seven species module gave us new mechanistic ideas about a very important region of the signaling pathway and its quantitative role in an output known to be significant in diabetes. ", "The small size and bounded nature of each of our modules empowered a better understanding of its limitations, and allowed for learning despite an incomplete set of quantitative parameter values.", "\n\nSpecies interactions within each module were described using quantitative relationships, expressed as ordinary differential equations (ODEs). ", "The system of ODEs for each module was defined using initial conditions, protein concentrations, binding affinities, and rate constants mined from published experimental work and solved using MatLab (Mathworks, Natwick, MA). ", "The same foundation MatLab code was used to solve the system of ODEs and perform the sensitivity analysis (described below) for each of the modules. ", "Unknown parameters were estimated as best as possible using a variety of methods including use of parameters for enzymes/substrates similar to those in the module, fitting of independent experimental data, and/or appropriate order-of-magnitude parameter estimates. ", "For the diabetes module example, quantitative binding affinity values for most of the interactions were available in the literature, but time-dependent data (binding on and off rates) were not. ", "Therefore, analysis was limited to steady-state conditions. ", "Additionally, quantitative nucleoplasmic concentration values for RXR and LXRα were unavailable, so they were assumed to be equal to the nucleoplasmic concentration of PPARα. ", "These values, as well as unknown parameter values initially estimated for all modules, were re-evaluated using the sensitivity analysis, described below.", "\n\nValidation {#Sec4}\n----------\n\nTo build confidence in our modules, we validated module output against independent experimental literature where possible. ", "In our diabetes module, we compared predicted ligand:LXR:RXR heterodimer concentration after addition of oxysterol ligand to a dose response curve generated from independent experimental work[@CR11] (Fig.", " [2](#Fig2){ref-type=\"fig\"}a). ", "We also compared results to total predicted ligand:LXR:RXR heterodimers after overexpression of both PPARα and LXRα[@CR30] (Fig.", " [2](#Fig2){ref-type=\"fig\"}b). ", "In both cases, there was good agreement between the model predictions and published data, as was true for the other modules in the study. ", "More details about the diabetes module validation simulation and other modules can be found in Supporting Information, in Figures S5A--C; S10A, B; S15, S32 A, B; S33A--D; S46A, B; S50A, B.Figure 2Diabetes module validation. (", "a) In the diabetes module, total output concentration of ligand:LXRα:RXR heterodimers were calculated after addition different concentrations of 22(R)HC, an endogenous oxysterol (*red*). ", "Module predictions were qualitatively similar to cell culture experiments in which a luciferase reporter system was used to measured activation of LXR response elements (LXREs) in under the same conditions (*black*; Janowski *et al.*[@CR11]). ", "Module predictions (c) were also qualitatively similar to experiments that measured LXRE activity after overexpression of PPAR alpha and LXR (b)\n\nSensitivity Analysis and Module-Specific Simulations {#Sec5}\n----------------------------------------------------\n\nA sensitivity analysis[@CR4],[@CR26] quantitatively determined the importance of individual parameter values on model output. ", "This analysis was critical in our small-module approach as it allowed for a better understanding of whether or not the set of estimated parameters values was sufficient and also suggested additional informative module-specific simulations. ", "We subjected each module to a sensitivity analysis in which steady-state module output was calculated after variation of all parameters, including individual protein concentrations, binding affinities, and rate constants over six orders of magnitude around the estimated physiological value. ", "Information from the sensitivity analysis of each module was then used together with the known literature to direct other module-specific simulations. ", "For example, in the diabetes module, when we evaluated the sensitivity of the different transcriptional complex outputs to concentration parameters, we found that PUFA:PPARα:RXR, FFA:PPARα:RXR, and oxyst:LXR:RXR heterodimers (Figs.", " [3](#Fig3){ref-type=\"fig\"}a--[3](#Fig3){ref-type=\"fig\"}c) were exclusively sensitive to their respective ligand concentrations whereas glucose:LXR:RXR heterodimers were sensitive to both LXR and RXR receptor concentrations (Fig.", " [3](#Fig3){ref-type=\"fig\"}d). ", "This sensitivity occurs because other ligands are at a much lower nucleoplasmic concentration (low nM) compared to glucose (*μ*M), though they have a much stronger binding affinity for their receptors than glucose does for LXRα (Table S5). ", "The result directed further simulations (Figure S25) that generated the novel hypothesis that glucose:LXRα:RXR heterodimers are likely much more sensitive than other LXRα and PPARα heterodimers to feedback loops[@CR15],[@CR25],[@CR27],[@CR31] that alter receptor concentration and could act synergistically with other ligands to enhance or inhibit transcriptional complex formation (Result 7, Table [1](#Tab1){ref-type=\"table\"}). ", "The fact that glucose:LXRα:RXR transcription complexes are sensitive to LXRα receptor concentration also turned out to be important in the context of PPARα agonist drug design, described below.", "Figure 3Diabetes module sensitivity analysis on concentration parameters. ", "FFA:PPARα:RXR (a), PUFA:PPARα:RXR (b), and oxyst:LXRα:RXR heterodimers (c) were all exclusively sensitive to their respective ligand concentrations while glucose:LXRα:RXR heterodimers (d) were most sensitive to LXRα, PPARα, and RXR concentration. ", "This would make glucose:LXRα:RXR heterodimers more responsive than other heterodimers to reported autoregulatory feedback loops that alter the concentration of these receptors. ", "For the full diabetes module sensitivity analysis including all parameters, see Figures S21 and S22\n\nThe complete diabetes module sensitivity analysis on ligand:PPARα:RXR heterodimers (Figure S29) led to the hypothesis that changing the nucleoplasmic concentration of PPARα agonist drugs would considerably alter ligand:PPARα:RXR heterodimer formation whereas changing drug binding affinity for PPARα has no effect. ", "This non-intuitive result was explained by the low nucleoplasmic concentration of the drug and most endogenous ligands (nM) compared to a much higher nucleoplasmic concentration of the receptors (\\~300 *μ*M, Table S5). ", "Additional simulations confirmed the result (Figs.", " [4](#Fig4){ref-type=\"fig\"}a--[4](#Fig4){ref-type=\"fig\"}d), and showed that this prediction held over a range of RXR (Figs.", " [4](#Fig4){ref-type=\"fig\"}a, [4](#Fig4){ref-type=\"fig\"}b) and LXR concentrations (Figs.", " [4](#Fig4){ref-type=\"fig\"}c, [4](#Fig4){ref-type=\"fig\"}d), which have not yet been measured in the experimental literature. ", "Simulations also illustrated how PPARα agonism could inadvertently activate the counter-acting LXRα signaling pathway via disruption of PPARα:LXRα complexes, especially in diabetic conditions of high glucose (Fig.", " [4](#Fig4){ref-type=\"fig\"}e). ", "Elevated LXRα signaling in high glucose conditions occurred because, as mentioned above, glucose:LXR:RXR complexes were much more sensitive to LXRα concentration, and were therefore sensitive to an increase in free LXRα after PPARα was removed from PPAR:LXR complexes by PPAR agonism. ", "This new concept (Result 8 in Table [1](#Tab1){ref-type=\"table\"}) was especially exciting in the context of a recent independent report that indicated that diabetic animals are resistant to PPARα agonists.[@CR23] As in the diabetes module example, results of the sensitivity analysis of each module directed additional simulations that resulted in potential new experimental and therapeutic directions that were previously unrecognized.", "Figure 4Insight into PPARα agonist design. ", "PPARα agonists are used clinically to stimulate the lipid oxidation pathway in patients with dyslipidemia. ", "Our diabetes module predicted that changing agonist binding affinity over four orders of magnitude would not affect PPARα transcriptional complex formation (a, c), whereas changing nucleoplasmic concentration of the drug would have large effects (b, d). ", "These predictions held true over a range of RXR (a, b) and LXR (c, d) concentrations, which have not yet been measured in experiments. ", "Our diabetes module additionally illustrated that PPARα agonism and stimulation of the lipid oxidation pathway could also inadvertently stimulate the lipid synthesis pathway via activation of LXRα transcriptional complexes, especially in diabetic conditions of high glucose (e). ", "This could be one explanation for recent reports that diabetic animals are resistant to PPARα agonist (Satapati *et al.*[@CR23])\n\nComparative Meta-Analysis {#Sec6}\n-------------------------\n\nSimultaneous construction of eight small models allowed for an unprecedented comparative analysis of system-level properties from all eight modules. ", "For each module, we defined parameters as 'sensitive' if a 100% change in parameter value (normalized to baseline parameter value) resulted in a 50% change in at least one module output (normalized to baseline module output). ", "We defined parameters as 'hypersensitive' if a 50% change in parameter value resulted in a 150% change in at least one module output. ", "We used these definitions to look at correlations between module properties (size, parameter availability, feedback loops, redundant paths). ", "We also investigated whether certain parameter types were more likely to be sensitive than others.", "\n\nIn order to examine the relative sensitivity rank of different parameter types within respective modules, we assigned each parameter a percentile sensitivity rank based on the calculated sensitivity (described above) and total number of parameters in the respective module. ", "We used a Wilcoxon Rank Sum test to determine whether there were significant differences between the average percentile rank of different parameter types within our modules. ", "Specifically we evaluated whether the percentile rank of concentration parameters was significantly higher than the percentile rank of binding parameters.", "\n\nIn order to determine whether trends we observed were also present in existing published models, we compared some of our results to similar models in the published literature.[@CR5],[@CR13],[@CR16],[@CR24] We chose these models based on the fact that they were ODE-based, focused on protein signaling, contained both binding affinity parameters and concentration parameters, employed some type of sensitivity analysis to include individual perturbation of all concentration and all binding affinity parameters, and parameter sensitivity ranks in overall top 15% sensitive were clearly discernable. ", "As our modules and findings focused on mammalian signaling, we did not include models of bacterial or yeast signaling in this analysis. ", "For each existing model, we recorded total concentration parameters, total binding affinity parameters, and total of each type that were reported in the top 15% most sensitive for a given model. ", "For our models, literature models, and both combined we computed proportion of concentration parameters in the top 15% most sensitive of each model and proportion of binding affinity parameters in the top 15% most sensitive of each model. ", "We included concentration density parameters (\\#species/area) as concentration parameters, and we did not include production or degradation terms. ", "We used standard error for proportion to determine whether a significantly higher proportion of concentration parameters appeared in the top 15% of their respective modules than did binding affinity parameters.", "\n\nThree of our modules (HIV, malaria, TB) focused on host--pathogen interactions in infectious diseases. ", "We used the percentile sensitivity rank of parameters in our modules to determine whether parameters related to pathogen virulence factors (Vif, GPI, ManLAM) exhibited different sensitivities in our modules compared to host parameters.", "\n\nOverall Results {#Sec7}\n===============\n\nModule Findings Result in New Experimental Roadmaps for the Study of Elements of Eight Human Diseases {#Sec8}\n-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nRepresentative findings and associated new experimental strategies and therapeutic concepts for each module are listed in Table [1](#Tab1){ref-type=\"table\"}, with a complete description of module construction and findings in Supporting Information. ", "Module findings based on system-level properties of cell signaling generated new experimental roadmaps for the study and treatment of each of these diseases. ", "The finding from our diabetes module that PPARα transcriptional complexes were sensitive to nucleoplasmic concentration of PPARα agonists but not to agonist binding affinity for PPARα recommends a shift in focus from current PPARα agonist design goals of controlling agonist binding affinity, to a new design goal of controlling agonist nucleoplasmic concentration (Table [1](#Tab1){ref-type=\"table\"}, Finding 8). ", "The module gave the additional new insight that PPARα agonism and stimulation of the lipid oxidation pathway could also activate the counteracting LXRα lipid synthesis pathway in high glucose conditions, providing a new potential mechanism for PPARα agonist resistance in diabetic patients. ", "Key results from each of the eight modules are summarized in Table [1](#Tab1){ref-type=\"table\"} (see Supporting Information for all results) and illustrate how this approach generates novel, system-level insight to guide future experimental research and treatment of human disease. ", "Specifically, system-level analysis of these small modules was able to quantitatively evaluate whether an experimentally measured pathway alteration in a disease could be responsible for pathological output (Findings 1, 4), help clarify the role of specific feedback and feed-forward events in disease pathology (Findings 6, 7, 10), and evaluate current therapeutic strategies and uncover new ones based on system-level insight (Findings 3, 5, 8, 9, 12, 15)*.* ", "New therapeutic strategies based on these findings were very specific and highly actionable. ", "Several are highlighted below.", "\n\nBolstering Innate Resistance to Retroviruses in HIV: Helping APOBEC3G Overcome HIV--Vif {#Sec9}\n---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nThe HIV module (Fig.", " [1](#Fig1){ref-type=\"fig\"}f) focused on the recently discovered innate mammalian defense to retroviruses via the cytidine deaminase apolipoprotein B mRNA editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like 3G (APOBEC3G), and its circumvention by the HIV-encoded protein *viral infectivity factor* (Vif). ", "The module was used to answer two questions: can this innate anti-retroviral immunity be boosted to overcome HIV infection? ", "If so, how best might this be achieved? ", "One major finding of this module was that innate A3G production above 1 *μ*M/h effectively shuts down HIV production, while a proposed antibody to Vif[@CR12] is only predicted to be effective at high production rates (due to an excess of Vif available) (Figs.", " [5](#Fig5){ref-type=\"fig\"}a, [5](#Fig5){ref-type=\"fig\"}b). ", "This limited efficacy happens because only a small amount of Vif is required to sequester APOBEC3G and thus a high level of Vif blockade is required to reduce infectious HIV release rate, compared to a relatively lower amount of APOBEC3G required to inactivate the virus. ", "The finding directly resulted in the new hypothesis that interventions to increase APOBEC3G may be more effective than targeting Vif. ", "The new therapeutic concept held true regardless of the exact value of baseline APOBEC3G production (pA3G), which has not yet been quantitatively measured (as reported in the experimental literature) and was classified as an unknown parameter in this module. ", "With the finding that increased production of APOBEC3G could reduce the release of infectious virus, the HIV module imparted both an innovative new therapeutic hypothesis as well as an accompanying quantitative hypothesis for its mechanism of action.", "Figure 5Representative module results generate new therapeutic concepts. ", "One result from the HIV module suggested that a proposed antibody to Vif would only be effective at reducing release of infectious HIV at very high production rates (a), due to an excess of Vif available. ", "In contrast, increasing production of the innate immune response protein APOBEC3g (A3G) would be effective over a range of production rates (b). ", "The exact quantitative value of baseline A3G production was an unknown parameter in this module, but the result is true over a large range of estimated values. ", "One result from our heart disease module was that AT~2~R agonists (*green*) would not be effective in reducing production of MMPs and cardiac fibrosis compared to ACE inhibitors that reduce production of angiotensin (*red*, used clinically), and AT~1~R antagonists (*blue*, currently in clinical trials) (c, d). ", "This non-intuitive finding was due to limited availability of AT~2~ receptors and saturation of downstream AT~2~R phosphatases\n\nAngiotensin and Angiotensin Receptors in Cardiac Fibrosis {#Sec10}\n---------------------------------------------------------\n\nOur heart module (Fig.", " [1](#Fig1){ref-type=\"fig\"}e) quantitatively explored the ability of angiotensin to both stimulate (via angiotensin 1 (AT~1~R) receptors) and inhibit (via angiotensin 2 (AT~2~R) receptors) the production of matrix metalloproteinases involved in cardiac fibrosis (Fig.", " [1](#Fig1){ref-type=\"fig\"}e). ", "Treatments targeted at Ang II signaling are effective in curbing the effects of heart disease[@CR28] and currently target either the production of Ang II (ACE inhibitors) or Ang II association with the AT~1~Rs (AT~1~R antagonists). ", "Agonism of AT~2~Rs has also been considered as a potential therapeutic target, but it is unclear if AT~2~R signaling is anti-fibrotic under physiological conditions. ", "Moreover, there is no quantitative evidence to compare AT~2~R-targeted drugs with current therapies in use or development. ", "To determine if AT~2~R agonists may be a meaningful treatment for fibrotic remodeling, we compared the responses of our model to simulated ACE inhibitors (presently used in the clinic), AT~1~R antagonists (in clinical trials now), and AT~2~R agonists (proposed in the literature). ", "Our module found that of the three types of therapies simulated, ACE inhibitors had the most robust result, reducing MMP2 and MMP3 expression to nearly basal rates, followed by AT~1~R antagonists which also reduced MMP expression. ", "Surprisingly, AT~2~R agonists showed little effect in blocking MMP expression (Figs.", " [5](#Fig5){ref-type=\"fig\"}c, [5](#Fig5){ref-type=\"fig\"}d). ", "This counterintuitive result was explained by the observation that the activities of the phosphatases activated by AT~2~R are largely saturated at basal Ang II levels (Figure S35). ", "However, this saturation may be overcome by increasing the total number of available AT~2~Rs (Figures S34A, S34B, and S34C). ", "Taken together, these results suggested that while AT~2~R signaling is anti-fibrotic, AT~2~R agonists would have limited effect in treating fibrotic remodeling. ", "This directly results in the therapeutic concept that therapies designed to limit Ang II signaling should focus more on either inhibiting Ang II production or increasing AT~2~R availability than either blocking AT~1~R activity or stimulating AT~2~R activity (Table [1](#Tab1){ref-type=\"table\"}, Finding 9).", "\n\nNovel Mechanistic Insight Relevant to Current Therapeutic Targets {#Sec11}\n-----------------------------------------------------------------\n\nThe small-module approach was additionally validated by the predictive capabilities of several modules that were able to independently identify current drug targets as sensitive species. ", "For example, a 2009 Alzheimer's disease study found glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) inhibitors to be beneficial to animals with the disease but detrimental to controls.[@CR8] Our Alzheimer's module independently identified GSK3 concentration as a sensitive parameter and strong determinant of phosphorylated tau (p-tau) (Figure S11A), a major component of neuritic plaques. ", "In cancer, interest in protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) as a drug target has recently arisen.[@CR22] Our cancer module independently predicted PP2A concentration as a sensitive parameter in elevated mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) (Figure S16), which is believed to involved in pathological cell cycle control observed in cancer.", "\n\nThese modules also generated novel, specific mechanistic insight into these previously identified drug targets. ", "For GSK3 in Alzheimer's disease, our module revealed that GSK3 concentration, as opposed to kinetic activation by Akt, has the most dramatic effect on p-tau levels (Figure S11A, C). ", "This result suggests that drugs aimed at controlling GSK3 concentration may be more useful in reducing p-tau levels than the above mentioned GSK3 inhibitors which block GSK3 kinetic activity. ", "Our Alzheimer's module also predicted that no GSK3-associated parameters had any effect on amyloid beta 42/amyloid beta 40 ratio (another major component of neuritic plaques) (Figure S11A, top panel), suggesting that GSK3-related therapy alone may not be sufficient to reduce plaque formation. ", "For PP2A as a cancer target, the additional insight provided by the model was that mTOR negative feedback could compensate for PP2A dysregulation (Figure S17). ", "Both of these results illustrate how systems analysis of signaling pathways facilitates improved mechanistic understanding of current therapies and their targets.", "\n\nComparative Meta-Analysis of System-Level Properties of All Eight Signaling Modules {#Sec12}\n-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nThe comparative analysis in our study demonstrated that the ability to gain insight into therapeutic targets based on the sensitivity of module output to individual species is preserved across models of different sizes and in varying states of parameter availability. ", "Pearson correlation and Spearman correlation tests indicated no correlation between the module size and the overall percentage of sensitive parameters (Fig.", " [6](#Fig6){ref-type=\"fig\"}c, *R*^2^ = 0.025, *p* \\> 0.05 for both tests), and no correlation between percentage of parameters available in the literature and overall percentage of sensitive parameters (Fig.", " [6](#Fig6){ref-type=\"fig\"}d, *R*^2^ = 0.009, *p* \\> 0.05 for both tests). ", "Interestingly, however, certain network properties were a stronger determinant of module sensitivity to parameter perturbation. ", "For example, modules lacking both redundant pathways and negative feedback loops had a much higher percentage of sensitive parameters (69 and 72% for HIV and heart modules, respectively), than all other modules (\\<30%, Fig.", " [6](#Fig6){ref-type=\"fig\"}e). ", "The comparative analysis confirms that for small-module systems analysis, size and parameter availability do not constrain discovery based on sensitive species.", "Figure 6Comparative meta-analysis across all eight modules. ", "Modules varied in size and parameter availability (a). ", "Module output was much more sensitive to species production/degradation parameters than to parameters for protein binding interactions (b). ", "Percentage of sensitive parameters for each module was not correlated to module size (c, Pearson correlation and Spearman correlation *p* \\> 0.05 in both) or to parameter availability in the literature (d, Pearson correlation and Spearman correlation, *p* \\> 0.05 in both) but modules with no redundant paths or negative feedback loops (HIV and heart disease) had twice the percentage of sensitive parameters (69 and 72%, respectively) than all other modules (\\<28%), % sensitive parameters is proportional to *circle* diameter for each module (e)\n\nIn the interest of uncovering molecular targets of high therapeutic potential, we categorized sensitive and hypersensitive parameters by type and found that module outputs were least sensitive to protein binding interaction parameters (7% of all binding parameters were sensitive, 0% were hypersensitive, Fig.", " [6](#Fig6){ref-type=\"fig\"}b) and often hypersensitive to species concentration and production/degradation parameters (12% were sensitive, 28% hypersensitive, Fig.", " [6](#Fig6){ref-type=\"fig\"}b). ", "To examine the finding in more detail, we ranked each parameter within its module and computed a percentile ranking for each based on sensitivity and the total number of parameters in the respective module (Fig.", " [7](#Fig7){ref-type=\"fig\"}a). ", "Since all of our modules contained concentration and binding affinity parameters (only some contained production/degradation parameters), we chose to focus on these two parameter types for further analysis. ", "We found that percentile rank of concentration parameters was significantly higher than the percentile rank of binding affinity parameters (Fig.", " [7](#Fig7){ref-type=\"fig\"}a, Wilcoxon Rank Sum, two-tailed test, *p* \\< 0.05). ", "Intriguingly, this analysis also revealed that a large number of concentration parameters appeared in the top 15% most sensitive parameters of each module, while relatively few binding affinity parameters were in this category (Fig.", " [7](#Fig7){ref-type=\"fig\"}a, red box).Figure 7Higher percentile sensitivity rank for concentration parameters compared to binding affinity parameters. ", "The average percentile sensitivity rank of concentration parameters in our module was significantly higher than percentile sensitivity rank of binding affinity parameters (a, Wilcoxon Rank Sum test, *p* \\< 0.05). ", "A large number of concentration parameters in our modules were in the top 15th percentile sensitivity in their respective modules, while only a small number of binding affinity parameters in (a) (*red box*). ", "Other ODE-based protein signaling models[@CR5],[@CR13],[@CR16],[@CR24] in the published literature also had a significantly higher proportion of concentration parameters in the top 15% sensitivity percentile rank compared to binding parameters (b). ", "\\*Significantly higher proportion compared to binding affinity proportion, 99.7% confidence level using standard error for proportion\n\nWhen we examined the published literature to determine whether this phenomena occurred in other small models of protein signaling, we found that in our models, in four other similar published models,[@CR5],[@CR13],[@CR16],[@CR24] and in the combined data, there was a significantly higher proportion of concentration parameters than binding parameters in the top 15% most sensitive for each model (Fig.", " [7](#Fig7){ref-type=\"fig\"}b, \\* indicates significance with 99.5% confidence using standard error for proportion).", "\n\nAltogether, this indicates that detailed, quantitative experimental measurements of protein concentrations may be more useful in determining targets of high therapeutic potential than measurements of protein binding affinities. ", "This meta-analysis across our eight networks and four published models also suggests that there may be selective pressure for fine-tuned control and more regulatory steps to govern sensitive cell processes such as concentration, while there is less pressure and fewer regulatory steps for control over more robust processes, such as protein binding interactions.", "\n\nWhen we evaluated host--pathogen interactions in our infectious disease modules (HIV, malaria, and TB) we found that concentration parameters associated with pathogen virulence factors had a significantly higher percentile sensitivity rank that all other concentration parameters in our modules (Fig.", " [8](#Fig8){ref-type=\"fig\"}, Student's *t* test, *p* \\< 0.01). ", "We found no noticeable differences in sensitivity rank associated with pathogen kinetic parameters compared to other kinetic parameters. ", "This has interesting implications in quantitatively understanding host--pathogen interactions in infectious disease, discussed below.", "Figure 8Host networks in infectious disease modules are highly sensitive to pathogen virulence factor concentration/production. ", "Pathogen virulence factor concentration/production parameters (Vif, GPI, ManLAM) in our infectious disease modules (HIV, malaria, TB) had a significantly higher percentile sensitivity rank than all other concentration parameters in our modules (\\*Significance compared to concentration parameters with Student's *t* test, *p* \\> 0.01)\n\nDiscussion {#Sec13}\n==========\n\nSystems analysis of protein signaling pathways has not yet been broadly adopted and used to enhance most experimental research. ", "While many individual studies have illustrated the value of small-module systems analysis,[@CR1],[@CR2],[@CR7],[@CR14],[@CR16],[@CR24],[@CR26] we show here that it can be performed rapidly to generate new ideas to guide experimental research. ", "Our unprecedented comparative meta-analysis across eight real biological signaling networks serves as a basis for future work toward more comprehensive understanding and control over system-level properties of biological signaling networks.", "\n\nSmall, simple models can be highly informative. ", "All eight of our models were limited to 4--25 species and based exclusively on ordinary differential equations, yet they were still able to reveal new mechanistic insight relevant to major human diseases. ", "The small size of each module was advantageous in that it allowed for a better understanding of module limitations and new insight, even though an average of 44% of our module parameters were unknown. ", "Validation of module output against independent experimental data and a sensitivity analysis were useful in determining whether estimations for unknown parameter values were appropriate. ", "The small size also enabled rapid analysis and generation of new ideas from existing experimental research. ", "We believe that this approach fills a significant unmet need between broad genome-wide analytical work on properties of very large networks and highly detailed work that focuses on individual signaling pathways.", "\n\nWe argue that small models, constrained to a limited number of species, will generate important new insight even when some quantitative parameter values are unknown. ", "Our modules employ a variety of methods for estimating parameters, including fitting of experimental data, use of parameters for similar enzymes/substrates to those in the module, appropriate order-of magnitude estimates, and even Monte Carlo sampling. ", "These approaches, combined with a sensitivity analysis, enable discovery despite unknown parameters. ", "In many cases, we found that information could be gained in recognizing system-level interactions that were not as dependent on exact parameter values. ", "In the HIV module, the prediction that additional production of A3G would be more effective than an antibody to Vif held true regardless of the precise value of A3G production, which has not yet been experimentally measured (Figs.", " [5](#Fig5){ref-type=\"fig\"}a, [5](#Fig5){ref-type=\"fig\"}b). ", "We also illustrate that the diabetes modules predictions regarding PPARα agonist drug design are not dependent on the precise values of nucleoplasmic RXR (Figs.", " [4](#Fig4){ref-type=\"fig\"}a, [4](#Fig4){ref-type=\"fig\"}b) or LXR (Figs.", " [4](#Fig4){ref-type=\"fig\"}c, [4](#Fig4){ref-type=\"fig\"}d) concentrations, which are currently unknown. ", "In the most extreme case that all parameters needed for a small model are unknown, a sensitivity analysis still provides new, significant information about the network by highlighting key parameters based on network topology alone.", "\n\nFocused quantitative systems analysis of small modules from protein signaling pathways not only accelerates new experimental discovery, but also provides concomitant new mechanistic explanations for these discoveries. ", "This approach complements time-consuming experiments that correlate related signaling events. ", "With an understanding of sensitive nodes in a pathway gained from a sensitivity analysis, models can identify which experiments will be most insightful and prioritize experiments that will be most likely to succeed. ", "In addition to addressing specific questions relevant to the current literature, we found that all of our modules produced new ideas and insight that were not obvious during the module construction process. ", "This new perspective will drive more innovative experimental research.", "\n\nSmall models of protein signaling pathways can enhance all areas of drug development from identification of novel targets, to understanding the mechanistic basis of current therapies, and validation and testing of targets in clinical trials. ", "As more and more disease-specific genetic data is collected from human populations, small-module analysis will allow for rapid identification and a quantitative understanding of mechanisms by which genetic alterations might interact with epigenetic factors to alter disease-related signaling pathways. ", "Genetic information from individual patients could also be used to create personalized modules and move towards more personalized therapy.", "\n\nIncreased use of system-level models to study protein signaling will allow for discovery of unifying quantitative principles that govern protein signaling. ", "By comparing system-level properties in our eight modules, we discovered the increased sensitivity of protein signaling to concentration parameters, and were able to confirm this using data from other published models. ", "Intriguingly, we also discovered the extreme sensitivity of host network to pathogen virulence concentration parameters. ", "This suggests that host immune response networks may have developed over time to be fine-tuned to concentrations of pathogen virulence factors. ", "In turn, pathogens may have developed over time to produce a high enough concentration of virulence factor to perturb host signaling networks. ", "Insights such as these will be valuable as the next major steps are taken to understand and treat complex infectious diseases.", "\n\nSeveral species (PP2A, PI3K, and Akt) appeared in multiple modules. ", "Interestingly, we found that PP2A concentration was a key sensitive parameter in all four modules in which it appeared. ", "It was classified it as \"sensitive\" in the Alzheimer's, heart, and addiction modules, and \"hypersensitive\" in the cancer module. ", "However, a Student's *t* test to compare ranks of PP2A concentration sensitivity to other concentration sensitivities indicated no significant differences because one of the outputs in the Alzheimer's module was not sensitive to PP2A. In Alzheimer's and addiction modules, two kinetic parameters associated with PP2A were classified as sensitive. ", "No kinetic parameters associated with PP2A were sensitive in cancer and heart modules. ", "Several other parameters (Akt, PI3K) that appeared in multiple modules were classified as sensitive parameters in some, but not others. ", "Altogether, this data from our modules indicates that common species exhibit different sensitivities depending on the network structure. ", "The best evidence for this is the fact that one output of the Alzheimer's module is extremely sensitive to PP2A, but the other output is not. ", "In addition, some kinetic parameters associated with PP2A are sensitive, while others are not.", "\n\nOne notable comparative analysis by another group[@CR6] has used 17 protein signaling models in the literature to show that parameter sensitivities in these models have eigenvalues evenly distributed over several decades, termed a 'sloppy' spectrum of parameter sensitivities. ", "Though not equivalent to the analysis performed in (6), the distribution of sensitivities (Figure S1) from our pooled models largely agrees with this data. ", "Comparing our Figure S1 to Figure 1 in Ref. [", "@CR6] shows that in both cases, most of the models are robust, insensitive to most parameter changes. ", "In fact, \\~70% of the parameters in our models were not 'sensitive' or 'hypersensitive'. ", "Since eigenvalues depict how strongly the systems are carried along by their eigenvectors, we would expect to find few eigenvalues for parameters in our models (corresponding to the 10% of parameters \\>350% sensitivity in our Figure S1) that are 'large' with the remainder being comparatively small. ", "We therefore expect to see a skewed distribution to smaller relative eigenvalue size (e.g., toward 10^−6^), similar to that depicted in Fig.", " [1](#Fig1){ref-type=\"fig\"}b from Gutenkunst *et al.*[@CR6] We would also expect to see more 'sloppy' distribution (spanning multiple decades) of parameter sensitivities if we plotted our data on a log scale (as in (6)), as opposed to a linear scale.", "\n\nBy documenting and revealing system-level properties of actual biological signaling networks, our small-module approach also adds to and benefits from theoretical studies of synthetic networks. ", "One recent theoretical study computationally searched all possible three-noded enzymatic signaling networks and a large associated kinetic parameter space to identify core topologies that are involved in biological adaptation.[@CR18] Findings from our comparative meta-analysis may enhance and direct future work in this area. ", "The fact that module outputs in our study were sensitive to concentration and production/degradation parameters suggest that it is critical for future theoretical work to consider these parameter spaces in addition to those associated with enzyme kinetics.[@CR18] Insight gained from the theoretical approaches such as Ma *et al.*[@CR18] in turn complement small-module analysis. ", "Intriguingly, we identified an incoherent feed-forward loop (IFFL), one of the core network topologies discovered to perform adaptation, as one of the main motifs driving angiotensin-stimulated MMP production in our heart disease module. ", "The identification deepens system-level understanding of the angiotensin signaling pathway, and will lead to more effective study and treatment of cardiac fibrosis and heart disease.", "\n\nThis work helps to define the role of small-module computational models in the overall taxonomy of computational systems biology, a growing field which also includes the complementary areas of genome-wide analysis of biochemical networks,[@CR17] more extensive pathway models in single cells,[@CR19] and integrative systems bioengineering models that link multiple scales and incorporate multiple cells or organisms.[@CR21] We show that small-module computational biology can be performed rapidly in a reproducible workflow with research teams of appropriate expertise, can delineate substantial new questions for experimental, therapeutic and/or computational study, and thus can produce useful new knowledge relevant to human disease.", "\n\nSupplemental Methods {#Sec14}\n====================\n\nA detailed description of the construction and results of each module can be found in Supporting Information.", "\n\nElectronic supplementary material {#AppESM1}\n---------------------------------\n\nBelow is the link to the electronic supplementary material.", "\n\n###### \n\nSupplementary material 1 (PDF 4450 kb)\n\nWe are grateful to Jason Glaw, Wendy Lynch, Bankole Johnson, and David Brautigan at the University of Virginia and Heather Hostetler at Texas A&M University for helpful discussions. ", "K.F.B. was supported in part through a fellowship from the American Heart Association. ", "This work was supported in part by NIH HL065958 (to T.C.S.), NIH HL07284 (for post-doctoral support to F.M.G. as a training grant fellow), an NSF career grant \\#0643548 (to J.A.P.), NIH 5R01HL082838-02 (to S.M.P.), and an American Heart Association grant (to J.J.S.).", "\n\n**Open Access** This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.", "\n\nFeilim Mac Gabhann, Robert K. Amanfu, Arvind K. Chavali, Erwin P. Gianchandani, Lydia S. Glaw, Matthew A. Oberhardt, Bryan C. Thorne, and Jason H. Yang contributed equally to this work.", "\n\n[^1]: Associate Editor Gerald Saidel oversaw the review of this article.", "\n" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "PubMed Central" }

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[ "Working on a full male character. ", "Started off with the head and hair, now i'm working on the clothes for the character.", "\nSoftware used:\nZBrush\nPhotoshop\nMaya\n3ds Max\nMarmoset Toolbag\nTopoGun\nSubstance Painter\nOrnatrix" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "Pile-CC" }

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[ "Thin-layer chromatography enantioseparations on chiral stationary phases: a review.", "\nThe current state of chiral separations by thin-layer chromatography using chiral stationary phases is reviewed. ", "Both stationary phases essentially constituted by the chiral selector and those obtained by the impregnation of achiral plates with appropriate chiral selectors are described. ", "Particular attention is paid to commercial and non-commercial cellulose and cellulose-derivative plates, as well as commercially available Chiralplate™, which are currently the most widely used. ", "Some of the most important results obtained to date are reported and discussed; the examples provided illustrate the very wide range of structurally different solutes that can be readily resolved into their enantiomers by planar chromatographic methods. ", "Special attention is paid to the discussion of the retention and resolution factors that influence chiral discrimination. ", "The quantitative analysis of enantiomers is also discussed, especially from the point of view of determination of enantiomeric purity." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts" }

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[ "Swimming at the 2006 Commonwealth Games – Men's 50 metre backstroke\n\n\n\nMen's 50 m Backstroke - Final\n\nMen's 50 m Backstroke - Semifinals\n\nMen's 50 m Backstroke - Semifinal 01\n\nMen's 50 m Backstroke - Semifinal 02\n\nMen's 50 m Backstroke - Heats\n\nMen's 50 m Backstroke - Heat 01\n\nMen's 50 m Backstroke - Heat 02\n\nMen's 50 m Backstroke - Heat 03\n\nMen's 50 m Backstroke - Heat 04\n\nCategory:Swimming at the 2006 Commonwealth Games" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }

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[ "---\nabstract: |\n In this paper we develop an algorithm to calculate the prices and Greeks of barrier options in a hyper-exponential additive model with piecewise constant parameters. ", "We obtain an explicit semi-analytical expression for the first-passage probability. ", "The solution rests on a randomization and an explicit matrix Wiener-Hopf factorization. ", "Employing this result we derive explicit expressions for the Laplace-Fourier transforms of the prices and Greeks of barrier options. ", "As a numerical illustration, the prices and Greeks of down-and-in digital and down-and-in call options are calculated for a set of parameters obtained by a simultaneous calibration to Stoxx50E call options across strikes and four different maturities. ", "By comparing the results with Monte-Carlo simulations, we show that the method is fast, accurate, and stable.", "\n\n *Keywords:* Hyper-exponential additive processes, matrix Wiener-Hopf factorization, first passage times, barrier options, multi-dimensional Laplace transform, Fourier transform, sensitivities.", "\n\n *Acknowledgements:* We would like to thank P. Howard and S. Obraztsov for their support, and also D. Madan for useful conversations. ", "This research was supported by EPSRC grant EP/D039053, and was partly carried out while the authors were based at King’s College London.", "\nauthor:\n- |\n Marc Jeannin$^{\\dagger, \\star}$ and Martijn Pistorius$^{\\star}$\\\n \\\n $\\phantom{|}^{\\dagger}$[Models and Methodology Group, Risk Management Department]{}\\\n [Nomura International plc]{}\\\n [Nomura House 1 St Martin’s-le-Grand, London EC1A 4NP, UK]{}\\\n [E-mail: marc.jeannin@nomura.com]{}\\\n \\\n $\\phantom{|}^{\\star}$[Department of Mathematics, Imperial College London]{}\\\n [South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, UK]{}\\\n [E-mail: martijn.pistorius@imperial.ac.uk ]{}\\\n \\\ntitle: |\n Pricing and hedging barrier options\\\n in a hyper-exponential additive model\n---\n\nIntroduction\n============\n\nBarrier options are contracts whose pay-offs are activated or de-activated when the underlying process crosses a pre-specified level. ", "These contracts are among the most popular path-dependent options. ", "To value barrier options, a model needs to be sufficiently flexible to calibrate call option prices at different strikes and maturities. ", "However, it is desirable to maintain a degree of analytical tractability to facilitate the calculations, especially for the Greeks or the sensitivities. ", "These sensitivities describe the change in the model price with respect to a change in the underlying parameter, and are important for an appreciation of the robustness of the model’s results. ", "It is well known that the accurate evaluation of the Greeks is a challenging numerical problem, since standard PDE or Monte-Carlo methods are generally slow and unstable.", "\n\nIt is well established that the geometric Brownian motion model lacks the flexibility to capture features in financial asset return data such as the skewness and the excess kurtosis. ", "It cannot calibrate simultaneously to a set of call option prices. ", "To address these limitations, one of the approaches consists of introducing jumps in the price process by replacing the Brownian motion by a Lévy process. ", "Lévy models, such as the VG, CGMY, NIG, KoBoL, generalised hyperbolic, and Kou’s double exponential model, have been successfully applied to the valuation of European-type options. ", "We refer to Cont and Tankov [@ContTankov], Boyarchenko and Levendorskii [@BLbook], and Schoutens [@Schoutens] for background and references on the application of Lévy models in option pricing.", "\n\nAs observed by many authors, such as Eberlein and Kluge [@EberleinKluge], or Carr and Wu [@carr03], Lévy models are generally not capable of calibrating option prices simultaneously across strikes and maturities. ", "Empirical studies of S&P500 index data by Carr and Wu [@carr03], and Pan [@pan02], show that the implied jump intensities and the implied jump size distributions vary greatly over time. ", "The prices of short-dated options exhibit a significantly larger risk-premium than that of long-dated options. ", "This is reflected in the thicker tails of the implied marginal risk-neutral distributions, especially at short maturities. ", "For example, in the equity markets, short-dated out-of-the money put options are relatively expensive since the risk of a large negative jump in the share is priced. ", "Because of the stationarity and independence of the increments of a Lévy process, the moments exhibit a rigid term structure that is different from what is observed in market data. ", "This lack of flexibility can be overcome by considering models driven by additive processes, which have independent and time-inhomogeneous increments.", "\n\nAdditive models have been used for equity option pricing by Carr et al.", " [@carr06], Galloway and Nolder [@galloway04], and by Eberlein and Kluge [@EberleinKluge] for interest rate option pricing. ", "Motivated by modelling considerations, Carr [@carr06] proposed a self-similar additive model for the log-price, and reported good calibration results across time. ", "Galloway and Nolder [@galloway04] carried out a calibration study for various related models. ", "Eberlein and Kluge [@EberleinKluge] constructed an HJM model driven by an additive process with continuous characteristics, and they obtained a good fit for swaptions by using piecewise constant parameters.", "\n\nIn this paper we follow a similar approach: we model the share price by an additive process with hyper-exponential jumps. ", "Hyper-exponential distributions are finite mean-mixtures of exponential distributions which can approximate monotone distribution arbitrarily closely. ", "As first observed by Asmussen et al.", " [@AMP], most of the popular Lévy models used in mathematical finance possess completely monotone Lévy densities and can therefore be approximated well by hyper-exponential Lévy models. ", "A hyper-exponential additive model is sufficiently flexible to allow for an accurate calibration to European option prices across strikes and multiple maturities. ", "In addition, if the parameters are piecewise constant, the model admits semi-analytical expressions for prices and Greeks of barrier options.", "\n\nThere currently is a body of literature devoted to various aspects of pricing barrier options. ", "In the setting of Lévy models, a transform-based approach to price barrier options has been developed in a number of papers, including Geman and Yor [@GemanYor], Kou and Wang [@KouWang], Davydov and Linetsky [@DavydovLinetsky], Boyarchenko and Levendorskii [@BoyLev]. ", "In particular, Kou and Wang [@KouWang], Kou et al.", " [@KouPW], Sepp [@Sepp], Lipton [@Lipton], and Jeannin and Pistorius [@JeanninP] considered the cases of Lévy processes with double-exponential and hyper-exponential jumps.", "\n\nIn this paper, the transform algorithm that we develop is based on a so-called matrix Wiener-Hopf factorization. ", "Such matrix factorizations were first studied by London et al.", " [@london80] and Rogers [@rogers94] for (noisy) fluid models. ", "Jiang and Pistorius [@JiangP] developed matrix-Wiener factorization results for regime-switching models with jumps. ", "We show that by suitably randomizing the parameters the distributions of the infimum and supremum of the randomized hyper-exponential additive process can be explicitly expressed in terms of a matrix Wiener-Hopf factorization. ", "We use these results to derive semi-analytical expressions for the first-passage time probabilities, for the prices, and for the Greeks of barrier options, up to a multi-dimensional transform. ", "The actual prices are subsequently obtained by inverting this transform.", "\n\nAs a numerical illustration, we calibrate the hyper-exponential additive model to Eurostoxx prices quoted on 27 February 2007 at four different maturities. ", "We calculate in this setting down-and-in digital and down-and-in call option prices and Greeks (delta and gamma). ", "To invert the transform, we use a contour deformation algorithm and a fractional Fast Fourier Transform algorithm, developed by Talbot [@talbot79], Bailey and Swarztrauber [@Bailey94], and Chourdakis [@choudhury94], [@chourdakis04]. ", "We also compare it to Monte-Carlo Euler scheme simulations. ", "We find that the algorithm is accurate and stable, and much faster than Monte-Carlo simulations (especially for the Greeks). ", "This method is suitable for applications in which the number of periods is not too large (up to four). ", "When a larger number of periods is required, the direct inversion method used here is no longer feasible. ", "The subject still needs to be further investigated and is left for future research.", "\n\nThe remainder of the paper is organized as follows. ", "In Section \\[sec:add\\] we define the hyper-exponential additive model and present its application to European call option pricing. ", "In Sections \\[sec:WH\\] and \\[sec:price\\] we derive semi-analytical expressions for the first-passage probabilities of a hyper-exponential additive process in terms of a matrix Wiener-Hopf factorisation, and for the prices and Greeks of barrier options. ", "In Section \\[sec:num\\] we present numerical results.", "\n\nThe model {#sec:add}\n=========\n\nAdditive processes\n------------------\n\nWe consider an asset price process $S$ modelled as the exponential $$S_t = S_0 \\te{X_t}$$ of an additive process $X$. Informally, an additive process can be described as a Lévy process with time-dependent characteristics or, equivalently, as a process with independent but non-stationary increments. ", "We briefly review below some key properties of additive processes. ", "For further background on additive processes and their applications in finance, we refer to Sato [@Sato], and to Cont and Tankov [@ContTankov]. ", "An additive process can be defined more formally as follows.", "\n\n\\[def:locallevy\\] For a given $T>0$, $X = \\{X_t, t\\in[0,T]\\}$ is an additive process if\n\n- $X_0=0$,\n\n- For any finite partition $0\\leq\n t_0<t_1 \\cdots <t_k\\leq T$, the random variables $X_{t_k}-X_{t_{k-1}}, \\cdots, X_{t_0}$ are independent,\n\n- The sample paths $t\\mapsto X_t$ have càdlàg modifications almost surely.", "\n\nIf $X$ is an additive process, then, for every $t\\in[0,T]$, $X_t$ has an infinitely divisible distribution with Lévy triplet $(M_t, \\Sigma^2_t, \\Lambda_t)$; that is, the characteristic function of $X_t$ is given by $\\Phi_t(u) = \\exp\n[\\Psi_{t}(u)\\,]$. According to the Lévy-Khintchine formula, $\\Psi_{t}$ is the characteristic exponent given by $$\\Psi_{t}(u) = \\mathbf i u M_t - \\frac{\\Sigma^2_t}{2} u^2 +\n\\int_{-\\i}^\\i \\le\\{\\te{\\mathbf iux} - 1 - \\mathbf\niux1_{\\{|x|<1\\}}\\ri\\}\\Lambda_t(\\td x),$$ with $M_t$, $\\Sigma_t\\in\\mathbb R$, and where $\\Lambda_t$ the Lévy measure satisfies the integrability constraint $$\\int\n(1\\wedge x^2)\\Lambda_t(dx)<\\i.$$ The law of the additive process $\\{X_t, t\\in[0,T]\\}$ is determined by the collection of Lévy triplets $\\{(M_{t},\\Sigma^2_{t}, \\Lambda_{t})\\ \\text{for}\\ t\\in[0,T]\\}$. If the Lévy triplets are time-independent, $X$ is a Lévy process. ", "If the additive process has absolutely continuous characteristics, the Lévy triplets take the explicit form $$\\begin{aligned}\nM(t) &=& \\int_0^t \\mu(s)\\td s, \\qquad\n\\Sigma(t) = \\int_0^t\\sigma^2(s)\\td s,\\\\\n\\Lambda_t(B) &=& \\int_0^t\\int_B g(s,x)\\td x\\td s\n\\qquad \\text{for Borel sets $B$},\\end{aligned}$$ where $\\mu,\\sigma^2:[0,T]\\to\\mathbb R$ and $g:[0,T]\\times\\mathbb R\\to\\mathbb R$ are integrable functions, with $g$ and $\\sigma^2$ non-negative. ", "We call the functions $(\\mu,\\sigma^2, g)$ the local triplet of $X$.\\\n\\\nWe assume that we have been given deterministic integrable functions $r(t)$ and $d(t)$ representing the short rate and the dividend yield, and that the characteristic exponent of $X_t$ satisfies $$\\label{eq:psi1}\n\\Psi_t(-\\mathbf i) = \\int_0^t[r(s)-d(s)]\\td s,\\qquad\n$$ or equivalently $$\\label{eq:psi2}\n\\mu(t) + \\frac{\\sigma^2(t)}{2} +\n\\int_{-\\infty}^\\infty [\\te{x} - 1 - 1_{\\{|x|<1\\}}x]g(t,x)\\td x\n= r(t) - d(t).$$ It follows that the discounted process $$S_{0}\\exp(\\int_0^t [r(s)-d(s)]\\td s)$$ is a martingale if and only if (or, equivalently, ) holds.", "\n\nHyper-exponential additive processes\n------------------------------------\n\nIn what follows we restrict the discussion to a hyper-exponential additive process $X$ which is specified by its local triplet $(\\mu,\\sigma^2,g)$ where $g$ is given by $$g(t,x) =\n\\sum_{k=1}^{n^+}\\pi^+_k(t)\\alpha^+_k(t)\\te{-\\alpha^+_k(t)x}1_{\\{x>0\\}} +\n\\sum_{j=1}^{n^-}\\pi^-_j(t)\\alpha_j^-(t)\\te{-\\alpha^-_j(t)|x|}1_{\\{x<0\\}},$$ where $\\pi_k^\\pm(t)$ and $\\alpha^\\pm_k(t)$ are non-negative. ", "The continuous part of $X$ consists of a diffusion with time-dependent drift $\\mu(t)$ and volatility $\\s(t)$. The jump part of $X$ is of finite activity and forms an inhomogeneous compound Poisson process where positive and negative jumps occur at the rates $$\\lambda^+(t):=\\sum_{k=1}^{n^+}\\pi^+_k(t) \\q\\text{ and }\\q\n\\lambda^-(t):= \\sum_{j=1}^{n^-}\\pi^-_j(t),$$ and jump sizes are distributed according to a hyper-exponential distribution.\\\nSmall random price movements are intuitively modelled by the diffusion part, whereas sudden changes of the price are captured by the jump-part of $X$. If we take $n^\\pm = 1$, the jump-sizes are exponentially distributed, and this model reduces to an extension of the Kou model with time-dependent parameters.", "\n\nPiecewise constant parameters\n-----------------------------\n\nTo reduce the dimension of the available parameter set, we take the functions $\\mu(t),\\sigma(t)$ and $g(t,\\cdot)$ to be piecewise constant. ", "Given that we have a finite set of European call options with different maturities $T_1, \\ldots, T_N$, we take the local parameters to be constant between the different maturities $T_i$. Then for all $t \\in (T_{i-1},T_i]$, (with $T_0=0$) we set $$\\label{eq:para}\n\\mu(t) = \\mu^{(i)},\\quad \\sigma^2(t) = \\sigma^{2(i)},\\quad g(t,x)\n= g^{(i)}(x), \\quad\\text{$i=1, \\ldots, N$}.$$ For $t\\in(T_{i-1}, T_i]$ the characteristic exponent of $X_t-X_{T_{i-1}}$ is given by $$\\Psi_{T_{i-1},t}(u) =:\n\\Psi^{(i)}(u),$$ where $$\\label{eq:Psi}\n\\Psi^{(i)}(u) = \\mu^{(i)} u\\mathbf i - \\frac{\\sigma^{2(i)}}{2}u^2\n+ \\sum_{k=1}^{n^+} \\pi_k^{+(i)}\\le(\\frac{u\\mathbf i}{\\alpha_k^{+(i)} -\nu\\mathbf i}\\ri) - \\sum_{j=1}^{n^-} \\pi_j^{-(i)}\\le(\\frac{u\\mathbf\ni}{\\alpha_j^{-(i)} + u\\mathbf i}\\ri).$$\n\nFirst passage probabilities {#sec:WH}\n===========================\n\nThe value of a digital barrier option can be expressed in terms of the distribution $$F^{(+)}(x;T) = P(\\ovl X_T \\leq x)$$ of the running supremum $$\\ovl X_T = \\sup_{s\\leq T} X_s$$ of $X$, or equivalently, the distribution of the first-passage time $$T^+(x)=\\inf\\{t\\ge0: X_t>x\\}$$ which is related to $F^{(+)}$ by $$P(T^+(x)\\leq T) = 1-F^{(+)}(x;T).$$ Whereas for a Lévy process the distributions of the infimum and supremum are linked to the characteristic exponent by the so-called Wiener-Hopf factorization, such a result does not exist for general additive processes, because of the time-dependence of the parameters. ", "However, in the case of piecewise constant parameters, the triplet changes only at deterministic times, so that as a consequence the distribution function $F^{(+)}(x) = F^{(+)}(x; T^{(1)},\n\\ldots, T^{(N)})$ only depends on the inter-jump times $T^{(i)} =\nT_i - T_{i-1}$ (with $T_0=0$). ", "In this case, as we show below, the $N$-dimensional Laplace transform $G^{(+)}(x,\\mbf q)$ of $F^{(+)}$, given by $$G^{(+)}(x,\\mbf q) = \\int \\te{- (q_1 u_1 + \\cdots\\, + q_Nu_N)}\nF^{(+)}(x; u_1, \\ldots, u_N)\\td u_1 \\cdots \\td u_N,$$ where $\\mbf q = (q_1, \\ldots, q_N)$, is expressed explicitly in terms of a matrix Wiener-Hopf factorization. ", "To state this result we need to introduce some further notation.", "\n\nFor any vector $\\mbf v=(v_1, \\ldots, v_n)$, we denote by $\\Delta_{{{\\mbox{\\scriptsize\\boldmath$v$}}}}$ the diagonal matrix $\\Delta_{{{\\mbox{\\scriptsize\\boldmath$v$}}}} = (v_i, i=1, \\ldots, n)_{\\mrm{diag}}$. Let $Q$ be the $N(1+n^++n^-)\\times N(1+n^++n^-)$ matrix given in block notation by $$\\label{eq:Q}\nQ = \\begin{pmatrix} H^+ & D^-\\\\ C^- & T^-\n\\end{pmatrix},$$ where $$\\label{eq:H}\nH^+ = \\begin{pmatrix} G - \\Delta_{{{\\mbox{\\scriptsize\\boldmath$\\lambda$}}}} & b^+\\\\\nt^+ & T^+\n\\end{pmatrix}.$$ Here ${{\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\lambda$}}}=(\\lambda_i^+ + \\lambda_i^-, i=1, \\ldots, N)$, and $G$ and $b^+$ are the $N\\times N$ and $N\\times Nn^+$ matrices in block notation given by $$\\label{eq:b+}\nG = \\begin{pmatrix} -q_1 &q_1 &&&\\\\\n & -q_2&q_2&&\\\\\n&&\\ddots& \\\\&&&-q_{N-1} & q_{N-1}\\\\\n&&&& -q_N\n\\end{pmatrix},\n\\\nb^+ = \\begin{pmatrix} \\mbf\\pi^{+{(1)}} &&&\\\\\n & \\mbf\\pi^{+{(2)}} &&\\\\\n&&\\ddots&\\\\ &&& \\mbf\\pi^{+{(N)}}\n\\end{pmatrix}.$$ Here $\\mbf\\pi^{+(i)}$ is the row-vector ${{\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\pi$}}}^{+(i)}=\n(\\pi^{+(i)}_l, l=1, \\ldots, n)$, and where $t^+$, $T^+$ are given by $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{eq:t+}\nT^+ &= \\begin{pmatrix} -\\Delta_{{{\\mbox{\\scriptsize\\boldmath$\\a$}}}^+} &&&\\\\\n & -\\Delta_{{{\\mbox{\\scriptsize\\boldmath$\\a$}}}^+} &&\\\\\n&&\\ddots&\\\\ &&& -\\Delta_{{{\\mbox{\\scriptsize\\boldmath$\\a$}}}^+}\n\\end{pmatrix},\\quad\nt^+ = \\begin{pmatrix} \\mbf\\a^+ &&&\\\\\n & \\mbf\\a^+ &&\\\\\n&&\\ddots&\\\\ &&& \\mbf\\a^+\n\\end{pmatrix},\\end{aligned}$$ where $\\mbf\\a^+$ is the column-vector $\\mbf\\a^+ = (\\alpha_i^+,\ni=1, \\ldots, n^+)'$, and $$\\label{eq:C-D-}\nC^-=\n\\begin{pmatrix} t^-& O^- \\end{pmatrix},\n\\quad\\quad\\quad D^- = \\begin{pmatrix} b^- \\\\ O^+ \\end{pmatrix},$$ where $O^\\pm$ are $n^\\pm N\\times n^\\pm N$ zero matrices, and $b^-$, $T^-$, and $t^-$ are given by and with ${{\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\pi$}}}^{+(i)}$ and ${{\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\alpha$}}}^+$ replaced by ${{\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\pi$}}}^{-(i)}$ and ${{\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\alpha$}}}^-$. The matrix $Q$ is a generator matrix, that is, a square matrix with non-negative off-diagonal elements and non-positive row sums, and defines a Markov chain. ", "This Markov chain is associated to a randomization and embedding of the additive process $X$ (which will be illustrated with a concrete example below). ", "We recall that a sub-probability matrix is a matrix with non-negative elements and row sums not larger than one. ", "By applying the matrix Wiener-Hopf factorization results of Jiang and Pistorius [@JiangP] to the current setting we arrive at the following conclusion.", "\n\n\\[thm:wh\\] It holds that $$\\label{eq:GX}\nG^{(+)}(x,{{\\mbox{\\boldmath$q$}}}) = \\frac{1}{q_1 \\ldots q_N} \\times \\left[ 1 - e_1'\n\\te{Q_+ x}\\mathbf 1\\right],$$ where $$\\mbf e_1'=(1, 0, \\ldots, 0)\\q\\text{ and }\\q\\mathbf 1=(1,\\ldots, 1)'.$$ $Q_+$ is an $N(1+n^+)\\times N(1+n^+)$ generator matrix that together with $\\eta^+$ an $Nn^-\\times N(1+n^+)$ sub-probability matrix, solves the system of matrix equations $$\\label{eq:WH+}\n \\begin{cases}\n \\frac{1}{2}S^2 Q_+^2 - V^+ Q_+ + H^+ + D^-\\eta^+ = O,\\\\\n\\\\\n-\\eta^+ Q_+ + C^- + T^-\\eta^+ = O.\n \\end{cases}$$ Here the $O$’s are zero matrices of appropriate sizes, and in block notation we have, $$\\label{eq:TSV}\nS^2 = \\begin{pmatrix} \\Delta_{{{\\mbox{\\scriptsize\\boldmath$\\s$}}}^2} & \\\\ & O^+\n\\end{pmatrix},\n\\qquad V^+ = \\begin{pmatrix} + \\Delta_{{{\\mbox{\\scriptsize\\boldmath$\\m$}}}} & \\\\ & I^+\n\\end{pmatrix},$$ with $${{\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\s$}}}^2=(\\s_i^2, i=1,\\ldots, N),\\qquad {{\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\mu$}}}=(\\mu_i, i=1,\n\\ldots,N).$$ $O^+$ and $I^+$ represent $n^+N\\times n^+N$ zero and identity matrices, respectively.", "\n\nBy applying Theorem \\[thm:wh\\] to $-X$, we find the corresponding pair of matrices $(Q_-,\\eta_-)$. The quadruple $(Q_+,\\eta_+,Q_-, \\eta_-)$ is called a matrix Wiener-Hopf factorization of $Q$.\\\n\\\n[**Example.**]{} ", "To illustrate this approach, we consider a hyper-exponential additive process $X$ on $[0,T_2]$ whose parameters are constant during the periods $[0,T_1]$ and $[T_1, T_2]$. In the first period $X$ evolves as a jump-diffusion with positive and negative exponential jumps with means and jump rates $1/\\alpha^+, \\lambda^+$ and $1/\\alpha^-, \\lambda^-$. In the second period $X$ is a Brownian motion with drift. ", "The idea is to randomize the times between maturities by replacing $T^{(1)}=T_1$ and $T^{(2)}=T_2-T_1$ with independent exponential random variables having means $q_1^{-1}$ and $q_2^{-1}$. This results in a regime-switching jump-diffusion with the regime only jumping from state 1 to state 2, according to the generator matrix $$G = \\begin{pmatrix}\n -q_1 & q_1\\\\ 0 & -q_2\n\\end{pmatrix}.$$ We associate to the regime-switching process a continuous Markov additive process, which can be informally obtained by replacing positive and negative jumps with stretched slopes of $+1$ and $-1$ (see Asmussen [@asm00] for background on this embedding). ", "As described in [@JiangP], in this case the generator of the modulating Markov process is given by $$Q = \\begin{pmatrix} H^+ & D^-\\\\ C^- & T^-\n\\end{pmatrix}\n=\n \\le(\\begin{array}{ccc|c} -q_1-\\lambda^+-\\lambda^- & q_1\n& \\lambda^+ &\n\\lambda^-\\\\\n0 & -q_2 & 0 & 0\\\\\n\\alpha^+ & 0 & -\\alpha^+ & 0\\\\\n\\hline \\alpha^- & 0 & 0 & -\\alpha^-\n\\end{array}\\ri),$$ with the matrices $S^2$ and $V^+$ in Theorem \\[thm:wh\\] given by $$S^2 = \\begin{pmatrix} \\sigma_1^2 \\\\\n& \\sigma_2^2\\\\\n&& 0\n\\end{pmatrix},\n\\qquad V^+ = \\begin{pmatrix} \\mu_1 \\\\\n& \\mu_2\\\\\n&& 1\n\\end{pmatrix}.$$\n\n![", "Paths of the various processes related to log-price process $X$ are illustrated. ", "Here $X$ is a hyper-exponential additive process on the period $[0,T_2]$ whose parameters are constant during the periods $[0,T_1]$ and $[T_1, T_2]$. During the first period $[0,T_1]$, the process $X$ evolves as a jump-diffusion with volatility $\\sigma_1$, drift $\\mu_1=0$ and exponentially-distributed jumps. ", "The positive and negative jumps are exponentially-distributed with means and jump rates $1/\\alpha^+, \\lambda^+$ and $1/\\alpha^-, \\lambda^-$, respectively. ", "During the second period $[T_1,T_2]$, $X$ evolves as a linear Brownian motion with volatility $\\sigma_2$ and drift $\\mu_2=0$. Associated to $X$ is a continuous Markov additive process $A$, which can be obtained from $X$ by replacing the positive and negative jumps with linear stretches of path of slopes $+1$ and $-1$, and replacing the fixed times $T_1$, $T_2-T_1$ by independent exponential random times $\\mbf e_1$ and $\\mbf e_2$ with parameters $q_1, q_2$. The process $Y$ that records the current state or regime of $A$ is a Markov process with generating matrix $Q$. When $Y$ takes values 1 and 2, $A$ evolves as a linear Brownian motion with zero drift and volatility $\\sigma_1$ and $\\sigma_2$ respectively; and when $Y$ is 3 and 4, $A$ is a positive or negative unit drift. ", "These linear stretches of paths of $A$ originate from the jumps of $X$. A jump of $Y$ from one state to another is induced either by a jump of $X$ or by a switch of the set of parameters that determine the dynamics of $X$. By time-changing $A$ by the time $T_0(t)$ up to time $t$ that $Y$ was equal to $1$ and $2$, we recover a regime-switching jump-diffusion; that is, the process $\\{A(T_0(t)), t\\ge 0\\}$ is in law equal to a regime-switching jump-diffusion. ", "Finally, replacement of the times at which a regime switch occurs by $T_1$ and $T_2$ results in a process that has the same distribution as $X$.[]{data-label=\"Fig:emb\"}](Paths.eps){height=\"10.4cm\" width=\"7.55cm\"}\n\nSolution of the matrix equation\n-------------------------------\n\nTo solve the system , which is a Ricatti-type matrix equation, we follow a spectral approach and determine the spectral decomposition of $Q^+$. Denoting by $h(\\rho)$ a (column) eigenvector of $Q^+$ corresponding to the eigenvalue $\\rho$, one finds that it is a matter of algebra to verify that the system can be equivalently rewritten as $$\\frac{1}{2} \\T S^2\\begin{pmatrix}I\\\\\\eta^+\\end{pmatrix}Q_+^2 - \\T\nV\\begin{pmatrix}I\\\\\\eta^+\\end{pmatrix}Q_+ +\nQ\\begin{pmatrix}I\\\\\\eta^+\\end{pmatrix} = O.$$ Here $O$ is a $N(1+n^+ + n^-)$ square zero matrix, $I$ is an $N(1+n^+)$ identity matrix, and $$\\T S^2 = \\begin{pmatrix} \\Delta_{{{\\mbox{\\scriptsize\\boldmath$\\s$}}}^2} & \\\\ & O^+\\\\ && O^-\n\\end{pmatrix},\n\\qquad \\T V = \\begin{pmatrix} \\Delta_{{{\\mbox{\\scriptsize\\boldmath$\\m$}}}} & \\\\ & I^+ \\\\ &&\n-I^-\n\\end{pmatrix}.$$ Defining the matrix $K(s)$ by $$\\label{eq:K}\nK(s) = \\frac{s^2}{2}\\T S^2 + s\\T V + Q,$$ we find that $h(\\rho)$ solves the linear system $$K[-\\rho]\\begin{pmatrix}I\\\\\\eta^+\\end{pmatrix}h(\\rho)=\\mbf 0,$$ which implies that $\\rho$ is a root of the equation $\\det K(s) =\n0$. The following result characterizes the eigenvalues of $Q^+$ (see Appendix A):\n\n\\[lem:eigen\\]\n\n- It holds that $$\\label{eq:detK}\n |\\det (K(s))| = \\prod_{i=1}^N \\le\\{|\\Psi^{(i)}(-\\mathbf i s) -\n q_i| \\prod_{k=1}^{n^+} |s-\\alpha^+_k| \\prod_{l=1}^{n^-}\n |s+\\alpha^-_l|\\ri\\},$$ where $\\Psi^{(i)}$ is given in .", "\n\n- The equation $$\\label{eq:detK2} \\det\n K(s)=0$$ has $N(1+n^+)$ positive roots and $N(1+n^-)$ negative roots.", "\n\nSince $-Q^+$ is the negative of a generator matrix, it is non-negative definite, so its eigenvalues are non-negative and are given by the positive roots of . ", "In particular, if the positive roots $${{\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\rho$}}}_+=\\le(\\rho^+_i: i=1,\n\\ldots, N(n^++1)\\ri)$$ of equation are distinct, it follows from Lemma \\[lem:eigen\\] and Theorem \\[thm:wh\\] that $$G^{(+)}(x,\\mbf q) = (q_1\\cdots q_N)^{-1} \\times\n[1-\\mbf e_i' U_+ \\te{-\\Delta_{{{\\mbox{\\scriptsize\\boldmath$\\rho$}}}_+} x} U_+^{-1}\\mathbf 1],$$ where $U_+ = (h(\\rho^+_i), i=1, \\ldots, N(n^++1))$.\n\nThe final position and the first exit time\n------------------------------------------\n\nThe valuation of barrier options involves the joint distribution of the final position at maturity $T$ and the first exit time. ", "We will extend the results in the previous section by considering the following: $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\ovl F^{(+)}(x,s) &:=& E[\\te{sX_T}\\mathbf 1_{\\{\\ovl X_T > x\\}}]\\\\\n&=& E[\\te{sX_T}\\mathbf 1_{\\{ T^+(x) < T\\}}].\\end{aligned}$$ $\\ovl F^{(+)}(x,s)$ depends on time only through the inter-maturity times $(T^{(1)},\\ldots, T^{(N)})$. The Laplace transform $\\ovl G^{(+)}(x,s;q)$ of $\\ovl\nF^{(+)}(x,s)$ in $(T^{(1)},\\ldots, T^{(N)})$, can be expressed in terms of $Q^+$ and $K(s)$ as follows:\n\n\\[prop:XS\\] It holds that $$\\label{eq:GXS}\n \\ovl G^{(+)}(x,s,\\mbf q) = \\frac{\\te{sx}}{q_1\\ldots q_N}\n \\times \\mbf e_1' \\te{Q^+ x}K(s)^{-1}\n K(0)\\mathbf 1$$ for all $s\\in\\mathbb C$ with $\\mathrm{Re}(s)\\in (-\\min_{j=1,\\ldots, n^-}\n\\a_j^-,\\min_{k=1,\\ldots,n^+} \\a^+_k)$.\n\nA proof is given in Appendix A.\n\nFirst passage to a lower level {#ssec:low}\n------------------------------\n\nThe form of the analogous distributions concerning the infimum $$F^{(-)}(x) = P(- \\unl X_T\\leq x), \\qquad \\ovl F^{(-)}(x,s) =\nE[\\te{sX_T}\\mathbf 1_{\\{- \\unl X_T > x\\}}],\\quad x>0,$$ can be found by applying the results in the previous section to the process $-X$. More specifically, it is straightforward to check that the $N$-dimensional Laplace transforms $G^{(-)}(x,q)$ and $\\ovl\nG^{(-)}(x,s,q)$ are given by and replacing $Q^+$ by $Q^-$. $(Q^-,\\eta^-)$ satisfies the system of matrix equations with $V^+, H^+, D^-, C^-, T^-$ replaced by $V^-, H^-, D^+, C^+, T^+$, where the latter set is defined by interchanging $+$ and $-$ in equations , , and . ", "It is straightforward to verify that *(i)* an eigenvector $h(\\rho)$ of $Q^-$ corresponding to eigenvalue $\\rho$ satisfies $$K[\\rho]\\begin{pmatrix}\\eta^-\\\\ I\\end{pmatrix}h(\\rho)=0,$$ where $I$ is an $N(1+n^-)$ identity matrix, and *(ii)* that, in view of Lemma \\[lem:eigen\\], the eigenvalues of $Q^-$ are given by the negative roots $${{\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\rho$}}}^- = \\le(\\rho^-_j, j=1, \\ldots, N(n^-+1)\\ri)$$ of $\\det K(\\rho) = 0$.\n\nPrices and Greeks of digital and barrier options {#sec:price}\n================================================\n\nUsing the first-passage results from the previous section we derive semi-analytical expressions for the prices and sensitivities of down-and-in digital and knock-in call options. ", "A down-and-in digital option at level $H<S_0$ is a contract that pays out one unit at maturity $T$ if the price $S$ has down-crossed the level $H$ before $T$. Similarly, a down-and-in call option at level $H<S_0$ and with strike $K$ is a call option whose pay-off is activated once $S$ down-crosses $H$. Taking the risk-free rate $r$ and the dividend rate $d$ to be constant, the arbitrage free prices of a down-and-in digital $(DID)$ and a call option $(DIC)$ are given respectively by $$DID(T,H,S_0) = \\te{-(r-d)T} E\\le[\\mathbf 1_{\\{\\inf_{s\\leq T} S_s < H\\}}\\ri]\n = \\te{-(r-d)T} P(\\unl X_T < h),$$ where $h=\\log(H/S_0)$ is the log-barrier, and $$DIC(T,H,K,S_0) = \\te{-(r-d)T} S_0 E\\le[(\\te{X_T} - \\te{k})^+\\mathbf 1_{\\{\\unl X_T <\n h\\}}\\ri],$$ where $k=\\log(K/S_0)$ denotes the log-strike. ", "Let $\\WH{DID}(\\mbf q)$ denote the joint Laplace transform of $DID$ in the inter-maturity times $(T^{(1)}, \\ldots, T^{(N)})$ (with $T^{(N)}=T$), and denote by $\\WH{DIC}^*(\\mbf q,s)$ the Laplace-Fourier transform in $(T^{(1)}, \\ldots, T^{(N)})$ and in the log-strike $k$. Then we have the following result:\n\n\\[prop:price\\] For $h=\\log(H/S_0)<0$ it holds that $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{eq:DID}\n\\WH{DID}(\\mbf q) &=& \\frac{1}{c(q)} \\times \\mbf e_1' \\te{Q^- h}\\mathbf 1,\\\\\n\\WH{DIC}^*(\\mbf q,s) &=& \\frac{S_0\\te{bk}}{c(\\mbf q) b(b-1)} \\times\n\\mbf e_1'\n\\te{Q^- h}K(s)^{-1}K(0)\\mathbf 1, \\label{eq:DIC}\\end{aligned}$$ where $k=\\log(K/S_0)$, $\\mbf q=(q_1,\\ldots, q_N)$, and $b=\\alpha +\n\\mathbf i s + 1, c(\\mbf q) = (q_1 + r) \\cdots (q_N + r).$\n\nBefore we give the proof we observe that from the explicit expressions and semi-analytical formulas can be obtained for the delta and gamma of the down-and-in digital and call options (i.e. the first and second derivatives of the option value with respect to the spot $S_0$). ", "Indeed, the derivatives of the expressions and with respect to $S_0$ are equal to the Laplace-Fourier transforms of the derivatives of the option, as integration and differentiation are interchangeable in this case. ", "In the case of a down-and-in digital option we find that the Laplace transforms $\\WH{\\Delta}_{DID}$ and $\\WH{\\Gamma}_{DID}$ of the delta $\\Delta_{DID}$ and gamma $\\Gamma_{DID}$ are given by $$\\WH{\\Delta}_{DID}(\\mbf q) = -\\frac{1}{c(q)S_0}\\times e_1' Q^-\\te{Q^-\nh}\\mathbf 1, \\ \\quad \\WH{\\Gamma}_{DID}(\\mbf q) =\n\\frac{1}{c(q)S_0^2}\\times e_1' [(Q^-)^2 + Q^-]\\te{Q^- h}\\mathbf 1.$$\n\nThe expression is a direct consequence of Theorem \\[thm:wh\\] (see also Section \\[ssec:low\\]). ", "To verify we start by taking the Fourier transform in $k$ and find as in that the Fourier transform $DIC^*$ is given by $$\\label{eq:DIC*}\nDIC^*(\\alpha+\\mathbf i s) = \\frac{\\ovl F^{(-)}(-h,b)}{b(b-1)},$$ where $b = \\alpha+\\mathbf i s + 1$ and $$\\ovl F^{(-)}(x,b) = E[\\te{bX_T}\\textbf{1}_{\\{-\\unl X_T \\geq x\\}}].$$ From Proposition \\[prop:XS\\] we deduce that the form the joint Laplace transform $\\ovl G(x,b,\\mbf q)$ of $\\ovl F^{(-)}(x,b)$ in $(T^{(1)},\\ldots, T^{(N)})$ is given by $$\\label{eq:ovlG}\n\\ovl G(x,b,\\mbf q) = \\frac{\\te{bx}}{c(\\mbf q)} \\times \\mbf e_1' \\te{Q^-\nh}K(s)^{-1}K(0)\\mathbf 1.$$ Combining and completes the proof.[ ]{}", "\n\nNumerical results {#sec:num}\n=================\n\nCalibration\n-----------\n\nTo determine a parameter set to test the method, we calibrate the hyper-exponential additive model to Eurostoxx call options at four different maturities, observed in the market on 20 February 2007. ", "The spot price is EUR $4150$, the risk-free rate is assumed to be fixed at $r=0.03$, and the dividend rate is taken to be zero. ", "As we find that inclusion of positive jumps does not substantially improve the calibration results, we only consider negative jumps, and we specify the jump size parameters to be $(\\alpha^-_1, \\alpha^-_2)=(3,10)$. The jump arrival rates and the volatility are piecewise constant in time, and are estimated by minimizing the root-mean-square error between model and observed market call prices. ", "Using the well known Fourier transform method (briefly recalled in Appendix \\[app:euro\\]) the calibration is carried out maturity by maturity under constraints through a bootstrapping method with well-defined local triplets:\n\n1. ", " Calibrate call prices at $T_1$ to obtain the parameters $(\\sigma(T_1),\\pi_1^{\\pm}(T_1),\\pi_2^{\\pm}(T_1))$.\n\n2. ", " For $j=2,\n \\ldots, N$ calibrate call prices at $T_j$ to obtain $(\\sigma(T_j),\\pi_1^{\\pm}(T_j),\\pi_2^{\\pm}(T_j))$.\n\nIn Figure 2 the calibration results are presented with plots of the market and model implied volatility surfaces corresponding to the four maturities $6$m, $1$Y, $3$Y and $5$Y. The root-mean-square error (RMSE) and the average relative percentage error (ARPE) are equal to $5.30$ and $1.1\\%$. We compare it to a price process that follows a Lévy process with hyper-exponential jumps (i.e. with constant parameters over time), and find that the calibration of the four maturities in that case give a RMSE of $9.82$ and an ARPE of $2.9\\%$. In Table 1 the resulting parameter sets are displayed under the hyper-exponential additive and Lévy models. ", "In the case of the hyper-exponential model we observe a high jump intensity of small jumps for short maturities that decrease substantially over time. ", "This is consistent with the finding of Carr and Wu [@carr03], and Pan [@pan02].", "\n\n\\[fig:cal\\]\n\nResults for the barrier option prices and Greeks\n------------------------------------------------\n\nUsing the parameter set found in the calibration of the Eurostoxx call options, we value barrier and digital options on the Eurostoxx index, modelling its price process as the exponential of a hyper-exponential additive process. ", "We use the semi-analytical results in Proposition \\[prop:price\\]. ", "To invert the multi-dimensional Laplace transforms we choose Talbot’s method [@talbot79] (see also [@choudhury94]) for down-and-in digital options. ", "We combine it with the fractional FFT algorithm of Bailey and Swarztrauber [@Bailey94], and Chourdakis [@chourdakis04] for down-and-in call options. ", "See Appendix \\[app:trans\\] for a detailed description of the implementation of these transform algorithms. ", "We compare it to the same quantities calculated by Monte-Carlo simulations, using a standard Euler scheme.", "\n\n### Down-and-in digital options\n\nWe price down-and-in digital options with a maturity of five years for different spot levels. ", "We evaluate the required 4-dimensional Laplace transform over two time increments of six months, and two of two years, that is, $T^{(1)}=0.5$, $T^{(2)}=0.5$, $T^{(3)}=2$, $T^{(4)}=2$. We use Talbot’s algorithm with $M=6$ (see Appendix \\[app:trans\\] for an explanation of this parameter). ", "Using Mathematica to run the algorithm, the computation time was five minutes on a 3189 Mhz computer to calculate prices and Greeks for fourteen different spot levels. ", "The calculation of first passage probabilities using Monte-Carlo simulations requires a large number of time steps and paths. ", "We use one million paths with $\\delta t= 5 \\times 10^{-5}$ and it takes several hours to obtain stable Greeks in C++. ", "Error bounds cannot be obtained analytically, but we observe in Table \\[table:VGDD\\] that the results of the transform method agree with Monte-Carlo simulation results. ", "Figures 3 and 4 report prices and Greeks for down-and-in digital options. ", "The options are expressed as a percentage of the spot price. ", "The values of the sensitivities are expressed as fractions of the spot price $S_0$.\n\nThis transform algorithm is particulary efficient at a book level, since once the generating matrices $Q^-$ of the infimum have been calculated for different values of the vector $\\textbf{q}$ the calculation of prices and Greeks of any digital barrier product is just a matter of summation.", "\n\n### Down-and-in call options\n\nWe value down-and-in call options with a maturity of one year for different strike levels. ", "In this case, a two-dimensional Laplace inversion is required over time increments $T^{(1)}=0.5$ and $T^{(2)}=0.5$. For the inversions of the Laplace transform and the Fourier transform, we set $M=7$ and $N=1024$ (refer to Appendix \\[app:trans\\] for an explanation of these parameters). ", "For Monte-Carlo simulations, we use one million paths with time step $\\delta t= 2.5 \\times 10^{-5}$. The option prices and Greeks obtained by the two methods are reported in table \\[table:VGDIC\\] and figures \\[fig:DID5YG\\] and \\[fig:DIC1Y\\]. ", "We observe that the results of the transform method agree with the Monte-Carlo simulation results. ", "Using Mathematica again to run the algorithm, the computation time is ten minutes to calculate the option prices, delta and gamma for eleven different levels of the strike. ", "Since the option prices and Greeks of a down-and-in call option are obtained via a Fourier-Laplace transform, it takes more time than in the case of a digital option (approximately twice as long), which is still much faster than a Monte-Carlo Euler scheme. ", "We note that the transform algorithm is particulary efficient for the pricing of options with different strikes, as we obtain by FrFFT inversion the prices and Greeks of any down-and-in call options on a log-strike grid.", "\n\n\\\n\n\\\n\n**APPENDIX**\n\nProofs\n======\n\n[*Proof of Lemma \\[lem:eigen\\]:*]{}\n\n- It is straightforward to verify that $K^\\#(s)$ can be obtained from $K(s)$ by interchanging some columns and rows, where $K^\\#(s)$ is given by $$K^\\#(s) =\\left( \\begin{array}{ccccc}\n K_1(s) & D_{1} &&&\\\\\n & K_2(s) &D_{2}& &\\\\\n &&.&.&\\\\\n &&& K_{N-1}(s) &D_{N-1} \\\\\n && & &K_N(s)\\\\\n \\end{array} \\right),$$ where $K_w(s)$ and $D_w$ are square matrices of dimension $n^++n^-+1$. There are defined respectively by $$K_w(s) = \\left( \\begin{array}{ccccccc}\n \\frac{\\sigma_w^2s^2}{2} + \\mu_ws-q_w-\\lambda_w^+-\\lambda_w^-\n &\\pi_1^{-}(w)&.", "\n &\\pi_m^{-}(w)&\\pi_1^{+}(w)&.&\\pi_n^{+}(w)\\\\\n \\alpha_1^-&-s-\\alpha_1^-&0&0&0&0&0\\\\\n .&0&.&0&0&0&0\\\\\n \\alpha_m^-& 0 &0&-s-\\alpha_m^-&0&0&0\\\\\n \\alpha_1^+&0&0&0&s-\\alpha_1^+&0&0\\\\\n .&0&0&0&0&.&0\\\\\n \\alpha_n^+&0&0&0&0&0&s-\\alpha_n^+\n \\end{array} \\right),$$ where $\\lambda_w^\\pm=\\sum_i \\pi^\\pm_i(w)$, and $$(D_w)_{ij} =\n \\begin{cases}\n q_w & \\text{if $i=j=1$}\\\\ 0 & \\text{otherwise}\n \\end{cases}.$$ Therefore $|\\det(K(s))|$ is equal to $|\\det(K^\\#(s)|$. To proceed we recall an identity from matrix algebra. ", "Let $M$ be a matrix of the form $$M = \\begin{pmatrix} M_{11} & M_{12} \\\\ M_{21} & M_{22}\n \\end{pmatrix}$$ in block notation, where $M_{22}$ is invertible. ", "Then $$\\det(M) = \\det(M_{22}) \\det (M_{11} + M_{12} M_{22}^{-1} M_{21}).$$ Using this identity, it is a matter of algebra to verify by induction that $$\\det(K^\\#(s)) = \\det(K_1(s)) \\cdots det(K_N(s)).$$ As a consequence we find, by applying this matrix identity, that $$\\begin{gathered}\n \\hspace{-0.5cm}\\det(K_w(s)) = \\le(\\frac{\\sigma^2_w}{2} s^2 + \\mu_w s +\n \\sum_{i=1}^{n^+} \\pi^+_i(w) \\frac{\\alpha_i^+}{s-\\alpha_i^+} +\n \\sum_{j=1}^{n^-} \\pi^-_j(w) \\frac{\\alpha_j^-}{-s-\\alpha_j^-}\n -\\lambda_w^+ - \\lambda_w^- - q_w\\ri)\\times \\\\\n \\times\\prod_{i=1}^{n^+} (s-\\alpha^+_i) \\prod_{j=1}^{n^-}\n (-s-\\alpha^-_j),\\end{gathered}$$ and the assertion follows in view of .", "\n\n- Using the intermediate value theorem and the specific form of $\\Psi$, it is straightforward to check that the equation $\\Psi(-u\\mathbf i)=q$, $q>0$ has $n+1$ positive roots $\\rho^+_i$ and $m+1$ negative roots $\\rho^-_j$, satisfying $$\\rho^-_{m+1} < -\\alpha_m^- < \\rho_m^- < \\ldots < -\\alpha_1^- <\n \\rho^-_1<0 < \\rho_i^+ < \\alpha_1^+ < \\ldots < \\rho_n^+ <\n \\alpha_n^+ < \\rho^+_{n+1}.$$ Since $\\det(K_w(s))$ is a polynomial of degree $n+m+2$, it follows that all the roots of $\\det(K_w(s))=0$ are given by $(\\rho_i^+,\n i=1, \\ldots, n+1)$ and $(\\rho_j^-, j=1,\\ldots, m+1)$. In view of the form of $\\det(K(s))$ derived in (i) the assertion follows.", "\n\n[ ]{}\\\n\\\n[*Proof of Proposition \\[prop:XS\\]:*]{} Consider the following randomization of $X$ obtained by randomizing the inter-maturity times $T^{(i)}$ by replacing them by independent exponential random times with means $q_i^{-1}$, and call this process $\\WT X$. The process $\\WT X$ is a regime-switching jump-diffusion, where the only regime switches that can occur are from $i$ to $i+1$ at rate $q_i$ ($i=1,\\ldots, N-1$), and from the final state $N$ to an absorbing ’graveyard state’ $\\partial$. As shown in [@JiangP], the process $\\WT X$ is equal to a time-changed continuous process $A$, say. ", "Denoting by $\\zeta$ the epoch at which $A$ is sent to $\\partial$, by $Y$ the modulating Markov chain, and by $\\tau=\\inf\\{t\\ge0: A_\\tau=x\\}$, we have $$\\begin{aligned}\n q_1\\cdots q_N \\ovl G(x,s,q) &=& E[\\te{s A_{\\zeta-}} \\mathbf 1_{\\{\\ovl A_{\\zeta-} >\n x\\}}]\\\\\n&=& E[\\te{s A_{\\zeta-}} \\mathbf 1_{\\{\\tau < \\zeta\\}}]\\\\\n&=& E[\\te{s A_{\\tau}} \\mathbf 1_{\\{\\tau < \\zeta\\}}f(Y_\\tau)]\\\\\n&=& \\te{s x} E[\\mathbf 1_{\\{\\tau < \\zeta\\}}f(Y_\\tau)],\\end{aligned}$$ with $$f(y) = E[\\te{s A_{\\zeta-}}|A_0=0, Y_0=y],$$ where the last two lines follow by the Markov property of $(A,Y)$ and the fact that $A$ is continuous. ", "To guarantee that all the expressions are well defined in this calculation $s$ has to be such that $E[\\te{s X_1}]<\\i$, which corresponds to the restriction that $$Re(s)\\in(-\\min_j \\a_j^-,\\min_i \\a^+_i).$$\n\nIn [@JiangP] it was shown that the vector $\\mbf f = (f(y),\ny\\in N)$, where $N$ denotes the state space of $Y$, is given by $$\\mbf f = K(s)^{-1} Q \\mathbf 1,$$ where the matrix $K(s)$ is given in (\\[eq:K\\]). ", "Combining these results with Theorem \\[thm:wh\\] we find that $$q_1\\cdots q_N \\ovl G(x,s,q) = e_1' \\te{Q^+ x} K(s)^{-1} Q \\mathbf\n1,$$ and the proof is complete. [ ]{}", "\n\nEuropean call options {#app:euro}\n=====================\n\nUnder the hyper-exponential additive model with piecewise constant parameters , the characteristic function at time $T$ is explicitly given by $$\\Phi^{(i)}(u) = \\exp\\le(\\sum_{j=1}^i\\Psi^{(j)}(u)\\ri),$$ with $\\Psi^{(j)}$ as given in . ", "The price of a European call with maturity $T_i$ can thus be efficiently calculated using a well-established Fourier transform method, which we briefly recall. ", "The Fourier transform $C^*_{T_i}$ over $k$ of $C_{T_i}(k)$, the price of a call option with log-strike $k=\\log(K/S_0)$ and maturity $T_i$, can be explicitly expressed in terms of the characteristic function $\\Phi^{(i)}(u)$ as follows: $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\nn C^*_{T_i}(v-\\mathbf i \\alpha)&=&S_0 \\te{-rT_i}\n\\int_{-\\infty}^{\\infty}\\te{\\mathbf i vk}E[\\te{\\alpha k}(\\te{X_{T_i}}-\\te k)^+] \\td k\\\\\n&=&S_0\\te{-rT_i}\\frac{\\Phi^{(i)}(v-(\\alpha+1)\\mathbf\ni)}{(\\alpha+\\mathbf iv)(\\alpha+1+\\mathbf iv)}.\\label{eq:FFTCall}\\end{aligned}$$ Since the call pay-off function itself is not square-integrable in the log-strike, the axis of integration is here shifted over $\\mathbf i\\alpha$ which corresponds to exponentially dampening the pay-off function at a rate $\\alpha$, which is usually taken to be $\\alpha=0.75$ (see Carr and Madan [@carr98]). ", "The call option prices are then determined by inverting the Fourier transform: $$\\label{eq:CallTi}\nC_{T_i}(k)=\\frac{S_0 \\te{-\\alpha k}\\te{-rT_i}}{\\pi}\\int_0^{\\infty}\n\\te{-\\mathbf ikv}\\frac{\\Phi^{(i)}(v-(\\alpha+1)\\mathbf\ni)}{(\\alpha+\\mathbf iv)(\\alpha+1+\\mathbf iv)}\\td v.$$\n\nTransform inversion algorithms {#app:trans}\n==============================\n\nMulti-dimensional Laplace inversion\n-----------------------------------\n\nTo evaluate down-and-in digital option prices (DID), we invert the multi-dimensional Laplace transform to obtain $$\\label{eq:lDID}\nDID(S_0,h,\\textbf{T})=\\frac{1}{(2\\pi \\mathbf\ni)^N}\\int_{C_N}\\cdots\\int_{C_1}\\te{q_1 T_1+\\ldots+q_NT_N}\n\\WH{DID}(S_0,h,\\textbf{q})\\td \\textbf{q}.$$ where $\\mbf T=(T_1, \\ldots, T_N)$ and $C_n$ are vertical lines in the complex plane defined by $q_n=r_n+\\mathbf iy_n$ for $n=1, \\ldots N$ with $-\\infty<y_n<\\infty$ and fixed values of $r_n$, chosen such that all the singularities of the transform $\\WH{DID}(S_0,h,\\texttt{q})$ are coordinate-wise on the left of the lines $C_n$. Many algorithms approximate the integrals in by a finite linear combination of the transform at some specific nodes with certain weights. ", "Three approaches have been studied by Abate et al.", " [@abate06], based on Fourier series expansion, combinations of Gaver functionals, and deformation of the integral contour. ", "Here we concentrate on the last method developed by Talbot [@talbot79], since reports in the literature (e.g. [@abate06]) suggest that this approach offers high performance for a short time of execution, which our numerical results confirm. ", "We write $$\\label{eq:DIDLT}\nDID(S_0,h,\\textbf{T})=\\frac{1}{(2\\pi \\mathbf\ni)^N}\\int_{-\\pi}^{\\pi}\\cdots\\int_{-\\pi}^{\\pi} \\beta_1(\\theta)\n\\cdots \\beta_N(\\theta) \\WH{DID}(S_0,h,\\textbf{q}(\\theta)) \\td\n\\mbox{\\boldmath $\\theta$},$$ with $n=1, \\ldots N$, $\\beta_n(\\theta)=w_n \\te{\\mathbf i r_n w_n T_n}$, $ q_n(\\theta)=\\mathbf i r_n w_n$, and $$w_n=-1+\\mathbf i \\theta+\\mathbf i (\\theta \\cot \\theta-1) \\cot \\theta.$$ Since $DID$ is a real valued function, $DID$ is also equal to the real part of the integral on the right-hand side of , which can be used to reduce the calculation by a factor of two. ", "To illustrate the evaluation of the integrals , we present concrete expressions for the approximating sums when $N=4$ (which is the setting that will be implemented later on). ", "Defining $$\\theta^k_n =k\\pi/M\\ \\text{ and }\\\nr_n=\\frac{2M}{5T_n},$$ we obtain [$$\\begin{aligned}\n&&\\hspace{-0.8cm}DID(S_0,h,\\textbf{T})\\approx\\frac{2}{5^4 T_1 T_2 T_3 T_4 }\\sum_{k_1=0}^{M-1} \\sum_{k_2=0}^{M-1} \\sum_{k_3=0}^{M-1} \\sum_{k_4=0}^{M-1}\\\\\n&& \\beta_{k_1} \\beta_{k_2} \\beta_{k_3}\\beta_{k_4} f(q_{k_1}/T_1,q_{k_2}/T_2,q_{k_3}/T_3,q_{k_4}/T_4)+\\overline{\\beta}_{k_1} \\beta_{k_2} \\beta_{k_3}\\beta_{k_4} f(\\overline{q}_{k_1}/T_1,q_{k_2}/T_2,q_{k_3}/T_3,q_{k_4}/T_4)\\\\\n&+&\\beta_{k_1} \\overline{\\beta}_{k_2} \\beta_{k_3}\\beta_{k_4} f(q_{k_1}/T_1,\\overline{q}_{k_2}/T_2,q_{k_3}/T_3,q_{k_4}/T_4)+\\beta_{k_1} \\beta_{k_2} \\overline{\\beta}_{k_3}\\beta_{k_4} f(q_{k_1}/T_1,q_{k_2}/T_2,\\overline{q}_{k_3}/T_3,q_{k_4}/T_4)\\\\\n&+&\\beta_{k_1} \\beta_{k_2} \\beta_{k_3}\\overline{\\beta}_{k_4} f(q_{k_1}/T_1,q_{k_2}/T_2,q_{k_3}/T_3,\\overline{q}_{k_4}/T_4)+\\overline{\\beta}_{k_1} \\overline{\\beta}_{k_2} \\beta_{k_3}\\beta_{k_4} f(\\overline{q}_{k_1}/T_1,\\overline{q}_{k_2}/T_2,q_{k_3}/T_3,q_{k_4}/T_4)\\\\\n&+&\\beta_{k_1} \\overline{\\beta}_{k_2}\n\\beta_{k_3}\\overline{\\beta}_{k_4}\nf(q_{k_1}/T_1,\\overline{q}_{k_2}/T_2,q_{k_3}/T_3,\\overline{q}_{k_4}/T_4)+\\overline{\\beta}_{k_1}\n\\overline{\\beta}_{k_2} \\overline{\\beta}_{k_3}\\beta_{k_4}\nf(\\overline{q}_{k_1}/T_1,\\overline{q}_{k_2}/T_2,\\overline{q}_{k_3}/T_3,q_{k_4}/T_4),\\end{aligned}$$]{} where $f$ is equal to $\\WH{DID}$. The weights and the nodes are given by $$\\begin{aligned}\n q_0&=&\\frac{2M}{5},\\quad q_k=\\frac{2k\\pi}{5}(\\cot(k\\pi/M)+\\mathbf i), \\quad \\quad 0<k<M,\\\\\n \\beta_0&=&0.5 e^{q_0}, \\quad \\beta_k=(1+\\mathbf i(k\\pi/M)(1+[\\cot(k \\pi/M)]^2)-\\mathbf i \\cot(k\\pi/M))e^{q_k}.\\end{aligned}$$ Since the weights and nodes are independent of the transform, the calculation time of the algorithm can be reduced by pre computing and storing weights and nodes. ", "The speed of convergence and the accuracy of the Talbot algorithm will depend on the regularity of the Laplace transform $f$. Although universal error bounds are not known, Abate et al.", " [@abate04] showed numerically that the single parameter $M$ can be used to control the error and can be seen as a measure for the precision. ", "They found after extensive numerical experiments that for a large class of Laplace transforms the relative error is approximately $10^{-0.6M}$. For high dimensional inversion, extra accuracy in the inner sums may be needed to obtain a sufficient degree of precision for the outer sums, which can be achieved by increasing $M$.\n\nFractional Fourier Transform\n----------------------------\n\nTo evaluate down-and-in call option prices (DIC), we invert the Fourier-Laplace transform over log-strike and time periods. ", "For the inversion of the Laplace transform we again apply the Talbot algorithm. ", "In the case of two time periods, with $$f_v(q_1,q_2)=\\WH{DIC}^*(S_0,h,v,\\textbf{q}),$$ we find that the Fourier transform $DIC^*$ can be approximated by the following sums: $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\lefteqn{DIC^*(S_0,h,v,\\textbf{T})}\\\\\n&\\approx&\\frac{1}{5^2 T_1 T_2 }\\sum_{k_1=0}^{M-1}\n\\sum_{k_2=0}^{M-1} \\le\\{\\beta_{k_1}\n\\beta_{k_2}f_v(q_{k_1}/T_1,q_{k_2}/T_2)+\\overline{\\beta}_{k_1}\n\\overline{\\beta}_{k_2}\n f_v(\\overline{q}_{k_1}/T_1,\\overline{q}_{k_2}/T_2)\\ri.\\\\\n&\\phantom{=}&\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\\quad +\\ \\le.\\overline{\\beta}_{k_1}\n\\beta_{k_2}f_v(\\overline{q}_{k_1}/T_1,q_{k_2}/T_2)+\\beta_{k_1}\n\\overline{\\beta}_{k_2}f_v(q_{k_1}/T_1,\\overline{q}_{k_2}/T_2)\\ri\\}.\\end{aligned}$$ Unlike the case of the inversion of $\\WH{DID}$, we cannot reduce the calculation time by two by using complex conjugates, since the function $DIC^*$ is not real valued. ", "Down-and-in call prices are then obtained by inverting the Fourier transform over strike: $$DIC(S_0,h,k, \\textbf{T})=\\frac{\\te{-\\alpha k}}{\\pi}\\int_0^{\\infty} \\te{-\\mathbf\nivk}DIC^*(v)\\td v,$$ where $\\alpha$ is the rate of exponential dampening. ", "This integral is approximated for a set of log-strikes between $(-x_0,x_0)$ as a summation: $$\\label{eq:DICsum}\nDIC(S_0,h,k, \\textbf{T}) \\approx \\frac{S \\te{-\\alpha\nk}\\te{-rT}}{\\pi}\\sum_{j=0}^{N-1}w_j\\te{-\\mathbf i\\delta j(-x_0+k\n\\lambda)}DIC^*(\\delta j) \\delta, \\quad \\quad k=1\\cdots N-1,$$ where $(w_j)_{j=0}^{N-1}$ are the integration weights defined by the trapezoidal rule with $w_0=w_{N-1}=0.5$ and $1$ otherwise, $\\lambda = 2x_0/N$ is the log-strike grid step-size and $\\delta$ is the $v$-grid step-size. ", "Carr and Madan [@carr98] and Chourdakis [@chourdakis04] set $\\delta=0.25$.\n\nTo have accurate prices for any strike, the log-strike grid spacing $\\lambda$ needs to be sufficiently small. ", "A common approach is to apply directly the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and to compute the summation on a fixed log-strike range $(-x_0,x_0)$ with $x_0=\\pi/\\delta$ using many points $N$. Bailey and Swarztrauber [@Bailey91], [@Bailey94] propose an alternative approach, and define the Fractional Fast Fourier transform (FrFFT), which uses an arbitrary range. ", "Chourdakis [@chourdakis04] showed that the FrFFT can be used to calculate option prices with less points without losing accuracy. ", "He reported that the FrFFT is $45$ times faster than the FFT for the calculation of European option prices. ", "Since in our case the Fourier transform $DIC^*$ is obtained numerically, we chose to employ the FrFFT. ", "We now briefly specify the form of this algorithm in our setting, and refer for further details to [@Bailey91], [@Bailey94], [@chourdakis04]. ", "The resulting sum is then given by $$\\begin{aligned}\nDIC(S_0,h,k,\\textbf{T}) &\\approx&\\frac{S_0 \\te{-(\\alpha k+\\mathbf i \\pi k^2\n\\nu)}\\te{-rT}}{\\pi}\\sum_{j=0}^{N-1}\\widetilde{w}_j\\te{-\\pi \\mathbf\ni j^2 \\nu}\\te{-\\pi \\mathbf i(k-j)^2 \\nu}DIC^*(\\delta j) \\delta,\\end{aligned}$$ where $k=1\\cdots N-1$, $\\widetilde{w}_j=w_je^{\\mathbf i x_0 \\delta j}$ and $\\nu=\\delta x_0/N\n\\pi$. Extending this summation into a circular convolution over $2N$ yields $$\\begin{aligned}\nDIC(S_0,h,k,\\textbf{T})&\\approx& \\frac{S_0 \\te{-(\\alpha k+\\mathbf i\\pi k^2\n\\nu)}\\te{-rT}}{\\pi}\\sum_{j=0}^{2N-1} y_j z_{k-j}, \\quad \\quad\nk=1\\cdots N-1,\\end{aligned}$$ where $$y_j=\\widetilde{w}_j \\te{-\\pi \\mathbf i j^2 \\nu} DIC^*(\\delta j)\\delta,\n\\quad z_{j}= \\te{-\\pi \\mathbf i j^2 \\nu}, \\quad j<N,\\\\$$ and $$y_j=0, \\quad z_{j}= \\te{-\\pi \\mathbf i (j-2N)^2 \\nu}, \\quad j \\geq N.$$ This equation can be rewritten in terms of three discrete Fourier transforms: $$\\begin{aligned}\nDIC(k) &\\approx&\\frac{S_0\\te{-(\\alpha k+\\mathbf i\\pi k^2\n\\nu)}\\te{-rT}}{\\pi}F_k^{-1}(F_k(y)F_k(z)), \\quad \\quad k=1\\cdots\nN-1,\\end{aligned}$$ with $$F(x)=\\sum_{j=0}^{N-1}x_j \\te{-2\\pi \\mathbf i j k/N},\\quad \\quad\n\\quad F^{-1}(x)=\\sum_{j=0}^{N-1}x_j \\te{2\\pi \\mathbf i j k/N}.$$ Although the latter sum is computed by invoking two Fourier transforms and one inverse Fourier transform, this approach has the advantage of computing the option prices on a specific log-strike window $(-x_0,x_0)$ with independent grids $\\delta$ and $\\lambda$ and requires less points.", "\n\n[10]{}\n\nJ. Abate and P. P. Valko. 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{ "pile_set_name": "ArXiv" }

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[ "One of the major problems in agriculture is the excessive use of synthetic insecticides, particularly in regard to their negative effects on biodiversity ([@CIT0022], [@CIT0008]). ", "Another serious side effect of this type of compounds is the risk to lead to the evolution of resistance in insect pests, making entire groups of these plant protection products ineffective ([@CIT0028]).", "\n\nNovel natural insecticides originating from plants (hereafter referred to as 'botanical insecticides') can help to avoid such problems because instead of being lethal to a range of pests and nontarget arthropods alike, they act specifically as oviposition and feeding deterrents ([@CIT0041]). ", "Unfortunately, many of such substances of natural origin are subject to rapid environmental degradation but, unlike their synthetic counterparts, they contain numerous chemicals with different and complex mechanisms of action that should delay the evolution of insecticide resistance ([@CIT0041]).", "\n\nAccording to Miresmailli and [@CIT0031] and [@CIT0032], the number of scientific articles on botanical insecticides has grown immensely. ", "Unfortunately, progress toward their commercialization and use in agriculture is limited, and to date, there are only four categories of effective commercial botanical products: pyrethrins, rotenones, azadirachtin, and essential oils. ", "However, some scientists ([@CIT0033], [@CIT0058]) have argued that most of these articles were based on laboratory observations, only one third includes chemical data, one quarter includes positive controls, and only a few report field tests.", "\n\nThe tropics have the highest plant biodiversity on Earth and contain a plethora of chemical plant--insect interactions ([@CIT0039], [@CIT0048]). ", "In this sense, in recent years, sub-Saharan Africa has been the focus of multinational efforts to study botanical pesticides in the field, and hundreds of species with pesticidal properties have been reported ([@CIT0003], [@CIT0054]).Thus, in the Ecuadorian Amazon, which has one of the highest levels of plant species richness in the world ([@CIT0042]), we would expect to find a wide range of potential botanical insecticides with unknown compounds, completing our knowledge on rather the effectiveness of neotropical plant extracts as substitutes for synthetic insecticides.", "\n\nThe diamondback moth, *Plutella xylostella* L., and the aphid *Brevicoryne brassicae* L. are among the most important pests of brassicas grown around the world ([@CIT0001], [@CIT0025]). ", "They are also among the pests most difficult to control, and they have developed resistance to a range of synthetic insecticides ([@CIT0037]).\\[AU: As per journal style, insect name or common name of any species should not be abbreviated. ", "Hence, 'DBM' across the article has been spelled out as 'diamondback moth'. ", "Please check and confirm.\\]\n\nIn this context, the objectives of this study were 1) to evaluate the effect of aqueous extracts from five readily available Ecuadorian Amazon plants *Deguelia utilis* (local name Barbasco), *Xanthosoma purpuratum* (local name Shungu panga), *Clibadium* sp. (", "local name Kakllambi), *Witheringia solanacea* (local name Tsimbio), and *Dieffenbachia costata* (local name Lalu) on *P. xylostella* leaf consumption, larvicidal, and oviposition deterrence under laboratory conditions and 2) to determine whether these five plant extracts and aqueous extracts from *Cymbopogon citratus* (local name Hierba Luisa) are effective in reducing the abundance of *P. xylostella* in an open-field test and the abundance of *B. brassicae* in semifield trials.", "\n\nThe plants in this study are common in the wild and are used in traditional medicine or as natural products by the native people of the Amazon ([@CIT0006], [@CIT0018]). *", "Deguelia utilis* is a shrubby plant of the legume family Fabaceae and is found throughout the Amazon; the active ingredient is the insecticide rotenone type II ([@CIT0060]). ", "In South America, *Deguelia urucu* and *D. utilis* are the two principal native species used for insecticide production, but for commercial purposes, the names *Derris urucu* and *Derris nicou* have been retained ([@CIT0020]). ", "In Ecuador, this plant is known only from cultivation by indigenous farmers and rarely produces flowers or fruits; in previous ethnobotanical and phytochemical literature, it has incorrectly been referred to as *Lonchocarpus nicou* (Aubl.) ", "DC ([@CIT0007]). ", "The root of *D. utilis* is traditionally used to control pest species in the Amazon region ([@CIT0020], [@CIT0036], [@CIT0056], [@CIT0061]). ", "However, the use of the roots destroys the entire plant, and therefore, we investigated whether fresh leaves can also act as a botanical insecticide. *", "Cymbopogon citratus* is a tropical grass species native to Southeast Asia ([@CIT0043]), introduced and acclimated as an unknown variety to the Ecuadorian Amazon. ", "Bioactive essential oils can be extracted from the grass through steam distillation and are commonly used as an ingredient of plant-based insect repellents ([@CIT0051], [@CIT0052]).", "\n\nMaterials and Methods {#s1}\n=====================\n\nLaboratory Bioassay to Evaluate the Leaf Consumption, Larvicidal, and Oviposition Deterrence Effect of the Aqueous Extracts on *P. xylostella* {#s2}\n----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n### Plant Sample Collection {#s3}\n\nLeaves from *D. utilis* (A.C.Sm.) ", "A.M.G. Azevedo (local name Barbasco), *X. purpuratum* K. Krause (local name Shungu panga), *Clibadium* sp. (", "local name Kakllambi), *W. solanacea* L'Hér. (", "Solanaceae) (local name Tsimbio), *C. citratus* (DC.) ", "Stapf (local name Hierba Luisa), and *D. costata* H. Karst. ", "ex Schott (local name Lalu) were collected within 3 km of the Centro de Investigación Posgrado y Conservación Amazónica (CIPCA) of the Universidad Estatal Amazónica (S 1°14′18.85″, W 77°53′4.30″) Santa Clara in Pastaza, Ecuador, from June to September 2014 and from June to December 2015. ", "The collection site is within the Amazon primary forest and is characterized by moist tropical rain forest ([@CIT0016]). ", "Mean minimum and maximum ambient temperatures were 22 and 31°C, respectively, with a mean relative humidity ranging from 65 to 80%. ", "Voucher specimens of all plant species were deposited at the Herbarium Amazónica del Ecuador (ECUAMZ) at the Universidad Estatal Amazonica (UEA) Santa Clara, Ecuador, and the Herbarium of the Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo (ESPOCH), Riobamba, Ecuador.", "\n\n### Botanical Extracts {#s4}\n\nThe vegetative materials from at least three specimens of each plant species were thoroughly mixed, mainly because the concentrations of secondary products in the tissues can vary among individual specimens; this method therefore is an accepted approach to control against the confounding factors of natural chemical variation in active compounds across the material tested ([@CIT0002]). ", "The mixed vegetative material was oven-dried at 60°C for 48 h and milled using a Thomas mill into a fine powder. ", "The dry leaf powder from each plant was suspended in tap water for 48 h to produce an aqueous plant extract at concentrations (weight by volume) ranging from 0.04 to 0.55 g/ml: *D. utilis*, 0.13 g/ml; *Clibadium* sp., ", "0.08 g/ml; *D. costata*, 0.04 g/ml; *X. purpuratum*, 0.55 g/ml; and *W. solanacea*, 0.06 g/ml. ", "The observed differences in the concentrations of each extract were probably due to the different proportions of fiber present in each plant. ", "The extracts were filtered with a vacuum pump and stored at 4°C in airtight glass vials in the dark until subsequent use.", "\n\nWe selected the aqueous extraction based on locally available plants that grow wild around farming areas, so that the insecticides can be made available with little effort and at no or minimal cost by the small-scale Ecuador Amazon farmers.", "\n\nIn all tests, leaves dipped in tap water were used as negative control. ", "Leaves dipped in the insecticide chlorpyrifos (LORSBAN 480TM, Dow AgroSciences, EEUU; [@CIT0017], [@CIT0021]) were used as positive control.", "\n\n### Insects {#s5}\n\nWe collected 400 *P. xylostella* pupae from a cabbage field in Izamba parish, north of Ambato, Ecuador (El Pisque Sector, Tungurahua Province, W 78°35′25.71″, S 1°12′25.14″), and reared them in cages containing potted white heading cabbage, *Brassica oleracea* convar. ", "capitata L. var. ", "Alba OMBRIOS RS 91020 (Agripac C.A., Ecuador), using the method described by [@CIT0009]. ", "Briefly, *P. xylostella* pupae collected from the field were placed into containers (14 cm diameter × 20 cm height) until the adults emerged. ", "The containers included cabbage leaf discs (4 cm diameter; *B. oleracea* above) for oviposition. ", "At the top of each container, there was a 4.0-cm opening where a piece of cotton soaked in a 10% honey solution was placed to feed *P. xylostella* adults. ", "Each container had two lateral openings (5.5 × 5.5 cm) covered with plastic wrap through which the cabbage leaf discs containing eggs were removed. ", "These discs were then transferred to plastic boxes (6.5 × 25 × 15 cm) containing additional cabbage leaves, which were replenished as necessary until pupation was reached by all larvae. ", "The pupae were then reintroduced to the rearing containers. ", "The complete cycle was repeated once the adults had emerged.", "\n\nThe populations were maintained at room temperature (20--25°C) in 60--80% relative humidity under a natural photoperiod.", "\n\n### Bioassay to Evaluate the Effect of the Botanical Extract on the Percentage of Leaf Consumption by *P. xylostella* larvae {#s6}\n\nThe leaf consumption effect of the studied extracts on *P. xylostella* larvae was based on the leaf dip method described by [@CIT0055]. ", "Leaf discs (4 cm in diameter) were cut from the middle leaves of 6-wk-old cabbage plants using a sharp metal hole punch. ", "Each disc was immersed with gentle agitation into the test solution of the aqueous plant extract for 10 s. The discs were then drained for 10 s to allow the run-off of surplus solution and then dried with the ad axial surface up on corrugated sheets of aluminum foil for 1 h at room temperature. ", "Dried leaf discs were placed in an individual Petri dish (5 cm in diameter) containing a single layer of moistened filter paper (Whatman No. ", "1, 4.5 cm in diameter) to prevent wilting. ", "Five third-instar larvae were placed on each leaf using a clean camel hairbrush. ", "Each Petri dish was sealed with parafilm (Pechiney Plastic Packaging, EEUU) to prevent the larvae from escaping and was kept for 5 d under laboratory conditions. ", "Each treatment, including the control, was replicated 5--10 times; a total of 25--50 larvae were tested for each treatment. ", "The treatments were completely randomized. ", "The leaf discs were scanned at the beginning (day 1) and end of the 5-d experimental period (day 5) with a Hewlett Packard Deskjet Ink Advantage 1515 scanner, and the area of each disk was quantified using the Scion Image software (Scion Corporation, EEUU). ", "The normality of the data was tested using the Darling test when the data set did not meet the assumption of normality, even after transformation; a Mann--Whitney test was used to compare treated against control samples, and the difference was considered statistically significant at *P* \\< 0.05. ", "The percentage leave consumption between treatments was compared with a Kruskal--Wallis test with a level of significance of *P* \\< 0.05.", "\n\n### Bioassay to Evaluate the Botanical Extract Larvicidal Effect on *P. xylostella* {#s7}\n\nAt the end of the 5-d experiment, the number of dead larvae on the treated and control discs was determined. ", "The normality of the data was tested using the Darling test when the dataset did not meet the assumption of normality, even after transformation. ", "The treatments were compared with a Kruskal--Wallis test at *P* \\< 0.05.", "\n\n### Bioassay to Evaluate the Botanical Extract Oviposition Deterrence Effect on *P. xylostella* {#s8}\n\nFor each extract, two cabbage leaf discs (4.0 cm diameter) were prepared. ", "One disc was dipped in the aqueous plant extract solution and the other in tap water only. ", "The discs were drained and dried as described for the feeding deterrence bioassay. ", "One hour after treatment, the control and extract-treated leaf discs were placed in a plastic container (14 cm diameter × 20 cm height) containing 20 couples of *P. xylostella* adults, 5--7 d old, and the females were allowed to choose to oviposit on either the extract-treated disc or the control disc. ", "After 2 d, the two leaf discs were removed from the container and the numbers of eggs along the main vein of both leaf discs were counted. ", "Each treatment, including the control, was replicated 5--10 times. ", "The results are presented as the mean ± SEM of eggs after treatment. ", "The number of eggs from each treatment was compared with the number of eggs in the tap water control. ", "The normality of the data was tested using the Darling test when the dataset did not meet the assumption of normality, even after transformation, a Mann--Whitney test at a significance level of *P* \\< 0.05. ", "The number of eggs between treatments was compared with a Kruskal--Wallis test with a level of significance of *P* \\< 0.05.", "\n\n### Bioassay Data Analysis {#s9}\n\nThe statistical analysis was performed using the MINITAB 16 statistical program for PCs ([@CIT0040]).", "\n\n*Plutella xylostella* Open-Field Test {#s10}\n-------------------------------------\n\n### Study Site and Agronomic Broccoli Cultivation {#s11}\n\nThe study site was located in the Andes Sierra, which has a near constant year-round temperature averaging between 23 and 14°C. ", "There are two distinct seasons: dry (June to August) and wet (September to December). ", "The elevation (2,754 m) and proximity to Chimborazo result in solar radiation that is among the most intense in the world ([@CIT0014]). ", "Temperature and precipitation during the experiment were monitored at a field weather station ([@CIT0027]), located 500 m from the field plot. ", "Standard agronomic practices for broccoli cultivation such as ploughing, weed control, watering, and organic soil amendments were implemented at the experimental fields of the Department of Horticulture of the Polytechnic School of Chimborazo (ESPOCH; S 1°41′05″, W 78°40′20″) Riobamba, Chimborazo Province, Ecuador. ", "As insect abundance usually varies at dry and rainy seasons, we test the treatments in both seasons to make a better assessment of their performance against *P. xylostella* abundance: dry season (June--August 2015) and wet season (September--December 2015). ", "The plants were sown on June 20 for cultivation in the dry season and September 3 for cultivation in the wet season.", "\n\n### Botanical Extracts {#s12}\n\nThe samples from the six plant species were dried outdoors and ground using a Thomas mill to obtain a fine powder. ", "A 45.4-g subsample of each processed plant was mixed with 1 liter tap water containing a 0.2% detergent solution (TIPS, Calbaq S.A., Ecuador) to obtain a concentration of 0.0454 g/ml; the solution was filtered through fine linen for immediate application. ", "A separate 5-liter knapsack sprayer (Petrul FUT-5LP; Truper S.A., Jilotepec, México) was used to apply each solution to the point of run-off, including the underside of the leaves.", "\n\n### Experimental Design {#s13}\n\n*Brassica oleracea* var. ", "Avenger was grown from certified seeds sown on a raised bed in the field. ", "The young seedlings were protected from pests with insect-proof netting and were grown in a closed greenhouse. ", "The seedlings were transplanted at the four true leaf stage (30 d after sowing). ", "The spacing was 0.3 × 0.6 m between plants, and the plots measured 3 m × 1.8 m, resulting in 30 plants per plot. ", "Two-meter-wide unplanted alleys were left between the plots to avoid spray drift between adjacent plots. ", "In total, 1,200 plants were used in the trial.", "\n\nThe design of the trial was a completely randomized block with six treatments and two controls with five replications, with a total of 40 experimental units. ", "The treatments were the aqueous extracts of *W. solanacea*, *D. costata*, *X. purpuratum*, *Clibadium* sp., *", "D. utilis*, and *C. nardus*. ", "The negative control was a 0.2% tap water detergent solution (TIPS, Calbaq S.A., Ecuador). ", "The positive insecticide control was a mix of 48% chlorpyrifos (LORSBAN 480TM, Dow AgroSciences, EEUU) and 25% lambda cyhalothrin (ZERO 5EC, ANASAC, Chile) at established dosages of 600 and 40 ml/ha, respectively ([@CIT0017], [@CIT0021]).", "\n\nThe applications began 30 d after the plants were transplanted into the field and were re-applied for 7 wk at 8-d intervals. ", "Eight days after each spraying, the number of *P. xylostella* live larvae was determined in situ on 10 plants from the innermost row of each plot. ", "The larvae were counted leaf by leaf on each of these plants, and the total number was recorded. ", "The results are presented as the weekly mean (± SEM) of live *P. xylostella* larvae after treatment in the two seasons.", "\n\n### Open-Field Data Analysis {#s14}\n\nThe normality of the data was tested using the Darling test. ", "When the data set did not meet the assumption of normality, even after transformation, a Friedman nonparametric analysis of variance was applied. ", "When a significant (*P* \\< 0.05) effect was found in an experiment, the Conover Iman test of nonparametric multiple comparisons was used ([@CIT0015]). ", "All statistical analyses were performed with the software packages Infostat ([@CIT0019]) and Minitab 16 ([@CIT0040]).", "\n\n*Brevicoryne brassicae* Semifield Test {#s15}\n--------------------------------------\n\n### Botanical Extracts {#s16}\n\nThe plant extracts were prepared as in the field experiments, and hand sprayers were used for immediate application.", "\n\n### Insects {#s17}\n\n*Brevicoryne brassicae* were collected from broccoli (*B. oleracea*. ", "var. ", "Avenger) in the experimental fields of the Department of Horticulture of the Escuela Politecnica de Chimborazo (ESPOCH; S 1°41′05″, W 78°40′20″) Riobamba, Chimborazo Province, Ecuador, during September 2015. ", "The aphids were reared on seven independently potted broccoli plants covered with insect-proof netting with 0.87-mm mesh, which prevented the aphids from escaping and any other insects from entering the potted broccoli plants.", "\n\n### Experimental Design {#s18}\n\n#### Semifield Outdoor Enclosures {#s19}\n\nThe semifield trials were carried out using a partially covered garden shed located at the Department of Horticulture of the Escuela Superior Politecnica de Chimborazo. ", "The shed had a transparent roof and walls that were half-open; the wind and solar radiation were largely blocked; humidity and temperature were not controlled.", "\n\nPlants were arranged 50 cm apart inside the garden shed. ", "For each experiment, 30-d-old potted broccoli plants (*B. oleracea* var. ", "Avenger) with six true leaves were covered with an insect-proof net fitted with an elastic band at the base and a zipper at the side to enable access. ", "The potted plants were covered with the netting immediately after potting. ", "Seedlings for potting were raised on a seed bed that was completely covered with an insect-proof net from the day of sowing until the seedlings were potted. ", "The plants were artificially infested with 20 adult cabbage aphids each, which were allowed to establish colonies for 7 d before treatment.", "\n\nThe treatments consisted of two positive controls, two negative controls, and six botanical treatments and were set up in a completely randomized block design with five replications. ", "The plant extracts were prepared as in the field experiments, and precompression manual 2-liter sprayer (Tramontina, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil) was used for immediate application. ", "The positive controls were two synthetic insecticides, imidacloprid and chlorpyrifos, and the negative controls consisted of 0.2% tap water detergent solution (TIPS) and tap water. ", "Imidacloprid and chlorpyrifos were applied at the recommended concentrations of 0.0025 and 0.6 ml/liter of water, respectively ([@CIT0017], [@CIT0021]).", "\n\nAll solutions were applied to the point of run-off to infested potted plants through a zipper at the side of the cage. ", "A single application was made in each experiment. ", "To measure the effectiveness of the treatments, the number of live individuals was counted at 3, 7, and 15 d after application.", "\n\n### Data Analysis {#s20}\n\nBecause the data could not be normalized, a nonparametric Kruskal--Wallis test was used. ", "When a significant (*P* \\< 0.05) effect was found in an experiment, nonparametric multiple comparisons were applied ([@CIT0015]) using Infostat ([@CIT0019]). ", "The results are presented as the mean ± SEM.", "\n\nResults {#s21}\n=======\n\nEffect of Plant Extracts on *P. xylostella* Percent Leaf Consumption, Larvicidal, and Oviposition Deterrence {#s22}\n------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n### *Plutella xylostella* Percent Leaf Consumption {#s23}\n\nApplication of the aqueous extracts from *D. utilis*, *X. purpuratum*, *D. costata*, *W. solanacea*, and the insecticide chlorpyrifos resulted in a lower percentage of leaf consumption by *P. xylostella* larvae compared with the negative water controls ([Table 1](#T1){ref-type=\"table\"}). ", "On the contrary, *Clibadium* sp. ", "did not show any significant decrease in the percentage of leaf consumption compared with the negative water controls ([Table 1](#T1){ref-type=\"table\"}). ", "The application of botanical extracts resulted in a lower percentage of leaf consumption than the application of chlorpyrifos (*H* =14.96, df = 4, *P* = 0.0048).", "\n\n###### \n\nPercent leaf consumption (median) by *P. xylostella* larvae after exposure to aqueous extracts of five Ecuadorian Amazon plants and chlorpyrifos versus their respective water controls\n\n Plant extract Treatment Control Whitney test statistic (*W* value) *P* ^*a*^ *n* ^*b*^\n ----------------- ----------- --------- ------------------------------------ ------------- -----------\n Chlorpyrifos 0.0 7.7 40 0.01\\*\\* 5\n *X. purpuratum* 0.4 5.5 145.0 0.003\\*\\* 10\n *D. utilis* 0.5 5.7 61.0 0.001\\*\\*\\* 10\n *D. costata* 0.6 5.5 143.0 0.005\\*\\* 10\n *W. solanacea* 1.6 5.5 134.5 0.028\\* 10\n *Clibadium* sp. ", " 3.9 5.5 93.0 0.385ns 10\n\n^*a*^Mann--Whitney test: \\**P* \\< 0.05; \\*\\**P* \\< 0.01; \\*\\*\\**P* \\< 0.001.", "\n\n^*b*^ *n* = number of replicates.", "\n\n### Larvicidal Effect of plant extracts on *P. xylostella* {#s24}\n\nOnly the *D. utilis* extract exhibited a significant negative effect on larval survival compare with water controls ([Table 2](#T2){ref-type=\"table\"}). ", "Chlorpyrifos was three times more lethal to the larvae than *D. utilis* (*W* = 17.5, *P* = 0.0472). ", "The effects of the other botanical extracts were not significantly different from those observed in the water controls.", "\n\n###### \n\nPercent mortality of *P. xylostella* larvae (mean ± SEM) in response to aqueous extracts of five Ecuadorian Amazon plants and chlorpyrifos versus their respective water controls\n\n Treatment Mean ± SEM Percent larval mortality Mean ± SEM Control Kruskal--Wallis test statistic (*Z* value) *P* ^*a*^ *n* ^*b*^\n ----------------- ------------------------------------- -------------------- -------------------------------------------- ----------- -----------\n *D. costata* 4.0 ± 2.7 0.0 ± 0.0 0.76 0.146 50\n *X. purpuratum* 6.0 ± 3.1 0.0 ± 0.0 1.13 0.067 50\n *Clibadium* sp. ", " 6.0 ± 3.1 0.0 ± 0.0 1.13 0.067 50\n *W. solanacea* 8.0 ± 4.4 0.0 ± 0.0 1.13 0.068 50\n *D. utilis* 20.0 ± 6.3 0.0 ± 0.0 2.09 0.017\\* 25\n Chlorpyrifos 64.0 ± 11.7 0.0 ± 0.0 2.61 0.005\\*\\* 25\n\n^*a*^Kruskal--Wallis test: \\**P* \\< 0.05; \\*\\**P* \\< 0.01; \\*\\*\\**P* \\< 0.001.", "\n\n^*b*^ *n* = number of larvae used in bioassay.", "\n\n### Oviposition Deterrence Effect of Plant Extracts on *P. xylostella* {#s25}\n\nThe oviposition by female *P. xylostella* was significantly lower (*P* ≤ 0.001) on the leaf discs treated with botanical extracts than on the discs dipped in water ([Table 3](#T3){ref-type=\"table\"}). ", "Particularly, the extract from *D. costata* showed a strong negative effect on diamondback moth oviposition, with a mean of 1.1 ± 0.5 eggs laid per leaf disc in 5 d versus 44.2 ± 6.3 eggs in the water control (*W* = 155.0, *P* = 0.0002). ", "Interestingly, chlorpyrifos did not deter oviposition (*W* = 26.0, *P* = 0.8345) compared with the control discs dipped in water ([Table 3](#T3){ref-type=\"table\"}). ", "The oviposition deterrence of the extracts from *D. utilis*, *Clibadium* sp., *", "X. purpuratum*, and *W. solanacea* were similar (5.1--6.4 eggs in 5 d; *H* = 0.7, df = 3, *P* = 0.8720), and all botanical extracts had a significantly higher oviposition deterrence effect than chlorpyrifos (42.0 ± 16.5 eggs; *H* = 10.69, df = 4, *P* = 0.0289).", "\n\n###### \n\nNumber of eggs laid by *Plutella xylostella* adults (mean ± SEM) in response to aqueous extracts of five different Ecuadorian Amazon plants and chlorpyrifos versus their respective water controls\n\n Plant extract Treatment Control Mann--Whitney test statistic (*W* value) *P* ^a^ *n* ^b^\n ----------------- ------------- -------------- ------------------------------------------ -------------- ---------\n *D. costata* 1.1 ± 0.5 44.2 ± 6.3 155.0 0.0002\\*\\*\\* 10\n *D. utilis* 5.1 ± 1.9 120.9 ± 15.3 55.0 0.0002\\*\\*\\* 10\n *Clibadium* sp. ", " 4.5 ± 1.0 43.3 ± 8.2 155.0 0.0002\\*\\*\\* 10\n *X. purpuratum* 5.7 ± 1.4 65.5 ± 11.8 155.0 0.0002\\*\\*\\* 10\n *W. solanacea* 6.4 ± 1.9 87.0 ± 17.1 55.0 0.0002\\*\\*\\* 10\n Chlorpyrifos 42.0 ± 16.5 38.8 ± 7.8 26.0 0.8345 5\n\n^*a*^Mann--Whitney test: \\**P* \\< 0.05; \\*\\**P* \\< 0.01; \\*\\*\\**P* \\< 0.001.", "\n\n^*b*^ *n* = number of replicates.", "\n\nThe Effects of Botanical Extracts on the Population Abundance of *P. xylostella* Larvae Infield Experiments {#s26}\n-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nField experiments showed that in both seasons, the abundance of larvae per plant was controlled only by the chemical insecticide ([Table 4](#T4){ref-type=\"table\"}).", "\n\n###### \n\nMean (± SEM) of *Plutella xylostella* larvae per plant in field experiments and the effects of six different aqueous plant extracts, synthetic insecticides and water + detergent, performed in Riobamba, Ecuador, during the dry (June to Aug.) and wet (Oct. to Dec.) seasons in 2015\n\n Treatments Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7\n ----------------------------------------------------- ------------- ------------- -------------- -------------- ------------- ------------- ---------------\n \\(A\\) Dry season \n  *W. solanacea* 2.2 ± 0.5B 4.0 ± 1.1AB 2.0 ± 0.7AB 11.4 ± 1.0BC 9.0 ± 3.1B 6.8 ± 1.1B 3.8 ± 0.6A\n  *D. costata* 0.8 ± 0.8AB 2.0 ± 0.6AB 5.8 ± 2.0AB 8.4 ± 2.1BC 6.6 ± 1.9B 6.2 ± 0.9B 2.0 ± 0.6A\n  *D. utilis* 1.2 ± 0.8AB 2.2 ± 1.5AB 5.6 ± 1.6B 11.8 ± 3.4BC 10.2 ± 3.0B 7.2 ± 1.9B 2.8 ± 1.1A\n  *Clibadium* sp. ", " 1.4 ± 0.7AB 3.6 ± 1.1B 6.8 ± 2.2B 10.0 ± 2.0BC 8.6 ± 2.9B 4.4 ± 0.7B 2.8 ± 0.7A\n  *C. citratus* 1.4 ± 0.7AB 2.2 ± 0.7AB 2.8 ± 0.8AB 11.2 ± 2.3BC 10.8 ± 2.9B 8.0 ± 1.5B 3.4 ± 0.7A\n  *X. purpuratum* 2.4 ± 1.5AB 3.4 ± 0.8B 6.8 ± 2.4B 17.8 ± 2.1C 9.0 ± 1.4B 9.8 ± 2.2B 3.6 ± 0.7A\n  Water + detergent 2.6 ± 0.6B 2.8 ± 0.7AB 2.6 ± 0.8AB 6.4 ± 1.4B 5.2 ± 1.5B 8.2 ± 1.2B 1.4 ± 0.5A\n  Insecticide (chlorpyrifos and lambda cyhalothrin) 0.0 ± 0.0A 0.2 ± 0.2A 0.4 ± 0.2A 0.6 ± 0.4A 0.0 ± 0.0A 0.4 ± 0.2A 0.2 ± 0.2A\n \\(B\\) Wet season \n  *W. solanacea* 0.8 ± 0.6AB 1.4 ± 0.4A 1.6 ± 0.2BC 0.8 ± 0.4AB 2.6 ± 0.5B 6.4 ± 1.4BC 17.8 ± 1.5BC\n  *D. costata* 3.0 ± 0.9C 4.4 ± 0.5B 1.4 ± 0.2ABC 1.0 ± 0.3AB 12.8 ± 2.5D 11.8 ± 1.6C 20.2 ± 1.8BCD\n  *D. utilis* 2.4 ± 0.7C 3.6 ± 0.7AB 1.0 ± 0.3B 4.8 ± 0.4C 12.6 ± 1.1D 7.4 ± 0.9BC 21.8 ± 2.0BCD\n  *Clibadium* sp. ", " 0.8 ± 0.6AB 1.4 ± 0.2A 1.0 ± 0.5ABC 2.4 ± 0.7B 3.4 ± 0.5BC 4.6 ± 1.0B 21.8 ± 6.0CD\n  *C. citratus* 2.0 ± 0.8BC 4.8 ± 0.9BC 2.2 ± 0.4C 0.8 ± 0.2AB 6.4 ± 1.3C 8.6 ± 2.0BC 34.2 ± 3.1E\n  *X. purpuratum* 2.4 ± 1.4BC 8.4 ± 0.7C 2.0 ± 0.3C 2.4 ± 0.5B 6.4 ± 0.7C 6.2 ± 0.9BC 26.4 ± 4.0DE\n  Water + detergent 1.6 ± 0.7C 3.4 ± 0.9AB 1.6 ± 0.2AB 1.2 ± 0.4A 0.6 ± 0.4D 3.0 ± 0.3BC 4.2 ± 0.7AB\n   Insecticide (chlorpyrifos and lambda cyhalothrin) 0.0 ± 0.0A 1.6 ± 0.7A 0.0 ± 0.0A 0.2 ± 0.2A 0.2 ± 0.2A 0.4 ± 0.2A 0.8 ± 0.4A\n\nMeans in a column with the same letter are not significantly different (*P* ≤ 0.05) by Friedman nonparametric analysis of variance.", "\n\nIn most treatments, the abundance of *P. xylostella* larvae in both seasons did not differ between the extract treatments and the negative water + detergent controls. ", "During the dry season, in all weeks of observation, none of the extracts produced a statistically significant effects in the abundance of *P. xylostella* larvae compared with the negative water + detergent control ([Table 4](#T4){ref-type=\"table\"}). ", "During the wet season, significant botanical insecticide effects were observed only at week 1 for *W. solanacea* and *Clibadium* sp. ", "and at week 5 for *W. solanacea*, *C. citratus*, *Clibadium* sp., ", "and *X. purpuratum* ([Table 4](#T4){ref-type=\"table\"}).", "\n\nEffects of Botanical Extracts on *B. brassicae* Populations Abundance in Semifield Experiments {#s27}\n----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nOn the third day after the application, the extracts of *D. utilis*, *Clibadium* sp., *", "D. costata*, *X. purpuratum*, and the chemical insecticides significantly reduced the population of *B. brassicae* compared with the water controls (*P* \\< 0.05; Kruskal--Wallis test; [Table 5](#T5){ref-type=\"table\"}). ", "On the 7th and 15th days after the application, none of the botanical treatments, except *D. utilis*, differed significantly from the water control in the abundance of *B. brassicae* present (*P* \\< 0.05; Kruskal--Wallis test; [Table 5](#T5){ref-type=\"table\"}).", "\n\n###### \n\nEffects of six aqueous plant extracts, synthetic insecticides, and detergent solution on the survival of *Brevicoryne brassicae* nymphs and adults (mean ± SEM) in semifield experiments at 3, 7, and 15 d after application (DAA)\n\n 3 d 7 d 15 d\n ------------------- --------------- ---------------- ---------------\n Chlorpyrifos 0.0 ± 0.0A 0.0 ± 0.0A 0.0 ± 0.0A\n Imidacloprid 2.2 ± 0.7AB 0.0 ± 0.0A 0.0 ± 0.0A\n *D. utilis* 30.2 ± 5.9ABC 21.2 ± 5.8AB 16.4 ± 8.8AB\n *Clibadium* sp. ", " 37.8 ± 6.9BCD 37.8 ± 7.1BC 22.8 ± 8.2BC\n *D. costata* 38.2 ± 5.7BCD 47.2 ± 11.7BC 24.0 ± 7.6BC\n *X. purpuratum* 46.0 ± 7.4CDE 44.4 ± 9.9 BC 32.6 ± 9.3BC\n *W. solanacea* 55.4 ± 9.8CDE 58.0 ± 18.0 BC 27.8 ± 12.4BC\n *C. citratus* 62.0 ± 4.1DE 39.6 ± 6.0 BC 28.2 ± 6.7BC\n Water + detergent 63.0 ± 6.7DE 53.8 ± 10.2 BC 38.6 ± 9.0BC\n Water 76.6 ± 9.6E 78.0 ± 13.5C 57.4 ± 17.1C\n\nEach experiment was replicated five times. ", "Means within a column with different letters differ significantly (*P* \\< 0.05; Kruskal--Wallis test).", "\n\nDiscussion {#s28}\n==========\n\nLaboratory Studies {#s29}\n------------------\n\nWhen tested against pests, hundreds of plant species have been reported to have activity such as feeding and oviposition deterrence, repellency, acute and chronic toxicity, developmental disruption, or growth inhibition under laboratory conditions ([@CIT0047], [@CIT0032]). ", "We contribute with the following new results: the species *D. utilis* caused larval mortality in *P. xylostella*, all of the botanical extracts studied significantly deterred *P. xylostella* oviposition, and with the exception of *Clibadium* sp., ", "all extracts decreased *P. xylostella* leaf consumption.", "\n\n### *Plutella xylostella* Larval Mortality {#s30}\n\nNone of the extracts tested shown an effective *P. xylostella* larvicidal effect compared with chlorpyrifos (effective 64%), with the exception of *D. utilis*. ", "This is the first time that *D. utilis* has been tested as larvicide against *P. xylostella*. ", "Its lethality, around 20%, is most likely due to the presence of rotenone ([@CIT0020], [@CIT0036], [@CIT0061]), although other rotenoids, flavonoids, and saponins are also present in *Deguelia* ([@CIT0020]) and may contribute to its effectiveness. ", "With larvicidal effect around 20%, the extract of *D. utilis* was, however, significantly less effective than chlorpyrifos which resulted in 64.0% mortality.", "\n\nDespite the apparent superiority of synthetic compounds, we must remember that one of the major problems of these insecticides is that they can also lead to the evolution of resistance in insect pests ([@CIT0028]). ", "Further studies are needed to understand whether an increase in solution concentration or in the number of applications can increase the effectiveness of these extracts and to ensure their rapid environmental degradation. ", "It is also important to evaluate the rate of their environmental degradation.", "\n\n### *Plutella xylostella* Oviposition Deterrence {#s31}\n\nAll botanical extracts studied here were strong deterrents to oviposition by *P. xylostella*, whereas the chemical insecticide was not. ", "The selection of oviposition sites by the female insect is based on a complex behavioral detection of environmental signals to determine the suitability of the host plant for the completion of the life cycle. ", "Oviposition deterrence could act through behavioral effects or sublethal toxicity ([@CIT0029]). ", "In previous laboratory studies, extracts of *Enterolobium contortisiliquum* (Vell.) ", "Morong, *Sapindus saponaria*, *Trichilia pallida* (Sw.), *", "Melia azedarach* (L.), and *Azadirachta indica* significantly reduced oviposition by *P. xylostella* ([@CIT0011], [@CIT0038]). ", "In our study, it is possible that the deterrence of oviposition in diamondback moths can be explained by the presence of both chemical compounds and/or physical particles in the extracts. ", "All botanical extracts used in this study were cloudy, indicating the presence of particulates, and stained the broccoli leaves with a greenish-brown color. ", "In contrast, the synthetic insecticides were crystalline and transparent. ", "The presence of particulate matter can alter the oviposition behavior of insects ([@CIT0057], [@CIT0046], [@CIT0035], [@CIT0045]). ", "Scanning electron microscopy analysis could be used to confirm the hypothesis that deterrence may exploit the physical properties of a botanical extract rather than its chemical properties. ", "On the other hand, the oviposition deterrent may be caused by the chemical compounds contained in the extracts, although in this study, a full chemical characterization was not carried out. ", "A further study on this subject could be performed by comparing pure rotenone---and/or *Cymbopogon* essential oil---to our extracts to establish, e.g., whether these compounds could cause the oviposition deterrence observed.", "\n\n### Decrease in Leaf Consumption by *P. xylostella* Larvae {#s32}\n\nWe measured leaf consumption by *P. xylostella* larvae by quantitating the percentage removal of tissue from leaf discs over 5 d. In the same experiment, we determined diamondback moth larval mortality from exposure to residues of extracts. ", "The observed decrease in leaf consumption could have been the result of feeding deterrent or sublethal poisoning, impeding feeding. ", "Both effects can explain our leaf consumption results. ", "Here, the percentage of leaf consumption is understood as an estimate of the antiherbivory efficiency of the botanical extracts studied.", "\n\nOver the 5-d period, diamondback moth larvae could become sublethally poisoned and not eat the leaves for this reason. ", "For example, throughout the experiment, almost 2/3 of larvae in the positive chemical insecticide control died, as did 20% of those in the *D. utilis* treatment and between 4 and 8% of those subjected to the other extracts. ", "We do not yet know the chemical compounds responsible for the decrease in leaf consumption activity or the possible extract with sublethal effects. ", "However, rotenoids are known to be responsible for insecticidal activities of *D. utilis* ([@CIT0020], [@CIT0036], [@CIT0061]), and essential oils composed predominantly by monoterpene for *Cymbopogon* insecticidal activities ([@CIT0051], [@CIT0052]).", "\n\nOther authors reported the toxicity of secondary metabolites of several plant species from the same genera. ", "For example, [@CIT0004] showed feeding deterrence effects of *Dieffenbachia* sp. ", "on the second- and fourth-instar larvae of *Spodoptera littoralis*, leading to mortality; *W. solanacea* and *Witheringia coccoloboides* (Dammer) were shown to contain cytotoxic compounds, whereas *Clibadium* sp. ", "contains tannins, glycosides, sesquiterpenes, carotenoids, terpenoids, essential oils, and alkaloids ([@CIT0023]), which may explain the decreased leaf consumption by larvae. ", "The latter two species also contain inorganic salts such as oxalic acid, which results in the formation of oxalate ([@CIT0050], [@CIT0010]) in *Xanthosoma poeppigii* and calcium oxalate ([@CIT0024]) in *D. costata*.", "\n\nField and Semifield Studies {#s33}\n---------------------------\n\n### Diamondback Moth Field Studies {#s34}\n\nIn our field studies, we expected that the number of diamondback moth larvae would only decrease either due to natural mortality or due to a combination of natural mortality and mortality caused by an insecticide or a plant extract. ", "However, the diamondback moth population fluctuated over time, regardless of the botanical treatment applied. ", "The synthetic insecticides (positive controls) controlled the population of diamondback moth larvae as expected. ", "Although in some cases an insecticidal effect of the extracts was evident, surprisingly, we found no clear explanation for the pattern of the effect. ", "The species *D. utilis* and *C. citratus* are all well known for their insecticidal activities, but the significant effects observed under laboratory conditions and reported in the literature do not always translate into field conditions.", "\n\nA possible explanation for the lack of clear effects under field conditions could be the rapid degradation of the active chemical compounds present in the botanical extracts. ", "The levels of solar radiation in the mountains of Ecuador are among the highest in the world ([@CIT0014]), and this could easily result in the decomposition of *D. utilis* rotenone and *C. citratus* oils in the field. ", "Rotenone is only effective for a short period after application because the chemical decomposes quickly in the presence of light and air ([@CIT0012], [@CIT0026]). ", "In a previous study, *C. citratus* oils were affected by environmental conditions ([@CIT0034]).", "\n\nOther possible explanations are that the extraction time may lead to biodegradation of the active substances or that the plants used to make the extracts vary in their effectiveness due to genetic or environmental differences ([@CIT0005], [@CIT0053]), resulting in chemotypes under the absence or at low concentrations of rotenone/rotenoids. ", "To ensure the effectiveness of the insecticide under field conditions, it would be necessary to know the ecological and chemical conditions that maximize the quality and quantity of insecticidal components present in the plant. ", "Additionally, detailed studies of the fate of rotenone and insecticidal oils in the environment (i.e., its stability) over a range of environmental conditions would be highly desirable.", "\n\nFinally, the observed fluctuations in the population size of *P. xylostella* may be a response to environmental factors such as rainfall or temperature or biotic factors such as the presence of natural predators or the possibility of multiple infestations ([@CIT0059]). ", "For example, during the dry season, the abundance of larvae per plant in all treatments (except synthetic chemicals) was higher in weeks 3--5, when precipitation was lower ([@CIT0027]). ", "In the rainy season, the population of diamondback moth larvae remained under control except during weeks 6 and 7; in those months, precipitation was lower ([@CIT0027]). ", "A previous study has confirmed that precipitation controls diamondback moth populations ([@CIT0059]). ", "These uncontrolled parameters, such as rainfall, may explain the field trial results. ", "We therefore conclude that, based on our results, botanical extracts failed to control the pest population in the field conditions.", "\n\n### *Brevicoryne brassicae* Semifield Studies {#s35}\n\nOur results show that, except for *D. utilis*, all botanicals failed to control aphid *B. brassicae* in the semifield trail. *", "Degulia utilis* contains rotenoids, whereas *C. citratus* is known for its bioactive essential oils. ", "It is therefore surprising that *C. citratus* did not work as botanical insecticide. *", "Cymbopogon citratus* is a tropical grass species introduced and acclimated as an unknown variety to the Ecuadorian Amazon ([@CIT0018]). ", "It can be that Ecuadorian *C. citratus* variety is a chemotypes with low concentrations of Terpenoids. ", "Terpenoids are not really water-soluble compounds, and consequently, water was not an effective extraction agent. ", "An interesting alternative in this sense could be the use of water of industrial essential oil hydrodistillation processes, which contains more terpenoids.", "\n\nIn our experiments, degradation of the active substances happened relatively quickly. ", "Extracts of *Clibadium* sp. ", "and *D. costata* were as effective as the chemical insecticide Imidacloprid and *D. utilis* in controlling the abundance of *B. brassicae* at day 3 after the applications. ", "This faculty was subsequently lost at 7 and 15 d after the application.", "\n\nConcluding Remarks {#s36}\n------------------\n\nThis is the first study conducted on aqueous extracts from six plant species from the Ecuadorian Amazon that are used by natives as traditional medicine or as natural products. *", "Degulia utilis*, *X. purpuratum*, *Clibadium* sp., *", "W. solanacea*, *C. citratus*, and *D. costata* were investigated in laboratory, semifield, and field trials to evaluate their potential use as botanical insecticides. ", "We conclude that the highest level of insecticidal activity under laboratory conditions was the deterrence of oviposition, with the *D. costata* extract being 40 times more effective than the synthetic insecticide. ", "However, 3 d after the application in a semifield enclosure, all botanical extracts except *D. utilis* lost their ability to control *B. brassicae*, and in an open-field broccoli crop trial, none of the extracts controlled the abundance of *P. xylostella* larvae, including the extract from *D. utilis*, which contains rotenone. ", "Finally, our results regarding the move from laboratory to semifield enclosures and open-field conditions were negative, as the tested extracts did not show insecticidal activity under these conditions.", "\n\nBotanical insecticides are considered a promising tool for the control of insect pests, and there is an explosion of publications on this subject, most of which show positive results under laboratory conditions ([@CIT0030], [@CIT0031]; [@CIT0041]). ", "As our work has shown, the results of laboratory studies on insecticidal activity are not always applicable under semifield and field conditions, but they offer an indispensable starting point for further studies to identify chemicals, to evaluate the effect/efficiency of different extraction methods ([@CIT0013], [@CIT0049], [@CIT0044]), and to assess the influence of environmental parameters on chemical stability and chemotype biodiversity, thereby broadening our understanding whether and how to move from laboratory to field applications.", "\n\nThis work was funded by the Prometeo Project of the Secretariat for Higher Education, Science, Technology and Innovation of the Republic of Ecuador and Universidad Estatal Amazónica (UEA) of the Republic of Ecuador to Hugo Cerda (006-EBIOEACI-CIPCA-2014). ", "All plant identifications were confirmed by Prof. Jorge Caranqui Aldaz, botanist and director of the Herbarium Chimborazo at the Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo (ESPOCH). ", "We thank anonymous referees for their careful reading of the manuscript and helpful comments and suggestions. ", "We also thank Dr. David Neill, Dr. Ryszard Laskowski for article improvements, and Lic. ", "Sergio Lopez and Mr. Nelson Pucha for technical support.", "\n" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "PubMed Central" }

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[ "##\n# This module requires Metasploit: https://metasploit.com/download\n# Current source: https://github.com/rapid7/metasploit-framework\n##\n\n\nrequire 'msf/core'\n\n\nclass MetasploitModule < Msf::Auxiliary\n\n include Msf::Auxiliary::Report\n include Msf::Exploit::Capture\n\n def initialize\n super(\n 'Name' => 'Simple Network Capture Tester',\n 'Description' => 'This module sniffs HTTP GET requests from the network',\n 'Author' => 'hdm',\n 'License' => MSF_LICENSE,\n 'Actions' =>\n [\n [ 'Sniffer' ]\n ],\n 'PassiveActions' =>\n [\n 'Sniffer'\n ],\n 'DefaultAction' => 'Sniffer'\n )\n\n deregister_options('RHOST')\n end\n\n def run\n print_status(\"Opening the network interface...\")\n open_pcap()\n\n print_status(\"Sniffing HTTP requests...\")\n each_packet() do |pkt|\n p = PacketFu::Packet.parse(pkt)\n next unless p.is_tcp?", "\n next if p.payload.empty?", "\n if (p.payload =~ /GET\\s+([^\\s]+)\\s+HTTP/smi)\n url = $1\n print_status(\"GET #{url}\")\n break if url =~ /StopCapture/\n end\n\n end\n close_pcap()\n print_status(\"Finished sniffing\")\n end\n\nend\n\n" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "Github" }

[ 0.007502679528403001, 0.03225806451612903, 0 ]

[ "In the terminology of pattern recognition, neural networks and machines learning, a feature vector is a transformation of a measurement vector, whose components are measurements or sensor outputs. ", "This invention is mainly concerned with processing feature vectors and sequences of feature vectors for detecting and recognizing spatial and temporal causes (e.g., objects in images/video, words in speech, and characters in handwriting). ", "This is what pattern recognition, neural networks and machines learning are essentially about. ", "It is also a typical problem in the fields of computer vision, signal processing, system control, telecommunication, and data mining. ", "Example applications that can be formulated as such a problem are handwritten character classification, face recognition, fingerprint identification, DNA sequence identification, speech recognition, machine fault detection, baggage/container examination, video monitoring, text/speech understanding, automatic target recognition, medical diagnosis, prosthesis control, robotic arm control, and vehicle navigation.", "\nA good introduction to the prior art in pattern classification, neural networks and machine learning can be found in Simon Haykin, Neural Networks and Learning Machines, Third Edition, Pearson Education, New Jersey, 2009; Christopher M. Bishop, Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning, Springer Science, New York, 2006; Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Oxford University Press, New York, 1995; B. D. Ripley, Pattern Recognition and Neural Networks, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1996; S. Theodoridis and K. Koutroumbas, Pattern Recognition, Second Edition, Academic Press, New York, 2003; Anil K. Jain, Robert P. W. Duin and Jianchang Mao, “Statistical Pattern Recognition: A Review,” in IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, Vol. ", "22, No. ", "1, January 2000; R. O. Duda, P. E. Hart, and D. G. Stork, Pattern Classification, second edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2001; and Bernhard Scholkopf and Alexander J. Smota, Learning with Kernels, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 2002.", "\nCommonly used pattern classifiers include template matching, nearest mean classifiers, subspace methods, 1-nearest neighbor rule, k-nearest neighbor rule, Bayes plug-in, logistic classifiers, Parzen classifiers, Fisher linear discriminants, binary decision trees, multilayer perceptrons, radial basis networks, and support vector machines. ", "They each are suitable for some classification problems. ", "However, in general, they all suffer from some of such shortcomings as difficult training/design, much computation/memory requirement, ad hoc character of the penalty function, or poor generalization/performance. ", "For example, the relatively more powerful multilayer perceptrons and support vector machines are difficult to train, especially if the dimensionality of the feature vectors is large. ", "After training, if new training data is to be learned, the trained multilayer perceptron or support vector machine is usually discarded and new one is trained over again. ", "Its decision boundaries are determined by exemplary patterns from all classes. ", "Furthermore, if there are a great many classes or if there are no or not enough exemplary patterns for some “confuser classes” such as for target and face recognition, training an MLP or SVM either is impractical or incurs a high misclassification rate. ", "Camouflaged targets or occluded faces not included in the training data are known to also cause high misclassification rates.", "\nA pattern classification approach, that is relatively seldom mentioned in the pattern recognition literature, is the correlation matrix memories, or CMMs, which have been studied essentially in the neural networks community (T. Kohonen, Self-Organization and Associative Memory, second edition, Springer-Verlag, 1988; R. Hecht-Nielsen, Neurocomputing, Addison-Wesley, 1990; Branko Soucek and The Iris Group, Fuzzy, Holographic, and Parallel Intelligence—The Sixth-Generation Breakthrough, edited, John Wiley and Sons, 1992; James A. Anderson, An Introduction to Neural Networks, The MIT Press, 1995; S. Y. Kung, Digital Neural Networks, Pearson Education POD, 1997; D. J. Willshaw, P. P. Buneman and H. C. Longet-Higgins, “Non-holographic associative memory,” Nature, 222, pp. ", "960-962, 1969; D. J. Willshaw and H. C. Longet-Higgins, “Associative memory models,” Machine Intelligence, vol. ", "5, edited by B. Meltzer & O. Michie, Edinburgh University Press, 1970; K. Nagano, “Association—a model of associative memory,” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, vol. ", "SMC-2, pp. ", "68-70, 1972; G. Palm, “On associative memory,” Biological Cybernetics, vol. ", "36, pp. ", "19-31, 1980; E. Gardner, “The space of interactions in neural network models,” Journal of Physics, vol. ", "A21, pp. ", "257-270, 1988; S. Amari, “Characteristics of sparsely encoded associative memory,” Neural Networks, vol. ", "2(6), pp. ", "451-457, 1989; J. Buckingham and D. Willshaw, “On setting unit thresholds in an incompletely connected associative net,” Network, vol. ", "4, pp. ", "441-459, 1993; M. Turner and J. Austin, “Matching Performance of Binary Correlation Matrix Memories,” Neural Networks, 1997). ", "The training of CMMs, which are associative memories, is easy and fast even if they have a very high dimensional input. ", "If new training data is to be learned or if the dimensionality of a trained CMM is to be modified, the CMM is not discarded, but can be easily updated or expanded.", "\nTwo types of CMM are noteworthy. ", "They are the holographic neural nets (John Sutherland, “Artificial neural device utilizing phase orientation in the complex number domain to encode and decode stimulus response patterns,” U.S. Pat. ", "No. ", "5,214,745, May 25, 1993; John Sutherland, “Neural networks,” U.S. Pat. ", "No. ", "5,515,477, May 7, 1996) and the binary CMMs in the aforementioned papers by Willshaw and Longuet-Higgins (1970), Palm (1980), Gardner (1988), S. Amari (1989), M. Turner and J. Austin (1997), and the references therein.", "\nThe main idea of holographic neural nets (HNets) is representing real numbers by phase angle orientations on a complex number plane through the use of a sigmoidal transformation such as a hyperbolic tangent function. ", "After each component of the input stimuli and output responses is converted into a complex number whose phase angle orientation (i.e. argument) represents the component, the correlation matrix is constructed in the standard manner. ", "A holographic neural cell comprises essentially such a correlation matrix. ", "If the dimensionality of the stimulus is large enough, augmented if necessary, and if the phase angle orientations of the stimuli and responses are more or less statistically independent and uniformly distributed on the unit circles in the complex number plane, the “signal part” in the response to an input stimulus is hopefully much greater than the “interference part” in the response to the same input stimulus during its retrieval because of self-destruction of those stored stimuli that are out of phase with said input stimulus like the self-destruction of a random walk on the complex number plane. ", "This idea allows more stimuli to be stored in a complex correlation matrix than does the earlier versions of the correlation matrix.", "\nHowever, the holographic neural cell approach suffers from the following shortcomings. ", "First, to avoid ambiguity at the point, (−1, 0)=−1+0i, in the complex plane, a neighborhood of (−1, 0) must be excluded in the range of the sigmoidal transformation. ", "This prevents the mentioned uniform distribution required for good self-destruction of the interference part. ", "Second, it is not clear how to augment the stimuli without introducing much correlations among the stimuli, which again may reduce self-destruction of the interference part. ", "Third, the argument of a complex number on the unit circle ranges from −π to π. ", "To pack more stimuli on it, better self-destruction of the interference part is needed, which in turn requires a higher dimensionality of the stimuli. ", "Such a higher dimensionality means a higher dimensionality of the correlation matrix, requiring more memory space to hold the matrix.", "\nBinary CMMs have feature vectors encoded either into unipolar binary vectors with components equal to 1 or 0 or into bipolar binary vectors with components equal to 1 or −1. ", "Bipolar binary vectors were used in most of the earlier work on binary CMMs. ", "Superiority of sparse unipolar binary encoding (with most of the components of encoded feature vectors being 0 and only a few being 1) to nonsparse unipolar binary encoding and bipolar binary encoding was remarked and proved in the mentioned papers by Willshaw and Longuet-Higgins (1970), Palm (1980), Gardner (1988), and S. Amari (1989). ", "Sparsely encoded CMMs are easy to implement (J. Austin and J. Kennedy, “A hardware implementation of a binary neural network,” MicroNeuro, IEEE Computer Press, 1994), and have found many applications. ", "Nevertheless, sparsely encoded CMMs have quite a few shortcomings: (a) A large sparse correlation matrix has very low “information density” and takes much memory space. (", "b) A multistage sparsely encoded CMMs is often necessary. (", "c) There is no systematic way to determine the dimensionality of the sparse unipolar binary vectors to represent the feature vectors. (", "d) There is no systematic way to determine the number of stages or the number of neurons in each stage in a multistage sparsely encoded CMM. (", "e) There is no systematic way to determine whether a sparsely encoded CMM has a minimum misclassification probability for the given CMM architecture. (", "f) The mapping from the feature vectors to their sparse binary vectors representations must be stored in some memory space, further reducing the overall memory density of the CMM.", "\nJudging from the foregoing shortcomings of the commonly used pattern classifiers, the holographic neural nets, and the sparsely encoded CMMs, there remains a need for alternatives to existing pattern classifiers in the prior art for recognizing patterns.", "\nIn this invention disclosure, a cortex-like learning machine, called a probabilistic associative memory (PAM), is disclosed that processes feature vectors or sequence of feature vectors, each feature vector being a ternary feature vector.", "\nA PAM is a network of processing units (PUs). ", "It can be viewed as a new neural network paradigm or a new type of learning machine. ", "Each PU generates a representation of a subjective probability distribution of the label of a feature subvector or a sequence of feature subvectors that are received by the PU. ", "Some PUs convert such representations into ternary vectors, which are included in feature subvectors input to other PUs. ", "Weights in a PU learn an input feature subvector with or without supervision by a Hebb rule of learning. ", "Some advantages of PAMs are the following: 1. ", "As opposed to most of commonly used pattern recognizers, a PAM generalizes not by only a single holistic similarity criterion for the entire input exogenous feature vector, which noise, erasure, distortion and occlusion can easily defeat, but by a large number of similarity criteria for feature subvectors input to a large number of PUs (processing units) in different layers. ", "These criteria contribute individually and collectively to generalization for single and multiple causes. ", "Example 1: smiling; putting on a hat; growing or shaving beard; or wearing a wig can upset a single similarity criterion used for recognizing a face in a mug-shot photograph. ", "However, a face can be recognized by each of a large number of feature subvectors of the face. ", "If one of them is recognized to belong to a certain face, the face is recognized. ", "Example 2: a typical kitchen contains a refrigerator, a counter top, sinks, faucets, stoves, fruit and vegetable on a table, etc. ", "The kitchen is still a kitchen if a couple of items, say the stoves and the table with fruit and vegetable, are removed. ", " 2. ", "Masking matrices in a PU eliminate effects of corrupted ternary components of the feature subvector input to the PU, and thereby enable maximal generalization capability of the PU, and in turn that of the PAM. ", " 3. ", "PAMs are neural networks, but are no more blackboxes with “fully connected” layers much criticized by opponents of such neural networks as multilayer perceptrons (MLPs) and recurrent MLPs, whose weights are iteratively determined through minimizing an error criterion and have no interpretation in the context of their applications. ", "In a PU of a PAM, weights are correlations between orthogonal expansions of subvectors of the PU's input feature subvectors and the labels of these feature subvectors. ", "Each PU has a receptive region in the exogenous feature vector input to the PAM and classifies any cause within the receptive region. ", "Such interpretations can be used to help select the architecture (i.e., layers, PUs, connections, feedback structures, etc.) ", "of a PAM for the application. ", " 4. ", "The weights in each PU of a PAM learn by a Hebb rule and thus the PAM has a “photographic memory.” ", "No iterative optimization such as that involved in local-search training methods using backpropagation or backpropagation through time is needed for learning. ", "This allows easy learning of a large number of large exogenous feature vectors in reasonable time as well as easy online adaptive learning. ", " 5. ", "A PU can learn with or without supervision. ", "This allows a PAM to (1) perform unsupervised deep learning in lower layers and supervised learning in higher layers; (2) perform supervised learning when a label is provided from outside the PAM and unsupervised learning when not; and (3) perform autonomous learning. ", " 6. ", "A PAM may have some capability of recognizing rotated, translated and scaled patterns. ", "Moreover, easy learning and retrieving by a PAM allow it to learn translated, rotated and scaled versions of an input image with ease. ", " 7. ", "PUs generate representations of probability distributions of the labels of their input feature subvectors. ", "Such representations of probability distributions of a common label can be combined into a single representation of probability distributions of the common label. ", " 8. ", "PAMs with hierarchical and feedback structures can detect and recognize multiple and hierarchical causes in a spatial or temporal exogenous feature vector. ", " 9. ", "The weight matrices (e.g., expansion correlation matrices) in different PUs can be added to combine the learned knowledge at virtually no additional cost. ", " 10. ", "The architecture of a PAM can be adjusted without discarding learned knowledge in the PAM. ", "This allows enlargement of the feature subvectors, increase of the number of layers, and even increase of feedback connections. ", " 11. ", "Only a small number of algorithmic steps of parallel computing are needed for retrieval, which are suitable for massive parallelization at the bit level and by VLSI implememtation. ", " " ]

{ "pile_set_name": "USPTO Backgrounds" }

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[ "Fall from Grace (Borealis album)\n\nFall from Grace is the second full-length album by the power metal/progressive metal band by Borealis. ", "It was released in 2011 by Lion Music in North America and by Hydrant Music in Japan.", "\n\nTrack listing\n\nPersonnel\nMatt Marinelli – vocals, guitars\nSean Werlick – keyboards\nJamie Smith – bass guitar\nSean Dowell – drums\nKen Fobert - guitars\n\nTechnical staff \n Jordan Valeriote - recording, mixing\n Thomas \"PLEC\" Johansson - mastering\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n https://web.archive.org/web/20150713103648/http://www.borealismetal.com/albums.html\n\nCategory:2011 albums" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }

[ 0.014598540145985401, 0.023529411764705882, 0.021108179419525065 ]

[ "Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg. ", "Getty\n\nFacebook on Wednesday said it had found evidence that fake accounts \"likely operated out of Russia\" purchased thousands of ads during the US presidential election designed to amplify divisive political messages.", "\n\nFacebook said the ads were part of elaborate \"information operations\" in which \"organized actors,\" including governments, used social media to deceive the public and distort political sentiment.", "\n\nFacebook conducted an examination of ads purchased over the past two years in response to mounting concern over \"Russian interference in the electoral process\" and Facebook's role in spreading misinformation leading up to the election according to Facebook's chief security officer, Alex Stamos.", "\n\nThe company discovered roughly $100,000 in ad buys between June 2015 and May 2017 \"associated with roughly 3,000 ads\" and connected to nearly 500 affiliated fake accounts.", "\n\n\"Our analysis suggests these accounts and Pages were affiliated with one another and likely operated out of Russia,\" Stamos wrote in a post published on Facebook's company blog.", "\n\nThe \"vast majority\" of ads related to the fake Russian accounts didn't target a political candidate and instead focused on \"amplifying divisive social and political messages across the ideological spectrum,\" according to Stamos. ", "He said the company had shared its findings with US authorities investigating Russia's interference in the election.", "\n\nThe revelation follows months of reports linking Russia to efforts designed to sway November's US presidential election between Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton. ", "But Facebook's announcement marks the first official confirmation by the company that its 2-billion-member platform was likely exploited during the election.", "\n\nA sharp turnaround\n\nThe revelation follows months of reports linking Russia to efforts designed to sway November's US presidential election between Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton. ", "Carlos Barria/Reuters\n\nWednesday's announcement by Facebook represents a sharp turnaround from the company's previous remarks on its role in the spread of fake news during the election.", "\n\nFor example, Facebook said in July that it had found \"no evidence that Russian actors bought ads on Facebook in connection with the election.\"", "\n\nThe social network was widely criticized after the election for its role in the proliferation of so-called fake news, which many believe helped Donald Trump win the election. ", "CEO Mark Zuckerberg initially called that notion \"pretty crazy,\" but Facebook has since made significant strides to eradicate fake-news stories from its platform.", "\n\nIn a research paper published earlier this year, Facebook detailed its attempts to thwart organized \"information operations\" that are increasingly used to sway political leanings through the spread of fake news and propaganda on its platform.", "\n\n\"Through the adept use of social media, information operators may attempt to distort public discourse, recruit supporters and financiers, or affect political or military outcomes. ", "These activities can sometimes be accomplished without significant cost or risk to their organizers,\" Facebook wrote in the April report.", "\n\nFacebook said Wednesday that its analysis of ads purchased before and after the US presidential election were consistent with the information operation tactics it had previously outlined. ", "About one-quarter of the ads were geographically targeted, and most touched on divisive topics, from LGBT rights to immigration and gun rights, the company said." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "OpenWebText2" }

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[ "#!", "/usr/bin/env python\n# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-\n\nimport os\nimport re\nimport sys\nimport random\nimport importlib\n\nfrom twisted.python import log\n\nsys.path.append('.')", "\n\nimport regex2dfa\nimport fte.encoder\nimport fte.bit_ops\n\nimport marionette_tg.channel\n\nEVENT_LOOP_FREQUENCY_S = 0.001\n\n# the following varibles are reserved and shouldn't be passed down\n# to spawned models.", "\nRESERVED_LOCAL_VARS = ['party','model_instance_id','model_uuid']\n\nclass PIOA(object):\n\n def __init__(self, party, first_sender):\n super(PIOA, self).__init__()\n\n self.actions_ = []\n self.channel_ = None\n self.channel_requested_ = False\n self.current_state_ = 'start'\n self.first_sender_ = first_sender\n self.next_state_ = None\n self.marionette_state_ = MarionetteSystemState()\n self.marionette_state_.set_local(\"party\", party)\n self.party_ = party\n self.port_ = None\n self.transport_protocol_ = None\n self.rng_ = None\n self.history_len_ = 0\n self.states_ = {}\n self.success_ = False\n\n if self.party_ == first_sender:\n self.marionette_state_.set_local(\n \"model_instance_id\", fte.bit_ops.bytes_to_long(os.urandom(4)))\n self.rng_ = random.", "Random()\n self.rng_.seed(\n self.marionette_state_.get_local(\"model_instance_id\"))\n\n def do_precomputations(self):\n for action in self.actions_:\n if action.get_module() == 'fte' and action.get_method().startswith('send'):\n [regex, msg_len] = action.get_args()\n self.marionette_state_.get_fte_obj(regex, msg_len)\n\n def execute(self, reactor):\n if self.isRunning():\n self.transition()\n reactor.callLater(EVENT_LOOP_FREQUENCY_S, self.execute, reactor)\n else:\n self.channel_.close()\n\n\n def check_channel_state(self):\n if self.party_ == \"client\":\n if not self.channel_:\n if not self.channel_requested_:\n marionette_tg.channel.open_new_channel(self.get_transport_protocol(), \n self.get_port(), self.set_channel)\n self.channel_requested_ = True\n return (self.channel_ !", "= None)\n\n def set_channel(self, channel):\n self.channel_ = channel\n\n def check_rng_state(self):\n if self.marionette_state_.get_local(\"model_instance_id\"):\n if not self.rng_:\n self.rng_ = random.", "Random()\n self.rng_.seed(\n self.marionette_state_.get_local(\"model_instance_id\"))\n\n self.current_state_ = 'start'\n for i in range(self.history_len_):\n self.current_state_ = self.states_[\n self.current_state_].transition(self.rng_)\n self.next_state_ = None\n\n #Reset history length once RNGs are sync'd\n self.history_len_ = 0\n\n def determine_action_block(self, src_state, dst_state):\n retval = []\n for action in self.actions_:\n action_name = self.states_[src_state].transitions_[dst_state][0]\n success = action.execute(self.party_, action_name)\n if success is not None:\n retval.append(action)\n return retval\n\n def get_potential_transitions(self):\n retval = []\n\n if self.rng_:\n if not self.next_state_:\n self.next_state_ = self.states_[\n self.current_state_].transition(self.rng_)\n retval += [self.next_state_]\n else:\n for transition in \\\n self.states_[self.current_state_].transitions_.keys():\n if self.states_[self.current_state_].transitions_[transition][1]>0:\n retval += [transition]\n\n return retval\n\n def advance_to_next_state(self):\n retval = False\n\n # get the list of possible transitions we could make\n potential_transitions = self.get_potential_transitions()\n assert len(potential_transitions) > 0\n\n # attempt to do a normal transition\n fatal = 0\n success = False\n for dst_state in potential_transitions:\n action_block = self.determine_action_block(self.current_state_, dst_state)\n\n try:\n success = self.eval_action_block(action_block)\n except Exception as e:\n log.msg(\"EXCEPTION: %s\" % (str(e)))\n fatal += 1\n finally:\n if success:\n break\n\n # if all potential transitions are fatal, attempt the error transition\n if not success and fatal == len(potential_transitions):\n src_state = self.current_state_\n dst_state = self.states_[self.current_state_].get_error_transition()\n\n if dst_state:\n action_block = self.determine_action_block(src_state, dst_state)\n success = self.eval_action_block(action_block)\n\n # if we have a successful transition, update our state info.", "\n if success:\n self.history_len_ += 1\n self.current_state_ = dst_state\n self.next_state_ = None\n retval = True\n\n if self.current_state_ == 'dead':\n self.success_ = True\n\n return retval\n\n def eval_action_block(self, action_block):\n retval = False\n\n if len(action_block)==0:\n retval = True\n elif len(action_block)>=1:\n for action_obj in action_block:\n if action_obj.get_regex_match_incoming():\n incoming_buffer = self.channel_.peek()\n m = re.search(action_obj.get_regex_match_incoming(), incoming_buffer)\n if m:\n retval = self.eval_action(action_obj)\n else:\n retval = self.eval_action(action_obj)\n if retval: break\n\n return retval\n\n def transition(self):\n success = False\n if self.check_channel_state():\n self.check_rng_state()\n success = self.advance_to_next_state()\n return success\n\n def replicate(self):\n retval = PIOA(self.party_,\n self.first_sender_)\n retval.actions_ = self.actions_\n retval.states_ = self.states_\n retval.marionette_state_.global_ = self.marionette_state_.global_\n model_uuid = self.marionette_state_.get_local(\"model_uuid\")\n retval.marionette_state_.set_local(\"model_uuid\", model_uuid)\n retval.port_ = self.port_\n retval.transport_protocol_ = self.transport_protocol_\n return retval\n\n def isRunning(self):\n return (self.current_state_ !", "= \"dead\")\n\n def eval_action(self, action_obj):\n module = action_obj.get_module()\n method = action_obj.get_method()\n args = action_obj.get_args()\n\n i = importlib.import_module(\"marionette_tg.plugins._\" ", "+ module)\n method_obj = getattr(i, method)\n\n success = method_obj(self.channel_, self.marionette_state_, args)\n\n return success\n\n def add_state(self, name):\n if not name in list(self.states_.keys()):\n self.states_[name] = PAState(name)\n\n def set_multiplexer_outgoing(self, multiplexer):\n self.marionette_state_.set_global(\"multiplexer_outgoing\", multiplexer)\n\n def set_multiplexer_incoming(self, multiplexer):\n self.marionette_state_.set_global(\"multiplexer_incoming\", multiplexer)\n\n def stop(self):\n self.current_state_ = \"dead\"\n\n def set_port(self, port):\n self.port_ = port\n\n def get_port(self):\n retval = None\n\n try:\n retval = int(self.port_)\n except ValueError:\n retval = self.marionette_state_.get_local(self.port_)\n\n return retval\n def set_transport_protocol(self, transport_protocol):\n self.transport_protocol_ = transport_protocol\n\n def get_transport_protocol(self):\n return self.transport_protocol_\n\n def set_local(self, key, value):\n self.marionette_state_.set_local(key, value)\n\n def set_global(self, key, value):\n self.marionette_state_.set_global(key, value)\n\n def get_local(self, key):\n return self.marionette_state_.get_local(key)\n\n def get_global(self, key):\n return self.marionette_state_.get_global(key)\n\n def get_success(self):\n return self.success_\n\nclass PAState(object):\n\n def __init__(self, name):\n self.name_ = name\n self.transitions_ = {}\n self.format_type_ = None\n self.format_value_ = None\n self.error_state_ = None\n\n def add_transition(self, dst, action_name, probability):\n self.transitions_[dst] = [action_name, float(probability)]\n\n def set_error_transition(self, error_state):\n self.error_state_ = error_state\n\n def get_error_transition(self):\n return self.error_state_\n\n def transition(self, rng):\n assert (rng or len(self.transitions_) == 1)\n if rng and len(self.transitions_) > 1:\n coin = rng.random()\n sum = 0\n for state in self.transitions_:\n if self.transitions_[state][1] == 0:\n continue\n sum += self.transitions_[state][1]\n if sum >= coin:\n break\n else:\n state = list(self.transitions_.keys())[0]\n return state\n\n\nclass MarionetteSystemState(object):\n\n def __init__(self):\n self.global_ = {}\n self.local_ = {}\n\n def set_global(self, key, val):\n self.global_[key] = val\n\n def get_global(self, key):\n return self.global_.get(key)\n\n def set_local(self, key, val):\n self.local_[key] = val\n\n def get_local(self, key):\n return self.local_.get(key)\n\n def get_fte_obj(self, regex, msg_len):\n fte_key = 'fte_obj-' + regex + str(msg_len)\n if not self.get_global(fte_key):\n dfa = regex2dfa.regex2dfa(regex)\n fte_obj = fte.encoder.", "DfaEncoder(dfa, msg_len)\n self.set_global(fte_key, fte_obj)\n\n return self.get_global(fte_key)\n" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "Github" }

[ 0, 0.0125, 0.004784688995215311, 0.0067039106145251395, 0.0010080645161290322, 0.004166666666666667, 0.001539645881447267, 0.002380952380952381, 0.004310344827586207, 0.002268308489954634, 0 ]

[ "The potential function of prohibitin during spermatogenesis in Chinese fire-bellied newt Cynops orientalis.", "\nProhibitin proteins are multifunctional proteins located mainly at the inner membrane of mitochondria expressed in universal species. ", "They play a vital role in mitochondria's function, cell proteolysis, senescence, apoptosis and as a substrate for ubiquitination. ", "In this study, we used PCR cloning, protein and nucleotide acids alignment, protein structure prediction, western blot, in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence to study the characteristics of the prohibitin gene and the potential role of prohibitin in spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis processes in the Chinese fire-bellied newt Cynops orientalis. ", "First, we cloned a 1452-bp full-length cDNA from the testis of Cynops orientalis. ", "Second, we found that the 272 amino acids of prohibitin have a SPFH family domain. ", "Thirdly, the western blots showed high expression of prohibitin in testis while the protein size was approximately 32 kDa. ", "Fourthly, the results of in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence experiments showed that most of the prohibitins travelled with the mitochondria's migration in Cynops orientalis. ", "The quantities of mRNA decreased as spermiogenesis proceeded, although the signals of prohibitins existed during the whole period of spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis. ", "In the mature germ cells, the signals of prohibitins were weak and aggregated at the end of the cell. ", "Finally, we discovered that the Sertoli cells had a large quantity of prohibitins and we made several assumptions of prohibitins' potential roles in those cells. ", "This is the first time that the relationship between mitochondria and prohibitin in different stages of the sperm cells in Cynops orientalis has been examined, which also revealed that Sertoli cells have abundant prohibitins." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts" }

[ 0, 0, 0.007692307692307693, 0.002824858757062147, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ "Effects of interior colors on mood and preference: comparisons of two living rooms.", "\nThe purpose was to assess whether various colors across room interiors do, in fact, evoke different moods. ", "Digital images of two imaginary living rooms were used as the experimental settings. ", "For each of the experiments, the rooms' spatial characteristics were fixed, with only the colors changed: either warm, cool, or achromatic colors. ", "As predicted, warm colors tended to produce stronger participant responses when rating the scene on \"high arousal,\" \"exciting,\" and \"stimulating.\" ", "Cool colors tended be associated with \"not very arousing,\" but to be rated higher on \"spacious\" and \"restful.\" ", "It is generally assumed that cool and achromatic colors evoke calmer and more peaceful emotions. ", "The study's results show that the spatial characteristics of the imaginary spaces themselves affected participants' responses only on measures of \"happiness\" and \"vividness.\" ", "Lastly, sex differences were also found, with women's ratings generally more positive than those of men." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts" }

[ 0, 0, 0.011764705882352941, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ "Higher recording densities have been demanded for hard disk drives (HDDs) as the information society has advanced. ", "In order to produce HDDs with increased recording density as desired, the following are requirements for magnetic recording heads have been proposed: (1) the ability to supply a sufficient magnetic field intensity for writing only, even when the main pole width is narrow; (2) a reduced erase band width; and (3) a reduced head fringe field interference with adjacent tracks (ATI).", "\nHowever, satisfying all of these requirements at the same time has proved difficult in the production of conventional magnetic recording heads." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "USPTO Backgrounds" }

[ 0, 0.0026246719160104987, 0 ]

[ "Entre le oui et le non, elle hésite encore, et a donc choisi de reporter la grande décision à plus tard.", "\n\nLise Thériault a amorcé une période de réflexion visant à déterminer si elle va se porter candidate aux prochaines élections, en octobre 2018. ", "Mais elle affirme catégoriquement sa ferme intention de terminer son mandat actuel.", "\n\nPas question, donc, de claquer la porte à court terme.", "\n\n\n\n\n\nEn entrevue à La Presse canadienne, Mme Thériault a accepté de faire le point sur son avenir politique, à la suite de rumeurs et de reportages récents faisant état de son ras-le-bol et de menaces de démission de sa part.", "\n\n«Je ne sais pas encore ce que je vais faire» lors de la prochaine campagne électorale, a commenté la ministre de la Condition féminine et responsable des PME.", "\n\nCe qu'elle sait, par contre, sans l'ombre d'un doute, c'est qu'elle effectuera son mandat, a-t-elle insisté, cherchant à mettre fin aux rumeurs persistantes sur son départ prochain.", "\n\n«Je vais terminer mon mandat. ", "J'ai des commandes à livrer au premier ministre. ", "Je vais les livrer», assure la ministre, qui était pratiquement aphone au moment de l'entrevue, effectuée à son retour de New York, où elle participait à la 61e session de la Commission de la condition féminine des Nations unies.", "\n\nÀ ceux qui ne seraient pas encore convaincus, elle affirme qu'elle est «une femme de parole». ", "Il est donc «hors de question» qu'elle annonce son départ prochainement.", "\n\nDevenue très zen, la vice-première ministre, un titre auquel elle se réfère souvent en parlant d'elle, tient à projeter une image de grande sérénité. ", "Elle se dit «animée par un paquet de bons sentiments».", "\n\n«Je suis bien dans ma peau. ", "Je suis bien dans ma tête. ", "Je suis contente de ce que je fais. ", "Il n'y a pas de problème», assure-t-elle, offrant un démenti formel aux reportages qui affirment qu'à la fin janvier elle avait piqué une crise en haut lieu et menacé de démissionner.", "\n\nÀ 51 ans, elle dit avoir encore beaucoup de plaisir à faire de la politique, après une quinzaine d'années de vie parlementaire trépidante, et n'estime pas avoir fait le tour du jardin.", "\n\nD'autres rumeurs, laissant croire que des gens autour du premier ministre Philippe Couillard jugent qu'elle a changé depuis son long congé de maladie à l'automne 2015 et que le temps serait venu de quitter le navire, n'égratignent pas sa sérénité.", "\n\nAu contraire, elle se sent aimée de tous.", "\n\n\n\n\n\n«Demandez à mes collègues comment ils s'entendent avec moi. ", "Ils vont tous vous dire qu'ils s'entendent bien avec moi et que je fais un bon travail», dit-elle.", "\n\n«Je pense que je suis un atout pour l'équipe de mon premier ministre», ajoute Mme Thériault, «un atout pour le gouvernement».", "\n\nDu même souffle, elle nie catégoriquement toute forme de rivalité avec la ministre de l'Économie, Dominique Anglade, une autre rumeur qui laissait croire que Mme Thériault se sentait tassée par sa jeune collègue.", "\n\nEntre les deux ministres, qui doivent partager le même espace de travail dans un édifice situé Place D'Youville à Québec, il n'y a de place que pour une «belle complicité» s'appuyant sur une «belle relation», dit-elle.", "\n\nElle nie tout aussi énergiquement songer à faire le saut en politique municipale. ", "Il est vrai qu'on l'a approchée pour devenir mairesse d'Anjou à Montréal, mais c'est «hors de question», a-t-elle tranché.", "\n\n«J'ai dit non, je n'irai pas. ", "Je ne suis pas du tout intéressée», dit-elle.", "\n\nLe 8 mars au Japon\n\nAvant de se rendre à New York, Mme Thériault avait effectué une autre mission, cette fois au Japon, au moment où le Québec soulignait la Journée internationale des femmes.", "\n\nSon absence du Québec à cette occasion avait été critiquée, mais la ministre de la Condition féminine ne s'en formalise pas.", "\n\nElle explique qu'elle est aussi vice-première ministre et qu'elle a dû remplacer au pied levé la ministre Christine St-Pierre, qui a eu un empêchement d'ordre personnel.", "\n\n«On ne pouvait pas annuler cette mission-là», car cela aurait nui à l'image du Québec et à ses relations avec le Japon.", "\n\nÀ New York, Mme Thériault a eu plusieurs entretiens, notamment avec la ministre française des Droits des femmes, Laurence Rossignol, et a prononcé une allocution dans laquelle elle a pu vanter la loi québécoise sur l'équité salariale, adoptée il y a une vingtaine d'années." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "OpenWebText2" }

[ 0.009615384615384616, 0.006896551724137931, 0, 0.017857142857142856, 0.01327433628318584, 0.0125, 0.01092896174863388, 0, 0.04081632653061224, 0.017467248908296942, 0, 0, 0.019736842105263157, 0.037037037037037035, 0.06666666666666667, 0.1111111111111111, 0.027777777777777776, 0.01639344262295082, 0.010752688172043012, 0.004016064257028112, 0, 0, 0.02040816326530612, 0.007874015748031496, 0.03271028037383177, 0.01818181818181818, 0, 0.00819672131147541, 0, 0, 0.025906735751295335, 0.015873015873015872, 0.017543859649122806, 0.008264462809917356, 0.025454545454545455 ]

[ "Google Play Store 5.0.31 Apk Latest Version\n\nLatest Google Play Store v5.0.31 has been released for Android devices. ", "It is one of the core app that must be installed on Android devices in order get it working properly. ", "It is just like one stop shop for all your Android apps. ", "It lets you play anywhere with all of your entertainment in one place. ", "At the moment it has more than 450,000 apps, million of books and songs and thousands of movies available for its users.", "\n\nGoogle Play Store 5.0.31 apk latest available version of this app. ", "One of the most wanted things that all the root users want to have is installing this patched version of Google Play Store on their device. ", "It allow you to by pass license verification. ", "It also let you customize it more and get it more personalized by changing its settings such as updating process and permissions and more.", "\n\nWhat’s in this version: Modded by Great ChelpuS\nCan use app protected with Google LVL (License Verification Library) without cracking\nVerify license in offline mode\nNo need to patch with Lucky patcher any more\nCan NOT download paid apps for FREE!", "\nDisable self update\nNot works with Billing and License Verification to Proxy\nButton ‘Refund’ reworked! (", "When you press ‘Refund’ button, it refunds and does not uninstall the app. ", "No need to make a backup before refund)" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "Pile-CC" }

[ 0.008547008547008548, 0.00980392156862745, 0.017543859649122806, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0.008064516129032258, 0.009523809523809525, 0, 0 ]

[ "Background {#Sec1}\n==========\n\nThe prevalence of brain metastases (BM) from uterine cancer has increased because of the improvement of overall survival (OS) of patients with uterine cancer due to its early detection and improved local control as a result of new effective treatments \\[[@CR1]--[@CR7]\\]. ", "However, because of the rarity of BM from uterine cancer, little is known regarding its clinical characteristics, optimal management, and prognosis.", "\n\nBM are usually treated with multimodal therapy using a combination of whole brain radiotherapy (WBRT), stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS), and surgical resection. ", "Although BM from uterine cancer was reportedly associated with poor prognosis, with a median survival ranging from 1 to 8 months, some authors strongly suggested that surgery was an effective treatment for solitary BM in patients with uterine cancer and that postoperative radiation therapy also prolonged survival \\[[@CR1]--[@CR3], [@CR5], [@CR6], [@CR8]--[@CR12]\\]. ", "Recently, Chung reported that SRS could be an efficient palliative measure to relieve neurological symptoms caused by BM from uterine cancer. ", "The median survival time in the patient group undergoing SRS and WBRT was significantly longer than that in the patient group undergoing SRS alone \\[[@CR1]\\]. ", "Clarification of the clinical characteristics of patients who would benefit from surgery and/or radiation is an important and urgent matter. ", "An optimal therapeutic guideline or prognostic scale should be established to enable an estimation of survival times and the selection of appropriate treatments for patients with BM from uterine cancer.", "\n\nThe prognostic factors for patients with BM vary according to the primary diagnosis, and a diagnosis-specific graded prognostic assessment (GPA) has been developed for use in several primary metastatic tumors \\[[@CR13]--[@CR15]\\]. ", "GPA has not yet been developed for BM from uterine cancer. ", "Here we performed a nationwide multi-institutional study to evaluate the prognostic factors of BM from uterine cancer and have developed a diagnosis-specific GPA. ", "This was validated by data obtained from the Report of Brain Tumor Registry of Japan.", "\n\nMethods {#Sec2}\n=======\n\nThe present study was a multi-institutional retrospective analysis of 81 patients with BM from uterine cancer from 10 institutions in Japan between April 2002 and March 2014. ", "Approval for this study was obtained from the institutional research ethics board of Shizuoka Cancer Center (T27-23-27-1-5). ", "Data obtained from the Report of Brain Tumor Registry of Japan, including 2907 patients with BM who newly started treatment from 2001 to 2004, was used as a validation set \\[[@CR16]\\]. ", "Individual written informed consent was waived because this study was retrospective in design and based on database extracted records.", "\n\nThe clinical data obtained included the date of birth, primary cancer site, histological type, date of the original cancer diagnosis and presence of BM, whether the primary lesion was controlled at BM diagnosis, date and type of the initial treatment for BM, date and type of salvage therapy (if any) for BM, date of death or last follow-up visit, Karnofsky performance status (KPS) at initial diagnosis of BM, number and maximum size of BM, and whether extracranial metastases were present.", "\n\nOS was calculated from the date of diagnosis of BM to death of any reason or the last day of follow-up according to Kaplan-Meier estimates. ", "Prognostic factors were analyzed using the log-rank test for univariate analysis and Cox regression analysis for multivariate analysis. ", "A *p* value \\<0.05 was considered to indicate a statistically significant difference. ", "Only statistically significant prognostic factors were used in the determination of GPA. ", "Analyses were performed using the JMP® software (Version 11, SAS institute Inc., Tokyo, Japan).", "\n\nResults {#Sec3}\n=======\n\nPatient characteristics {#Sec4}\n-----------------------\n\nA total 81 patients were enrolled, and their characteristics are listed in Table [1](#Tab1){ref-type=\"table\"}. ", "The primary origin of the tumor was the uterine corpus in 48 patients (59%) and the uterine cervix in 33 patients (41%). ", "The median age at diagnosis of BM was 59 years. ", "The most common tumor histology was adenocarcinoma in 71% of the patients with uterine corpus cancers, and squamous cell carcinoma in 58% of those with uterine cervical cancers. ", "The primary tumor was controlled in half of the patients. ", "Fifty-nine patients (73%) had extracranial metastases with the lung being the most frequently involved organ (*n* = 43) followed by the lymph nodes (*n* = 36), bone (*n* = 15), and liver (*n* = 10). ", "The median time from diagnosis of the primary uterine cancer to the appearance of BM was 25 months. ", "BM were detected in 4 patients (5%) prior to the diagnosis of uterine cancer. ", "Twenty-eight, 30, 12, and 7 patients had a solitary, 2--4 lesions, 5--9 and ≥10 lesions, respectively. ", "Four patients with uterine cervical cancer suffered from meningeal carcinomatosis. ", "The site of BM was only supratentorial in 45 patients. ", "Infratentorial involvements were found in 32 patients. ", "KPS was \\<70% in 38 (47%) patients.", "Table 1Clinical characteristics of patients with brain metastasis of uterine cancerStudy cohortValidation cohortNo. (%)", "Uterine corpus cancerUterine cervical cancer*p*-valueNo. (%)*", "p*-value81483343Median age (range)59 years (26-84)60.5 (26-84)58 (33-80)56 (29-80)  \\< 6551 (63)27 (56)24 (73)0.1334 (79)0.06  ≥ 6530 (37)21 (44)9 (27)9 (21)Histology Adenocarcinoma348 Squamous cell carcinoma19 Carcinosarcoma5 Small cell carcinoma3 Others72 NA21Primary tumor status0.79 Controlled38 (47)22 (46)16 (48) Uncontrolled39 (48)23 (48)16 (48) NA431Extracranial metastasis0.350.05 Yes59 (73)36 (75)23 (70)25 (58) No17 (21)8 (17)9 (27)9 (21) NA5419Mean time to BM25 months (−11-130)25 (−5-130)33 (−11-114)\\>0.0528 (−6-126)\\>0.05Number of BM0.35 128 (35)20 (42)8 (24)26 (60)**0.01** 2-430 (37)15 (31)15 (45)14 (32) 5-912 (15)8 (17)4 (12)2 (5) ≥ 107 (9)5 (10)2 (6)1 (2) meningeal carcinomatosis4 (5)04 (12)0Site of BM0.160.19 supratentorial only45 (56)31 (65)14 (42)30 (70) infratentorial involvement32 (40)17 (35)15 (45)13 (30)Karnofsky performance status0.660.2 90-100%9 (11)3 (6)6 (18)10 (23) 70-80%29 (36)18 (38)11 (33)17 (40)  \\< 70%38 (47)24 (50)14 (42)13 (30) NA5323Recursive Partitioning Analysis**0.02** Class I4 (5)04 (12) Class II34 (42)21 (44)13 (39) Class III38 (47)24 (50)14 (42) NA532*BM* brain metastases*P*-value are calculated using the chi-square testSignificant values are in bold font\n\nAccording to the Recursive Partitioning Analysis (RPA), only four patients (5%) with uterine cervical cancer were categorized as class I whereas 38 patients (47%) were categorized as class III. ", "There were no statistical differences concerning the patient baseline characteristics, with the exception of the RPA class between those patients with primary uterine corpus cancer and those with primary uterine cervical cancer.", "\n\nThe median OS of all patients was 7 months \\[95% confidence interval (CI) 4--10 months\\]. ", "The median OS was 8 months \\[95% CI 5--15 months\\] for uterine corpus cancer, and 5 months \\[95% CI 3--12 months\\] for uterine cervical cancer. ", "Kaplan-Meier survival curve for primary site and survival months are presented in Fig. [", "1](#Fig1){ref-type=\"fig\"}; log-rank test for the primary site and survival was not significant (*p* = 0.239).Fig. ", "1Kaplan-Meier survival curves in patients with brain metastases from uterine cancer\n\nTreatment {#Sec5}\n---------\n\nThirty patients (37%) underwent surgical excision of their BM where the maximum diameter of the tumor was ≥24 mm. ", "Twenty-eight of these patients (93%) underwent WBRT after surgery, and only two patients underwent surgery alone. ", "Radiation therapy was the main treatment in 45 patients. ", "This included WBRT (*n* = 24), local radiation (*n* = 1), and stereotactic radiotherapy (*n* = 23). ", "Four of these patients received an Ommaya reservoir, whereas one patient underwent ventriculoperitoneal shunt surgery. ", "Twenty-three of the 31 patients with \\<5 BM were treated by stereotactic radiotherapy, whereas all 14 patients with ≥5 BM were treated using WBRT. ", "Three of the four patients with meningeal carcinomatosis were treated by WBRT combined with intrathecal chemotherapy, and only one patient was treated by intrathecal chemotherapy alone. ", "Two patients underwent supportive treatment only.", "\n\nPrognostic factor analysis {#Sec6}\n--------------------------\n\nKPS at initial diagnosis of BM, number of BM, and existence of extracranial metastases were significant prognostic factors for OS in univariate analysis. ", "The median OS was significantly prolonged in those patients who underwent surgical excision and irradiation compared with that of patients who underwent only radiation, surgery, or chemotherapy or who were just observed.", "\n\nMultivariate analysis was performed incorporating the factors that were significant in the univariate analysis. ", "The results showed that there were survival differences according to the existence of extracranial metastases, number of BM, and treatment received by the patient (Table [2](#Tab2){ref-type=\"table\"}).Table 2Multivariate Cox regression model for overall survivalHazard ratio95%CIpExistence of extracranial metastases yes vs no2.6671.32-5.91**0.0052**KPS at initial diagnosis of BM  \\< 70 vs ≥701.4870.86-2.580.1525Number of BM 2-4 vs 11.0090.49-2.060.9801  ≥ 5 vs 12.4401.16-5.16**0.0184**  ≥ 5 vs 2-42.4181.20-4.94**0.0135**Treatment Surgery only vs Surgery + Radiation15.842.24-70.51**0.0100** Surgery only vs Radiation11.191.60-48.16**0.0199** Radiation vs Surgery + Radiation1.4160.79-2.620.2436Significant values are in bold font\n\nUterine-GPA {#Sec7}\n-----------\n\nTable [3](#Tab3){ref-type=\"table\"} summarizes the GPA indices for the patients. ", "The GPA for uterine cancer uses two prognostic factors. ", "A score of 0 was assigned to those patients with ≥5 BM and extracranial metastasis, a score of 2 was assigned to those patients with one to four BM or without extracranial metastasis, and a score of 4 was assigned to those patients with one to four BM and without extracranial metastasis. ", "Because the hazard ratio of the numbers of BM and existence of extracranial metastasis were equivalent, the weight of the assigned score was equal among these factors. ", "The median OS for patients with a uterine-GPA scores of 0, 2, and 4 was 3, 7, and 22 months, respectively. ", "A survival analysis confirmed the presence of statistically significant differences between these groups (*p* \\< 0.05, Fig. [", "2a](#Fig2){ref-type=\"fig\"}).Table 3Definition of graded prognostic assessment for patients with brain metastasis from uterine cancerSignificant prognostic factorsGPA scoring criteria20Number of BM1-4≥5Extracranial metastasisNoYes Fig. ", "2**a**: Kaplan-Meier survival curves in the study cohort according to the new graded prognostic assessment for patients with uterine cancer. **", "b**: Kaplan-Meier survival curves in the validation cohort according to the graded prognostic assessment for patients with uterine cancer\n\nValidation of the uterine-GPA {#Sec8}\n-----------------------------\n\nThe validation dataset obtained from the Report of Brain Tumor Registry Japan consisted of results from 43 patients with BM from uterine cancer (Table [1](#Tab1){ref-type=\"table\"}) \\[[@CR16]\\]. ", "The number of BM in these patients was significantly lesser than that found in the current study cohort. ", "The uterine-GPA could be assessed in 33 of the 43 patients. ", "A score of 4 (eight patients, median OS, not reached; 95% CI, 7-unavailable) correlated with a good prognosis, a score of 2 (23 patients, median OS, 22 months; 95% CI, 6-unavailable) correlated with an intermediate prognosis, and a score of 0 (two patients, median OS, 4 months; 95%CI, 3--5) correlated with a poor prognosis. ", "The differences between the groups were statistically significant (*p* \\< 0.05, Fig. [", "2b](#Fig2){ref-type=\"fig\"}).", "\n\nDiscussion {#Sec9}\n==========\n\nThe present study was performed to evaluate the prognostic factors of BM from uterine cancer using the case registration method from 10 Japanese institutions. ", "We have developed the first diagnosis-specific GPA for uterine cancer, based on the independent prognostic factors. ", "According to the original GPA, a score of 4 correlated with the best prognosis, and a score of 0 correlated with the worst prognosis \\[[@CR15]\\]. ", "This uterine-GPA enabled the prediction of the expected OS times in patients with BM from uterine cancer. ", "Its use may help future clinical decisions in determining the appropriate treatment for individual patients with BM.", "\n\nReview articles reported that BM from uterine cervix and corpus cancers were rare, with only 115 patients documented in 35 papers and 96 patients in 34 papers before 2012, respectively \\[[@CR5], [@CR6]\\]. ", "The most frequent sites of distant metastasis were the lung, bone, and liver. ", "These papers included reports on individual cases or relatively small numbers of patients (2--20 patients), and there were no reports on large numbers of patients. ", "Recently, a Korean study provided a clinical analysis of BM in gynecologic cancers, including 29 patients with uterine cancer \\[[@CR4]\\]. ", "Although the number of patients per institution was not large, (1 to 30 over 10 years), the current study of 81 patients is the largest investigation of the occurrence of BM in patients with uterine cancer.", "\n\nBM are considered to be part of a disseminated disease process and their occurrence is a late event in the course of the disease \\[[@CR5], [@CR9]\\]. ", "The prevalence of BM has, therefore, increased because of the prolonged survival of patients \\[[@CR3]\\]. ", "Chura reported that the majority of the patients (16 of 20 patients, 80%) also had evidence of other metastatic disease at the time of diagnosis of BM \\[[@CR2]\\].", "\n\nBM from uterine cancer is associated with a poor prognosis with limited survival in spite of the use of modern multimodal treatment options. ", "Here the median survival after the diagnosis of BM was 7 months and was comparable to previous reports describing median survivals ranging from 1 to 8 months \\[[@CR1]--[@CR3], [@CR5], [@CR6], [@CR8]--[@CR12]\\]. ", "Several clinical characteristics influencing the survival of patients have been reported. ", "Kim recently reported improved survival times of 23.3 months for uterine corpus cancer and 8.8 months for uterine cervical cancer \\[[@CR4]\\]. ", "They stressed that the presence of solitary BM (44.5%), small BM (\\<2 cm; 21.2%), absence of pulmonary (56.2%) and extracranial (24.1%) disease as well as good performance status were associated with good prognosis. ", "Mahmoud-Ahmed reported that the patients with multiple BM had a shorter survival than those with a single metastasis \\[[@CR12]\\]. ", "Chura reported that the median survival times for patients with isolated BM and no systemic disease was better than that for those with systemic disease \\[[@CR2]\\]. ", "Recently, Divine also reported that isolated BM from gynecologic malignancies was significantly associated with survival \\[[@CR17]\\].", "\n\nSome authors strongly suggested that surgery was an effective treatment for solitary BM in patients with uterine cancer and that postoperative radiation therapy also prolonged survival \\[[@CR9], [@CR11], [@CR12]\\]. ", "Recently, Kimyon reported that surgical resection with radiation improved the survival for isolated BM from endometrial cancer \\[[@CR18]\\]. ", "Recent retrospective study of patients with gynecological malignancies showed that treatment with multimodal therapy including surgical resection and radiation might prolong overall survival \\[[@CR19]\\]. ", "The present study also revealed the advantage of surgery followed by radiation therapy.", "\n\nThe potential use of a GPA is to select patients with good prognosis in order to give aggressive treatments to the patients who would most benefit from. ", "The present study revealed that the absence of extracranial metastases, and small numbers of BM were independent factors for improved OS in patients with BM from uterine cancer. ", "A patient with 1--4 BM from uterine cancer and without extracranial metastasis, i.e. with a GPA score of 4, would most benefit from aggressive treatments.", "\n\nThe present study has limitations that are inherent in a retrospective design and the use of a small patient cohort with a rare type of BM.", "\n\nConclusions {#Sec10}\n===========\n\nThe proposed uterine-GPA incorporates two simple clinical parameters, the existence of extracranial metastases and the number of BM that are of high prognostic significance. ", "This information enables the prediction of the expected survival times in patients with BM from uterine cancers. ", "It may help in deciding the appropriate intensity and timing of treatment for individual patients with BM.", "\n\nBM\n\n: Brain metastases\n\nCI\n\n: Confidence interval\n\nGPA\n\n: Graded prognostic assessment\n\nKPS\n\n: Karnofsky performance status\n\nOS\n\n: Overall survival\n\nRPA\n\n: Recursive partitioning analysis\n\nSRS\n\n: Stereotactic radiosurgery\n\nWBRT\n\n: Whole brain radiotherapy\n\nNot applicable.", "\n\nFunding {#FPar1}\n=======\n\nThis work has not been funded.", "\n\nAvailability of data and materials {#FPar2}\n==================================\n\nThe datasets analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. ", "Data from the 10 institutions where the 81patients were treated cannot be shared to protect patient's confidentiality, but can be obtained upon reasonable request from the authors.", "\n\nAuthors\\' contributions {#FPar3}\n=======================\n\nNH designed the study with YNak, YNar, and YHi. ", "HT, YHa, FH, MTakah, KMa, MTakag, JA, TO, YO, and KMi collected data. ", "NH, KMi, and YNak participated in statistical analysis. ", "NH, YNak, YHi and YNar interpreted results, and prepared and drafted the manuscript. ", "All authors read and approved the final manuscript.", "\n\nCompeting interest {#FPar4}\n==================\n\nThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.", "\n\nConsent for publication {#FPar5}\n=======================\n\nNot applicable.", "\n\nEthics approval and consent to participate {#FPar6}\n==========================================\n\nApproval for this study was obtained from each ethical review board of the 10 participating institutions including Shizuoka Cancer Center Hospital, Niigata Cancer Center Hospital, Chiba Cancer Center, Dokkyo Medical University, National Cancer Center, Kumamoto University, Osaka Medical Center for Cancer and Cardiovascular disease, Tokyo Medical University, Kinki University, and Osaka National Hospital. ", "Individual written informed consent was waived because this study was retrospective in design and based on database extracted records. ", "The waivers of participant consent were approved by the ethical review boards of the 10 participating institutions.", "\n\nPublisher's Note {#FPar7}\n================\n\nSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.", "\n" ]

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[ "/*--------------------------------------------------------------------\n * Symbols referenced in this file:\n * - ClientAuthInProgress\n *--------------------------------------------------------------------\n */\n\n/*-------------------------------------------------------------------------\n *\n * postmaster.c\n *\t This program acts as a clearing house for requests to the\n *\t POSTGRES system. ", " Frontend programs send a startup message\n *\t to the Postmaster and the postmaster uses the info in the\n *\t message to setup a backend process.", "\n *\n *\t The postmaster also manages system-wide operations such as\n *\t startup and shutdown. ", "The postmaster itself doesn't do those\n *\t operations, mind you --- it just forks off a subprocess to do them\n *\t at the right times. ", " It also takes care of resetting the system\n *\t if a backend crashes.", "\n *\n *\t The postmaster process creates the shared memory and semaphore\n *\t pools during startup, but as a rule does not touch them itself.", "\n *\t In particular, it is not a member of the PGPROC array of backends\n *\t and so it cannot participate in lock-manager operations. ", " Keeping\n *\t the postmaster away from shared memory operations makes it simpler\n *\t and more reliable. ", " The postmaster is almost always able to recover\n *\t from crashes of individual backends by resetting shared memory;\n *\t if it did much with shared memory then it would be prone to crashing\n *\t along with the backends.", "\n *\n *\t When a request message is received, we now fork() immediately.", "\n *\t The child process performs authentication of the request, and\n *\t then becomes a backend if successful. ", " This allows the auth code\n *\t to be written in a simple single-threaded style (as opposed to the\n *\t crufty \"poor man's multitasking\" code that used to be needed).", "\n *\t More importantly, it ensures that blockages in non-multithreaded\n *\t libraries like SSL or PAM cannot cause denial of service to other\n *\t clients.", "\n *\n *\n * Portions Copyright (c) 1996-2017, PostgreSQL Global Development Group\n * Portions Copyright (c) 1994, Regents of the University of California\n *\n *\n * IDENTIFICATION\n *\t src/backend/postmaster/postmaster.c\n *\n * NOTES\n *\n * Initialization:\n *\t\tThe Postmaster sets up shared memory data structures\n *\t\tfor the backends.", "\n *\n * Synchronization:\n *\t\tThe Postmaster shares memory with the backends but should avoid\n *\t\ttouching shared memory, so as not to become stuck if a crashing\n *\t\tbackend screws up locks or shared memory. ", " Likewise, the Postmaster\n *\t\tshould never block on messages from frontend clients.", "\n *\n * Garbage Collection:\n *\t\tThe Postmaster cleans up after backends if they have an emergency\n *\t\texit and/or core dump.", "\n *\n * Error Reporting:\n *\t\tUse write_stderr() only for reporting \"interactive\" errors\n *\t\t(essentially, bogus arguments on the command line). ", " Once the\n *\t\tpostmaster is launched, use ereport().", "\n *\n *-------------------------------------------------------------------------\n */\n\n#include \"postgres.h\"\n\n#include <unistd.h>\n#include <signal.h>\n#include <time.h>\n#include <sys/wait.h>\n#include <ctype.h>\n#include <sys/stat.h>\n#include <sys/socket.h>\n#include <fcntl.h>\n#include <sys/param.h>\n#include <netinet/in.h>\n#include <arpa/inet.h>\n#include <netdb.h>\n#include <limits.h>\n\n#ifdef HAVE_SYS_SELECT_H\n#include <sys/select.h>\n#endif\n\n#ifdef USE_BONJOUR\n#include <dns_sd.h>\n#endif\n\n#ifdef USE_SYSTEMD\n#include <systemd/sd-daemon.h>\n#endif\n\n#ifdef HAVE_PTHREAD_IS_THREADED_NP\n#include <pthread.h>\n#endif\n\n#include \"access/transam.h\"\n#include \"access/xlog.h\"\n#include \"bootstrap/bootstrap.h\"\n#include \"catalog/pg_control.h\"\n#include \"common/ip.h\"\n#include \"lib/ilist.h\"\n#include \"libpq/auth.h\"\n#include \"libpq/libpq.h\"\n#include \"libpq/pqsignal.h\"\n#include \"miscadmin.h\"\n#include \"pg_getopt.h\"\n#include \"pgstat.h\"\n#include \"postmaster/autovacuum.h\"\n#include \"postmaster/bgworker_internals.h\"\n#include \"postmaster/fork_process.h\"\n#include \"postmaster/pgarch.h\"\n#include \"postmaster/postmaster.h\"\n#include \"postmaster/syslogger.h\"\n#include \"replication/logicallauncher.h\"\n#include \"replication/walsender.h\"\n#include \"storage/fd.h\"\n#include \"storage/ipc.h\"\n#include \"storage/pg_shmem.h\"\n#include \"storage/pmsignal.h\"\n#include \"storage/proc.h\"\n#include \"tcop/tcopprot.h\"\n#include \"utils/builtins.h\"\n#include \"utils/datetime.h\"\n#include \"utils/dynamic_loader.h\"\n#include \"utils/memutils.h\"\n#include \"utils/pidfile.h\"\n#include \"utils/ps_status.h\"\n#include \"utils/timeout.h\"\n#include \"utils/varlena.h\"\n\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#include \"storage/spin.h\"\n#endif\n\n\n/*\n * Possible types of a backend. ", "Beyond being the possible bkend_type values in\n * struct bkend, these are OR-able request flag bits for SignalSomeChildren()\n * and CountChildren().", "\n */\n#define BACKEND_TYPE_NORMAL\t\t0x0001\t/* normal backend */\n#define BACKEND_TYPE_AUTOVAC\t0x0002\t/* autovacuum worker process */\n#define BACKEND_TYPE_WALSND\t\t0x0004\t/* walsender process */\n#define BACKEND_TYPE_BGWORKER\t0x0008\t/* bgworker process */\n#define BACKEND_TYPE_ALL\t\t0x000F\t/* OR of all the above */\n\n#define BACKEND_TYPE_WORKER\t\t(BACKEND_TYPE_AUTOVAC | BACKEND_TYPE_BGWORKER)\n\n/*\n * List of active backends (or child processes anyway; we don't actually\n * know whether a given child has become a backend or is still in the\n * authorization phase). ", " This is used mainly to keep track of how many\n * children we have and send them appropriate signals when necessary.", "\n *\n * \"Special\" children such as the startup, bgwriter and autovacuum launcher\n * tasks are not in this list. ", " Autovacuum worker and walsender are in it.", "\n * Also, \"dead_end\" children are in it: these are children launched just for\n * the purpose of sending a friendly rejection message to a would-be client.", "\n * We must track them because they are attached to shared memory, but we know\n * they will never become live backends. ", " dead_end children are not assigned a\n * PMChildSlot.", "\n *\n * Background workers are in this list, too.", "\n */\ntypedef struct bkend\n{\n\tpid_t\t\tpid;\t\t\t/* process id of backend */\n\tint32\t\tcancel_key;\t\t/* cancel key for cancels for this backend */\n\tint\t\t\tchild_slot;\t\t/* PMChildSlot for this backend, if any */\n\n\t/*\n\t * Flavor of backend or auxiliary process. ", " Note that BACKEND_TYPE_WALSND\n\t * backends initially announce themselves as BACKEND_TYPE_NORMAL, so if\n\t * bkend_type is normal, you should check for a recent transition.", "\n\t */\n\tint\t\t\tbkend_type;\n\tbool\t\tdead_end;\t\t/* is it going to send an error and quit? */", "\n\tbool\t\tbgworker_notify;\t/* gets bgworker start/stop notifications */\n\tdlist_node\telem;\t\t\t/* list link in BackendList */\n} Backend;\n\n\n\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\nstatic Backend *ShmemBackendArray;\n#endif\n\n\n\n\n\n/* The socket number we are listening for connections on */\n\n\n/* The directory names for Unix socket(s) */\n\n\n/* The TCP listen address(es) */\n\n\n/*\n * ReservedBackends is the number of backends reserved for superuser use.", "\n * This number is taken out of the pool size given by MaxBackends so\n * number of backend slots available to non-superusers is\n * (MaxBackends - ReservedBackends). ", " Note what this really means is\n * \"if there are <= ReservedBackends connections available, only superusers\n * can make new connections\" --- pre-existing superuser connections don't\n * count against the limit.", "\n */\n\n\n/* The socket(s) we're listening to. */", "\n#define MAXLISTEN\t64\n\n\n/*\n * Set by the -o option\n */\n\n\n/*\n * These globals control the behavior of the postmaster in case some\n * backend dumps core. ", " Normally, it kills all peers of the dead backend\n * and reinitializes shared memory. ", " By specifying -s or -n, we can have\n * the postmaster stop (rather than kill) peers and not reinitialize\n * shared data structures. ", " (Reinit is currently dead code, though.)", "\n */\n\n\n\n/* still more option variables */\n\n\n\n\n\n\t\t/* for ps display and logging */\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n/* PIDs of special child processes; 0 when not running */\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n/* Startup process's status */\ntypedef enum\n{\n\tSTARTUP_NOT_RUNNING,\n\tSTARTUP_RUNNING,\n\tSTARTUP_SIGNALED,\t\t\t/* we sent it a SIGQUIT or SIGKILL */\n\tSTARTUP_CRASHED\n} StartupStatusEnum;\n\n\n\n/* Startup/shutdown state */\n#define\t\t\tNoShutdown\t\t0\n#define\t\t\tSmartShutdown\t1\n#define\t\t\tFastShutdown\t2\n#define\t\t\tImmediateShutdown\t3\n\n\n\n /* T if recovering from backend crash */\n\n/*\n * We use a simple state machine to control startup, shutdown, and\n * crash recovery (which is rather like shutdown followed by startup).", "\n *\n * After doing all the postmaster initialization work, we enter PM_STARTUP\n * state and the startup process is launched. ", "The startup process begins by\n * reading the control file and other preliminary initialization steps.", "\n * In a normal startup, or after crash recovery, the startup process exits\n * with exit code 0 and we switch to PM_RUN state. ", " However, archive recovery\n * is handled specially since it takes much longer and we would like to support\n * hot standby during archive recovery.", "\n *\n * When the startup process is ready to start archive recovery, it signals the\n * postmaster, and we switch to PM_RECOVERY state. ", "The background writer and\n * checkpointer are launched, while the startup process continues applying WAL.", "\n * If Hot Standby is enabled, then, after reaching a consistent point in WAL\n * redo, startup process signals us again, and we switch to PM_HOT_STANDBY\n * state and begin accepting connections to perform read-only queries. ", " When\n * archive recovery is finished, the startup process exits with exit code 0\n * and we switch to PM_RUN state.", "\n *\n * Normal child backends can only be launched when we are in PM_RUN or\n * PM_HOT_STANDBY state. ", " (We also allow launch of normal\n * child backends in PM_WAIT_BACKUP state, but only for superusers.)", "\n * In other states we handle connection requests by launching \"dead_end\"\n * child processes, which will simply send the client an error message and\n * quit. ", " (We track these in the BackendList so that we can know when they\n * are all gone; this is important because they're still connected to shared\n * memory, and would interfere with an attempt to destroy the shmem segment,\n * possibly leading to SHMALL failure when we try to make a new one.)", "\n * In PM_WAIT_DEAD_END state we are waiting for all the dead_end children\n * to drain out of the system, and therefore stop accepting connection\n * requests at all until the last existing child has quit (which hopefully\n * will not be very long).", "\n *\n * Notice that this state variable does not distinguish *why* we entered\n * states later than PM_RUN --- Shutdown and FatalError must be consulted\n * to find that out. ", " FatalError is never true in PM_RECOVERY_* or PM_RUN\n * states, nor in PM_SHUTDOWN states (because we don't enter those states\n * when trying to recover from a crash). ", " It can be true in PM_STARTUP state,\n * because we don't clear it until we've successfully started WAL redo.", "\n */\ntypedef enum\n{\n\tPM_INIT,\t\t\t\t\t/* postmaster starting */\n\tPM_STARTUP,\t\t\t\t\t/* waiting for startup subprocess */\n\tPM_RECOVERY,\t\t\t\t/* in archive recovery mode */\n\tPM_HOT_STANDBY,\t\t\t\t/* in hot standby mode */\n\tPM_RUN,\t\t\t\t\t\t/* normal \"database is alive\" state */\n\tPM_WAIT_BACKUP,\t\t\t\t/* waiting for online backup mode to end */\n\tPM_WAIT_READONLY,\t\t\t/* waiting for read only backends to exit */\n\tPM_WAIT_BACKENDS,\t\t\t/* waiting for live backends to exit */\n\tPM_SHUTDOWN,\t\t\t\t/* waiting for checkpointer to do shutdown\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t * ckpt */\n\tPM_SHUTDOWN_2,\t\t\t\t/* waiting for archiver and walsenders to\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t * finish */\n\tPM_WAIT_DEAD_END,\t\t\t/* waiting for dead_end children to exit */\n\tPM_NO_CHILDREN\t\t\t\t/* all important children have exited */\n} PMState;\n\n\n\n/* Start time of SIGKILL timeout during immediate shutdown or child crash */\n/* Zero means timeout is not running */\n\n\n/* Length of said timeout */\n#define SIGKILL_CHILDREN_AFTER_SECS\t\t5\n\n\t/* T if we've reached PM_RUN */\n\n__thread bool\t\tClientAuthInProgress = false;\n\t/* T during new-client\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t * authentication */\n\n\t/* stderr redirected for syslogger? */", "\n\n/* received START_AUTOVAC_LAUNCHER signal */\n\n\n/* the launcher needs to be signalled to communicate some condition */\n\n\n/* received START_WALRECEIVER signal */\n\n\n/* set when there's a worker that needs to be started up */\n\n\n\n#ifndef HAVE_STRONG_RANDOM\n/*\n * State for assigning cancel keys.", "\n * Also, the global MyCancelKey passes the cancel key assigned to a given\n * backend from the postmaster to that backend (via fork).", "\n */\nstatic unsigned int random_seed = 0;\nstatic struct timeval random_start_time;\n#endif\n\n#ifdef USE_SSL\n/* Set when and if SSL has been initialized properly */\nstatic bool LoadedSSL = false;\n#endif\n\n#ifdef USE_BONJOUR\nstatic DNSServiceRef bonjour_sdref = NULL;\n#endif\n\n/*\n * postmaster.c - function prototypes\n */\nstatic void CloseServerPorts(int status, Datum arg);\nstatic void unlink_external_pid_file(int status, Datum arg);\nstatic void getInstallationPaths(const char *argv0);\nstatic void checkDataDir(void);\nstatic Port *ConnCreate(int serverFd);\nstatic void ConnFree(Port *port);\nstatic void reset_shared(int port);\nstatic void SIGHUP_handler(SIGNAL_ARGS);\nstatic void pmdie(SIGNAL_ARGS);\nstatic void reaper(SIGNAL_ARGS);\nstatic void sigusr1_handler(SIGNAL_ARGS);\nstatic void startup_die(SIGNAL_ARGS);\nstatic void dummy_handler(SIGNAL_ARGS);\nstatic void StartupPacketTimeoutHandler(void);\nstatic void CleanupBackend(int pid, int exitstatus);\nstatic bool CleanupBackgroundWorker(int pid, int exitstatus);\nstatic void HandleChildCrash(int pid, int exitstatus, const char *procname);\nstatic void LogChildExit(int lev, const char *procname,\n\t\t\t int pid, int exitstatus);\nstatic void PostmasterStateMachine(void);\nstatic void BackendInitialize(Port *port);\nstatic void BackendRun(Port *port) pg_attribute_noreturn();\nstatic void ExitPostmaster(int status) pg_attribute_noreturn();\nstatic int\tServerLoop(void);\nstatic int\tBackendStartup(Port *port);\nstatic int\tProcessStartupPacket(Port *port, bool SSLdone);\nstatic void processCancelRequest(Port *port, void *pkt);\nstatic int\tinitMasks(fd_set *rmask);\nstatic void report_fork_failure_to_client(Port *port, int errnum);\nstatic CAC_state canAcceptConnections(void);\nstatic bool RandomCancelKey(int32 *cancel_key);\nstatic void signal_child(pid_t pid, int signal);\nstatic bool SignalSomeChildren(int signal, int targets);\nstatic void TerminateChildren(int signal);\n\n#define SignalChildren(sig)\t\t\t SignalSomeChildren(sig, BACKEND_TYPE_ALL)\n\nstatic int\tCountChildren(int target);\nstatic bool assign_backendlist_entry(RegisteredBgWorker *rw);\nstatic void maybe_start_bgworkers(void);\nstatic bool CreateOptsFile(int argc, char *argv[], char *fullprogname);\nstatic pid_t StartChildProcess(AuxProcType type);\nstatic void StartAutovacuumWorker(void);\nstatic void MaybeStartWalReceiver(void);\nstatic void InitPostmasterDeathWatchHandle(void);\n\n/*\n * Archiver is allowed to start up at the current postmaster state?", "\n *\n * If WAL archiving is enabled always, we are allowed to start archiver\n * even during recovery.", "\n */\n#define PgArchStartupAllowed()\t\\\n\t((XLogArchivingActive() && pmState == PM_RUN) ||\t\\\n\t (XLogArchivingAlways() &&\t\\\n\t (pmState == PM_RECOVERY || pmState == PM_HOT_STANDBY)))\n\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n\n#ifdef WIN32\n#define WNOHANG 0\t\t\t\t/* ignored, so any integer value will do */\n\nstatic pid_t waitpid(pid_t pid, int *exitstatus, int options);\nstatic void WINAPI pgwin32_deadchild_callback(PVOID lpParameter, BOOLEAN TimerOrWaitFired);\n\nstatic HANDLE win32ChildQueue;\n\ntypedef struct\n{\n\tHANDLE\t\twaitHandle;\n\tHANDLE\t\tprocHandle;\n\tDWORD\t\tprocId;\n} win32_deadchild_waitinfo;\n#endif\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/* WIN32 */\n\nstatic pid_t backend_forkexec(Port *port);\nstatic pid_t internal_forkexec(int argc, char *argv[], Port *port);\n\n/* Type for a socket that can be inherited to a client process */\n#ifdef WIN32\ntypedef struct\n{\n\tSOCKET\t\torigsocket;\t\t/* Original socket value, or PGINVALID_SOCKET\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t * if not a socket */\n\tWSAPROTOCOL_INFO wsainfo;\n} InheritableSocket;\n#else\ntypedef int InheritableSocket;\n#endif\n\n/*\n * Structure contains all variables passed to exec:ed backends\n */\ntypedef struct\n{\n\tPort\t\tport;\n\tInheritableSocket portsocket;\n\tchar\t\tDataDir[MAXPGPATH];\n\tpgsocket\tListenSocket[MAXLISTEN];\n\tint32\t\tMyCancelKey;\n\tint\t\t\tMyPMChildSlot;\n#ifndef WIN32\n\tunsigned long UsedShmemSegID;\n#else\n\tHANDLE\t\tUsedShmemSegID;\n#endif\n\tvoid\t *UsedShmemSegAddr;\n\tslock_t *ShmemLock;\n\tVariableCache ShmemVariableCache;\n\tBackend *ShmemBackendArray;\n#ifndef HAVE_SPINLOCKS\n\tPGSemaphore *SpinlockSemaArray;\n#endif\n\tint\t\t\tNamedLWLockTrancheRequests;\n\tNamedLWLockTranche *NamedLWLockTrancheArray;\n\tLWLockPadded *MainLWLockArray;\n\tslock_t *ProcStructLock;\n\tPROC_HDR *ProcGlobal;\n\tPGPROC\t *AuxiliaryProcs;\n\tPGPROC\t *PreparedXactProcs;\n\tPMSignalData *PMSignalState;\n\tInheritableSocket pgStatSock;\n\tpid_t\t\tPostmasterPid;\n\tTimestampTz PgStartTime;\n\tTimestampTz PgReloadTime;\n\tpg_time_t\tfirst_syslogger_file_time;\n\tbool\t\tredirection_done;\n\tbool\t\tIsBinaryUpgrade;\n\tint\t\t\tmax_safe_fds;\n\tint\t\t\tMaxBackends;\n#ifdef WIN32\n\tHANDLE\t\tPostmasterHandle;\n\tHANDLE\t\tinitial_signal_pipe;\n\tHANDLE\t\tsyslogPipe[2];\n#else\n\tint\t\t\tpostmaster_alive_fds[2];\n\tint\t\t\tsyslogPipe[2];\n#endif\n\tchar\t\tmy_exec_path[MAXPGPATH];\n\tchar\t\tpkglib_path[MAXPGPATH];\n\tchar\t\tExtraOptions[MAXPGPATH];\n} BackendParameters;\n\nstatic void read_backend_variables(char *id, Port *port);\nstatic void restore_backend_variables(BackendParameters *param, Port *port);\n\n#ifndef WIN32\nstatic bool save_backend_variables(BackendParameters *param, Port *port);\n#else\nstatic bool save_backend_variables(BackendParameters *param, Port *port,\n\t\t\t\t\t HANDLE childProcess, pid_t childPid);\n#endif\n\nstatic void ShmemBackendArrayAdd(Backend *bn);\nstatic void ShmemBackendArrayRemove(Backend *bn);\n#endif\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/* EXEC_BACKEND */\n\n#define StartupDataBase()\t\tStartChildProcess(StartupProcess)\n#define StartBackgroundWriter() StartChildProcess(BgWriterProcess)\n#define StartCheckpointer()\t\tStartChildProcess(CheckpointerProcess)\n#define StartWalWriter()\t\tStartChildProcess(WalWriterProcess)\n#define StartWalReceiver()\t\tStartChildProcess(WalReceiverProcess)\n\n/* Macros to check exit status of a child process */\n#define EXIT_STATUS_0(st) ((st) == 0)\n#define EXIT_STATUS_1(st) (WIFEXITED(st) && WEXITSTATUS(st) == 1)\n#define EXIT_STATUS_3(st) (WIFEXITED(st) && WEXITSTATUS(st) == 3)\n\n#ifndef WIN32\n/*\n * File descriptors for pipe used to monitor if postmaster is alive.", "\n * First is POSTMASTER_FD_WATCH, second is POSTMASTER_FD_OWN.", "\n */\n\n#else\n/* Process handle of postmaster used for the same purpose on Windows */\nHANDLE\t\tPostmasterHandle;\n#endif\n\n/*\n * Postmaster main entry point\n */\n#ifdef SIGXFSZ\n#endif\n#ifdef HAVE_INT_OPTRESET\n#endif\n#ifdef USE_SSL\n#endif\n#ifdef USE_BONJOUR\n#endif\n#ifdef HAVE_UNIX_SOCKETS\n#endif\n#ifdef WIN32\n#endif\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#endif\n#ifdef HAVE_PTHREAD_IS_THREADED_NP\n#endif\n#ifndef HAVE_STRONG_RANDOM\n#endif\n\n\n/*\n * on_proc_exit callback to close server's listen sockets\n */\n\n\n/*\n * on_proc_exit callback to delete external_pid_file\n */\n\n\n\n/*\n * Compute and check the directory paths to files that are part of the\n * installation (as deduced from the postgres executable's own location)\n */\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#endif\n\n\n/*\n * Validate the proposed data directory\n */\n#if !", "defined(WIN32) && !", "defined(__CYGWIN__)\n#endif\n#if !", "defined(WIN32) && !", "defined(__CYGWIN__)\n#endif\n\n/*\n * Determine how long should we let ServerLoop sleep.", "\n *\n * In normal conditions we wait at most one minute, to ensure that the other\n * background tasks handled by ServerLoop get done even when no requests are\n * arriving. ", " However, if there are background workers waiting to be started,\n * we don't actually sleep so that they are quickly serviced. ", " Other exception\n * cases are as shown in the code.", "\n */\n\n\n/*\n * Main idle loop of postmaster\n *\n * NB: Needs to be called with signals blocked\n */\n#ifdef HAVE_PTHREAD_IS_THREADED_NP\n#endif\n\n/*\n * Initialise the masks for select() for the ports we are listening on.", "\n * Return the number of sockets to listen on.", "\n */\n\n\n\n/*\n * Read a client's startup packet and do something according to it.", "\n *\n * Returns STATUS_OK or STATUS_ERROR, or might call ereport(FATAL) and\n * not return at all.", "\n *\n * (Note that ereport(FATAL) stuff is sent to the client, so only use it\n * if that's what you want. ", " Return STATUS_ERROR if you don't want to\n * send anything to the client, which would typically be appropriate\n * if we detect a communications failure.)", "\n */\n#ifdef USE_SSL\n#else\n#endif\n#ifdef USE_SSL\n#endif\n\n\n/*\n * The client has sent a cancel request packet, not a normal\n * start-a-new-connection packet. ", " Perform the necessary processing.", "\n * Nothing is sent back to the client.", "\n */\n#ifndef EXEC_BACKEND\n#else\n#endif\n#ifndef EXEC_BACKEND\n#else\n#endif\n\n/*\n * canAcceptConnections --- check to see if database state allows connections.", "\n */\n\n\n\n/*\n * ConnCreate -- create a local connection data structure\n *\n * Returns NULL on failure, other than out-of-memory which is fatal.", "\n */\n#ifndef EXEC_BACKEND\n#if defined(ENABLE_GSS) || defined(ENABLE_SSPI)\n#endif\n#endif\n\n\n/*\n * ConnFree -- free a local connection data structure\n */\n#ifdef USE_SSL\n#endif\n\n\n/*\n * ClosePostmasterPorts -- close all the postmaster's open sockets\n *\n * This is called during child process startup to release file descriptors\n * that are not needed by that child process. ", " The postmaster still has\n * them open, of course.", "\n *\n * Note: we pass am_syslogger as a boolean because we don't want to set\n * the global variable yet when this is called.", "\n */\n#ifndef WIN32\n#endif\n#ifndef WIN32\n#else\n#endif\n#ifdef USE_BONJOUR\n#endif\n\n\n/*\n * reset_shared -- reset shared memory and semaphores\n */\n\n\n\n/*\n * SIGHUP -- reread config files, and tell children to do same\n */\n#ifdef USE_SSL\n#endif\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#endif\n\n\n/*\n * pmdie -- signal handler for processing various postmaster signals.", "\n */\n#ifdef USE_SYSTEMD\n#endif\n#ifdef USE_SYSTEMD\n#endif\n#ifdef USE_SYSTEMD\n#endif\n\n/*\n * Reaper -- signal handler to cleanup after a child process dies.", "\n */\n#ifdef USE_SYSTEMD\n#endif\n\n/*\n * Scan the bgworkers list and see if the given PID (which has just stopped\n * or crashed) is in it. ", " Handle its shutdown if so, and return true. ", " If not a\n * bgworker, return false.", "\n *\n * This is heavily based on CleanupBackend. ", " One important difference is that\n * we don't know yet that the dying process is a bgworker, so we must be silent\n * until we're sure it is.", "\n */\n#ifdef WIN32\n#endif\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#endif\n\n/*\n * CleanupBackend -- cleanup after terminated backend.", "\n *\n * Remove all local state associated with backend.", "\n *\n * If you change this, see also CleanupBackgroundWorker.", "\n */\n#ifdef WIN32\n#endif\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#endif\n\n/*\n * HandleChildCrash -- cleanup after failed backend, bgwriter, checkpointer,\n * walwriter, autovacuum, or background worker.", "\n *\n * The objectives here are to clean up our local state about the child\n * process, and to signal all other remaining children to quickdie.", "\n */\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#endif\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#endif\n\n/*\n * Log the death of a child process.", "\n */\n#if defined(WIN32)\n#else\n#endif\n\n/*\n * Advance the postmaster's state machine and take actions as appropriate\n *\n * This is common code for pmdie(), reaper() and sigusr1_handler(), which\n * receive the signals that might mean we need to change state.", "\n */\n\n\n\n/*\n * Send a signal to a postmaster child process\n *\n * On systems that have setsid(), each child process sets itself up as a\n * process group leader. ", " For signals that are generally interpreted in the\n * appropriate fashion, we signal the entire process group not just the\n * direct child process. ", " This allows us to, for example, SIGQUIT a blocked\n * archive_recovery script, or SIGINT a script being run by a backend via\n * system().", "\n *\n * There is a race condition for recently-forked children: they might not\n * have executed setsid() yet. ", " So we signal the child directly as well as\n * the group. ", " We assume such a child will handle the signal before trying\n * to spawn any grandchild processes. ", " We also assume that signaling the\n * child twice will not cause any problems.", "\n */\n#ifdef HAVE_SETSID\n#endif\n\n/*\n * Send a signal to the targeted children (but NOT special children;\n * dead_end children are never signaled, either).", "\n */\n\n\n/*\n * Send a termination signal to children. ", " This considers all of our children\n * processes, except syslogger and dead_end backends.", "\n */\n\n\n/*\n * BackendStartup -- start backend process\n *\n * returns: STATUS_ERROR if the fork failed, STATUS_OK otherwise.", "\n *\n * Note: if you change this code, also consider StartAutovacuumWorker.", "\n */\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#else\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/* !", "EXEC_BACKEND */\n#endif\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/* EXEC_BACKEND */\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#endif\n\n/*\n * Try to report backend fork() failure to client before we close the\n * connection. ", " Since we do not care to risk blocking the postmaster on\n * this connection, we set the connection to non-blocking and try only once.", "\n *\n * This is grungy special-purpose code; we cannot use backend libpq since\n * it's not up and running.", "\n */\n\n\n\n/*\n * BackendInitialize -- initialize an interactive (postmaster-child)\n *\t\t\t\tbackend process, and collect the client's startup packet.", "\n *\n * returns: nothing. ", " Will not return at all if there's any failure.", "\n *\n * Note: this code does not depend on having any access to shared memory.", "\n * In the EXEC_BACKEND case, we are physically attached to shared memory\n * but have not yet set up most of our local pointers to shmem structures.", "\n */\n\n\n\n/*\n * BackendRun -- set up the backend's argument list and invoke PostgresMain()\n *\n * returns:\n *\t\tShouldn't return at all.", "\n *\t\tIf PostgresMain() fails, return status.", "\n */\n#ifndef HAVE_STRONG_RANDOM\n#endif\n\n\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n\n/*\n * postmaster_forkexec -- fork and exec a postmaster subprocess\n *\n * The caller must have set up the argv array already, except for argv[2]\n * which will be filled with the name of the temp variable file.", "\n *\n * Returns the child process PID, or -1 on fork failure (a suitable error\n * message has been logged on failure).", "\n *\n * All uses of this routine will dispatch to SubPostmasterMain in the\n * child process.", "\n */\npid_t\npostmaster_forkexec(int argc, char *argv[])\n{\n\tPort\t\tport;\n\n\t/* This entry point passes dummy values for the Port variables */\n\tmemset(&port, 0, sizeof(port));\n\treturn internal_forkexec(argc, argv, &port);\n}\n\n/*\n * backend_forkexec -- fork/exec off a backend process\n *\n * Some operating systems (WIN32) don't have fork() so we have to simulate\n * it by storing parameters that need to be passed to the child and\n * then create a new child process.", "\n *\n * returns the pid of the fork/exec'd process, or -1 on failure\n */\nstatic pid_t\nbackend_forkexec(Port *port)\n{\n\tchar\t *av[4];\n\tint\t\t\tac = 0;\n\n\tav[ac++] = \"postgres\";\n\tav[ac++] = \"--forkbackend\";\n\tav[ac++] = NULL;\t\t\t/* filled in by internal_forkexec */\n\n\tav[ac] = NULL;\n\tAssert(ac < lengthof(av));\n\n\treturn internal_forkexec(ac, av, port);\n}\n\n#ifndef WIN32\n\n/*\n * internal_forkexec non-win32 implementation\n *\n * - writes out backend variables to the parameter file\n * - fork():s, and then exec():s the child process\n */\nstatic pid_t\ninternal_forkexec(int argc, char *argv[], Port *port)\n{\n\tstatic unsigned long tmpBackendFileNum = 0;\n\tpid_t\t\tpid;\n\tchar\t\ttmpfilename[MAXPGPATH];\n\tBackendParameters param;\n\tFILE\t *fp;\n\n\tif (!", "save_backend_variables(&param, port))\n\t\treturn -1;\t\t\t\t/* log made by save_backend_variables */\n\n\t/* Calculate name for temp file */\n\tsnprintf(tmpfilename, MAXPGPATH, \"%s/%s.backend_var.%d.%lu\",\n\t\t\t PG_TEMP_FILES_DIR, PG_TEMP_FILE_PREFIX,\n\t\t\t MyProcPid, ++tmpBackendFileNum);\n\n\t/* Open file */\n\tfp = AllocateFile(tmpfilename, PG_BINARY_W);\n\tif (!", "fp)\n\t{\n\t\t/*\n\t\t * As in OpenTemporaryFileInTablespace, try to make the temp-file\n\t\t * directory\n\t\t */\n\t\tmkdir(PG_TEMP_FILES_DIR, S_IRWXU);\n\n\t\tfp = AllocateFile(tmpfilename, PG_BINARY_W);\n\t\tif (!", "fp)\n\t\t{\n\t\t\tereport(LOG,\n\t\t\t\t\t(errcode_for_file_access(),\n\t\t\t\t\t errmsg(\"could not create file \\\"%s\\\": %m\",\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\ttmpfilename)));\n\t\t\treturn -1;\n\t\t}\n\t}\n\n\tif (fwrite(&param, sizeof(param), 1, fp) !", "= 1)\n\t{\n\t\tereport(LOG,\n\t\t\t\t(errcode_for_file_access(),\n\t\t\t\t errmsg(\"could not write to file \\\"%s\\\": %m\", tmpfilename)));\n\t\tFreeFile(fp);\n\t\treturn -1;\n\t}\n\n\t/* Release file */\n\tif (FreeFile(fp))\n\t{\n\t\tereport(LOG,\n\t\t\t\t(errcode_for_file_access(),\n\t\t\t\t errmsg(\"could not write to file \\\"%s\\\": %m\", tmpfilename)));\n\t\treturn -1;\n\t}\n\n\t/* Make sure caller set up argv properly */\n\tAssert(argc >= 3);\n\tAssert(argv[argc] == NULL);\n\tAssert(strncmp(argv[1], \"--fork\", 6) == 0);\n\tAssert(argv[2] == NULL);\n\n\t/* Insert temp file name after --fork argument */\n\targv[2] = tmpfilename;\n\n\t/* Fire off execv in child */\n\tif ((pid = fork_process()) == 0)\n\t{\n\t\tif (execv(postgres_exec_path, argv) < 0)\n\t\t{\n\t\t\tereport(LOG,\n\t\t\t\t\t(errmsg(\"could not execute server process \\\"%s\\\": %m\",\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tpostgres_exec_path)));\n\t\t\t/* We're already in the child process here, can't return */\n\t\t\texit(1);\n\t\t}\n\t}\n\n\treturn pid;\t\t\t\t\t/* Parent returns pid, or -1 on fork failure */\n}\n#else\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/* WIN32 */\n\n/*\n * internal_forkexec win32 implementation\n *\n * - starts backend using CreateProcess(), in suspended state\n * - writes out backend variables to the parameter file\n *\t- during this, duplicates handles and sockets required for\n *\t inheritance into the new process\n * - resumes execution of the new process once the backend parameter\n *\t file is complete.", "\n */\nstatic pid_t\ninternal_forkexec(int argc, char *argv[], Port *port)\n{\n\tint\t\t\tretry_count = 0;\n\tSTARTUPINFO si;\n\tPROCESS_INFORMATION pi;\n\tint\t\t\ti;\n\tint\t\t\tj;\n\tchar\t\tcmdLine[MAXPGPATH * 2];\n\tHANDLE\t\tparamHandle;\n\tBackendParameters *param;\n\tSECURITY_ATTRIBUTES sa;\n\tchar\t\tparamHandleStr[32];\n\twin32_deadchild_waitinfo *childinfo;\n\n\t/* Make sure caller set up argv properly */\n\tAssert(argc >= 3);\n\tAssert(argv[argc] == NULL);\n\tAssert(strncmp(argv[1], \"--fork\", 6) == 0);\n\tAssert(argv[2] == NULL);\n\n\t/* Resume here if we need to retry */\nretry:\n\n\t/* Set up shared memory for parameter passing */\n\tZeroMemory(&sa, sizeof(sa));\n\tsa.nLength = sizeof(sa);\n\tsa.bInheritHandle = TRUE;\n\tparamHandle = CreateFileMapping(INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t&sa,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPAGE_READWRITE,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tsizeof(BackendParameters),\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNULL);\n\tif (paramHandle == INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE)\n\t{\n\t\telog(LOG, \"could not create backend parameter file mapping: error code %lu\",\n\t\t\t GetLastError());\n\t\treturn -1;\n\t}\n\n\tparam = MapViewOfFile(paramHandle, FILE_MAP_WRITE, 0, 0, sizeof(BackendParameters));\n\tif (!", "param)\n\t{\n\t\telog(LOG, \"could not map backend parameter memory: error code %lu\",\n\t\t\t GetLastError());\n\t\tCloseHandle(paramHandle);\n\t\treturn -1;\n\t}\n\n\t/* Insert temp file name after --fork argument */\n#ifdef _WIN64\n\tsprintf(paramHandleStr, \"%llu\", (LONG_PTR) paramHandle);\n#else\n\tsprintf(paramHandleStr, \"%lu\", (DWORD) paramHandle);\n#endif\n\targv[2] = paramHandleStr;\n\n\t/* Format the cmd line */\n\tcmdLine[sizeof(cmdLine) - 1] = '\\0';\n\tcmdLine[sizeof(cmdLine) - 2] = '\\0';\n\tsnprintf(cmdLine, sizeof(cmdLine) - 1, \"\\\"%s\\\"\", postgres_exec_path);\n\ti = 0;\n\twhile (argv[++i] !", "= NULL)\n\t{\n\t\tj = strlen(cmdLine);\n\t\tsnprintf(cmdLine + j, sizeof(cmdLine) - 1 - j, \" \\\"%s\\\"\", argv[i]);\n\t}\n\tif (cmdLine[sizeof(cmdLine) - 2] !", "= '\\0')\n\t{\n\t\telog(LOG, \"subprocess command line too long\");\n\t\treturn -1;\n\t}\n\n\tmemset(&pi, 0, sizeof(pi));\n\tmemset(&si, 0, sizeof(si));\n\tsi.cb = sizeof(si);\n\n\t/*\n\t * Create the subprocess in a suspended state. ", "This will be resumed later,\n\t * once we have written out the parameter file.", "\n\t */\n\tif (!", "CreateProcess(NULL, cmdLine, NULL, NULL, TRUE, CREATE_SUSPENDED,\n\t\t\t\t\t NULL, NULL, &si, &pi))\n\t{\n\t\telog(LOG, \"CreateProcess call failed: %m (error code %lu)\",\n\t\t\t GetLastError());\n\t\treturn -1;\n\t}\n\n\tif (!", "save_backend_variables(param, port, pi.hProcess, pi.dwProcessId))\n\t{\n\t\t/*\n\t\t * log made by save_backend_variables, but we have to clean up the\n\t\t * mess with the half-started process\n\t\t */\n\t\tif (!", "TerminateProcess(pi.hProcess, 255))\n\t\t\tereport(LOG,\n\t\t\t\t\t(errmsg_internal(\"could not terminate unstarted process: error code %lu\",\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t GetLastError())));\n\t\tCloseHandle(pi.hProcess);\n\t\tCloseHandle(pi.hThread);\n\t\treturn -1;\t\t\t\t/* log made by save_backend_variables */\n\t}\n\n\t/* Drop the parameter shared memory that is now inherited to the backend */\n\tif (!", "UnmapViewOfFile(param))\n\t\telog(LOG, \"could not unmap view of backend parameter file: error code %lu\",\n\t\t\t GetLastError());\n\tif (!", "CloseHandle(paramHandle))\n\t\telog(LOG, \"could not close handle to backend parameter file: error code %lu\",\n\t\t\t GetLastError());\n\n\t/*\n\t * Reserve the memory region used by our main shared memory segment before\n\t * we resume the child process. ", " Normally this should succeed, but if ASLR\n\t * is active then it might sometimes fail due to the stack or heap having\n\t * gotten mapped into that range. ", " In that case, just terminate the\n\t * process and retry.", "\n\t */\n\tif (!", "pgwin32_ReserveSharedMemoryRegion(pi.hProcess))\n\t{\n\t\t/* pgwin32_ReserveSharedMemoryRegion already made a log entry */\n\t\tif (!", "TerminateProcess(pi.hProcess, 255))\n\t\t\tereport(LOG,\n\t\t\t\t\t(errmsg_internal(\"could not terminate process that failed to reserve memory: error code %lu\",\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t GetLastError())));\n\t\tCloseHandle(pi.hProcess);\n\t\tCloseHandle(pi.hThread);\n\t\tif (++retry_count < 100)\n\t\t\tgoto retry;\n\t\tereport(LOG,\n\t\t\t\t(errmsg(\"giving up after too many tries to reserve shared memory\"),\n\t\t\t\t errhint(\"This might be caused by ASLR or antivirus software.\")));", "\n\t\treturn -1;\n\t}\n\n\t/*\n\t * Now that the backend variables are written out, we start the child\n\t * thread so it can start initializing while we set up the rest of the\n\t * parent state.", "\n\t */\n\tif (ResumeThread(pi.hThread) == -1)\n\t{\n\t\tif (!", "TerminateProcess(pi.hProcess, 255))\n\t\t{\n\t\t\tereport(LOG,\n\t\t\t\t\t(errmsg_internal(\"could not terminate unstartable process: error code %lu\",\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t GetLastError())));\n\t\t\tCloseHandle(pi.hProcess);\n\t\t\tCloseHandle(pi.hThread);\n\t\t\treturn -1;\n\t\t}\n\t\tCloseHandle(pi.hProcess);\n\t\tCloseHandle(pi.hThread);\n\t\tereport(LOG,\n\t\t\t\t(errmsg_internal(\"could not resume thread of unstarted process: error code %lu\",\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t GetLastError())));\n\t\treturn -1;\n\t}\n\n\t/*\n\t * Queue a waiter for to signal when this child dies. ", "The wait will be\n\t * handled automatically by an operating system thread pool.", "\n\t *\n\t * Note: use malloc instead of palloc, since it needs to be thread-safe.", "\n\t * Struct will be free():d from the callback function that runs on a\n\t * different thread.", "\n\t */\n\tchildinfo = malloc(sizeof(win32_deadchild_waitinfo));\n\tif (!", "childinfo)\n\t\tereport(FATAL,\n\t\t\t\t(errcode(ERRCODE_OUT_OF_MEMORY),\n\t\t\t\t errmsg(\"out of memory\")));\n\n\tchildinfo->procHandle = pi.hProcess;\n\tchildinfo->procId = pi.dwProcessId;\n\n\tif (!", "RegisterWaitForSingleObject(&childinfo->waitHandle,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t pi.hProcess,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t pgwin32_deadchild_callback,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t childinfo,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t INFINITE,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t WT_EXECUTEONLYONCE | WT_EXECUTEINWAITTHREAD))\n\t\tereport(FATAL,\n\t\t\t\t(errmsg_internal(\"could not register process for wait: error code %lu\",\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t GetLastError())));\n\n\t/* Don't close pi.hProcess here - the wait thread needs access to it */\n\n\tCloseHandle(pi.hThread);\n\n\treturn pi.dwProcessId;\n}\n#endif\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/* WIN32 */\n\n\n/*\n * SubPostmasterMain -- Get the fork/exec'd process into a state equivalent\n *\t\t\tto what it would be if we'd simply forked on Unix, and then\n *\t\t\tdispatch to the appropriate place.", "\n *\n * The first two command line arguments are expected to be \"--forkFOO\"\n * (where FOO indicates which postmaster child we are to become), and\n * the name of a variables file that we can read to load data that would\n * have been inherited by fork() on Unix. ", " Remaining arguments go to the\n * subprocess FooMain() routine.", "\n */\nvoid\nSubPostmasterMain(int argc, char *argv[])\n{\n\tPort\t\tport;\n\n\t/* In EXEC_BACKEND case we will not have inherited these settings */\n\tIsPostmasterEnvironment = true;\n\twhereToSendOutput = DestNone;\n\n\t/* Setup as postmaster child */\n\tInitPostmasterChild();\n\n\t/* Setup essential subsystems (to ensure elog() behaves sanely) */\n\tInitializeGUCOptions();\n\n\t/* Check we got appropriate args */\n\tif (argc < 3)\n\t\telog(FATAL, \"invalid subpostmaster invocation\");\n\n\t/* Read in the variables file */\n\tmemset(&port, 0, sizeof(Port));\n\tread_backend_variables(argv[2], &port);\n\n\t/* Close the postmaster's sockets (as soon as we know them) */\n\tClosePostmasterPorts(strcmp(argv[1], \"--forklog\") == 0);\n\n\t/*\n\t * Set reference point for stack-depth checking\n\t */\n\tset_stack_base();\n\n\t/*\n\t * Set up memory area for GSS information. ", "Mirrors the code in ConnCreate\n\t * for the non-exec case.", "\n\t */\n#if defined(ENABLE_GSS) || defined(ENABLE_SSPI)\n\tport.gss = (pg_gssinfo *) calloc(1, sizeof(pg_gssinfo));\n\tif (!", "port.gss)\n\t\tereport(FATAL,\n\t\t\t\t(errcode(ERRCODE_OUT_OF_MEMORY),\n\t\t\t\t errmsg(\"out of memory\")));\n#endif\n\n\t/*\n\t * If appropriate, physically re-attach to shared memory segment. ", "We want\n\t * to do this before going any further to ensure that we can attach at the\n\t * same address the postmaster used. ", " On the other hand, if we choose not\n\t * to re-attach, we may have other cleanup to do.", "\n\t *\n\t * If testing EXEC_BACKEND on Linux, you should run this as root before\n\t * starting the postmaster:\n\t *\n\t * echo 0 >/proc/sys/kernel/randomize_va_space\n\t *\n\t * This prevents using randomized stack and code addresses that cause the\n\t * child process's memory map to be different from the parent's, making it\n\t * sometimes impossible to attach to shared memory at the desired address.", "\n\t * Return the setting to its old value (usually '1' or '2') when finished.", "\n\t */\n\tif (strcmp(argv[1], \"--forkbackend\") == 0 ||\n\t\tstrcmp(argv[1], \"--forkavlauncher\") == 0 ||\n\t\tstrcmp(argv[1], \"--forkavworker\") == 0 ||\n\t\tstrcmp(argv[1], \"--forkboot\") == 0 ||\n\t\tstrncmp(argv[1], \"--forkbgworker=\", 15) == 0)\n\t\tPGSharedMemoryReAttach();\n\telse\n\t\tPGSharedMemoryNoReAttach();\n\n\t/* autovacuum needs this set before calling InitProcess */\n\tif (strcmp(argv[1], \"--forkavlauncher\") == 0)\n\t\tAutovacuumLauncherIAm();\n\tif (strcmp(argv[1], \"--forkavworker\") == 0)\n\t\tAutovacuumWorkerIAm();\n\n\t/*\n\t * Start our win32 signal implementation. ", "This has to be done after we\n\t * read the backend variables, because we need to pick up the signal pipe\n\t * from the parent process.", "\n\t */\n#ifdef WIN32\n\tpgwin32_signal_initialize();\n#endif\n\n\t/* In EXEC_BACKEND case we will not have inherited these settings */\n\tpqinitmask();\n\tPG_SETMASK(&BlockSig);\n\n\t/* Read in remaining GUC variables */\n\tread_nondefault_variables();\n\n\t/*\n\t * Reload any libraries that were preloaded by the postmaster. ", " Since we\n\t * exec'd this process, those libraries didn't come along with us; but we\n\t * should load them into all child processes to be consistent with the\n\t * non-EXEC_BACKEND behavior.", "\n\t */\n\tprocess_shared_preload_libraries();\n\n\t/* Run backend or appropriate child */\n\tif (strcmp(argv[1], \"--forkbackend\") == 0)\n\t{\n\t\tAssert(argc == 3);\t\t/* shouldn't be any more args */\n\n\t\t/*\n\t\t * Need to reinitialize the SSL library in the backend, since the\n\t\t * context structures contain function pointers and cannot be passed\n\t\t * through the parameter file.", "\n\t\t *\n\t\t * If for some reason reload fails (maybe the user installed broken\n\t\t * key files), soldier on without SSL; that's better than all\n\t\t * connections becoming impossible.", "\n\t\t *\n\t\t * XXX should we do this in all child processes? ", " For the moment it's\n\t\t * enough to do it in backend children.", "\n\t\t */\n#ifdef USE_SSL\n\t\tif (EnableSSL)\n\t\t{\n\t\t\tif (secure_initialize(false) == 0)\n\t\t\t\tLoadedSSL = true;\n\t\t\telse\n\t\t\t\tereport(LOG,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t(errmsg(\"SSL configuration could not be loaded in child process\")));\n\t\t}\n#endif\n\n\t\t/*\n\t\t * Perform additional initialization and collect startup packet.", "\n\t\t *\n\t\t * We want to do this before InitProcess() for a couple of reasons: 1.", "\n\t\t * so that we aren't eating up a PGPROC slot while waiting on the\n\t\t * client. ", "2. ", "so that if InitProcess() fails due to being out of\n\t\t * PGPROC slots, we have already initialized libpq and are able to\n\t\t * report the error to the client.", "\n\t\t */\n\t\tBackendInitialize(&port);\n\n\t\t/* Restore basic shared memory pointers */\n\t\tInitShmemAccess(UsedShmemSegAddr);\n\n\t\t/* Need a PGPROC to run CreateSharedMemoryAndSemaphores */\n\t\tInitProcess();\n\n\t\t/* Attach process to shared data structures */\n\t\tCreateSharedMemoryAndSemaphores(false, 0);\n\n\t\t/* And run the backend */\n\t\tBackendRun(&port);\t\t/* does not return */\n\t}\n\tif (strcmp(argv[1], \"--forkboot\") == 0)\n\t{\n\t\t/* Restore basic shared memory pointers */\n\t\tInitShmemAccess(UsedShmemSegAddr);\n\n\t\t/* Need a PGPROC to run CreateSharedMemoryAndSemaphores */\n\t\tInitAuxiliaryProcess();\n\n\t\t/* Attach process to shared data structures */\n\t\tCreateSharedMemoryAndSemaphores(false, 0);\n\n\t\tAuxiliaryProcessMain(argc - 2, argv + 2);\t/* does not return */\n\t}\n\tif (strcmp(argv[1], \"--forkavlauncher\") == 0)\n\t{\n\t\t/* Restore basic shared memory pointers */\n\t\tInitShmemAccess(UsedShmemSegAddr);\n\n\t\t/* Need a PGPROC to run CreateSharedMemoryAndSemaphores */\n\t\tInitProcess();\n\n\t\t/* Attach process to shared data structures */\n\t\tCreateSharedMemoryAndSemaphores(false, 0);\n\n\t\tAutoVacLauncherMain(argc - 2, argv + 2);\t/* does not return */\n\t}\n\tif (strcmp(argv[1], \"--forkavworker\") == 0)\n\t{\n\t\t/* Restore basic shared memory pointers */\n\t\tInitShmemAccess(UsedShmemSegAddr);\n\n\t\t/* Need a PGPROC to run CreateSharedMemoryAndSemaphores */\n\t\tInitProcess();\n\n\t\t/* Attach process to shared data structures */\n\t\tCreateSharedMemoryAndSemaphores(false, 0);\n\n\t\tAutoVacWorkerMain(argc - 2, argv + 2);\t/* does not return */\n\t}\n\tif (strncmp(argv[1], \"--forkbgworker=\", 15) == 0)\n\t{\n\t\tint\t\t\tshmem_slot;\n\n\t\t/* do this as early as possible; in particular, before InitProcess() */\n\t\tIsBackgroundWorker = true;\n\n\t\t/* Restore basic shared memory pointers */\n\t\tInitShmemAccess(UsedShmemSegAddr);\n\n\t\t/* Need a PGPROC to run CreateSharedMemoryAndSemaphores */\n\t\tInitProcess();\n\n\t\t/* Attach process to shared data structures */\n\t\tCreateSharedMemoryAndSemaphores(false, 0);\n\n\t\t/* Fetch MyBgworkerEntry from shared memory */\n\t\tshmem_slot = atoi(argv[1] + 15);\n\t\tMyBgworkerEntry = BackgroundWorkerEntry(shmem_slot);\n\n\t\tStartBackgroundWorker();\n\t}\n\tif (strcmp(argv[1], \"--forkarch\") == 0)\n\t{\n\t\t/* Do not want to attach to shared memory */\n\n\t\tPgArchiverMain(argc, argv); /* does not return */\n\t}\n\tif (strcmp(argv[1], \"--forkcol\") == 0)\n\t{\n\t\t/* Do not want to attach to shared memory */\n\n\t\tPgstatCollectorMain(argc, argv);\t/* does not return */\n\t}\n\tif (strcmp(argv[1], \"--forklog\") == 0)\n\t{\n\t\t/* Do not want to attach to shared memory */\n\n\t\tSysLoggerMain(argc, argv);\t/* does not return */\n\t}\n\n\tabort();\t\t\t\t\t/* shouldn't get here */\n}\n#endif\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/* EXEC_BACKEND */\n\n\n/*\n * ExitPostmaster -- cleanup\n *\n * Do NOT call exit() directly --- always go through here!", "\n */\n#ifdef HAVE_PTHREAD_IS_THREADED_NP\n#endif\n\n/*\n * sigusr1_handler - handle signal conditions from child processes\n */\n#ifdef USE_SYSTEMD\n#endif\n#ifdef USE_SYSTEMD\n#endif\n\n/*\n * SIGTERM or SIGQUIT while processing startup packet.", "\n * Clean up and exit(1).", "\n *\n * XXX: possible future improvement: try to send a message indicating\n * why we are disconnecting. ", " Problem is to be sure we don't block while\n * doing so, nor mess up SSL initialization. ", " In practice, if the client\n * has wedged here, it probably couldn't do anything with the message anyway.", "\n */\n\n\n/*\n * Dummy signal handler\n *\n * We use this for signals that we don't actually use in the postmaster,\n * but we do use in backends. ", " If we were to SIG_IGN such signals in the\n * postmaster, then a newly started backend might drop a signal that arrives\n * before it's able to reconfigure its signal processing. ", " (See notes in\n * tcop/postgres.c.)", "\n */\n\n\n/*\n * Timeout while processing startup packet.", "\n * As for startup_die(), we clean up and exit(1).", "\n */\n\n\n\n/*\n * Generate a random cancel key.", "\n */\n#ifdef HAVE_STRONG_RANDOM\n#else\n#endif\n\n/*\n * Count up number of child processes of specified types (dead_end children\n * are always excluded).", "\n */\n\n\n\n/*\n * StartChildProcess -- start an auxiliary process for the postmaster\n *\n * \"type\" determines what kind of child will be started. ", " All child types\n * initially go to AuxiliaryProcessMain, which will handle common setup.", "\n *\n * Return value of StartChildProcess is subprocess' PID, or 0 if failed\n * to start subprocess.", "\n */\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#endif\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#else\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/* !", "EXEC_BACKEND */\n#endif\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/* EXEC_BACKEND */\n\n/*\n * StartAutovacuumWorker\n *\t\tStart an autovac worker process.", "\n *\n * This function is here because it enters the resulting PID into the\n * postmaster's private backends list.", "\n *\n * NB -- this code very roughly matches BackendStartup.", "\n */\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#endif\n\n/*\n * MaybeStartWalReceiver\n *\t\tStart the WAL receiver process, if not running and our state allows.", "\n */\n\n\n\n/*\n * Create the opts file\n */\n#define OPTS_FILE\t\"postmaster.opts\"\n\n\n/*\n * MaxLivePostmasterChildren\n *\n * This reports the number of entries needed in per-child-process arrays\n * (the PMChildFlags array, and if EXEC_BACKEND the ShmemBackendArray).", "\n * These arrays include regular backends, autovac workers, walsenders\n * and background workers, but not special children nor dead_end children.", "\n * This allows the arrays to have a fixed maximum size, to wit the same\n * too-many-children limit enforced by canAcceptConnections(). ", " The exact value\n * isn't too critical as long as it's more than MaxBackends.", "\n */\n\n\n/*\n * Connect background worker to a database.", "\n */\n\n\n/*\n * Connect background worker to a database using OIDs.", "\n */\n\n\n/*\n * Block/unblock signals in a background worker\n */\n\n\n\n\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\nstatic pid_t\nbgworker_forkexec(int shmem_slot)\n{\n\tchar\t *av[10];\n\tint\t\t\tac = 0;\n\tchar\t\tforkav[MAXPGPATH];\n\n\tsnprintf(forkav, MAXPGPATH, \"--forkbgworker=%d\", shmem_slot);\n\n\tav[ac++] = \"postgres\";\n\tav[ac++] = forkav;\n\tav[ac++] = NULL;\t\t\t/* filled in by postmaster_forkexec */\n\tav[ac] = NULL;\n\n\tAssert(ac < lengthof(av));\n\n\treturn postmaster_forkexec(ac, av);\n}\n#endif\n\n/*\n * Start a new bgworker.", "\n * Starting time conditions must have been checked already.", "\n *\n * Returns true on success, false on failure.", "\n * In either case, update the RegisteredBgWorker's state appropriately.", "\n *\n * This code is heavily based on autovacuum.c, q.v.", "\n */\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#else\n#endif\n#ifndef EXEC_BACKEND\n#endif\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n#endif\n\n/*\n * Does the current postmaster state require starting a worker with the\n * specified start_time?", "\n */\n\n\n/*\n * Allocate the Backend struct for a connected background worker, but don't\n * add it to the list of backends just yet.", "\n *\n * On failure, return false without changing any worker state.", "\n *\n * Some info from the Backend is copied into the passed rw.", "\n */\n\n\n/*\n * If the time is right, start background worker(s).", "\n *\n * As a side effect, the bgworker control variables are set or reset\n * depending on whether more workers may need to be started.", "\n *\n * We limit the number of workers started per call, to avoid consuming the\n * postmaster's attention for too long when many such requests are pending.", "\n * As long as StartWorkerNeeded is true, ServerLoop will not block and will\n * call this function again after dealing with any other issues.", "\n */\n#define MAX_BGWORKERS_TO_LAUNCH 100\n\n/*\n * When a backend asks to be notified about worker state changes, we\n * set a flag in its backend entry. ", " The background worker machinery needs\n * to know when such backends exit.", "\n */\n\n\n#ifdef EXEC_BACKEND\n\n/*\n * The following need to be available to the save/restore_backend_variables\n * functions. ", " They are marked NON_EXEC_STATIC in their home modules.", "\n */\nextern slock_t *ShmemLock;\nextern slock_t *ProcStructLock;\nextern PGPROC *AuxiliaryProcs;\nextern PMSignalData *PMSignalState;\nextern pgsocket pgStatSock;\nextern pg_time_t first_syslogger_file_time;\n\n#ifndef WIN32\n#define write_inheritable_socket(dest, src, childpid) ((*(dest) = (src)), true)\n#define read_inheritable_socket(dest, src) (*(dest) = *(src))\n#else\nstatic bool write_duplicated_handle(HANDLE *dest, HANDLE src, HANDLE child);\nstatic bool write_inheritable_socket(InheritableSocket *dest, SOCKET src,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t pid_t childPid);\nstatic void read_inheritable_socket(SOCKET *dest, InheritableSocket *src);\n#endif\n\n\n/* Save critical backend variables into the BackendParameters struct */\n#ifndef WIN32\nstatic bool\nsave_backend_variables(BackendParameters *param, Port *port)\n#else\nstatic bool\nsave_backend_variables(BackendParameters *param, Port *port,\n\t\t\t\t\t HANDLE childProcess, pid_t childPid)\n#endif\n{\n\tmemcpy(&param->port, port, sizeof(Port));\n\tif (!", "write_inheritable_socket(&param->portsocket, port->sock, childPid))\n\t\treturn false;\n\n\tstrlcpy(param->DataDir, DataDir, MAXPGPATH);\n\n\tmemcpy(&param->ListenSocket, &ListenSocket, sizeof(ListenSocket));\n\n\tparam->MyCancelKey = MyCancelKey;\n\tparam->MyPMChildSlot = MyPMChildSlot;\n\n\tparam->UsedShmemSegID = UsedShmemSegID;\n\tparam->UsedShmemSegAddr = UsedShmemSegAddr;\n\n\tparam->ShmemLock = ShmemLock;\n\tparam->ShmemVariableCache = ShmemVariableCache;\n\tparam->ShmemBackendArray = ShmemBackendArray;\n\n#ifndef HAVE_SPINLOCKS\n\tparam->SpinlockSemaArray = SpinlockSemaArray;\n#endif\n\tparam->NamedLWLockTrancheRequests = NamedLWLockTrancheRequests;\n\tparam->NamedLWLockTrancheArray = NamedLWLockTrancheArray;\n\tparam->MainLWLockArray = MainLWLockArray;\n\tparam->ProcStructLock = ProcStructLock;\n\tparam->ProcGlobal = ProcGlobal;\n\tparam->AuxiliaryProcs = AuxiliaryProcs;\n\tparam->PreparedXactProcs = PreparedXactProcs;\n\tparam->PMSignalState = PMSignalState;\n\tif (!", "write_inheritable_socket(&param->pgStatSock, pgStatSock, childPid))\n\t\treturn false;\n\n\tparam->PostmasterPid = PostmasterPid;\n\tparam->PgStartTime = PgStartTime;\n\tparam->PgReloadTime = PgReloadTime;\n\tparam->first_syslogger_file_time = first_syslogger_file_time;\n\n\tparam->redirection_done = redirection_done;\n\tparam->IsBinaryUpgrade = IsBinaryUpgrade;\n\tparam->max_safe_fds = max_safe_fds;\n\n\tparam->MaxBackends = MaxBackends;\n\n#ifdef WIN32\n\tparam->PostmasterHandle = PostmasterHandle;\n\tif (!", "write_duplicated_handle(&param->initial_signal_pipe,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t pgwin32_create_signal_listener(childPid),\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t childProcess))\n\t\treturn false;\n#else\n\tmemcpy(&param->postmaster_alive_fds, &postmaster_alive_fds,\n\t\t sizeof(postmaster_alive_fds));\n#endif\n\n\tmemcpy(&param->syslogPipe, &syslogPipe, sizeof(syslogPipe));\n\n\tstrlcpy(param->my_exec_path, my_exec_path, MAXPGPATH);\n\n\tstrlcpy(param->pkglib_path, pkglib_path, MAXPGPATH);\n\n\tstrlcpy(param->ExtraOptions, ExtraOptions, MAXPGPATH);\n\n\treturn true;\n}\n\n\n#ifdef WIN32\n/*\n * Duplicate a handle for usage in a child process, and write the child\n * process instance of the handle to the parameter file.", "\n */\nstatic bool\nwrite_duplicated_handle(HANDLE *dest, HANDLE src, HANDLE childProcess)\n{\n\tHANDLE\t\thChild = INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE;\n\n\tif (!", "DuplicateHandle(GetCurrentProcess(),\n\t\t\t\t\t\t src,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t childProcess,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t &hChild,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t 0,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t TRUE,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t DUPLICATE_CLOSE_SOURCE | DUPLICATE_SAME_ACCESS))\n\t{\n\t\tereport(LOG,\n\t\t\t\t(errmsg_internal(\"could not duplicate handle to be written to backend parameter file: error code %lu\",\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t GetLastError())));\n\t\treturn false;\n\t}\n\n\t*dest = hChild;\n\treturn true;\n}\n\n/*\n * Duplicate a socket for usage in a child process, and write the resulting\n * structure to the parameter file.", "\n * This is required because a number of LSPs (Layered Service Providers) very\n * common on Windows (antivirus, firewalls, download managers etc) break\n * straight socket inheritance.", "\n */\nstatic bool\nwrite_inheritable_socket(InheritableSocket *dest, SOCKET src, pid_t childpid)\n{\n\tdest->origsocket = src;\n\tif (src !", "= 0 && src !", "= PGINVALID_SOCKET)\n\t{\n\t\t/* Actual socket */\n\t\tif (WSADuplicateSocket(src, childpid, &dest->wsainfo) !", "= 0)\n\t\t{\n\t\t\tereport(LOG,\n\t\t\t\t\t(errmsg(\"could not duplicate socket %d for use in backend: error code %d\",\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(int) src, WSAGetLastError())));\n\t\t\treturn false;\n\t\t}\n\t}\n\treturn true;\n}\n\n/*\n * Read a duplicate socket structure back, and get the socket descriptor.", "\n */\nstatic void\nread_inheritable_socket(SOCKET *dest, InheritableSocket *src)\n{\n\tSOCKET\t\ts;\n\n\tif (src->origsocket == PGINVALID_SOCKET || src->origsocket == 0)\n\t{\n\t\t/* Not a real socket! */", "\n\t\t*dest = src->origsocket;\n\t}\n\telse\n\t{\n\t\t/* Actual socket, so create from structure */\n\t\ts = WSASocket(FROM_PROTOCOL_INFO,\n\t\t\t\t\t FROM_PROTOCOL_INFO,\n\t\t\t\t\t FROM_PROTOCOL_INFO,\n\t\t\t\t\t &src->wsainfo,\n\t\t\t\t\t 0,\n\t\t\t\t\t 0);\n\t\tif (s == INVALID_SOCKET)\n\t\t{\n\t\t\twrite_stderr(\"could not create inherited socket: error code %d\\n\",\n\t\t\t\t\t\t WSAGetLastError());\n\t\t\texit(1);\n\t\t}\n\t\t*dest = s;\n\n\t\t/*\n\t\t * To make sure we don't get two references to the same socket, close\n\t\t * the original one. (", "This would happen when inheritance actually\n\t\t * works..\n\t\t */\n\t\tclosesocket(src->origsocket);\n\t}\n}\n#endif\n\nstatic void\nread_backend_variables(char *id, Port *port)\n{\n\tBackendParameters param;\n\n#ifndef WIN32\n\t/* Non-win32 implementation reads from file */\n\tFILE\t *fp;\n\n\t/* Open file */\n\tfp = AllocateFile(id, PG_BINARY_R);\n\tif (!", "fp)\n\t{\n\t\twrite_stderr(\"could not open backend variables file \\\"%s\\\": %s\\n\",\n\t\t\t\t\t id, strerror(errno));\n\t\texit(1);\n\t}\n\n\tif (fread(&param, sizeof(param), 1, fp) !", "= 1)\n\t{\n\t\twrite_stderr(\"could not read from backend variables file \\\"%s\\\": %s\\n\",\n\t\t\t\t\t id, strerror(errno));\n\t\texit(1);\n\t}\n\n\t/* Release file */\n\tFreeFile(fp);\n\tif (unlink(id) !", "= 0)\n\t{\n\t\twrite_stderr(\"could not remove file \\\"%s\\\": %s\\n\",\n\t\t\t\t\t id, strerror(errno));\n\t\texit(1);\n\t}\n#else\n\t/* Win32 version uses mapped file */\n\tHANDLE\t\tparamHandle;\n\tBackendParameters *paramp;\n\n#ifdef _WIN64\n\tparamHandle = (HANDLE) _atoi64(id);\n#else\n\tparamHandle = (HANDLE) atol(id);\n#endif\n\tparamp = MapViewOfFile(paramHandle, FILE_MAP_READ, 0, 0, 0);\n\tif (!", "paramp)\n\t{\n\t\twrite_stderr(\"could not map view of backend variables: error code %lu\\n\",\n\t\t\t\t\t GetLastError());\n\t\texit(1);\n\t}\n\n\tmemcpy(&param, paramp, sizeof(BackendParameters));\n\n\tif (!", "UnmapViewOfFile(paramp))\n\t{\n\t\twrite_stderr(\"could not unmap view of backend variables: error code %lu\\n\",\n\t\t\t\t\t GetLastError());\n\t\texit(1);\n\t}\n\n\tif (!", "CloseHandle(paramHandle))\n\t{\n\t\twrite_stderr(\"could not close handle to backend parameter variables: error code %lu\\n\",\n\t\t\t\t\t GetLastError());\n\t\texit(1);\n\t}\n#endif\n\n\trestore_backend_variables(&param, port);\n}\n\n/* Restore critical backend variables from the BackendParameters struct */\nstatic void\nrestore_backend_variables(BackendParameters *param, Port *port)\n{\n\tmemcpy(port, &param->port, sizeof(Port));\n\tread_inheritable_socket(&port->sock, &param->portsocket);\n\n\tSetDataDir(param->DataDir);\n\n\tmemcpy(&ListenSocket, &param->ListenSocket, sizeof(ListenSocket));\n\n\tMyCancelKey = param->MyCancelKey;\n\tMyPMChildSlot = param->MyPMChildSlot;\n\n\tUsedShmemSegID = param->UsedShmemSegID;\n\tUsedShmemSegAddr = param->UsedShmemSegAddr;\n\n\tShmemLock = param->ShmemLock;\n\tShmemVariableCache = param->ShmemVariableCache;\n\tShmemBackendArray = param->ShmemBackendArray;\n\n#ifndef HAVE_SPINLOCKS\n\tSpinlockSemaArray = param->SpinlockSemaArray;\n#endif\n\tNamedLWLockTrancheRequests = param->NamedLWLockTrancheRequests;\n\tNamedLWLockTrancheArray = param->NamedLWLockTrancheArray;\n\tMainLWLockArray = param->MainLWLockArray;\n\tProcStructLock = param->ProcStructLock;\n\tProcGlobal = param->ProcGlobal;\n\tAuxiliaryProcs = param->AuxiliaryProcs;\n\tPreparedXactProcs = param->PreparedXactProcs;\n\tPMSignalState = param->PMSignalState;\n\tread_inheritable_socket(&pgStatSock, &param->pgStatSock);\n\n\tPostmasterPid = param->PostmasterPid;\n\tPgStartTime = param->PgStartTime;\n\tPgReloadTime = param->PgReloadTime;\n\tfirst_syslogger_file_time = param->first_syslogger_file_time;\n\n\tredirection_done = param->redirection_done;\n\tIsBinaryUpgrade = param->IsBinaryUpgrade;\n\tmax_safe_fds = param->max_safe_fds;\n\n\tMaxBackends = param->MaxBackends;\n\n#ifdef WIN32\n\tPostmasterHandle = param->PostmasterHandle;\n\tpgwin32_initial_signal_pipe = param->initial_signal_pipe;\n#else\n\tmemcpy(&postmaster_alive_fds, &param->postmaster_alive_fds,\n\t\t sizeof(postmaster_alive_fds));\n#endif\n\n\tmemcpy(&syslogPipe, &param->syslogPipe, sizeof(syslogPipe));\n\n\tstrlcpy(my_exec_path, param->my_exec_path, MAXPGPATH);\n\n\tstrlcpy(pkglib_path, param->pkglib_path, MAXPGPATH);\n\n\tstrlcpy(ExtraOptions, param->ExtraOptions, MAXPGPATH);\n}\n\n\nSize\nShmemBackendArraySize(void)\n{\n\treturn mul_size(MaxLivePostmasterChildren(), sizeof(Backend));\n}\n\nvoid\nShmemBackendArrayAllocation(void)\n{\n\tSize\t\tsize = ShmemBackendArraySize();\n\n\tShmemBackendArray = (Backend *) ShmemAlloc(size);\n\t/* Mark all slots as empty */\n\tmemset(ShmemBackendArray, 0, size);\n}\n\nstatic void\nShmemBackendArrayAdd(Backend *bn)\n{\n\t/* The array slot corresponding to my PMChildSlot should be free */\n\tint\t\t\ti = bn->child_slot - 1;\n\n\tAssert(ShmemBackendArray[i].pid == 0);\n\tShmemBackendArray[i] = *bn;\n}\n\nstatic void\nShmemBackendArrayRemove(Backend *bn)\n{\n\tint\t\t\ti = bn->child_slot - 1;\n\n\tAssert(ShmemBackendArray[i].pid == bn->pid);\n\t/* Mark the slot as empty */\n\tShmemBackendArray[i].pid = 0;\n}\n#endif\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/* EXEC_BACKEND */\n\n\n#ifdef WIN32\n\n/*\n * Subset implementation of waitpid() for Windows. ", " We assume pid is -1\n * (that is, check all child processes) and options is WNOHANG (don't wait).", "\n */\nstatic pid_t\nwaitpid(pid_t pid, int *exitstatus, int options)\n{\n\tDWORD\t\tdwd;\n\tULONG_PTR\tkey;\n\tOVERLAPPED *ovl;\n\n\t/*\n\t * Check if there are any dead children. ", "If there are, return the pid of\n\t * the first one that died.", "\n\t */\n\tif (GetQueuedCompletionStatus(win32ChildQueue, &dwd, &key, &ovl, 0))\n\t{\n\t\t*exitstatus = (int) key;\n\t\treturn dwd;\n\t}\n\n\treturn -1;\n}\n\n/*\n * Note! ", "Code below executes on a thread pool! ", "All operations must\n * be thread safe! ", "Note that elog() and friends must *not* be used.", "\n */\nstatic void WINAPI\npgwin32_deadchild_callback(PVOID lpParameter, BOOLEAN TimerOrWaitFired)\n{\n\twin32_deadchild_waitinfo *childinfo = (win32_deadchild_waitinfo *) lpParameter;\n\tDWORD\t\texitcode;\n\n\tif (TimerOrWaitFired)\n\t\treturn;\t\t\t\t\t/* timeout. ", "Should never happen, since we use\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t * INFINITE as timeout value. */", "\n\n\t/*\n\t * Remove handle from wait - required even though it's set to wait only\n\t * once\n\t */\n\tUnregisterWaitEx(childinfo->waitHandle, NULL);\n\n\tif (!", "GetExitCodeProcess(childinfo->procHandle, &exitcode))\n\t{\n\t\t/*\n\t\t * Should never happen. ", "Inform user and set a fixed exitcode.", "\n\t\t */\n\t\twrite_stderr(\"could not read exit code for process\\n\");\n\t\texitcode = 255;\n\t}\n\n\tif (!", "PostQueuedCompletionStatus(win32ChildQueue, childinfo->procId, (ULONG_PTR) exitcode, NULL))\n\t\twrite_stderr(\"could not post child completion status\\n\");\n\n\t/*\n\t * Handle is per-process, so we close it here instead of in the\n\t * originating thread\n\t */\n\tCloseHandle(childinfo->procHandle);\n\n\t/*\n\t * Free struct that was allocated before the call to\n\t * RegisterWaitForSingleObject()\n\t */\n\tfree(childinfo);\n\n\t/* Queue SIGCHLD signal */\n\tpg_queue_signal(SIGCHLD);\n}\n#endif\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/* WIN32 */\n\n/*\n * Initialize one and only handle for monitoring postmaster death.", "\n *\n * Called once in the postmaster, so that child processes can subsequently\n * monitor if their parent is dead.", "\n */\n#ifndef WIN32\n#else\n#endif\t\t\t\t\t\t\t/* WIN32 */\n" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "Github" }

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[ "Antibiotic duration for treating uncomplicated, symptomatic lower urinary tract infections in elderly women.", "\nUrinary tract infections (UTI) are common in elderly patients. ", "Authors of non systematic literature reviews often recommend longer treatment durations (7 to 14 days) for older women, but the evidence for such recommendations is unclear. ", "To determine the optimal duration of antibiotic treatment for uncomplicated symptomatic lower UTI in elderly women. ", "We contacted known investigators and pharmaceutical companies, screened reference lists of identified articles, reviews and books, and searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, Healthstar, Popline, Gerolit, Bioethics Line, The Cochrane Library, Dissertation Abstracts International and Index to Scientific & Technical Proceedings without language restriction. ", "Date of most recent search: 7 May 2008. ", "All randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing different treatment durations of oral antibiotics for uncomplicated symptomatic lower UTIs in elderly women were included. ", "Whenever possible we obtained outcome data for older women included in studies with a broader age range. ", "We excluded patients with fever, flank pain or complicating factors; studies with treatment durations longer than 14 days and prevention studies. ", "The two authors independently assessed study quality and extracted data. ", "Statistical analyses were performed using the random effects model and results expressed as risk ratio (RR) for dichotomous outcomes and mean difference (MD) for continuous outcomes with 95% confidence intervals (CI). ", "Fifteen studies (1644 elderly women) were included. ", "Three studies compared single dose with short-course treatment (3 to 6 days), six compared single dose with long-course treatment (7 to 14 days) and six compared short- with long-course treatment. ", "Methodological quality of all studies was low except for a more recent geriatric study. ", "There was a significant difference for persistent UTI between single dose and short-course treatment (RR 2.01, 95% CI 1.05 to 3.84) and single versus long-course treatment (RR 1.93, 1.01 to 3.70 95% CI), in the short-term (< 2 weeks post-treatment) but not at long-term follow-up or on clinical outcomes. ", "Patients preferred single dose treatment (RR 0.73, 95% CI 0.60 to 0.88) to long-course treatments, but this was based on one study comparing different antibiotics. ", "Short versus longer treatments showed no significant difference in efficacy. ", "Rate of adverse drug reactions increased significantly with longer treatment durations in only one study. ", "Short-course treatment (3 to 6 days) could be sufficient for treating uncomplicated UTIs in elderly women, although more studies on specific commonly prescribed antibiotics are needed." ]

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[ "\n264 F.Supp. ", "431 (1967)\nCENTENNIAL INSURANCE COMPANY, Plaintiff,\nv.\nRobert C. MILLER and Anne K. Miller, and Quincy Carmen, Defendants.", "\nCiv. ", "No. ", "9304.", "\nUnited States District Court E. D. California.", "\nFebruary 10, 1967.", "\n*432 V. Barlow Goff of McDonough, Holland, Schwartz, Allen & Wahrhaftig, Sacramento, Cal., ", "for plaintiff (Centennial Ins. ", "Co.\nCavan Hardy of Bradford, Cross, Dahl & Hefner, Sacramento, Cal., ", "for defendants Robert and Anne Miller.", "\nCharles F. Fogerty, of Hughes, Maul, Fogerty & Dezzani, Placerville, Cal., ", "for defendant Quincy Carmen.", "\n\nMEMORANDUM AND ORDER\nMacBRIDE, District Judge.", "\nThis is a declaratory judgment action brought by plaintiff Centennial Insurance Company to determine whether it is liable under a policy of insurance. ", "Jurisdiction is founded upon diversity of citizenship.", "\nThe policy in question was issued to defendant Robert C. Miller in September, 1964. ", "It protected Miller against claims for bodily injury or medical payments which he might become legally obligated to pay. ", "The policy excluded claims based upon intentional or wilful acts of the insured, an exclusion which is codified in California Insurance Code § 533. ", "In its initial complaint, Centennial alleged that an action was pending in the Superior Court of El Dorado County in which Quincy Carmen, also a defendant in this action, sought damages from Miller for injuries caused by a gunshot fired by Miller. ", "Since the advent of this action, Carmen was awarded $75,000.00 in damages after a jury trial in the superior court. ", "That judgment has become final. ", "Miller was defended in the superior court action by attorneys retained by Centennial. ", "The policy provided that the insurer would defend any actions covered by the policy. ", "Since there was doubt as to whether Miller's acts were covered, Centennial entered into an agreement with him which provided that it would defend the suit by Carmen without prejudice to its rights to litigate the question of coverage The consideration recited was the desire of both parties to cooperate to reduce to a minimum any financial loss resulting from the shooting incident and to postpone the controversy over the policy until final determination of any claims arising from the incident. ", "The agreement was signed by Miller and the attorney for Centennial and is a part of the record in this case.", "\nDefendants contend that the issue of whether Miller acted intentionally and maliciously in shooting Carmen was presented in the superior court action. ", "This assertion is based on the fact that in the state action Miller's attorneys identified in their pre-trial memorandum the issue of intentional conduct as one which would be presented in the case, and urged it as a ground to support a *433 motion for judgment notwithstanding the verdict. ", "In that motion Miller claimed the facts in the record would support only a verdict based on assault and battery, not on negligence. ", "It is clear, however, that the only issue that was before the trier of fact and the only issue decided by the trier of fact was whether or not Miller was negligent as to Carmen. ", "The pre-trial order of Judge Byrne, which is part of the record in this case, contains this order: \"Plaintiff's motion to amend the complaint by interlineation to state only a cause of action for negligence is granted.\" ", "No instruction regarding the possibility that Miller's actions might constitute an intentional tort was given for any purpose by Judge Roberts, who tried the case in superior court. ", "Thus, the judgment in favor of Carmen was based solely on a finding that Miller was negligent.", "\nDefendants have now moved for summary judgment on the ground that the state court judgment against Miller is res judicata or, in the alternative, collaterally estops plaintiff from litigating the issue of coverage in this court. ", "Defendants urge that the finding of negligence in the superior court action precludes Centennial from now asserting that Miller's conduct was intentional.", "\nWithout delving into the nuances of res judicata and collateral estoppel, the basic differences between the two doctrines should be noted. ", "In general, res judicata is the correct term to describe the conclusive effect in subsequent litigation of a prior final determination on the merits of the same cause of action, including all matters that might have been decided, involving the same parties and those in privity. ", "The prior adjudication acts as a bar to the entire subsequent suit on the same cause of action. ", "Collateral estoppel differs slightly, but significantly. ", "The requirement of \"sameness\" as to parties or those in privity is identical to that in res judicata, but the suit need not involve the same cause of action. ", "Where collateral estoppel is invoked, there is a suit on a different cause of action, and only facts which were actually determined from the adversary process in the prior action are conclusive upon the parties. ", "The subsequent suit is not barred, but the parties are estopped from relitigating those facts previously put in issue. ", "For an excellent discussion, replete with citations, see 1B Moore's Federal Practice, paragraphs 0.405, 0.441 (2d ed. ", "1965).", "\nFrom these precepts, this action for declaratory judgment suggests a collateral estoppel situation, due to the difference in causes of action. ", "In order to succeed in their motion for summary judgment then, defendants must show that the parties here are identical or in privity with those in the tort suit against the insured, and that the facts or issues determined in that suit are conclusive of the outcome here. ", "In diversity actions, the forum state's rules on res judicata and collateral estoppel are controlling in the federal courts as an aspect of the doctrine of Erie R. R. Co. v. Tompkins, 304 U.S. 64, 58 S.Ct. ", "817, 82 L.Ed. ", "1188 (1938). ", "Gramm v. Lincoln, 257 F.2d 250 (9th Cir. ", "1958); see Oklahoma Packing Co. v. Oklahoma Gas & Elec. ", "Co., 308 U.S. 530, 309 U.S. 4, 60 S.Ct. ", "215, 84 L.Ed. ", "447 (1939); cf. ", "Angel v. Bullington, 330 U.S. 183, 67 S.Ct. ", "657, 91 L.Ed. ", "832 (1947).", "\nSome controversy exists as to whether the situation of an insurer seeking a declaratory judgment of non-coverage after its insured had been found negligent is barred or estopped by principles of res judicata. ", "The two leading cases, each representing an opposite view, are Farm Bureau Mut. ", "Auto. ", "Ins. ", "Co. v. Hammer, 177 F.2d 793 (4th Cir. ", "1949), cert. ", "den., ", "Beverage v. Farm Bureau Mut. ", "Ins. ", "Co., 339 U.S. 914, 70 S.Ct 575, 94 L.Ed. ", "1339 (1950), and Miller v. United States Fid. & ", "Cas. ", "Co., 291 Mass. 445, 197 N.E. 75 (1935).", "\nIn the Miller case, a judgment against an insured on a complaint which alleged injury due to negligence was held to preclude the insurer, who had refused to defend the insured in the negligence action, from defending against the insured's *434 action on the policy on the ground that the tort was intentional. ", "Hammer was decided by a divided panel of the fourth circuit. ", "The case in essence involved a liability insurer which had initially undertaken defense of a wrongful death suit against its insured. ", "The theory of the case was negligence. ", "Subsequently, the insurer withdrew its defense after the insured was convicted of the murder of plaintiff's decedent. ", "The reason for withdrawal was an exclusion in the policy of damages occasioned by the insured's intentional acts. ", "The insured did not contest the wrongful death action, and the plaintiff recovered judgment on the theory of negligence. ", "In the ensuing action for declaratory judgment on the issue of coverage, the district court rendered summary judgment against the insurer on the ground that the prior suit had decided that the insured's conduct was negligent. ", "The fourth circuit reversed, saying that the insurer was not estopped because\n[i]t was not possible for the company * * * to defend the insured, and at the same time to protect its own interests. ", "It could not exculpate itself by showing that the injurious acts of the insured were beyond the scope of the policy, for this showing would establish the liability of the insured to the injured parties to an even greater extent than that claimed in the complaints. ", "177 F.2d at 801.", "\nThe majority opinion in Hammer disagreed with the result in Miller, supra. ", "In effect, it said that Miller was a perversion of the principle of collateral estoppel since the underlying rationale of the doctrine, identity of interests of the parties in both suits, was not served by its application in those circumstances. ", "Chief Judge Parker in his dissent in Hammer called Miller \"well settled law\" and added:\nThe fact that the company could not assert in the original case that the injury was not negligent but intentional without prejudicing the defense of that case means merely that the defense which it had undertaken was difficult. ", "It furnishes no ground for absolving the company from application of the well settled rule that the judgment rendered is binding upon it as to issues actually adjudicated; and there can be no question but that the judgment adjudicated that the injury in question resulted from insured's negligence. ", "177 F.2d at 802.", "\nProfessors Moore and Currier disagree with the Hammer approach, but recognize the insurer's dilemma entailed in the Miller rule:\n[G]iven notice and an opportunity to defend, the insurer is bound by the judgment on the negligence claim, whether or not he defends; and, if he does defend, he cannot contend that insured was guilty of intentional wrong-doing. ", "But the insurer is not entirely without a remedy: a suit against the insured and the injured claimant for a declaratory judgment of non-coverage, prior to rendition of judgment in the suit against the insured, may be entertained at the discretion of an appropriate court. * * * ", "Of course, the insurer cannot be certain that the declaratory judgment will precede the damage judgment against the insured, in point of time. ", "1A Moore's Federal Practice, paragraph 0.411[6] n. 19 (2d ed. ", "1965).", "\nOn the other hand, there is respectable support for the Hammer case. ", "See 63 Harv.", "L.Rev. ", "898 (1950)[1]; 35 Va.L.Rev. ", "1095 (1949).", "\nIn California, the applicability of collateral estoppel to such factual settings as were present in Hammer, supra, and Miller, supra, is far from clear. ", "Disregarding the cases cited in the briefs which involve attempted relitigation of an issue which clearly was decided in a *435 prior suit after adversary contention, (see, e. g., Ford v. Providence Washington Ins. ", "Co., 151 Cal.", "App.2d 431, 311 P.2d 930 (1957); Artukovich v. St. Paul-Mercury Indem. ", "Co., 150 Cal.", "App.2d 312, 310 P.2d 461 (1957)), there still appears to be some California case law which bears on the problem.", "\nThe defendants urge that Escobedo v. Travelers Ins. ", "Co., 197 Cal.", "App.2d 118, 17 Cal.", "Rptr. ", "219 (1961) compels the conclusion that the law of California is in accord with Miller, supra. ", "A reading of the case discloses that it stands for much less. ", "In Escobedo, the court was concerned with the effect of a prior action for damages upon a suit by the successful plaintiff against the insurer of the tortfeasor. ", "The insurance company contended that the conduct of the insured was intentional and therefore exempt. ", "This was similar to the Hammer, supra, and Miller, supra, situations, except that in Escobedo the issue of whether the tortious conduct was negligent or wilful was decided by the jury, albeit for a different purpose than to establish coverage under the policy. ", "In the first trial, plaintiff sued for the wrongful death of his decedent. ", "He joined as defendants the driver and owner of the vehicle which caused the fatal injuries. ", "The insurer defended both driver and owner. ", "The owner interposed a defense that the conduct of the driver was wilful, which exonerates an owner from vicarious liability under California law. ", "A special verdict was prepared for the jury which asked that it determine whether the driver had acted negligently or wilfully. ", "The jury decided that the driver's conduct was negligent. ", "Thus, in Escobedo, there was a prior adversary determination of the issue of negligent versus intentional conduct, and the District Court of Appeal for the Second District held that this determination was binding upon the insurer.[2] In a situation such as Escobedo, collateral estoppel is on much surer footing than under the facts of Miller, supra.", "\nThere is indication by way of dicta that some California courts may favor a rule binding the insurer in all cases by the results in the first trial, at least in those instances where it refused to defend the insured against a complaint which stated a cause of action within the terms of the policy. ", "See Karpe v. Great American Indem Co., 190 Cal.", "App.2d 226, 231, 11 Cal.", "Rptr. ", "908 (1961); Lamb v. Belt Casualty Co., 3 Cal.", "App.2d 624, 631, 40 P.2d 311, 314 (1935). ", "The statements in these cases are hardly determinative of California law on the subject though, and their applicability is questionable where the insurer does defend the action against the insured.", "\nHowever doubtful the status of the Hammer and Miller rules may be in California, there is one facet of the instant case not found in those cases which places it outside the ambit of collateral estoppel. ", "The parties to a lawsuit may agree in advance to reserve the right to litigate matters in a subsequent suit which might otherwise be precluded by res judicata or collateral estoppel. ", "See Riordan v. Ferguson, 147 F.2d 983 (2d Cir. ", "1945); 1B Moore's Federal Practice § 0.405 [1] (2d ed. ", "1965). ", "This procedure has found approval in an insurance situation analogous to the present one in the recent decision of the California Supreme Court of Gray v. Zurich Ins. ", "Co., 65 A.C. 267, 54 Cal.", "Rptr. ", "104, 419 P.2d 168 (1966).", "\nThe Gray case involved a suit by an insured against his insurer for failure to defend an action filed against him on a complaint alleging that he had committed an assault. ", "A judgment was recovered against the insured in the third party action. ", "By way of defense in the action on the policy, the insurer contended that the policy, like the one here, excused defense of actions based on intentionally caused bodily injury, and that if the company had defended, it would involve a conflict of interest with the insured. ", "In answer to the first defense, *436 the supreme court held that where the policy covered bodily injury, except that caused intentionally, it required the insurer to defend any suit in which bodily injury was alleged, even if the allegations were groundless or fraudulent. ", "The court said that the insurer's obligation extended to any suit that potentially sought damages within the coverage of the policy. ", "As to the argument that defense of the insured would have created a conflict of interest, the court, per Justice Tobriner, observed:\nSince, however, the court in the third party suit does not adjudicate the issue of coverage, the insurer's argument collapses. ", "The only question there litigated is the insured's liability. ", "The alleged victim does not concern himself with the theory of liability; he desires only the largest possible judgment. ", "Similarly, the insured and insurer seek only to avoid, or at least to minimize, the judgment. ", "As we have noted, modern procedural rules focus on whether, on a given set of facts, the plaintiff, regardless of the theory, may recover. ", "Thus the question of whether or not the insured engaged in intentional conduct does not normally formulate an issue which is resolved in that litigation.", "\nIn any event, if the insurer adequately reserves its right to assert the noncoverage defense later, it will not be bound by the judgment. ", "If the injured party prevails, that party or the insured will assert his claim against the insurer. ", "At this time the insurer can raise the noncoverage defense previously reserved. ", "In this manner the interests of the insured and insurer in defending against the injured party's primary suit will be identical; the insurer will not face the suggested dilemma. ", "65 A.C. at 283, 284, 54 Cal.", "\nRptr. ", "at 114, 419 P.2d at 178. (", "Footnotes omitted.)", "\nThis statement by the Supreme Court of California might be sufficient evidence of the state of the law in California to decide that collateral estoppel does not apply to an insurer who has defended, even if there were no reservation of the right to litigate coverage later. ", "This is not necessary in the present case, however, since the previously-mentioned agreement between Centennial and Miller is a sufficient reservation to bring it under the California court's suggested solution to the dilemma. ", "The pertinent provisions of the agreement, entitled \"Reservation of Rights and Non-Waiver Agreement,\" are as follows:\n[A]ll rights and defenses of the CENTENNIAL INSURANCE COMPANY under said policy, and all endorsements thereto, are hereby reserved until the final determination of any and all claims sued upon in said action [the Carmen v. Miller suit] with the same force and effect as though the said CENTENNIAL INSURANCE COMPANY had not undertaken any investigation or defense in said action. * * * ", "ROBERT C. MILLER hereby waives any right to ever contend that any action taken by the CENTENNIAL INSURANCE COMPANY in defending said action has waived or will waive any policy conditions, provisions, or rights of any kind which the said CENTENNIAL INSURANCE COMPANY has under said insurance policy.", "\nDefendants contend that the statements in Gray, supra, are mere dicta, and in any case, the facts of that case are so different as to make them inapplicable here. ", "I cannot agree. ", "The necessary implication of the statement quoted above is that in a case where the insurer defends the insured in a personal injury action, the issue of whether or not the injury is intentional is not decided unless that is the theory of the complaint. ", "While these sentences may not have been the heart of the Gray decision, there is no reason to believe that the court was offering superfluous information. ", "At any rate, the court did indicate an approved course of conduct *437 in these cases which the plaintiff here has followed.", "\nIt is, therefore, ordered that defendants' motion for summary judgment be, and the same is hereby, denied.", "\nNOTES\n[1] The author comments that in jurisdictions where the Miller rule is followed, it is common practice for injured plaintiffs to sue on a negligence theory even when the tort is intentional. ", "Collateral estoppel is thus used to emasculate exclusions in the policy for intentional torts.", "\n[2] After remand, the trial court rendered summary judgment in favor of plaintiff. ", "This judgment was affirmed on appeal. ", "Escobedo v. Travelers Ins. ", "Co., 227 Cal. ", "App.2d 353, 38 Cal.", "Rptr. ", "645 (1964).", "\n" ]

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[ "Non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants in patients with atrial fibrillation in secondary stroke and systemic embolism prevention.", "\nOral anticoagulants (OAC) are recommended in all patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) after thromboembolic events without contraindications. ", "It is hypothesized herein, that the majority of patients with AF after thromboembolic events receive OAC and the presence of specific factors, predisposes the use of non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants (NOACs). ", "This is a retrospective study, encompassing patients with AF hospitalized in a reference cardiology center over the years 2014-2017. ", "Thromboembolic events were defined as: ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attack and systemic embolism. ", "Inclusion criteria were the following: diagnosis of non-valvular AF at discharge from hospital, hospitalization not resulting in death. ", "Among 2834 hospitalized patients with AF, a history of thromboembolic events was identified in 347 (12.2%) patients. ", "In the group studied, of 347 patients with AF after a thromboembolic event, 322 (92.8%) received OAC, including 133 patients on vitamin K antagonist (41.3% of patients on OAC) and 189 patients on NOACs (58.7% of patients on OAC). ", "Among patients treated with NOACs the majority were on dabigatran (116 patients, 61.4%), followed by rivaroxaban (54 patients, 28.6%), and apixaban (19 patients, 10%). ", "Multivariate logistic regression analysis demonstrated that the presence of arterial hypertension reduced the chance for NOACs use (OR 0.4, 95% CI 0.2-0.9, p = 0.04) and left atrial size ≤ 40 mm was a factor increasing the chance for the use of NOACs (OR 2.5, 95% CI 1.1-5.8, p = 0.03). ", "Nearly all hospitalized patients with AF received OAC in the secondary prevention of thromboembolic complications. ", "NOACs were used for secondary prevention of stroke among patients with AF in patients with fewer comorbidities." ]

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[ "Bert Parke\n\nHubert Norman Maxwell Parke (21 April 1886 – 24 April 1967) was an Australian rules footballer who played for the Carlton Football Club and Melbourne Football Club in the Victorian Football League (VFL).", "\n\nNotes\n\nExternal links \n\nBert Parke's profile at Blueseum\n\nCategory:1886 births\nCategory:1967 deaths\nCategory:Australian rules footballers from Victoria (Australia)\nCategory:Carlton Football Club players\nCategory:Melbourne Football Club players" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }

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11.", "\n-20a6813\nWhat is 2463a (base 11) in base 6?", "\n431435\nConvert -176068 (base 11) to base 3.", "\n-111210120012\nWhat is -51134 (base 13) in base 5?", "\n-14121324\nConvert -7600a2 (base 11) to base 2.", "\n-100101000101101010011\nConvert 412935 (base 10) to base 2.", "\n1100100110100000111\n-2248694 (base 10) to base 12\n-9053b2\nConvert c38050 (base 16) to base 9.", "\n26087234\n188b7e (base 16) to base 13\n444226\nWhat is -1110000101110111101 (base 2) in base 12?", "\n-1a3279\nConvert 341420 (base 6) to base 9.", "\n43553\nWhat is -102012001200202 (base 3) in base 2?", "\n-10110101011100010011101\nWhat is 6513166 (base 7) in base 8?", "\n3015560\n23402323 (base 5) to base 6\n4343455\nWhat is -10200012222201 (base 3) in base 7?", "\n-22412554\n1084425 (base 9) to base 15\nb8eb2\n-2000000110 (base 3) to base 13\n-14c01\nWhat is -2377 (base 10) in base 9?", "\n-3231\n1007717 (base 8) to base 9\n445127\nWhat is -131112 (base 5) in base 13?", "\n-2469\nWhat is 267433 (base 10) in base 7?", "\n2162455\nConvert -acb90b (base 14) to base 10.", "\n-5871191\nWhat is -653121 (base 10) in base 6?", "\n-21555413\nConvert -11b990 (base 12) to base 11.", "\n-188959\nWhat is 356508 (base 15) in base 16?", "\n26f339\nConvert -5de9b (base 16) to base 8.", "\n-1357233\n11e371 (base 16) to base 6\n41043253\nConvert 2221111001221 (base 3) to base 16.", "\n17df46\nWhat is -109b91 (base 15) in base 4?", "\n-3001130221\nWhat is -50894 (base 13) in base 15?", "\n-2cb38\nConvert 11211222112 (base 3) to base 15.", "\n1d45b\n-101020020101201 (base 3) to base 8\n-24573363\nConvert 5ad7c (base 14) to base 11.", "\n141a20\nWhat is 4a5233 (base 13) in base 14?", "\n345683\nConvert -10584 (base 16) to base 8.", "\n-202604\nWhat is 333132311111 (base 4) in base 9?", "\n34273585\nWhat is 11011101000001010100001 (base 2) in base 16?", "\n6e82a1\n8565418 (base 11) to base 16\ne5fdeb\nConvert -120000311 (base 4) to base 6.", "\n-2035205\nWhat is 77406 (base 9) in base 8?", "\n144240\nConvert 1236414 (base 7) to base 15.", "\n32956\nConvert -70930 (base 11) to base 13.", "\n-3820c\nWhat is -10775203 (base 8) in base 5?", "\n-1100423031\nConvert 1d8814 (base 14) to base 6.", "\n34422550\n20c62 (base 13) to base 8\n163536\nWhat is 268551 (base 12) in base 3?", "\n1012100100221\nConvert -45a3 (base 14) to base 7.", "\n-50163\nConvert -11001111011001101 (base 2) to base 10.", "\n-106189\nConvert -10100210201221 (base 3) to base 15.", "\n-254897\n8174303 (base 9) to base 4\n100220113302\nConvert -576706 (base 12) to base 10.", "\n-1400694\nConvert -101110101111 (base 2) to base 13.", "\n-1491\n-2151212 (base 7) to base 11\n-17084a\n9d88 (base 14) to base 3\n1101112111\nConvert -1113010201 (base 4) to base 10.", "\n-356641\n213023001002 (base 4) to base 3\n201022201001122\n-8a81 (base 11) to base 12\n-6ab7\nConvert 2d7805 (base 14) to base 13.", "\n43b4a9\nConvert 206852 (base 9) to base 5.", "\n12420132\n-102556202 (base 7) to base 5\n-3030121142\nWhat is -11698 (base 14) in base 3?", "\n-2011020222\nConvert -12040122 (base 5) to base 9.", "\n-180456\nConvert -946b (base 13) to base 8.", "\n-50072\n-15a52c (base 14) to base 2\n-10111001001001011100\nWhat is 30572733 (base 8) in base 6?", "\n351001151\n-67117 (base 9) to base 16\n-ae16\nConvert -160bb3 (base 14) to base 13.", "\n-20c9c6\nConvert -24303303 (base 5) to base 6.", "\n-4522122\nWhat is 7758262 (base 10) in base 16?", "\n7661b6\nConvert 13030013 (base 5) to base 16.", "\n1efa3\n413745 (base 9) to base 6\n5132452\nConvert 1009538 (base 15) to base 7.", "\n166041545\nConvert 352644 (base 8) to base 5.", "\n12321403\nWhat is -100001120012 (base 3) in base 15?", "\n-37c5b\nConvert -1002113121 (base 4) to base 14.", "\n-710c9\nWhat is -1000000000000011010 (base 2) in base 3?", "\n-111022122000\nConvert 24233420 (base 5) to base 11.", "\n145901\nWhat is 55032 (base 10) in base 5?", "\n3230112\nWhat is d93a9 (base 14) in base 9?", "\n878846\nWhat is -757a4a (base 11) in base 13?", "\n-33536b\nWhat is 13111310212 (base 4) in base 11?", "\n10a4906\nWhat is -20332032 (base 7) in base 10?", "\n-1705419\nConvert 1212202101012 (base 3) to base 11.", "\n622627\nConvert 11001122222000 (base 3) to base 11.", "\n1244821\nWhat is -1326741 (base 9) in base 3?", "\n-1100220211101\nWhat is -23120012 (base 4) in base 15?", "\n-dc18\n65fd31 (base 16) to base 5\n3202341303\n14dee7 (base 15) to base 2\n11110110010111011101\nWhat is -a6087 (base 12) in base 9?", "\n-361724\nWhat is -28880 (base 13) in base 3?", "\n-10212110112\n6126863 (base 9) to base 10\n3265896\n5030225 (base 9) to base 4\n22031211101\nWhat is -105620 (base 8) in base 14?", "\n-d040\nWhat is 20120411314 (base 5) in base 4?", "\n1030221021003\nConvert 70417 (base 10) to base 13.", "\n26089\n73111 (base 10) to base 13\n2737c\nConvert 450455345 (base 6) to base 15.", "\nab1d15\nWhat is 45536666 (base 8) in base 9?", "\n20526348\nConvert -64880a (base 11) to base 13.", "\n-2a3a16\nConvert 144165d (base 14) to base 8.", "\n45417643\nWhat is 350588 (base 9) in base 10?", "\n210437\n-11232033303 (base 4) to base 16\n-16e3f3\n-312ca9 (base 14) to base 15\n-22bc37\nWhat is 190334 (base 10) in base 8?", "\n563576\nConvert 567487 (base 9) to base 7.", "\n2614411\n-1110001001101100101110 (base 2) to base 9\n-6873725\n124b033 (base 12) to base 13\n9870a5\nConvert 1100111000100101111 (base 2) to base 8.", "\n1470457\nWhat is -2361300 (base 9) in base 11?", "\n-7a4a60\nConvert 66cd0a (base 15) to base 5.", "\n2223402220\n1110200224 (base 5) to base 8\n11206435\nWhat is 6006012 (base 7) in base 12?", "\n2a1849\nWhat is 2004245 (base 6) in base 8?", "\n270105\nWhat is -7233d4 (base 14) in base 15?", "\n-510dc1\nWhat is -404132204 (base 5) in base 3?", "\n-10001211100122\nConvert -1604768 (base 9) to base 4.", "\n-3121013000\nConvert -387573 (base 9) to base 2.", "\n-111001011011001001\nConvert 11122110221002 (base 3) to base 2.", "\n1001011010111110101000\nConvert -172699 (base 15) to base 12.", "\n-461376\nConvert -1000010011111100 (base 2) to base 9.", "\n-51626\nConvert 1354284 (base 9) to base 10.", "\n744547\n-466554 (base 7) to base 12\n-40720\n-83002 (base 9) to base 2\n-1101010110010101\nWhat is 100100000000110000001 (base 2) in base 4?", "\n10200012001\nWhat is -120170 (base 9) in base 12?", "\n-35a23\nConvert 6431830 (base 10) to base 3.", "\n110002202210221\nConvert 19635 (base 12) to base 15.", "\nb048\n1201231210 (base 5) to base 4\n22201122201\n122002210101 (base 3) to base 6\n11114314\nWhat is 163209 (base 10) in base 15?", "\n33559\nConvert -200302333 (base 4) to base 12.", "\n-658a7\nWhat is 2ffae (base 16) in base 9?", "\n328522\nWhat is -10110101001110101100110 (base 2) in base 6?", "\n-331141114\n-3360633 (base 9) to base 5\n-430430402\nConvert -7535772 (base 9) to base 2.", "\n-1111011010001001111100\n293120 (base 10) to base 5\n33334440\nWhat is 40930b4 (base 12) in base 14?", "\n187c9a8\n1069592 (base 10) to base 8\n4051030\nConvert 86585 (base 9) to base 3.", "\n2220122212\nConvert -1222122210220 (base 3) to base 14.", "\n-1d6c99\nConvert -2a6ea (base 15) to base 12.", "\n-6704" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "DM Mathematics" }

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[ "Take It All Away\n\nTake It All Away is the debut major-label studio album from American pop rock singer-songwriter Ryan Cabrera, and was released in 2004 on Atlantic Records. ", "From this album, three hit singles were released; \"On the Way Down\", \"True\", and \"40 Kinds of Sadness\".", "\n\nTrack listing\n\"Let's Take Our Time\" (Cabrera, Guy Chambers) 3:09\n\"On the Way Down\" (Sabelle Breer, Cabrera, Curt Frasca) 3:33\n\"True\" (Cabrera, Jimmy Harry, Shep Solomon) 3:24\n\"Exit To Exit\" (Cabrera, Jimmy Harry, Solomon) 3:39\n\"40 Kinds of Sadness\" (Breer, Cabrera, Frasca) 3:23\n\"Echo Park\" (Cabrera, Jimmy Harry) 3:40\n\"Take It All Away\" (Breer, Cabrera, Frasca) 3:46\n\"Shame On Me\" (Cabrera, Steve Diamond, Savan Kotecha) 3:23\n\"She's\" (Cabrera, Kara DioGuardi) 4:35\n\"Illusions\" (Cabrera, John Rzeznik) 3:36\n\"Blind Sight\" (Cabrera) 4:01\n\"On The Way Down\" [Acoustic Version] 3:19\n\nJapan Bonus Track\n\"I Know What It Feels Like\"\n\nLatin American Bonus track\n\n13. \"", "True\" (Spanish Version) \"Solo Me Faltas Tu\"\n\nPersonnel\nRyan Cabrera, John Rzeznik, Greg Suran: Guitars\nRhett Hulcy: Piano\nPaul Bushnell: Bass\nGregg Bissonette, Daniel Chase: Drums, Percussion\nRaoul Shroff: Saxophone\n\nProduction\nProduced By John Rzeznik & Ryan Cabrera\nEngineers, Mixing: Doug McKean, Craig David Smith\nAssistant Engineers: Greg Burns, Darrell Thorp, Brian Vibberts\nDigital Editing: EMI Ferguson\nMastering: Ted Jensen\n\nChart performance\n\nCategory:2004 albums\nCategory:Ryan Cabrera albums\nCategory:Atlantic Records albums" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }

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[ "L'Etec, vous connaissez ? ", "L'escadron de transport, d'entraînement et de calibration est l'unité militaire chargée du transport aérien du président de la République, des membres du gouvernement et des invités prestigieux de la France. ", "Pour avoir l'honneur de convoyer ces hauts dignitaires, les quelque 180 pilotes, stewards et hôtesses de l'Etec passent des sélections drastiques. ", "De Kaboul à Saint-Pétersbourg, des Bahamas au fin fond de la Laponie, ils peuvent décoller, sur un coup de fil, vers une réunion de crise, un sommet international ou le lieu de villégiature de leurs éminents passagers. ", "On l'imagine aisément : l'équipage de cette flotte ultraselect - une dizaine d'appareils de haut standing, dignes de la meilleure aviation d'affaires - se doit d'être un exemple de professionnalisme.", "\n\nDes photos sur Facebook\n\nOr, selon nos informations, c'est tout l'inverse qui se passe. ", "Petits chefs qui flirtent avec l'abus de pouvoir, dérapages alcoolisés, mépris des règles de sécurité... Les enfants gâtés de l'Etec ont, semble-t-il, perdu la boussole depuis pas mal d'années. ", "C'est ce que dénonce Laura, 29 ans, qui avait intégré ce groupe d'élite en 2008. ", "A l'automne dernier, cette hôtesse de l'air a été réformée pour « incapacité physique ».Quelques mois plus tôt, elle avait eu le courage d'alerter officiellement sa hiérarchie sur les comportements pour le moins inquiétants de certains de ses camarades. ", "Au premier rang desquels les problèmes d'alcool.", "\n\n« En mars 2010, par exemple, nous sommes allés à Pise, raconte Laura à Marianne. ", "Le soir, comme d'habitude, nous avons fait la fête. ", "Mais, le lendemain, alors que nous avions un ministre à bord, le pilote a été malade. ", "Je n'ai pas tout de suite compris quand on m'a demandé un sac vomitoire. ", "En fait, il avait trop bu la veille... » Il faut croire que l'incident n'était pas isolé : l'année suivante, dans un mail interne intitulé « RAPPELS » (que nous avons pu consulter), le capitaine Le Moal, l'un des plus hauts responsables de l'Etec, s'est senti obligé de sermonner ses troupes sur ce sujet. ", "Avec des mots qui laissent pantois... « Concernant les escales, je suis évidemment d'accord que chacun profite et s'amuse ! ", "Cependant cela ne signifie pas faire n'importe quoi... Par exemple : la consommation d'alcool sans aucune modération est inadmissible. ", "Je vous rappelle que notre mission peut nous rattraper à chaque instant, aussi il faudra que l'on m'explique comment un personnel de cabine ivre peut assumer ses fonctions ! »", "\n\nLe recadrage a-t-il eu l'effet escompté ? ", "Pas sûr. ", "Au gré de leurs pages Facebook, de nombreux membres d'équipage continuent de publier les photos de leurs virées arrosées lors des escales. ", "Dernier lieu de beuverie en date : Singapour, ville étape de François Hollande lors de sa tournée dans le Pacifique, en novembre 2014, pour le sommet du G20 à Brisbane (Australie). ", "A en juger par les mines pas très fraîches du personnel féminin, le réveil a dû être un tantinet difficile...\n\nD'après le rappel des « interdictions » en mission - un autre mail interne daté de mars 2012 dont nous avons obtenu copie -, les consignes sont pourtant claires : la consommation de « boissons présentant un taux d'alcool supérieur à 15 % » est formellement proscrite. ", "La tolérance pour les autres alcools ne vaut que si l'équipage a la « certitude que l'occurrence d'un départ dans les douze heures n'est pas possible ». « [", "A la] moindre suspicion ou possibilité de départ, le commandant de bord confirme l'interdiction totale de consommer de l'alcool ». ", "Impossible également de « sortir de l'avion avec des boissons alcoolisées. » ", "Sauf que, là aussi, il y a la théorie et la pratique... Laura rapporte l'existence d'un petit stratagème au sein des équipages : « Les bouteilles fermées étant comptées, le jeu consistait à en ouvrir un maximum pour les passagers puis à les récupérer à moitié pleines et les finir entre nous, à l'escale. ", "On les planquait dans nos valises personnelles ou dans les racks, ces caissons métalliques qui servent à transporter les plateaux-repas. » ", "Evidemment, pour la combine, il y a les bons et les mauvais clients : « Nicolas Sarkozy ne buvait pas une goutte d'alcool, du coup, son équipe ne demandait pas à boire non plus... Les pilotes n'étaient pas très contents. ", "Alors qu'avec Chirac... »\n\nLa hiérarchie militaire pensait avoir trouvé la parade en obligeant les équipages à remettre les bouteilles vides à la fin de chaque vol. ", "Quitte à ce que les hôtesses et les stewards jettent les restes de Ruinart et de Bollinger. ", "Mais là encore cette troupe d'élite a trouvé le moyen de contourner la règle : « Les pilotes nous ont demandé de transvaser le tout dans des bouteilles d'Evian... » détaille Laura. ", "Qui précise : « Ça pouvait aller d'une à 15 bouteilles, selon qu'on volait en Falcon ou en Airbus. ", "Mais ça, à l'Etec, c'est juste pour l'apéro. ", "Ensuite, les pilotes payent des tournées à qui veut. »", "\n\nComportements humiliants\n\nPlus grave encore, cette unité appartenant à l'armée a visiblement un problème récurrent avec le personnel féminin. ", "Une autre militaire - aujourd'hui réformée, comme Laura - évoque elle aussi son expérience douloureuse au sein de l'escadron VIP. ", "Arrivée à l'Etec à 22 ans, fière d'être devenue une « hôtesse présidentielle », Nathalie* a rapidement déchanté. ", "Elle raconte les vexations récurrentes de certains collègues, l'acharnement de ce sergent-chef qui la traitait sans cesse de « tire-au-flanc » et saisissait le moindre prétexte pour l'« humilier devant tout le monde ». « ", "Beaucoup appellent l'Etec \"le mini-Elysée\", nous confie Nathalie. ", "Ça monte facilement à la tête. ", "Il y a des pilotes qui se prennent pour des dieux. ", "Certains d'entre eux tombent vite dans le graveleux. » ", "Les montages de photos et les vidéos décrivant les pilotes en super-héros et les hôtesses en « belles idiotes » sont régulièrement postés sur les réseaux sociaux. ", "Un capitaine de l'Etec en a même fait sa spécialité. « ", "Bizz prod » et sa page Facebook du même nom font la joie des mâles de l'Etec (voir vidéo ci-dessous). ", "Moins de cette secrétaire qui s'est étonnée récemment de découvrir son visage collé sur le corps d'une pin-up..." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "OpenWebText2" }

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[ "Anal and Cervical High-Risk Human Papillomavirus Genotyping in Women With and Without Genital Neoplasia.", "\nThe aim of the study was to compare the prevalence, genotypes, and rates of concomitant anal and cervical high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) in women with and without a history of HPV-related genital neoplasia. ", "This was a prospective cohort study conducted from December 2012 to February 2014. ", "Women with a history of neoplasia were considered the high-risk group. ", "Women without a history of neoplasia were considered the low-risk group. ", "Cervical and anal cytology and HPV genotyping were performed. ", "All women with abnormal anal cytology were referred for anoscopy. ", "One hundred eighty-four women met inclusion criteria. ", "High-risk HPV was detected in the anal canal of 17.4% of the high-risk group and 1.5% of the low-risk group (p = .003). ", "High-risk HPV was detected in the cervix of 30.5% of the high-risk group and 7.6% of the low-risk group (p < .001). ", "Concomitant anal and cervical high-risk HPV was detected in 4.4% of the high-risk group and was not detected in the low-risk group (p = .2). ", "Among women with anal intraepithelial neoplasia 2 or greater (n = 5), 60% had HR-HPV detected in the anal canal while none had HR-HPV detected in the cervix. ", "Women with a history of genital neoplasia are more likely to be positive for anal and cervical HR-HPV compared with women without a history of genital neoplasia. ", "Although there was no significant difference in rates of concomitant HR-HPV between low- and high-risk groups, HR-HPV can be found concomitantly in the anus and the cervix and may be associated with anal intraepithelial neoplasia or carcinoma." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts" }

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[ "Jrista, \"+1\" on you starting a new thread with this. ", "Thanks for all the useful info!", "\n\nYou mention NR software like Topaz for debanding, but what software works best for the luminance noise reduction?", "\n\nI mentioned before, that I noticed the luminance noise via my cousin's 5D3, such as at ISO 4000, had a very hard pebble-like grain structure that gets recorded the size of maybe 5 or 6 pixels across. ", "The luminance slider in ACR CS5 had very little effect on it until it got above 80%, so more detail was sacrificed. ", "With my 50D's files, the luminance grain is much smaller in size relative to the pixels, so the luminance slider has a far greater effect in its lower range.", "\n\nI have practiced the art of optimizing a file in ACR before I ever even open it in Photoshop, but is it possible that this isn't always the best approach for noise reduction? ", "I still think it is, but I'm trying to be open minded and learn new things!", "\n\nI'd call Dawe's the brick wall, as anything less than that and you have two unresolved points of light.", "\n\nhttps://www.astronomics.com/Dawes-limit_t.aspx\"This “Dawes’ limit” (which he determined empirically simply by testing the resolving ability of many observers on white star pairs of equal magnitude 6 brightness) only applies to point sources of light (stars). ", "Smaller separations can be resolved in extended objects, such as the planets. ", "For example, Cassini’s Division in the rings of Saturn (0.5 arc seconds across), was discovered using a 2.5” telescope – which has a Dawes’ limit of 1.8 arc seconds!\"", "\n\nQuote\n\nThe problem with Rayleigh, at least in the context of spatial resolution in the photographic context...is that detail becomes nearly inseparably mired with noise. ", "At very low levels of contrast, even assuming you have extremely intelligent and effective deconvolution, detail at MTF 10 could never really be \"certain\"....is it detail...or is it noise?", "\n\nI guess you can never be \"certain\" at lower spatial frequencies either? ", "As long as we are dealing with PDFs, it is a matter of probability? ", "How wide is the tail of a Poisson distribution?", "\n\nI see no theoretical problem at MTF10 as long as the resulting SNR is sufficient (which it, of course, usually is not).", "\n\n-h\n\nWell, I am not necessarily talking about frequencies...just contrast (which would really be amplitude rather than frequency.) ", "It would be correct to assume that low MTF can affect amplitude regardless of frequency, however I think it has a more apparent impact at higher frequencies than lower.", "\n\nWell, I am not necessarily talking about frequencies...just contrast (which would really be amplitude rather than frequency.) ", "It would be correct to assume that low MTF can affect amplitude regardless of frequency, however I think it has a more apparent impact at higher frequencies than lower.", "\n\nContrast is meaningless as a metric - until you have both amplitude contrast AND frequency. ", "This is inherently implied in MTF, as it is defined as contrast over frequency.... Contrast is just a difference in brightness. ", "It doesn't become \"detail\" until the contrast is present at a high spatial frequency.", "\n\nIn practice (I've written and also quantified many Bayer interpolation schemes) you need at least MTF20 - a Michelson contrast of 0.2 - to get better than 50% pixel estimation accuracy when interpolating a raw image (based on Bayer of course).", "\n\nThose 0.2 in contrast does by physical necessity INCLUDE noise. ", "Even the best non-local schemes cannot accurately estimate a detail on pixel level when that detail has a contrast lower than approximately twice the average noise power of the pixel surrounds.", "\n\nThe only way to get past this is true oversampling, and that does not occur in normal cameras until you're at F16-F22. ", "In that case no interpolation estimation is needed - just pure interpolation. ", "At that point you can be certain that no detail in the projected image will be small enough to \"fall in between\" two pixels of the same color on the sensor.", "\n\nWell, I am not necessarily talking about frequencies...just contrast (which would really be amplitude rather than frequency.) ", "It would be correct to assume that low MTF can affect amplitude regardless of frequency, however I think it has a more apparent impact at higher frequencies than lower.", "\n\nContrast is meaningless as a metric - until you have both amplitude contrast AND frequency. ", "This is inherently implied in MTF, as it is defined as contrast over frequency.... Contrast is just a difference in brightness. ", "It doesn't become \"detail\" until the contrast is present at a high spatial frequency.", "\n\nIn practice (I've written and also quantified many Bayer interpolation schemes) you need at least MTF20 - a Michelson contrast of 0.2 - to get better than 50% pixel estimation accuracy when interpolating a raw image (based on Bayer of course).", "\n\nThose 0.2 in contrast does by physical necessity INCLUDE noise. ", "Even the best non-local schemes cannot accurately estimate a detail on pixel level when that detail has a contrast lower than approximately twice the average noise power of the pixel surrounds.", "\n\nThe only way to get past this is true oversampling, and that does not occur in normal cameras until you're at F16-F22. ", "In that case no interpolation estimation is needed - just pure interpolation. ", "At that point you can be certain that no detail in the projected image will be small enough to \"fall in between\" two pixels of the same color on the sensor.", "\n\nI don't think we are saying different things... I agree that having a certain minimum contrast is necessary for detail at high frequencies to be discernible as detail.", "\n\nI am not sure I completely follow...some of the grammar is confusing. ", "In an attempt to clarify for other readers, I think you are saying that because of the nature of a bayer type sensor, MTF at no less than 20% is necessary to demosaic detail from a bayer sensor's RAW data such that it could actually be perceived differently than noise in the rendered image. ", "Again...I don't disagree with that on principal, however with post-process sharpening, you CAN extract a lot of high frequency detail that is low in contrast. ", "The moon is a superb example of this, where detail most certainly exists at contrast levels below 20%, as low as Rayleigh, and possibly even lower.", "\n\nThe only time when it doesn't matter is at very narrow apertures, where the sensor is thoroughly outresolving the lens, and the finest resolved element of detail is larger than a pixel.", "\n\nWell, I am not necessarily talking about frequencies...just contrast (which would really be amplitude rather than frequency.) ", "It would be correct to assume that low MTF can affect amplitude regardless of frequency, however I think it has a more apparent impact at higher frequencies than lower.", "\n\nI am talking about something like this:\n\nIncreasing (spatial) frequency from left to right, increasing contrast from top to bottom. ", "As we are talking about light and imaging, I think that amplitude/phase are cumbersome properties.", "\n\nAnother way to put that would be Frequency (low to high) on the X axis, and Amplitude (high to low) on the Y axis. ", "Contrast is simply the amplitude of the frequency wave. ", "At the bottom, the amplitude is high, and constant across the whole length of the image, while frequency increases from left to right. ", "At the top, the amplitude is flat. ", "At the middle, the amplitude is about 50%, while again frequency increases from left to right.", "\n\n\"Spatial\" frequencies are exactly that...you don't have a waveform without frequency, amplitude, and phase. ", "Technically speaking, the image above is also modulated in both frequency and amplitude, with a phase shift of zero.", "\n\nIf you convolve this image with a sensible PSF, you will get blurring, affecting the high frequencies the most. ", "As convolution is a linear process, high-contrast and low-contrast parts will be affected equally. ", "Now, if you add noise to the image, the SNR will be more affected in low-contrast than in high-contrast areas.", "\n\nWith the image above, you could convolve it with a sensible PSF, and deconvolve it perfectly. ", "Noise, however, would actually affect both the low frequency parts of the image as well as the low contrast parts. ", "The high frequency high contrast parts are actually the most resilient against noise...everything else is susceptible (which is why noise at high ISO tends to show up much more in OOF backgrounds than in a detailed subject.)", "\n\nIf the \"ideal mathematical idea\" of this image is recorded as a finite number of Poisson-distributed photons, you get some uncertainty. ", "The uncertainty will be largest where there are a few photons representing a tiny feature, and smallest where there are many photons representing a smooth (large) feature. ", "My point was simply that the uncertainty is there for the entire image. ", "However unilkely, that image that seems to portray a Lion at the zoo _could_ really be of a soccer game, only shot noise altered it.", "\n\nAssuming an image affected solely by Poisson-distributed photons, then theoretically, yes. ", "However, the notion that an image of a soccer game might end up looking like a lion at the zoo would only really be probable at extremely low exposures. ", "SNR would have to be near zero, such that the Poisson distribution of photon strikes left the majority of the sensor untouched, leaving more guesswork and less structure in figuring out what the image is. ", "As the signal strength increases, the uncertainty shrinks, and the chances of a soccer game being misunderstood as a lion at the zoo diminishes to near-zero. ", "Within the first couple stops of an EV, the uncertainty drops well below 1, and assuming you fully expose the sensor (i.e. ETTR) to maximize SNR, uncertainty should be well below 0.1. ", "As uncertainty drops, the ease with which we can remove photon noise should increase.", "\n\nHowever...noise is a disjoint factor from MTF. ", "The two are not mutually exclusive, however they are distinct factors, and as such they can be affected independently with high precision deconvolution. ", "You can, for example, eliminate banding noise while barely touching the spatial frequencies of the image.", "\n\nAnother way to put that would be Frequency (low to high) on the X axis, and Amplitude (high to low) on the Y axis. ", "Contrast is simply the amplitude of the frequency wave..../cut/...\n\nNo. ", "Using the word \"amplitude\" as a straight replacement for the word \"contrast\" (red-marked text) - is actually very misleading.", "\n\nThe amplitude is not equal to contrast in optics, and especially not when you're talking about visual contrast. ", "Contrast, as normal people speak of it, is in most cases closely related to [amplitude divided by average level]. ", "And so are MTF figures - this is not a coincidence.", "\n\nAn amplitude of +/-10 is a relatively large contrast if the average level is 20-giving an absolute amplitude swing from 10 to 30 >> an MTF of 0.5But if the average level is 100, then swing is 90-110 >> MTF is only 0.1. ", "That's a very much lower contrast, and a lot harder to see or accurately reproduce.", "\n\nContrast is what we \"see\", not amplitude swing.", "\n\nAnd no, noise in general is not generally disjointed from MTF... Patterned noise is separable from image detail in an FFT, and you can eliminate most of it without disturbing underlying material. ", "Poisson noise or any other non-patterned noise on the other hand isn't separable, by any known algorithm. ", "And since the FFT of Poisson is basically a Gauss bell curve, you remove Poisson noise by applying a Gaussian blur... Any attempt to reconstruct the actual underlying material will be - at worst - a wild guess, and - at best - and educated guess. ", "The educated guess is still a guess, and the reliability of the result is highly dependent on non-local surrounds.", "\n\nThe Gaussian blur radius you need to apply to dampen non-patterned noise by a factor \"X\" is (again, not by coincidence!) ", "almost exactly the same as the amount of downwards shift in MTF that you get.", "\n\nAs noise suppression algorithms get smarter and smarter, the amount of correct guesses-estimates in a certain image with a certain noise amount present will continue to increase (correlation to reality will get better and better) - but they're still guesses. ", "But that's good enough for most commercial use. ", "What we're doing today in commercial post-processing regarding noise reduction is mostly adapting to psycho-visuals. ", "We find ways to make the viewer THINK that: -\"Ah... That looks good, that must be right\" - by finding what types of noise patterns that humans react strongly to, and then trying to avoid creating those patterns when blurring the image (all noise suppression is blurring!) ", "and making/estimating new sharp edges.", "\n\nAnother way to put that would be Frequency (low to high) on the X axis, and Amplitude (high to low) on the Y axis. ", "Contrast is simply the amplitude of the frequency wave..../cut/...\n\nNo. ", "Using the word \"amplitude\" as a straight replacement for the word \"contrast\" (red-marked text) - is actually very misleading.", "\n\nThe amplitude is not equal to contrast in optics, and especially not when you're talking about visual contrast. ", "Contrast, as normal people speak of it, is in most cases closely related to [amplitude divided by average level]. ", "And so are MTF figures - this is not a coincidence.", "\n\nAn amplitude of +/-10 is a relatively large contrast if the average level is 20-giving an absolute amplitude swing from 10 to 30 >> an MTF of 0.5But if the average level is 100, then swing is 90-110 >> MTF is only 0.1. ", "That's a very much lower contrast, and a lot harder to see or accurately reproduce.", "\n\nContrast is what we \"see\", not amplitude swing.", "\n\nAnd no, noise in general is not generally disjointed from MTF... Patterned noise is separable from image detail in an FFT, and you can eliminate most of it without disturbing underlying material. ", "Poisson noise or any other non-patterned noise on the other hand isn't separable, by any known algorithm. ", "And since the FFT of Poisson is basically a Gauss bell curve, you remove Poisson noise by applying a Gaussian blur... Any attempt to reconstruct the actual underlying material will be - at worst - a wild guess, and - at best - and educated guess. ", "The educated guess is still a guess, and the reliability of the result is highly dependent on non-local surrounds.", "\n\nThe Gaussian blur radius you need to apply to dampen non-patterned noise by a factor \"X\" is (again, not by coincidence!) ", "almost exactly the same as the amount of downwards shift in MTF that you get.", "\n\nAs noise suppression algorithms get smarter and smarter, the amount of correct guesses-estimates in a certain image with a certain noise amount present will continue to increase (correlation to reality will get better and better) - but they're still guesses. ", "But that's good enough for most commercial use. ", "What we're doing today in commercial post-processing regarding noise reduction is mostly adapting to psycho-visuals. ", "We find ways to make the viewer THINK that: -\"Ah... That looks good, that must be right\" - by finding what types of noise patterns that humans react strongly to, and then trying to avoid creating those patterns when blurring the image (all noise suppression is blurring!) ", "and making/estimating new sharp edges.", "\n\nWell, I can't speak directly to optics specifically.", "\n\nI was thinking more in the context of the image itself, as recorded by the sensor. ", "The image is a digital signal. ", "There is more than one way to \"think about\" an image, and in one sense any image can be logically decomposed into discrete waves. ", "Any row or column of pixels, block pixels, however you want to decompose it, could be treated as a Fourier series. ", "The whole image can even be projected into a three dimensional surface shaped by a composition of waves in the X and Y axes, with amplitude defining the Z axis.", "\n\nPerforming such a decomposition is very complex, I won't deny that. ", "Sure, a certain amount of guesswork is involved, and it is not perfect. ", "Some algorithms are blind, and use multiple passes to guess the right functions for deconvolution, choosing the one that produces the best result. ", "It is possible, however, to closely reproduce the inverse of the Poisson noise signal, apply it to the series, and largely eliminate that noise...with minimal impact to the rest of the image. ", "Banding noise can be removed the same way. ", "The process of doing so accurately is intense, and requires a considerable amount of computing power. ", "And since a certain amount of guesswork IS involved, it can't be done perfectly without affecting the rest of the image at all. ", "But it can be done fairly accurately with minimal blurring or other impact.", "\n\nAssuming the image is just a digital signal, which in turn is just a composition of discrete waveforms, opens up a lot of possibilities. ", "It would also mean that, assuming we generate a wave for just the bottom row of pixels in the sample image (the one without noise)...we have a modulated signal of high amplitude and decreasing frequency. ", "The \"contrast\" of each line pair in that wave is fundamentally determined by the amplitude of the wavelet. ", "The row half-way up the image would have half the amplitude...which leads to what we would perceive as less contrast.", "\n\nPerhaps it is incorrect to say that amplitude itself IS contrast, I guess I wouldn't dispute that. ", "A shrinking amplitude around the middle gray tone of the image as a whole does directly lead to less contrast as you move up from the bottom row of pixels to the top in that image. ", "Amplitude divided by average level sounds like a good way to describe it then, so again, I don't disagree. ", "I apologize for being misleading.", "\n\nI'd also offer that there is contrast on multiple levels. ", "There is the overall contrast of the image (or an area of the image), as well as \"microcontrast\". ", "If we use the noisy version of the image I created, the bottom row could not be represented as a single smoothly modulated wave. ", "It is the combination of the base waveform of increasing frequency, as well as a separate waveform that represents the noise. ", "The noise increases contrast on a per-pixel level, without hugely affecting the contrast of the image overall.", "\n\nPerhaps this is an incorrect way of thinking about real light passing through a real lens in analog form. ", "I know far less about optics. ", "I do believe Hjulenissen was talking about algorithms processing a digital image on a computer, in which case discussing spatial frequencies of a digital signal seemed more appropriate. ", "And in that context, a white/black line pair's contrast is directly affected by amplitude (again, sorry for the misleading notion that amplitude IS contrast...I agree that is incorrect.)", "\n\nPerhaps this is an incorrect way of thinking about real light passing through a real lens in analog form. ", "I know far less about optics. ", "I do believe Hjulenissen was talking about algorithms processing a digital image on a computer, in which case discussing spatial frequencies of a digital signal seemed more appropriate. ", "And in that context, a white/black line pair's contrast is directly affected by amplitude (again, sorry for the misleading notion that amplitude IS contrast...I agree that is incorrect.)", "\n\n\"Light\" is an electro-magnetic wave, or can at least be treated as one. ", "Radio is also based on electro-magnetic waves. ", "In radio, you have coherent transmitters and receivers, and properties of the waveform (amplitude, phase, frequency) can contain information, or be used to improve directional behaviour etc. ", "In regular imaging applications, we tend to treat light in a somewhat different way. ", "The sun (and all other illuminators except LASERs) are incoherent. ", "Imaging sensors dont record the light \"waveform\" at a given spatial/temporal region, but rather records intensity within a frequency band. ", "This treats light in a slightly more statistical manner, just like static noise on a radio. ", "What is the frequency of filtered white noise? ", "What is its phase? ", "Amplitude? ", "Such terms does not make sense, but its Spectral Power Density, its Variance does make sense.", "\n\nWell, I understand the nature of light, its wave particle duality, all of that. ", "I am just not an optical engineer, so I am not sure if there is any knowledge in that field that would give a different understanding to exactly what happens to light in the context of optical imaging. ", "That said, you are thinking about light as a particle. ", "I am actually not thinking about light at all...but rather the spatial frequencies of an image, or in the context of a RAW image on a computer (well past the point where physical light is involved), a digital signal.", "\n\nI'm not sure if I can describe it such that you'll understand or not...but think of each pixel as a sample of a wave. ", "Relative to its neighboring pixels, it is either lighter, darker or the same tone. ", "If we have a black pixel next to a white pixel, the black pixel is the trough of a \"wave\", and the white pixel is the crest. ", "If we have a white-black-white-black, we have two full \"wavelengths\" next to each other. ", "The amplitude of a spatial wave is the difference between the average tone and its trough or crest. ", "In the case of our white-black-white-black example, the average tone is middle gray, Spatial frequencies exist in two dimensions, along both the X and the Y axis. ", "I'll see if I can find a way to plot one of the pixel rows as a wave.", "\n\nIn the image file that I attached, once printed and illuminated using a light bulb (or the sun), it is the intensity that is modulated (possibly through some nonlinear transform in the printer driver). ", "The amount of black ink varies, and this means that more photons will be absorbed in \"black\" regions than in \"white\". ", "The amplitude and phase properties of the resultant light is of little relevance. ", "The frequency properties are also of little relevance as the image (and hopefully the illuminant) should be flat spectrum. ", "If you point your camera to such a print, it will record the number of photons (again, intensity).", "\n\nWhen it comes to the modulation of the intensity in the figure, this was probably done by a sinoid of sweeping frequency (left-right) and amplitude (up-down). ", "The phase of the modulation does not matter much, as we are primarily interested in how the imaging system under test reduce the modulation at different spatial frequencies, and (more difficult) if this behaviour is signal-level dependent (like USM sharpening would be). ", "If you change the phas of the modulation by 180 degrees, you would still be able to learn the same about the lense/sensor/... used to record the test image.", "\n\nSo, again, all that is thinking about light directly as a waveform or particle. ", "That is entirely valid, however there are other ways of thinking about the image produced by the lens. ", "The image itself is comprised of frequencies based on the intensity of a pixel. ", "A grayscale image is much easier to demonstrate with than a color image, so I'll use that to demonstrate:\n\nThe image above models the bottom row of pixels from your image as a spatial frequency. ", "I've stretched that single row of pixels to be 10 pixels tall, simply so it can be seen better. ", "I've plotted the spatial waveform below. ", "The concept is abstract...it is not a physical property of light. ", "It is simply a way of modeling the oscillations inherent to the pixels of an image based on their level. ", "This is a very simplistic example...we have the luxury of an even-toned middle gray as our \"zero energy\" level. ", "Assuming the image is an 8-bit image, we have 256 levels. ", "Levels 0-127 are negative power, levels 128-255 are positive power. ", "The intensity of each pixel in the image oscillates between levels 0 and 255, thus producing a wave...with frequency and amplitude. ", "Phase exists too...if we shift the whole image to the left or right, and appropriately fill in the pixels to the opposite side, we have all of the properties that represent a wave.", "\n\nNoise can be modeled the same way...only as a different wave with different characteristics. ", "The noise channel from the full sized image below is shown at the bottom of the wave model above (although it is not modeled itself...can't really do it well in photoshop.) ", "Thought of as a Fourier series, the noise wave and the image wave are composible and decomposible facets of the image.", "\n\nCanon WANTS diffraction to be a limiting factor so that they can remove the AA filter.", "\n\nIf the AA filter is an expensive/complex component, increasing the sensel density until diffraction takes care of prefiltering is definitely one possible approach.", "\n\nQuote\n\nWhat 24MP does is it allows the whole system to be sharper due to a weaker AA filter. ", "Diffraction is the best AA filter on earth, current ones degrade the image by 20% which is a lot.", "\n\nDiffraction is dependant on aperture, and not a constant function. ", "In practice, one never have perfect focus (and most of us dont shoot flat brick-walls), so defocus affects the PSF. ", "Lenses and motion further extent the effective PSF. ", "The AA filter is one more component. ", "I have seen compelling arguments that the total PSF might as well be modelled as a Gaussian, du to the many contributors that change with all kinds of parameters.", "\n\nClaiming that the AA filter degrade \"image quality\" (?) ", "by 20% is nonsense. ", "Practical comparisions of the Nikon D800 vs D800E suggests that under some, ideal conditions, the difference in detail is practically none, once both are optimally sharpened. ", "In other conditions (high noise), you may not be able to sharpen the D800 to the point where it offers details comparable to the D800E. Manufacturers dont include AA filters because they _like_ throwing in more component, but because when the total, effective PSF is too small compared to pixel pitch, you can have annoying aliasing that tends to look worse and is harder to remove than slight blurring.", "\n\n-h\n\nYou can't compare an unsharpened D800E image to a sharpened D800 image, that's not how information processing works.", "\n\nThe AA filter destroys incoming information from the lens, irreversibly. ", "Sharpening can trick MTF tests into scoring higher numbers, but that is besides the point.", "\n\nYes diffraction changes with aperture but if you always shoot below f/5.6 you can ditch the AA filter without consequence, and those images shot below f/5.6 would be sharper than those taken with the same camera with an AA filter.", "\n\nCanon WANTS diffraction to be a limiting factor so that they can remove the AA filter.", "\n\nIf you look at a sharp lens at f11 like a super telephoto and a soft lens at f/11 the sharp lens looks sharper despite being at the diffraction limit.", "\n\nWhat 24MP does is it allows the whole system to be sharper due to a weaker AA filter. ", "Diffraction is the best AA filter on earth, current ones degrade the image by 20% which is a lot.", "\n\nWhere do you get that 20% figure? ", "I can't say I've experienced that with anything other than the 100-400 @ 400mm f/5.6...however in that case, I presume the issue is the lens, not the AA filter...\n\nMTF tests of the D800 and D800E back to back\n\nDo you have a link? ", "Because 20% is insane, and I don't believe that figure. ", "The most sharply focused images would look completely blurry if an AA filter imposed a 20% cost on IQ...it just isn't possible.", "\n\nCanon WANTS diffraction to be a limiting factor so that they can remove the AA filter.", "\n\nIf the AA filter is an expensive/complex component, increasing the sensel density until diffraction takes care of prefiltering is definitely one possible approach.", "\n\nQuote\n\nWhat 24MP does is it allows the whole system to be sharper due to a weaker AA filter. ", "Diffraction is the best AA filter on earth, current ones degrade the image by 20% which is a lot.", "\n\nDiffraction is dependant on aperture, and not a constant function. ", "In practice, one never have perfect focus (and most of us dont shoot flat brick-walls), so defocus affects the PSF. ", "Lenses and motion further extent the effective PSF. ", "The AA filter is one more component. ", "I have seen compelling arguments that the total PSF might as well be modelled as a Gaussian, du to the many contributors that change with all kinds of parameters.", "\n\nClaiming that the AA filter degrade \"image quality\" (?) ", "by 20% is nonsense. ", "Practical comparisions of the Nikon D800 vs D800E suggests that under some, ideal conditions, the difference in detail is practically none, once both are optimally sharpened. ", "In other conditions (high noise), you may not be able to sharpen the D800 to the point where it offers details comparable to the D800E. Manufacturers dont include AA filters because they _like_ throwing in more component, but because when the total, effective PSF is too small compared to pixel pitch, you can have annoying aliasing that tends to look worse and is harder to remove than slight blurring.", "\n\n-h\n\nYou can't compare an unsharpened D800E image to a sharpened D800 image, that's not how information processing works.", "\n\nThe AA filter destroys incoming information from the lens, irreversibly. ", "Sharpening can trick MTF tests into scoring higher numbers, but that is besides the point.", "\n\nNo, it is not irreversible. ", "The D800E is the perfect example of the fact that it is indeed REVERSIBLE. ", "The AA filter is a convolution filter for certain frequencies. ", "Convolution can be reversed with deconvolution. ", "So long as you know the exact function of the AA filter, you can apply an inverse and restore the information. ", "The D800E does exactly that...the first layer of the AA filter blurs high frequencies at Nyquist by a certain amount, and the second layer does the inverse to unblur those frequencies, restoring them to their original state.", "\n\njrista:My gripe was with your claims that seemingly everything can and should be described using Amplitude, phase and frequency.", "\n\nA stochastic process (noise) have characteristics that vary from time to time and from realisation to realisation. ", "This means that talking about the amplitude of noise tends to be counterproductive. ", "What does not change (at least in stationary processes) is the statistic parameters: variance. ", "Or PSD. ", "etc.", "\n\nWhat you want to learn from the response to a swept-frequency/amplitude sinoid is probably the depth of the modulation. ", "Sure the sine has got a phase, but if it cannot tell us anything, why should we bother? ", "If you do believe that it tells us anything, please tell me instead of explaining once more what a sine-wave is or how to Fourier-transform anything.", "\n\n-h\n\nNot \"should\", but \"can\". ", "I am not sure I can explain anymore, as I think your latching on to meaningless points. ", "I don't know your background, so if I'm explaining things you already know, apologies.", "\n\nThe point isn't about amplitude, simply that noise can be described as a set of frequencies in a Fourier series. ", "Eliminate the wavelets that most closely represent noise (not exactly an easy thing to do without affecting the rest of the image, but not impossible either), and you leave behind only the wavelets that represent the image.", "\n\nDescribing an image as a discrete set of points of light, which disperse with known point spread functions, is another way to describe an image. ", "In that context, you can apply other transformations to sharpen, deblur, etc.", "\n\nThe point was not to state that images should only ever be described as a Fourier series. ", "Simply that they \"can\". ", "Just as they \"can\" be described in terms of PSF and PSD.", "\n\nThis really sums up my point...simply that an image can be processed in different contexts via different modeling to remove noise while preserving image data. ", "I am not trying to say that modeling an image signal as a Fourier series is better or the only way, and that assuming it is a discrete set of point light sources described by a PSF is invalid. ", "They are both valid." ]

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[ "Fools rush in where angels fear to tread\n\nI know I enter dangerous territory when my wife, Carol, tells me not to write on a particular topic. ", "So, it is today as I let my opinion be known about the current healthcare debate. ", "You see, her advice is really sound. ", "The country is about equally divided on this topic and my giving my two cents worth will only irritate one segment of my reader base, if not a large majority. ", "But I have been observing this healthcare debate debacle now for eight years and I can no longer keep quiet.", "\n\nBefore I get started, those of you who read my commercial real estate commentary on a regular basis and expect me to somehow tie my thoughts on healthcare back to commercial real estate are going to be sorely disappointed. ", "So, if you expect that to happen, now is the time to stop reading this article. ", "Yes, you have my permission. ", "STOP READING NOW. ", "For the rest of you, I hope my thoughts can help crystallize your thinking on this very important subject.", "\n\nMy thoughts on healthcare\n\nIs healthcare a fundamental right?", "\n\nThere are some who believe that healthcare is a fundamental right. ", "I respectfully disagree. ", "Our rights as U.S. citizens come from our Constitution and the Bill of Rights. ", "Nowhere in the U.S. Constitution or Bill of Rights does it state that healthcare is a right. ", "Now some will say that the clause “promote the general welfare” found in the U.S. Constitution implies that healthcare would fall under this purview. ", "You can’t convince me that the founding fathers were thinking at all about healthcare when they wrote this clause into our Constitution. ", "Ain’t going to happen.", "\n\nA moral obligation, not a fundamental right\n\nI do believe as the richest nation on earth and a nation that believes in Abraham Lincoln’s view of “malice toward none and charity for all” that we have a moral obligation to help our fellow man with the absolute basics of life and that includes healthcare. ", "There needs to be a healthcare “safety net” that provides a minimum standard for all our citizens regardless of wealth.", "\n\nThe difference between a fundamental right and a moral obligation\n\nIn my view healthcare is not a fundamental right; rather it is a moral obligation. ", "This is an important distinction. ", "If you believe it is a right then everyone should have equal access to all medical procedures regardless of cost. ", "If you believe it is a moral obligation then those who can afford to pay for top notch healthcare should be allowed to do so and those who cannot should be thankful that the government is covering the basics.", "\n\nI was against Obamacare\n\nEight years ago, I was against Obamacare. ", "Not the concept, but how it came to be. ", "When the Democrats controlled the House, the Senate and the White House they forced their will on the American people and passed the Affordable Care Act. ", "Some will say that the Republicans were the ones who were uncooperative. ", "And that was likely true. ", "The point I’m trying to make is this: No political party should pass comprehensive legislation of this magnitude by forcing it down the throats of the minority party. ", "If the majority party cannot get bipartisan support for their legislation they should wait until they can.", "\n\nI’m against repeal and replace\n\nLikewise, I am against the repealing and replacing of Obamacare by President Trump and the Republicans in the Senate and the House for the exact same reason. ", "I repeat, no political party should pass comprehensive legislation of this magnitude by forcing it down the throats of the minority party. ", "If the majority party cannot get bipartisan support for their legislation they should wait until they can.", "\n\nCrafting legislation requires compromise\n\nNeither political party has a monopoly on good ideas. ", "Both parties, if they worked together and learned to compromise, could come up with a healthcare bill that would be far superior to what we currently have. ", "But for that to happen, there needs to be less finger pointing and demonizing of our political opponents, and more humility and conciliatory reaching out to the other side. ", "The real question is this: Are there enough adults in the House and the Senate that can swallow their pride and for the good of the American people pass bipartisan healthcare legislation?", "\n\nIncremental legislation is the best approach\n\nOver the years I’ve come to the conclusion that Congress is not particularly good at passing comprehensive legislation. ", "This is not their strength. ", "But they are good at passing incremental legislation. ", "By that I mean, it becomes readily apparent that there is a flaw in a piece of legislation they passed previously. ", "A congressperson realizes their legislation is not working as intended and promotes a new piece of legislation that fixes the problem. ", "That is an example of incremental legislation. ", "And this is how they should fix Obamacare. ", "Quit attempting to pass a comprehensive bill to replace Obamacare. ", "Let’s face it. ", "Your track record of passing well written comprehensive legislation is not particularly good. ", "Instead fix some of its broken parts. ", "To begin, I suggest the following incremental changes:\n\nAllow the federal government to negotiate lower drug prices for Medicaid and Medicare. ", "Right now, they aren’t allowed to negotiate. ", "How silly is that? ", "A 15 percent reduction in drug costs would produce a $600 billion savings in healthcare costs over 10 years (Democrat party idea).", "\n\nTort reform should be considered. ", "The abuse of malpractice suits results in hospitals over-treating and over-testing. ", "If tort reform shaved just two percent off of health-care costs, that would yield about $800 billion over a decade (Republican party idea).", "\n\nRepeal the individual mandate forcing everyone to either get insurance or pay a penalty. ", "Instead treat everyone as adults and give everyone this option: Your pre-existing conditions are covered as long as you have insurance. ", "If you decide not to have insurance that’s your decision. ", "But if you then get cancer, etc. ", "prior to getting coverage the cost is on you. ", "No longer can you wait to get insurance until after you need it (my idea).", "\n\nWhat are your thoughts?", "\n\nThese are three common sense proposals that would help improve healthcare and significantly reduce costs. ", "These are just the beginning. ", "There are many, many more good ideas that should be debated and passed in a bi-partisan way. ", "There you have my thinking on healthcare. ", "Now it’s your turn. ", "How would you make it better if you could waive a magic wand?", "\n\nA veteran commercial real estate professional of 30 years, 22 of which are related to commercial real estate finance, Doug Marshall is enjoying the opportunity to control his own destiny with this company. ", "Doug’s higher education began at the University of Idaho. ", "He earned his MBA and his webbed feet at the University of Oregon. ", "In 1998 he received a CCIM designation, which many consider to be the PhD of commercial real estate. ", "Doug has been married to Carol for 36 years. ", "They have raised two responsible and self-supporting children. ", "Doug enjoys reading, writing, golfing, and time in the hammock. ", "Follow Doug on Twitter DMarshallCCIM, or visit the Marshall Commercial Funding website.", "\n\nDNA of #CRE Survey\n\nIt is with bubbling excitement and fanfare that we are thrilled to announce the 4th anniversary (OMG 4 years have gone by!) ", "of the amazing collaboration between Buildout and theBrokerList to produce the 2018 #DNAofCRE Survey. ", "Remember, we are saying 2018 because we are asking you to download your brain and tell us what you did last year!", "\n\n485 Respondents for DNA of #CRE Survey! ", "Yes, you heard right, almost 500 commercial real estate professionals contributed to the 2017 DNA of #CRE Survey this year! ", "That is an increase of 60% over last year! ", "This year was so special because we had so much enthusiasm as a result of this being our 3rd year. […]", "\n\nJust an Idea The idea of the DNA of #CRE survey began as a collaboration between Buildout and theBrokerList teams. ", "We all wanted to know more about the people who make up the commercial real estate brokerage industry because it has been such a hard to understand facet of real estate. ", "Generally people think of […]\n\nYes, it is true, we completed the first, official tabulation of the 2015 DNA of #CRE Survey! ", "Please review and digest this historic attempt to obtain the actual DNA of the commercial real estate brokerage industry. ", "Huge thanks to the team at Buildout for the amazing collaboration. ", "It was our first one, so we are […]" ]

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[ "The World Cup’s Best Dressed Players Off the Field\n\nDon’t get us wrong—we love a man in uniform, and the scorching hot players in the 2014 World Cup are not exception. ", "But off the field, it’s another ball game entirely.", "\n\nFortunately for us, there are some seriously stylish footballers that know when to trade in the jersey for more appropriate digs. ", "Whether it’s with the help of a stylist, a WAG or of their own fashion-forward devices, there are several standouts when it comes to killer off-field style.", "\n\nSpoiler alert: Cristiano Ronaldo looks ah-mazing in a suit. ", "Or a jersey. ", "Or nothing.", "\n\nBut don’t think he’s the best dressed of them all just yet, because Shakira‘s man Gerard Piqué looks like he’s hot off the runway. ", "And then there’s Brazil’s golden boy Neymar da Silva, who looks pretty snazzy in his red carpet best.", "\n\nNow what are you waiting for? ", "See if your fave World Cup player made our best dressed list!" ]

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[ "Advantages\n\nDisadvantages\n\nRecommended if you like that sort of style\n\nAs one of those people who had a really old, proper wood coffee tables (it became a sanding experiment gone bad!), ", "I didn't fancy going for a completely modern glass type one. ", "I first came across the Nexus range at the sale in Macdonald's furniture (the Glasgow branch don't sell this range anymore), and decided to go for the coffee table and the lamp table in light oak. ", "The range is also available in chestnut. ", "I think the oak looks better in small spaces as it's a lighter colour - the (smokey coloured) glass panel in the middle also helps to give the feeling of space in a room. ", "In my opinion, the table is stylish yet not in a way that will make it ever look outdated.", "\n\nIt is a rectangular shape measuring H41cm x W129cm x D62cm and has stylish slotted joints and a smoky glass insert and was apparently designed by a British designer. ", "It is constructed from mostly oak veneer and some solid oak. ", "The height is about the same as the seat height of my sofas, and the corners of the table are slightly rounded. ", "The legs are not solid; imagine a block of wood with an L shape cut along the length - this is what the legs are shaped like.", "\n\nIt's easy enough to push around a carpeted room and there's plenty of space on it. ", "I've had it for over a year and it still looks as good as new; any tea ring marks have come off with a damp cloth - the glass hasn't been damaged at all either, though I do use coasters and occasionally put a runner over the glass! ", "The only thing I can say about this table that's not positive is that it's painful if you stub your toe on it (as I often do!). ", "Also, it can be annoying sometimes not to be able to place a tray anywhere near the outer edges of the table because of the raised wooden parts on the surface of the table, which means that if you're going to put a few things on it, you have to be careful not to place them over these - I do wish the table had a completely flat surface.", "\n\nThankfully, when I bought it, it was a ready assembled display model, so it didn't need to be put together, but I imagine it wouldn't be too difficult.", "There are a few places on the internet that sell this, including on ebay - the cheapest seems to be around £105." ]

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[ "Jūžintai\n\nJūžintai () is a small town in Panevėžys County, in northeastern Lithuania. ", "According to the 2011 census, the town has a population of 412 people.", "\n\nReferences\n\nCategory:Towns in Lithuania\nCategory:Towns in Panevėžys County\nCategory:Novoalexandrovsky Uyezd" ]

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[ "We agree\n\n\n\n\n\n\"Eileen Ponton\" <kponton@duke-energy.com> on 03/19/2001 09:30:05 AM\n\nTo: David Avila/LSP/ENSERCH/US@TU, Charlie Stone/Texas Utilities@TU, Melissa\n Jones/Texas Utilities@TU, HPL.SCHEDULING@ENRON.COM, \nLIZ.BELLAMY@ENRON.COM\ncc:\nSubject: NOMS / ACTUAL FLOW FOR 03/16 thru 3/18\n\n\n\n\nDATE NOM FLOW - MCF FLOW - MMBTU\n3/16 32,500 35,363 36,318\n\n3/17 60,000 59,706 61,318\n\n3/18 60,000 59,989 61,609\n\nBTU = 1.027" ]

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[ "Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) encompasses both Crohn disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), chronic relapsing disorders of unknown etiology. ", "The incidence of IBD in foreign nations varies by region. ", "The highest annual incidence of UC per 100,000 individuals was 24.3 in Europe, 6.3 in Asia and the Middle East, and 19.2 in North America. ", "The highest annual incidence of CD per 100,000 individuals was 12.7 in Europe, 5.0 in Asia and the Middle East, and 20.2 in North America ([@R17]).", "\n\nThe incidence rate of CD in Korea in 1986 and 2008 sharply increased from 0.05 to 5.1 per 100,000 people, and UC from 0.34 to 5.4 ([@R22]; [@R26]). ", "It has been postulated that this phenomenon may be related to the Westernization of lifestyles, including changes in dietary habits and environmental changes ([@R24]).", "\n\nWith onset in early adult life, IBD is a chronic illness that, when active, presents with symptoms including abdominal pain, gastrointestinal bleeding, diarrhea, and weight loss. ", "These often unpredictable symptoms can have a severe effect on the social, emotional, and physical well-being of patients ([@R14]).", "\n\nInflammatory bowel disease is a disease characterized by the alternating periods of remission and relapse of active symptomatic disease from the moment of diagnosis for the rest of life, and patients should learn how to cope with the problems arising from the disease. ", "However, because of lower incidence rates and prevalence in Asian countries, such as Korea and China, compared with Western countries, there is a lack of social support and resources to help patients with IBD, and systematic self-management-related educational materials or programs have yet to be developed sufficiently.", "\n\nDisease-specific information is increasingly being recognized as important for patients as it improves compliance with therapy and satisfaction with their overall care ([@R16]; [@R25]). ", "As can thus be expected, patients with a perceived lack of disease-related information have poorer health-related quality of life than their peers, manifested by higher frequency of disease-related worries and concerns in this group ([@R19]). ", "Previous studies have shown that patients who receive information related to their disease are less anxious, more compliant, and more satisfied with their treatment and have a reduced number of physician visits and lower patient cost ([@R16]; [@R25]). ", "Appropriate knowledge and information enable the effective coping of patients before they visit doctors ([@R6]).", "\n\nIn advanced Western nations, some studies have been performed on the knowledge and education demands related to IBD disease. ", "But, with respect to these topics, there were no similar reports for Korean patients with IBD even though the incidence of IBD has rapidly increased in Korea.", "\n\nThe purpose of this study was, first, to determine the difference in disease-related knowledge and information needs according to the general characteristics of IBD patients, and second, to compare the difference in knowledge and information needs of CD and UC patients.", "\n\nMethods\n=======\n\nDesign and Sample\n-----------------\n\nWe carried out a cross-sectional survey to identify disease-related knowledge and information needs of IBD patients. ", "This study was approved by the Asan Medical Center\\'s institutional review board. ", "Participants were recruited from an outpatient gastroenterology clinic of Asan Medical Center, a tertiary care hospital, in Seoul, Republic of Korea, from September 2011 to January 2012. ", "Patients provided informed consent and were asked to fill out a self-assessed questionnaire after their gastroenterology visit. ", "For all patients diagnosed with either CD or UC, their diagnosis had been confirmed by endoscopy, radiography, and/or histologic examination. ", "The exclusion criteria were age less than 18 years, lack of cooperation, and diagnosed psychiatric illness.", "\n\nMeasures\n--------\n\n### Demographic Characteristics\n\nDemographic information included gender, age, education, and occupation, and disease-related data through questions about the disease including disease type (CD and UC), IBD duration, previous history of operations, subjective health status related to the symptoms, and experience of education about IBD.", "\n\n### Crohn\\'s and Colitis Knowledge\n\nThe 24-item Crohn\\'s and Colitis Knowledge (CCKNOW) score ([@R8]), used with permission of its developer, was translated into Korean. ", "The source text was translated by two nursing professors who were fluent in both Korean and English, and back-translated by an English professor. ", "The final translation was completed by comparison of the back-translated text and the source text to check for meaning alterations.", "\n\nWe chose this questionnaire because it examines knowledge from multiple aspects, and because of its reliability and validity in assessing disease-related knowledge of IBD patients. ", "Also, it assesses different areas of knowledge and detects the area of knowledge deficit. ", "The questionnaire assesses four areas of knowledge regarding IBD management, these being general IBD knowledge (11 questions), diet (2 questions), treatment (5 questions), and IBD complications (6 questions). ", "Scoring for CCKNOW is one point for each correct answer, and the maximum possible score is 24. ", "Higher CCKNOW scores indicate better IBD-related knowledge. ", "Cronbach\\'s alpha coefficient for the CCKNOW score was found to be .85.", "\n\n### Information Needs\n\nAn information needs questionnaire was crafted through literature review of the information needs of IBD patients. ", "The questionnaire included the facilitation of secure Web messaging between patients and clinicians via anonymized frequently asked questions in the homepage of the research hospital. ", "The questionnaire include 44 items assessing eight areas of information, including general information of the disease (six questions), medication (nine questions), diagnosis/operations (eight questions), diet (five questions), daily life (eight questions), and pregnancy (eight questions). ", "The questionnaire asked the subjects to rate the eight areas of information on a 5-point Likert scale to measure how much information the patients felt they wanted to know about each of these areas. ", "The questionnaire was verified for content and construct validity by five experts (a gastroenterologist, two nursing professors, two specialized gastroenterology nurses, and one IBD patient with a master\\'s degree). ", "After a pilot questionnaire was performed to test for ambiguity and ease of completion, the questionnaire was modified and supplemented. ", "Cronbach\\'s alpha coefficient for the scale was acceptable at .94.", "\n\nData Analysis\n-------------\n\nThe mean CCKNOW scores and information needs scores were calculated for independent or related groups as appropriate. ", "The difference in knowledge and information needs was compared using the *t* test and ANOVA. ", "Duncan\\'s multiple test was used to compare the CCKNOW scores and the patients\\' age, IBD duration, and subjective health status related to symptoms. ", "The four areas of knowledge were separately analyzed and expressed in percentages for all patients. ", "All statistical analyses were performed using SAS 9.0 (SAS Inc., Cary, NC).", "\n\nResults\n=======\n\nGeneral Characteristics of the Subjects\n---------------------------------------\n\nApproximately 54% of all the 313 subjects had CD and 46% had UC. ", "About 59.4% were male, 69.0% were below age 40 years, 65.5% were university graduates and above, and 60.1% had jobs. ", "In addition, 60.1% had a previous history of IBD-related operations, and 62.3% had disease duration of 6 years and more. ", "About 22.4% responded \"little\" or \"not at all\" to the question on subjective health status related to IBD symptoms, and 48.2% had experience of education about IBD.", "\n\nDisease-Related Knowledge and Information Needs According to General Characteristics\n------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nThe mean score of the subjects\\' degree of knowledge was 9.5 out of 24; the mean score of the CD patients was 10.0, which was higher than that of the UC patients (8.8). ", "The degree of knowledge of the subjects aged 50 years and older was lower than that of the subjects below the age of 50 years; it was also lower in high-school graduates than in university graduates, and lower in subjects with duration less than 1 year than in those with duration 6 years and more. ", "The subjects who responded \"not at all\" or \"very much\" to the question on subjective health status related to IBD symptoms had a lower degree of knowledge than those who responded \"little,\" and those who had no experience of education about IBD had a lower degree of knowledge than those who did have experience.", "\n\nThe mean score of the subjects\\' information needs was 194.5 out of 220, and the score of the information demands of the CD patients was 197.1, which was higher than that of the UC patients (190.7). ", "The degree of information needs was higher in females than in males, in younger patients than in older patients, and in university graduates than in high school graduates (Table [1](#T1){ref-type=\"table\"}).", "\n\n###### Knowledge and Information Needs by General Characteristics (*N* = 313)\n\n Knowledge Information Needs \n --------------------------------------------- ------------ --------------------------------------------- ------------------- ----------------------------------------------- ----------\n Disease \n  Crohn disease 169 (54.0) 10.0 ± 4.7 2.30 197.1 ± 19.5 2.54\n  Ulcerative colitis 144 (46.0) 8.8 ± 4.8 (.022) 190.7 ± 22.2 (.012)\n Gender \n  Male 186 (59.4) 9.1 ± 4.9 −1.77 192.2 ± 20.3 −2.06\n  Female 127 (40.6) 10.0 ± 4.4 (.078) 197.4 ± 21.4 (.040)\n Age (years) \n  18--29 115 (36.7) 9.5 ± 4.6[a](#tbl1-1){ref-type=\"table-fn\"} 3.10 200.3 ± 16.1[a](#tbl1-1){ref-type=\"table-fn\"} 10.18\n  30--39 101 (32.3) 10.2 ± 4.4[a](#tbl1-1){ref-type=\"table-fn\"} (.027) 194.4 ± 20.3 (\\<.001)\n  40--49 64 (20.5) 9.3 ± 5.4[a](#tbl1-1){ref-type=\"table-fn\"} a\\>b 188.2 ± 22.5[b](#tbl1-1){ref-type=\"table-fn\"} a\\>b\\>c\n  ≥50 33 (10.5) 7.3 ± 4.4[b](#tbl1-1){ref-type=\"table-fn\"} 177.4 ± 28.4[c](#tbl1-1){ref-type=\"table-fn\"} \n Education \n  High school 108 (34.5) 8.1 ± 4.6 −3.63 189.6 ± 25.8 −2.74\n  ≥University education 205 (65.5) 10.2 ± 4.7 (\\<.001) 196.8 ± 17.4 (.007)\n Occupation \n  Yes 188 (60.1) 9.6 ± 4.8 0.54 194.3 ± 19.9 −0.07\n  No 125 (39.9) 9.3 ± 4.8 (.589) 194.5 ± 22.3 (.943)\n Operation \n  Yes 188 (60.1) 9.8 ± 4.6 −1.46 195.0 ± 20.7 −0.60\n  No 125 (39.9) 9.0 ± 5.0 (.144) 193.5 ± 21.2 (.550)\n Disease duration (years) \n  \\<1 35 (11.2) 7.3 ± 3.8[a](#tbl1-1){ref-type=\"table-fn\"} 4.22 192.5 ± 21.1 0.76\n  1--5 83 (26.5) 8.8 ± 4.3 (.006) 193.6 ± 24.3 (.517)\n  6--10 110 (35.1) 9.9 ± 5.1[b](#tbl1-1){ref-type=\"table-fn\"} a\\<b 196.9 ± 20.2 \n  \\>10 85 (27.2) 10.3 ± 4.8[b](#tbl1-1){ref-type=\"table-fn\"} 192.6 ± 17.6 \n Subjective health status related to symptom \n  Not at all 28 (9.0) 8.3 ± 4.7[a](#tbl1-1){ref-type=\"table-fn\"} 2.44 195.8 ± 19.7 0.88\n  Little 42 (13.4) 10.7 ± 4.5[b](#tbl1-1){ref-type=\"table-fn\"} (.047) 196.8 ± 19.1 (.475)\n  Somehow 141 (45.1) 9.9 ± 4.5 a\\<b 192.6 ± 23.6 \n  Much 69 (22.0) 8.8 ± 5.0 197.2 ± 16.6 \n  Very much 33 (10.5) 8.2 ± 5.3[a](#tbl1-1){ref-type=\"table-fn\"} 190.1 ± 19.9 \n Experiences of education about IBD \n  Yes 151 (48.2) 10.1 ± 4.8 −2.42 196.0 ± 19.8 −1.32\n  No 162 (51.8) 8.8 ± 4.7 (.016) 192.7 ± 21.9 (.188)\n Total 9.5 ± 4.8 194.5 ± 20.8 \n\nNote. ", "IBD = inflammatory bowel disease\n\n^a,b,c^Duncan\\'s multiple test.", "\n\nDifference in Disease-Related Knowledge of CD Patients and UC Patients\n----------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nThe degree of knowledge of the subjects ranged widely from 11.2% to 86.3%, according to the questions, and 14 of the 24 questions showed fewer than 50% correct answers.", "\n\nAmong the IBD general knowledge questions, the question (Q3) on proctitis showed a higher percentage of correct answers in UC patients than in CD patients, but the questions (Q8, Q17, Q22) on anatomy showed a higher percentage in CD patients than in UC patients.", "\n\nThere was no difference in the percentage of correct answers between CD patients and UC patients in the area of knowledge about diet. ", "Regarding treatment, the question (Q10) on steroids showed a higher percentage of correct answers in UC patients than in CD patients, but the question (Q13) on azathioprine showed a higher percentage of correct answers in CD patients. ", "On the area of knowledge about IBD complications, the percentage of correct answers of CD patients was generally higher than that of UC patients (Table [2](#T2){ref-type=\"table\"}).", "\n\n###### Differences of Correct Answers for Items of Knowledge Between Crohn Disease (CD) and Ulcerative Colitis (UC) Patients (*N* = 313)\n\n Correct Answer (%) \n ----------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------------- ------ ------ ---------------\n General IBD knowledge \n  Q3 Proctitis is a form of colitis that affects the rectum or back passage only. ", " 18.5 11.2 27.1 12.9 (\\<.001)\n  Q4 Being symptom-free for 3 years does not mean IBD is cured. ", " 86.3 86.4 86.1 0.0 (.943)\n  Q5 IBD runs in families. ", " 22.4 26.4 18.1 2.9 (.913)\n  Q8 The terminal ileum is a section of the bowel just before the anus. ", " 14.4 18.3 9.7 4.7 (.030)\n  Q9 During a flare-up of IBD, the platelet count in the blood rises. ", " 26.8 27.8 25.7 0.2 (.674)\n  Q15 Ulcerative colitis is common in Europeans and North Americans. ", " 62.0 59.8 64.6 0.8 (.381)\n  Q17 The length of the small bowel is approximately 6 m. 32.0 43.2 18.8 21.4 (\\<.001)\n  Q18 The function of the large bowel is to absorb water. ", " 52.4 53.9 50.7 0.3 (.578)\n  Q19 Another name for an ileorectal anastomosis operation with formation of a reservoir is pouch. ", " 16.6 17.2 16.0 0.1 (.779)\n  Q22 There are millions of tiny \"hairs\" in the small bowel to increase the absorptive surface, which are called villi. ", " 54.3 61.5 45.8 7.7 (.005)\n  Q23 Headache is not a common symptom of IBD. ", " 32.3 30.8 34.0 0.4 (.539)\n Diet \n  Q1 Patients are allowed to eat dairy products. ", " 55.0 54.4 55.6 0.0 (.843)\n  Q2 Elemental feeds are very easy to digest. ", " 24.6 27.8 20.8 2.0 (.153)\n Treatments \n  Q10 Steroids can be given in the form of an enema into the back passage. ", " 31.6 17.8 47.9 32.7 (\\<.001)\n  Q11 Immunosuppressive drugs are given to IBD patients to reduce inflammation in the bowel. ", " 53.7 52.1 55.6 0.4 (.538)\n  Q12 Sulfasalazine is used to reduce the frequency of flare-ups. ", " 30.7 26.0 36.1 3.7 (.054)\n  Q13 Azathioprine is an immunosuppressive drug. ", " 51.1 69.8 29.2 51.4 (\\<.001)\n  Q16 Male patients who take sulfasalazine have reduced fertility levels that are reversible. ", " 11.2 8.9 13.9 2.0 (.161)\n IBD complications \n  Q6 Inflammation can occur in other parts of the body as well as the bowel. ", " 78.3 86.4 68.8 14.2 (\\<.001)\n  Q7 A fistula is an abnormal track between two pieces of bowel or between the bowel and skin. ", " 51.8 72.8 27.1 65.0 (\\<.001)\n  Q14 A woman with Crohn disease may find it more difficult to become pregnant. ", " 22.4 30.2 13.2 12.9 (\\<.001)\n  Q20 If terminal ileum is removed during surgery, the patient will have impaired absorption of Vitamin B~12.~ 14.7 16.6 12.5 1.0 (.311)\n  Q21 Patients with IBD that has lasted for 8--10 years need to be screened for cancer of the colon. ", " 63.6 55.6 72.9 10.0 (.002)\n  Q24 A child who has IBD probably will not be as tall as his or her friends. ", " 38.7 47.3 28.5 11.7 (\\<.001)\n\n*Note*. ", "IBD = inflammatory bowel disease.", "\n\nDifference in Information Needs of CD Patients and UC Patients\n--------------------------------------------------------------\n\nCD patients and UC patients had the highest information needs for the disease. ", "Patients with CD had higher information demands than UC patients in the areas of medication, daily life, and pregnancy (Table [3](#T3){ref-type=\"table\"}).", "\n\n###### Differences of Information Needs Between Crohn Disease (CD) and Ulcerative Colitis (UC) Patients (*N* = 313)\n\n Categories Number of Items (Range) CD (*n* = 169), *M* ± SD UC (*n* = 144), *M* ± SD *t* (*p*)\n --------------------- ------------------------- -------------------------- -------------------------- -------------\n Disease 6 (1--5) 4.7 ± 0.5 4.6 ± 0.7 1.22 (.225)\n Medication 9 (1--5) 4.6 ± 0.6 4.4 ± 0.9 2.18 (.031)\n Diagnosis/operation 8 (1--5) 4.5 ± 0.5 4.4 ± 0.6 0.76 (.448)\n Diet 5 (1--5) 4.4 ± 0.7 4.4 ± 0.8 0.46 (.649)\n Daily life 8 (1--5) 4.2 ± 0.7 4.0 ± 0.8 2.97 (.003)\n Pregnancy 8 (1--5) 4.4 ± 1.0 4.0 ± 1.3 3.06 (.003)\n Total 44 (44--220) 197.1 ± 19.5 190.7 ± 22.2 2.54 (.012)\n\nDiscussion\n==========\n\nRecently, the incidence of IBD has been rapidly increasing in Korea, but the development of a systematic educational resource or program management for IBD patients is still insufficient. ", "This study is the first attempt to determine the health-related knowledge and information demands of IBD patients in Korea, and it is expected to provide baseline data for the development of programs for the follow-up management of IBD patients in Korea.", "\n\nThe degree of knowledge of the subjects in this study was below average, 10.0 for CD patients and 8.8 for UC patients, out of a maximum score of 24. ", "Using the 24-item CCKNOW, a study of patients belonging to self-help groups (the National Association of Crohn\\'s and Colitis) in Britain found that the mean score of overall knowledge was 12.4 for UC and 12.6 for CD, but in a study of IBD patients not belonging to the National Association of Crohn\\'s and Colitis, the mean score was only 7.9 for UC and 7.8 for CD ([@R8]). ", "In a study measuring the degree of IBD patients\\' knowledge before an education workshop in the United States ([@R20]), the mean score of a 30-item CCKNOW was 18 points. ", "The CCKNOW scores of two studies conducted in developing countries were lower than this study\\'s scores, with only 6.6 for UC and 8.0 for CD in Sri Lanka ([@R23]) and 4.5 for UC and 5.2 for CD in Iran ([@R21]). ", "The knowledge scores of our patients were better than those of developing countries, but similar to or worse than those of Western populations.", "\n\nThe results showed that the higher the age, the lower the education level, and the shorter the disease duration, the lower the degree of knowledge demonstrated. ", "The degree was also low in subjects who responded \"not at all\" or \"very much\" to the question on subjective health status related to IBD symptoms, as well as those who had no experience of education about IBD and those who were UC patients. ", "This coincides with the results of precedent research ([@R23]) that reported that the degree of knowledge was low in patients with UC, and in patients who were older, were unemployed, and had a lower level of education and shorter duration of disease.", "\n\nAs a result, lower age showed higher information needs because young age groups are engaged in active social activities and thus require more information for positive disease management. ", "Moreover, female subjects had higher needs because they showed high interest in disease-related knowledge during their childbearing age, taking into account the crucial influence of the disease on pregnancy and childbirth ([@R15]). ", "University graduates also showed higher demands than high school graduates. ", "This is because of their high need and motivation to actively manage their disease and directly participate in making treatment decisions as they have a higher level of education ([@R1]). ", "Therefore, when devising an educational approach, it is necessary that the health-related education be tailored to the individual characteristics and needs of the patients.", "\n\nThe degree of knowledge of the subjects ranged widely from 11.2% to 86.3% according to the question, and 14 of the 24 questions showed fewer than 50% correct answers. ", "Patients with IBD are known to get most of their knowledge and information related to their disease from physicians ([@R2]; [@R5]). ", "But the time patients spend consulting with clinicians is very short in the Korean healthcare system. ", "So clinicians cannot provide sufficient information and knowledge to their patients. ", "For this reason, patients have expressed a need for more reading material and direct education from their physicians and other members of the IBD healthcare team ([@R4]). ", "However, medical institutions of Korea, in which IBD is treated, are concentrated in metropolitan areas and large cities. ", "For this reason, patients in the suburbs or rural areas have difficulties in getting appropriate healthcare services. ", "Knowledge confers a sense of control and enhances the ability to cope with chronic disease. ", "However, the degree of knowledge of the subjects in this study was generally at a low level. ", "Therefore, by providing appropriate training and information to patients, the patients\\' knowledge about the disease can be enhanced.", "\n\nIn this study, among the general IBD knowledge areas, the question on proctitis showed a higher percentage of correct answers in UC patients than in CD patients; by contrast, the questions on anatomy showed a higher percentage of correct answers in CD patients than in UC patients. ", "This is because, unlike UC where infection is focused around the rectum, infection in CD may occur in the entire digestive system from the mouth to the large intestines ([@R26]). ", "Thus, CD patients obtained relevant knowledge with more interest in the structure and functions of the gastrointestinal system than UC patients. ", "Especially for CD patients, because patients\\' knowledge about the anatomy of the terminal ileum plays an important role when they make important decisions about surgical treatment, CD patients who are generally more likely to be in a situation in which they have to make a decision about surgery are considered to have received relative training.", "\n\nIn this study, the percentage of correct answers for the question (Q10) on steroids in the knowledge area of treatment was higher in UC patients than in CD patients, but the percentage of correct answers to the question (Q13) on azathioprine was higher in CD patients. ", "This may be because steroids are used in relapse treatment or remission induction in UC treatment, by oral administration or direct intestinal administration (enema). ", "However, azathioprine, which is an immunosuppressant, has no clearly established standard for UC treatment unlike in CD, where it is broadly used in remission induction or maintenance ([@R9]). ", "Thus, UC patients may have had few opportunities for relative education during their treatment. ", "It is this confusion and lack of knowledge about medications that results in noncompliance and patients turning to alternative remedies ([@R10]). ", "Therefore, accurate information about medications and continuing education about the long-term side effects of a prescribed medication should be provided to IBD patients.", "\n\nThe degree of knowledge about complications was significantly higher in CD patients than in UC patients. ", "This result was similar to previous studies ([@R21]; [@R23]). ", "Unlike UC, CD can cause inflammation throughout the digestive tract, and intestinal inflammation can involve the full thickness of the bowel wall. ", "Its symptoms are more severe, and severe complications such as fistula, tear, and open abscesses occur. ", "Patients with CD occasionally experience severe changes in disease states because of these complications and experience more surgeries for these complications ([@R14]), so they might be more interested in the disease and have more access to educational opportunities than UC patients.", "\n\nInformation needs were significantly higher in CD than UC. ", "In particular, information about medications, daily life, and pregnancy were demanded significantly more in CD than in UC. ", "Unlike UC, CD usually occurs in patients aged 20 years to 40 years, and 25%--33% occurs before the age of 20 years. ", "Also, CD patients experience severe physical symptoms and complications throughout life, in the active state and in remission ([@R7]; [@R12]; [@R13]). ", "Because of the nature of the disease, CD patients have more difficulties in social life or in schools than UC patients. ", "Female patients with CD have fears related to pregnancy and childbirth because of continually having to take drugs and the changes in their health, and when CD is in an active state, they have practical difficulties during pregnancy and childbirth.", "\n\nProviding appropriate knowledge about the diseases helps the patients manage their diseases and make decisions in the process of treatment. ", "Moreover, suitable education improves patients\\' disease treatment and coping methods and reduces their anxiety ([@R3]; [@R18]).", "\n\nTherefore, to help patients with IBD control and manage their diseases throughout their lives, the development of a systematic education program that considers the characteristics of each disease is required to provide them with accurate and useful information.", "\n\nBased on the results of this study, a more effective outcome will be achieved if education on treatment and general knowledge of the disease is preferentially provided to patients. ", "Furthermore, it is necessary to select the appropriate training media for effective education. ", "It is known that if a great deal of oral training is conducted, the effect of education is low ([@R11]). ", "Therefore, it is necessary to prepare more effective training methods, involving pamphlets, Web-based materials, multidisciplinary teams, and specialized nurses\\' training.", "\n\nThis study has the following limitations. ", "First, as this study was conducted on IBD patients visiting the outpatient clinic of a tertiary care hospital located in Seoul, its findings cannot be broadly interpreted. ", "Second, as this study was based on adults aged 18 years and older with IBD, it is necessary to conduct future research on adolescents under the age of 18 years. ", "Third, the disease knowledge and educational needs of the IBD patients according to their disease activity could not be determined.", "\n\nConclusions\n===========\n\nThe degree of the subjects\\' knowledge was low as a whole. ", "Especially in the case of UC, the degree was lower when subjects were older than 50 years, had lower levels of education, or had disease duration of less than 1 year. ", "Appropriate education must be provided in the area of nursing education so that IBD patients can obtain adequate knowledge of their disease, understand their disease actively, and adapt to their changed lifestyle. ", "Therefore, systematic education about the disease is required to improve the knowledge of chronic IBD patients, increase adherence to treatment, and allow patients to carry on with their normal daily life by adapting to the disease so that they enjoy improved quality of life. ", "When developing a training program, it is necessary to select fields of education that are required not only by the healthcare providers but also by the patients. ", "Training effectiveness can be maximized in this education system when information about the disease and medications for CD patients or information about the disease and diet for UC patients are primarily provided according to the current knowledge status and needs of the patients. ", "Moreover, information must be provided without temporal and geographic constraints through online distance learning. ", "In terms of nursing research, a replication study must be conducted, targeting patients in regions with limited access to appropriate healthcare such as small- and medium-sized cities. ", "On the basis of the results of this study, we propose future research to develop, apply, and evaluate a systematic educational program for IBD patients.", "\n\nThis research was supported by the Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (20110012271). ", "The authors thank Jayne A. Eaden, Keith Abrams, and John F. Mayberry for their permission to use the questionnaire (Crohn\\'s and Colitis Knowledge score).", "\n\nThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.", "\n" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "PubMed Central" }

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[ "In its simplest form, an aircraft may be guided along a taxi path by a crew member manually steering the aircraft using a flight deck controller (e.g. a tiller) while looking out a window. ", "In this case, the crew member utilizes their best judgment regarding how to guide the aircraft along an acceptable taxi path. ", "Various visual guidance systems have been utilized to improve upon manual steering. ", "Visual guidance systems generally determine a taxi path based on supplied inputs such as air traffic control (ATC) clearance, and present instructions for guiding the aircraft along the suggested taxi path; e.g. speed, steering, when to turn thrust engines off and when to turn electric drive motors on, etc. ", "ATC clearance input can include taxi route, assigned take-off or landing runway, hold points, etc.", "\nAn aircraft may be powered during the taxi by a traditional taxi system or by an electric taxi system (ETS). ", "Traditional aircraft taxi systems utilize the primary thrust engines (running at idle speed) and the braking system of the aircraft to regulate the speed of the aircraft during taxi. ", "The electric taxi system (ETS) is an efficient upgrade to the traditional taxi system for aircraft. ", "Electric taxi systems have traction drive systems that employ electric motors that can be powered by an auxiliary power unit (APU), rather than the primary thrust engines. ", "Aircraft equipped with ETS have the ability to autonomously push back from the terminal, and are therefore not reliant upon the conventionally used pushback tractors, or tugs. ", "Further, the ETS can provide most of the basic functions of tugs, and can serve as the main engine for taxiing\nThe ETS also provides expanded turning capability. ", "Traditional steering is performed by the aircraft nose wheel, and the radius of turn achieved is affected by aircraft size and wing length (generally approximately 60 degrees). ", "In contrast, the ETS can control the main landing gear (MLG) relative speed between left and right wheels, resulting in sharper turns than what can be achieved by traditional steering (approximately 60-90 degrees). ", "The ETS supported turns are referred to as “tight turns” or tight turn operations. ", "All of the aforementioned advantages provided by ETS are autonomous.", "\nDuring various aircraft ground operations such as a taxi, a tight turn, or a reverse operation, a deviation from an airport active surface area may occur. ", "Traditionally, tools such as moving maps on Heads Down Displays, Heads Up Displays, Surface Guidance Systems, Enhanced Vision Systems, and the like, have been utilized to minimize the likelihood of occurrence of such a deviation. ", "However, what is lacking is a tool to display an alert, such as an audible alert, a warning text, or a graphical representation of corrective action, when a deviation from the airport active surface area is predicted.", "\nAccordingly, an aircraft taxi path guidance and display system that graphically displays an alert and corrective action when a deviation from the airport active surface area is predicted is desirable. ", "It is desirable for the system to also display the alerts and corrective action for tight turn and reverse operations. ", "Such an aircraft taxi path guidance and display system would increase situational awareness by proactively alerting the crew to avert predicted deviations.", "\nOther desirable features will become apparent from the following detailed description and the appended claims, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings and this background." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "USPTO Backgrounds" }

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[ "The Latest: Nissan's Ghosn to tell Japan court he's innocent The former chairman of Japan's Nissan Carlos Ghosn will assert his innocence in a Tokyo courtroom Tuesday, according to his prepared statement that addresses each of the allegations that led to his Nov. 19 arrest\n\nTOKYO -- The Latest on the appearance of former Nissan Motor Co. chairman Carlos Ghosn in Tokyo court (all times local):\n\n11:40 a.m.\n\nBy Yuri Kageyama\n\nThe former chairman of Japan's Nissan Carlos Ghosn will assert his innocence in a Tokyo courtroom Tuesday, according to his prepared statement that addresses each of the allegations that led to his Nov. 19 arrest.", "\n\nThe statement, which was to be delivered by Ghosn at his hearing, was released to The Associated Press through a person close to Ghosn and his family. ", "They shared the information on condition anonymity due to its confidential nature.", "\n\nIn the statement Ghosn said the investment losses he was being accused of stemmed from his having to be paid in yen and he had asked Nissan to temporarily take on the collateral, and the company suffered no losses.", "\n\nGhosn stressed he had dedicated himself to Nissan.", "\n\n———\n\n9:45 a.m.\n\nThe former chairman of Japan's Nissan Motor Co., Carlos Ghosn, is getting his day in court to demand the reason for his prolonged detention — his first public appearance since his Nov. 19 arrest.", "\n\nRevered in the global auto industry, Ghosn was charged with falsifying financial reports in underreporting his income. ", "The courtroom hearing Tuesday marks his first chance to directly tell his side of the story.", "\n\nIn Japan, suspects are routinely held without bail, often due to fears about tampered evidence. ", "Tokyo prosecutors have said that Ghosn is a flight risk. ", "Ghosn is a Brazilian-born Frenchman of Lebanese ancestry." ]

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[ "/*\n * Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the \"License\"); you may not use this file except\n * in compliance with the License. ", "You may obtain a copy of the License at\n *\n * http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n *\n * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software distributed under the License\n * is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express\n * or implied. ", "See the License for the specific language governing permissions and limitations under\n * the License.", "\n */\n/*\n * This code was generated by https://github.com/googleapis/google-api-java-client-services/\n * Modify at your own risk.", "\n */\n\npackage com.google.api.services.clouddebugger.v2.model;\n\n/**\n * A SourceContext is a reference to a tree of files. ", "A SourceContext together with a path point to\n * a unique revision of a single file or directory.", "\n *\n * <p> This is the Java data model class that specifies how to parse/serialize into the JSON that is\n * transmitted over HTTP when working with the Stackdriver Debugger API. ", "For a detailed explanation\n * see:\n * <a href=\"https://developers.google.com/api-client-library/java/google-http-java-client/json\">https://developers.google.com/api-client-library/java/google-http-java-client/json</a>\n * </p>\n *\n * @author Google, Inc.\n */\n@SuppressWarnings(\"javadoc\")\npublic final class SourceContext extends com.google.api.client.json.", "GenericJson {\n\n /**\n * A SourceContext referring to a revision in a cloud repo.", "\n * The value may be {@code null}.", "\n */\n @com.google.api.client.util.", "Key\n private CloudRepoSourceContext cloudRepo;\n\n /**\n * A SourceContext referring to a snapshot in a cloud workspace.", "\n * The value may be {@code null}.", "\n */\n @com.google.api.client.util.", "Key\n private CloudWorkspaceSourceContext cloudWorkspace;\n\n /**\n * A SourceContext referring to a Gerrit project.", "\n * The value may be {@code null}.", "\n */\n @com.google.api.client.util.", "Key\n private GerritSourceContext gerrit;\n\n /**\n * A SourceContext referring to any third party Git repo (e.g. GitHub).", "\n * The value may be {@code null}.", "\n */\n @com.google.api.client.util.", "Key\n private GitSourceContext git;\n\n /**\n * A SourceContext referring to a revision in a cloud repo.", "\n * @return value or {@code null} for none\n */\n public CloudRepoSourceContext getCloudRepo() {\n return cloudRepo;\n }\n\n /**\n * A SourceContext referring to a revision in a cloud repo.", "\n * @param cloudRepo cloudRepo or {@code null} for none\n */\n public SourceContext setCloudRepo(CloudRepoSourceContext cloudRepo) {\n this.cloudRepo = cloudRepo;\n return this;\n }\n\n /**\n * A SourceContext referring to a snapshot in a cloud workspace.", "\n * @return value or {@code null} for none\n */\n public CloudWorkspaceSourceContext getCloudWorkspace() {\n return cloudWorkspace;\n }\n\n /**\n * A SourceContext referring to a snapshot in a cloud workspace.", "\n * @param cloudWorkspace cloudWorkspace or {@code null} for none\n */\n public SourceContext setCloudWorkspace(CloudWorkspaceSourceContext cloudWorkspace) {\n this.cloudWorkspace = cloudWorkspace;\n return this;\n }\n\n /**\n * A SourceContext referring to a Gerrit project.", "\n * @return value or {@code null} for none\n */\n public GerritSourceContext getGerrit() {\n return gerrit;\n }\n\n /**\n * A SourceContext referring to a Gerrit project.", "\n * @param gerrit gerrit or {@code null} for none\n */\n public SourceContext setGerrit(GerritSourceContext gerrit) {\n this.gerrit = gerrit;\n return this;\n }\n\n /**\n * A SourceContext referring to any third party Git repo (e.g. GitHub).", "\n * @return value or {@code null} for none\n */\n public GitSourceContext getGit() {\n return git;\n }\n\n /**\n * A SourceContext referring to any third party Git repo (e.g. GitHub).", "\n * @param git git or {@code null} for none\n */\n public SourceContext setGit(GitSourceContext git) {\n this.git = git;\n return this;\n }\n\n @Override\n public SourceContext set(String fieldName, Object value) {\n return (SourceContext) super.set(fieldName, value);\n }\n\n @Override\n public SourceContext clone() {\n return (SourceContext) super.clone();\n }\n\n}\n" ]

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[ "Real Food\n\nIn the aspect of food, it can be naturally delicious when not process and saturated with additive. ", "When food is consumed this way, you allow your body to absorbs all the available nutrients from the food. ", "There are no colorful packaging or additives in nature, so limiting your intake of these food are key to a unique weight loss. ", "This gives your real life, altering results.", "\n\nAnother fundamental element for effective weight loss and management is portion control. ", "Portions should be smaller and more frequent, about six meals per day. ", "This allows your body to stabilize your appetite while reducing your craving and keeps you from overeating. ", "Couple that standard with sips of water throughout the day.", "\n\nBe sure to sip water throughout the day, eat slowly, and remember to enjoy your food to . ", "This will improve digestion and your ability to manage portions effectively.", "\n\nEasy Exercise\n\nExercise is easy, it as simple as moving more.", "\n\nExercise is essential for optimum health and if done regularly has been shown to decrease the risk of many serious health conditions. ", "Though moderate and high intensity exercise sessions are ideal for burning loads of calories fast, you should never underestimate the power in activities like walking, stretching and lifting. ", "They help to speed up your metabolism, burn continuous energy throughout the day, and will keep you youthful.", "\n\nThe secret is to find something you enjoy. ", "It makes it easier to achieve a healthy lifestyle built on a regimen of daily exercise.", "\n\nConsistent Behavior\n\nObtain good health and a successful weight loss journey with consistent healthy behavior. ", "These healthy habits are the little things that keeps you on track with your unique weight loss journey. ", "Focusing on two or three simple health tips each week and making them part of our daily routine is the key to changing your life.", "\nBreaking bad habits can be frustrating and bad days are inevitable, but maintaining a positive attitude and actively changing your mindset will guarantee that bad days won’t hinder your progression.", "\n\nRemember: It’s ok to want to push yourself to the limit, but not to put yourself. ", "Negative thoughts is your worst enemy and won’t help you achieve your unique weigh loss goals. ", "Don’t see your health habits as a chore, rather an opportunity to obtain your ideal health & lifestyle goals for a better future." ]

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[ "Direct measurements of effect of counterion concentration on mechanical properties of cationic vesicles.", "\nTheoretical analyses of charged membranes in aqueous solutions have long predicted that the electric double layer surrounding them contributes significantly to their mechanical properties. ", "Here we report the first, direct experimental measurements of the effect of counterion concentration on the bending and area expansion modulus of cationic surfactant vesicles. ", "Using the classical technique of micropipet aspiration coupled with a modified experimental protocol that is better suited for cationic vesicles, we successfully measure the mechanical properties of a double-tailed cationic surfactant, diethylesterdimethyl ammonium chloride (diC18:1 DEEDMAC) in CaCl2 solutions. ", "It is observed that the area expansion modulus of the charged membrane exhibits no measurable dependence on the counterion concentration, in accordance with existing models of bilayer elasticity. ", "The measured bending modulus, however, is found to vary nonmonotonically and exhibits a minimum in its variation with counterion concentration. ", "The experimental results are interpreted based on theoretical calculations of charged and bare membrane mechanics. ", "It is determined that the initial decrease in bending modulus with increasing counterion concentration may be attributed to a decreasing double layer thickness, while the subsequent increase is likely due to an increasing membrane thickness. ", "These mechanical moduli measurements qualitatively confirm, for the first time, theoretical predictions of a nonmonotonic behavior and the opposing effects of ionic strength on the bending rigidity of charged bilayers." ]

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[ "(CNN) Monica Lewinsky is sharing her unique perspective in the wake of former Fox News chairman Roger Ailes' passing, accusing him of building his network on the story of her relationship with then-President Bill Clinton, which made her life a \"nightmare.\"", "\n\n\"Mr. Ailes, a former Republican political operative, took the story of the affair and the trial that followed and made certain his anchors hammered it ceaselessly, 24 hours a day,\" she wrote in a New York Times op-ed Monday. \"", "Their dream was my nightmare. ", "My character, my looks and my life were picked apart mercilessly.\"", "\n\n\"Truth and fiction mixed at random in the service of higher ratings,\" the former White House intern added.", "\n\nAiles, who founded the Fox News Channel two years before the Lewinsky affair went public, died last week less than a year after being forced out of the chairmanship amid sexual harassment allegations . ", "He was 77.", "\n\nIn her op-ed, Lewinsky cited comments made years ago by Fox News executive John Moody, who said Lewinsky's scandal \"put us on the news map.\"", "\n\nLewinsky said Ailes' decision to oversee a strategy to \"exploit\" her personal crisis for the sake of creating a brand made her suicidal.", "\n\n\"My family and I huddled at home, worried about my going to jail — I was the original target of Kenneth Starr's investigation, threatened with 27 years for having been accused of signing a false affidavit and other alleged crimes — or worse, me taking my own life,\" she added. \"", "Meantime, Mr. Ailes huddled with his employees at Fox News, dictating a lineup of talking heads to best exploit this personal and national tragedy.\"", "\n\nLewinsky has since become an advocate against bullying and said the mainstream media used her scandal to further \"a culture of humiliation.\"", "\n\n\"Our world — of cyberbullying and chyrons, trolls and tweets — was forged in 1998,\" she wrote. \"", "It is, as the historian Nicolaus Mills has put it, a 'culture of humiliation,' in which those who prey on the vulnerable in the service of clicks and ratings are handsomely rewarded.\"" ]

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[ "Back to Now\n\nBack to Now is the seventh and latest studio album by American R&B female group Labelle, released on October 21, 2008. ", "The album is the group's first in over thirty years though they had sung on songs together on occasion. ", "\n\nLabelle member Nona Hendryx explained the album's title to noted R&B writer Pete Lewis of Blues & Soul: \"It basically stemmed from two of the songs on this album being songs I'd specifically written for what would have been the next Labelle album back in 1977. ", "So the title 'Back To Now\" is really signifiying that this record represents us really getting back to where we were. ", "It's basically a continuation from where we stopped off.\"", "\n\nThe first single is \"Roll Out\", which features and is produced by Wyclef Jean which had the three Labelle members Patti LaBelle, Nona Hendryx and Sarah Dash singing in autotune. ", "\n\nThe album is also notable for the modest R&B charted ballad, \"Superlover\". ", "Except for \"The Truth Will Set You Free\", originally recorded by Mother's Finest, in which Hendryx sings the lead over Lenny Kravitz's guitar and LaBelle's ad-libs in soprano and \"System\", which LaBelle, Hendryx and Dash each take a prominent lead vocal, the album is led as always by LaBelle, who gives a powerful vocal in the socially conscious \"Tears for the World\", a Hendryx composition.", "\n\nThe album is also notable for their tribute to civil rights activist Rosa Parks with \"Dear Rosa\" and also includes their 1971 rendition of the Cole Porter standard, \"Miss Otis Regrets\", which was originally recorded for sessions of their Warner debut, Labelle, but was cut from the album's final selection of tracks.", "\n\nAn iTunes edition of the album features the group's cover of Sylvester's disco hit, \"You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)\".", "\n\nTrack listing \n \"Candlelight\" (Nona Hendryx) 4:41\n \"Roll Out\" (featuring Wyclef Jean) (Hendryx, Wyclef Jean, Jerry Duplessis, Patti LaBelle, Sarah Dash) 3:51\n \"Superlover\" (Hendryx, LaBelle, Dash) 4:14\n \"System\" (Hendryx) 5:32\n \"The Truth Will Set You Free\" (Barry Borden, Michael Keck, Gary Moore, Joyce Kennedy, Jerry Seay, Glenn Murdock) 4:58\n \"Without You in My Life\" (Hendryx, Dash, LaBelle, Kenneth Gamble) 5:29\n \"Tears for the World\" (Gamble, LaBelle, Leon A. Huff) 4:33\n \"Dear Rosa\" (Hendryx, Roni Morgan, Michael Waters) 6:47\n \"How Long\" (Hendryx, LaBelle, Dash) 4:33\n \"Miss Otis Regrets\" (Cole Porter) 4:39\n \"You Make Me Feel (Mighty Real)\" (4:31) (iTunes Bonus Track)\n\nCharts \nBack to Now debuted at number 45 on Billboard'''s album chart in the issue dated November 8, 2008. ", "It also charted on R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, debuting at number 9. ", "Back to Now'' is Labelle's seventh overall, and third highest-ranked album to chart in the United States.", "\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n Back to Now on Verve Records\n Labelle Official\n\nCategory:2008 albums\nCategory:Labelle albums\nCategory:Albums produced by Kenneth Gamble\nCategory:Albums produced by Leon Huff" ]

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[ "---\nabstract: 'It is known that binding energies calculated from the Bethe-Salpeter equation in ladder approximation can be reasonably well accounted for by an energy-dependent interaction, at least for the lowest states. ", "It is also known that none of these approaches gives results close to what is obtained by using the same interaction in the so-called instantaneous approximation, which is often employed in non-relativistic calculations. ", "However, a recently proposed effective interaction was shown to account for the main features of both the Bethe-Salpeter equation and the energy-dependent approach. ", "In the present work, a detailed comparison of these different methods for calculating binding energies of a two-particle system is made. ", "Some improvement, previously incorporated for the zero-mass boson case in the derivation of the effective interaction, is also employed for massive bosons. ", "The constituent particles are taken to be distinguishable and spinless. ", "Different masses of the exchanged boson (including a zero mass) as well as states with different angular momenta are considered and the contribution of the crossed two-boson exchange diagram is discussed. ", "With this respect, the role played by the charge of the exchanged boson is emphasized. ", "It is shown that the main difference between the Bethe-Salpeter results and the instantaneous approximation ones are not due to relativity as often conjectured.'", "\naddress:\n- 'Faculté des Sciences, Université de Boumerdes, 35000 Boumerdes, Algeria'\n- 'Institut des Sciences Nucléaires, F-38026 Grenoble Cedex, France'\nauthor:\n- 'A. Amghar'\n- 'B. Desplanques'\n- 'L. Theu[ß]{}l'\ntitle: 'From the Bethe-Salpeter equation to non-relativistic approaches with effective two-body interactions'\n---\n\n,\n\n,\n\nrelativity, field-theory, effective interaction, binding energies 03.65.Ge, 11.10.St, 12.40.Qq\n\nIntroduction\n============\n\nUnderstanding the discrepancies for binding energies obtained from different approaches, ranging from the ladder Bethe-Salpeter equation at one extreme [@BETH] to a non-relativistic equation with a so-called instantaneous one-boson exchange interaction at the other extreme, has been and is still a subject which raises considerable interest and curiosity [@SILV; @BILA; @PHIL; @NIEU; @FRED; @BIJT; @DARE; @AMGH; @THEU]. ", "Although it is more founded theoretically, the Bethe-Salpeter equation in its simplest form (along with other approaches) is not doing as well as the Dirac or Klein-Gordon equation in reproducing the spectrum of atomic systems. ", "These last equations assume a potential which is apparently consistent with an instantaneous propagation of the exchanged boson and their success has certainly contributed much in founding this approximation as a model for non-relativistic interactions.", "\n\nIt has been suggested that the problem was specific to QED together with the one-body limit [@FELD] and irrelevant outside this case, when bosons are massive or the one-body limit does not apply. ", "This is also supported by a number of works that motivated the instantaneous approximation from the Bethe-Salpeter equation. ", "Although proofs are not transparent and rely on some approximations, allowing authors to have doubt [@DARE], it is conjectured that including the contribution of crossed-boson exchange terms would resolve the problem [@TODO; @FRIA]. ", "In this context, a few benchmark results emerge. ", "It was clearly stated that the Bethe-Salpeter equation applied to the Wick-Cutkosky model [@WICK] does not support the validity of the instantaneous approximation [@SILV]. ", "Instead, there is agreement with results from an energy-dependent interaction [@BILA; @PHIL]. ", "The role of crossed boson exchange, as estimated using the Feynman-Schwinger representation (FSR) method [@NIEU], is also important in the case of massive bosons with equal-mass constituents.", "\n\nQuite recently, two of the present authors, starting from a field-theory based approach, derived an effective interaction to be used in a non-relativistic framework [@AMGH]. ", "It was found that this interaction, also obtained on a different basis in earlier works [@FST], involved a renormalization of the so-called instantaneous approximation. ", "For small couplings, the renormalization factor is given by the probability of the system being in a two-body component, without accompanying bosons in flight. ", "A close relation between wave functions issued from the field-theory (energy-dependent) scheme and the non-relativistic scheme (using an effective interaction) was found. ", "It was suggested that the spectra obtained from the Bethe-Salpeter or other field-theory based approaches and that one resulting from the effective interaction could be quite similar for the lowest states. ", "The role of crossed diagrams was also considered. ", "In the case of a neutral, spinless boson it was found that their contribution largely cancels the renormalization of the instantaneous approximation interaction. ", "While this result apparently provided support for the instantaneous approximation, its specific character was demonstrated by considering a model involving the exchange of “charged” bosons, which evidences a totally different pattern. ", "Here, the contribution of crossed-boson exchange not only compensated the effect of the renormalization but provided even a lot more attraction in some cases. ", "A first confirmation using the Bethe-Salpeter equation was obtained [@THEU].", "\n\nIn this work, we consider a system of two scalar, distinguishable constituents that interact by the exchange of a scalar boson. ", "This is the simplest case one can think of. ", "It allows one to minimize complications with spin, like Z-type contributions for instance, which will obscure conclusions. ", "We essentially want to compare binding energies with the main intent to establish a close relationship between the different approaches. ", "This completes the work performed in ref. [", "@AMGH] for wave functions and extends it to the Bethe-Salpeter equation [@THEU]. ", "We will in particular study how this relationship is fulfilled when going from the ladder approximation to a more complete case involving crossed-boson exchange contributions. ", "Regarding the latter, we will have in mind as benchmarks the results of Nieuwenhuis and Tjon [@NIEU] as well as those obtained in the so-called instantaneous one-boson exchange approximation. ", "Our study will concentrate on systems with a rather small binding energy, of the order of what is reasonably accessible for a non-relativistic approach. ", "An important issue is to determine which physics is behind some equation, with the idea that information obtained from the Bethe-Salpeter equation and a non-relativistic approach, the one more founded theoretically, the other closer to a physical interpretation, can complement each other. ", "Quite generally, our aim is to derive effective interactions in a given scheme. ", "This motivation has some similarity with the one underlying the work of Bhaduri and Brack who tried to reproduce the spectrum of the Dirac equation with an effective interaction in a non-relativistic approach [@BHAD]. ", "The difference between this work and ours is in the dynamics: coupling of large and small components in one case, coupling of two-body components with components involving mesons in flight in the other. ", "A renormalization of the instantaneous one-boson exchange interaction has been considered by Lepage [@LEPA]. ", "This work has in common with the present one that it takes into account physics beyond some scale but it differs in the way how this physics is incorporated, parametrized in one case, theoretically motivated in the other.", "\n\nThe plan of the paper is as follows. ", "In the second part, we remind essential theoretical ingredients relative to the different approaches that are referred to later on. ", "These ones include the Bethe-Salpeter equation, an energy-dependent interaction resulting from time-ordered diagrams, an approach using an effective energy-independent interaction and finally an interaction in the instantaneous approximation. ", "In the third section we present results obtained in the ladder approximation, incorporating higher-order box contributions in the effective approaches to allow for a consistent comparison with the Bethe-Salpeter results. ", "Cases with massive as well as zero-mass bosons (Wick-Cutkosky model) are considered. ", "The contribution due to crossed-boson exchange is examined and discussed in the fourth section. ", "Two cases, corresponding to the exchange of neutral and charged bosons, are studied. ", "The fifth section finally contains a general discussion and conclusions.", "\n\nDescriptions of two-body systems: different approaches\n======================================================\n\nIn this section, we present the various approaches that will be used in the next sections to calculate binding energies of two-body systems. ", "The first one is based on the Bethe-Salpeter equation which is well known for its manifestly relativistic covariant character. ", "The field-theory foundation is more transparent in the second approach which is based on time-ordered diagrams and, therefore, gives an interaction that depends on the total energy of the system, $E$. This energy dependence is a reminiscent of the fact that the two-body system under consideration is coupled to components with bosons in flight. ", "The third approach, which is derived from the previous one, is based on an effective interaction where the energy dependence has been eliminated. ", "It differs in particular from the instantaneous one-boson exchange approximation, which is frequently employed in non-relativistic descriptions of two-body systems.", "\n\nBethe-Salpeter equation\n-----------------------\n\nThe expression of the Bethe Salpeter equation for a system of scalar particles of mass $m$, interacting by the exchange of bosons of mass $\\mu$, is well known. ", "For definiteness, we nevertheless remind it here. ", "It is given in momentum space by: $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\left(m^2-(\\frac{P}{2}+p)^2\\right)\\,\\left(m^2-(\\frac{P}{2}-p)^2\\right) \\; \n\\Phi(p,P) = \\hspace{2cm} \\nonumber \\\\\n i \\int \\frac{d^4p'}{(2\\pi)^4} \\, K(p,p',P) \\, \\Phi(p',P).", "\n \\label{Aa}\\end{aligned}$$ In this equation, $P$, $p$ and $p'$ respectively denote the total momentum of the system and half of the relative momenta.", "\n\n$K(p,p',P)$ represents the interaction kernel. ", "To lowest order it contains a well determined contribution due to one-boson exchange (see Fig. ", "\\[fig1\\] for a graphical representation), its expression being given by: $$K^{(1)} = -\\frac{\\tilde{g}^{2} \\; O_{1} \\, O_{2} }{ \\mu^{2} - t} \n \\equiv -\\frac{\\tilde{g}^{2} \\; O_{1} \\, O_{2} }{ \\mu^{2} - (p-p')^2 \n-i\\epsilon}.", "\n \\label{Ab}$$ Restricting the full kernel to this lowest order term, one obtains the ladder approximation of the Bethe-Salpeter equation, which has been extensively used in the literature. ", "The coupling, $\\tilde{g}^2$ in Eq. (", "\\[Ab\\]), has the dimension of a mass squared. ", "The quantity $\\frac{\\tilde{g}^2}{4m^2}$ is directly comparable to the coupling constant $g^2$ which will be used in the following, to the coupling constant $g^2_{MNN}$, frequently used in hadronic physics, or to the quantity $4\\pi\\, \\alpha$, where $\\alpha$ is the usual QED coupling constant. ", "Anticipating the following, we introduced the operators $ O_{1} \\, \nO_{2} $ in Eq. (", "\\[Ab\\]), that may be equal to $1_1 \\, 1_2 $ or $\\vec{\\tau}_1 \\cdot \\vec{\\tau}_2$ in the present work. ", "The first case corresponds to the exchange of a neutral boson and the factor may be simply omitted. ", "The second case corresponds to the exchange of bosons carrying some kind of isospin, equal to 1, while the constituents would have isospin $\\frac{1}{2}$. The complete interaction kernel employed in Eq. (", "\\[Aa\\]) also contains multi-boson exchange contributions that Eq. (", "\\[Ab\\]) cannot account for, namely of the non-ladder type. ", "As the simplest example of such contributions, we shall consider in Sect. ", "4 the crossed two-boson exchange. ", "The numerical method we used to solve Eq. (", "\\[Aa\\]) and a detailed discussion was given in ref. [", "@THEU].", "\n\nEnergy-dependent interaction from field-theory based one-boson exchange\n-----------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nThe single-boson exchange contribution we want to consider is represented by the time-ordered diagrams of Fig. ", "\\[fig2\\] .", "\n\nThe corresponding interaction is easily obtained from second-order perturbation theory: $$\\begin{aligned}\nV^{(1)}_E(,\\vec{p}_2,\\vec{p}\\,'_1,\\vec{p}\\,'_2)= \\hspace{8cm} \n\\nonumber \\\\\n\\frac{g^{2} \\; O_{1} \\, O_{2} \\,}{2 \\, \\omega_{k}} \\, \n\\sqrt{ \\frac{m^2}{ e_1 e_2} } \\, \n\\left( \\frac{1}{E-\\omega_{k}-e_1-e'_2}\n + \\frac{1}{E-\\omega_{k}-e_2-e'_1} \\right) \\, \n\\sqrt{ \\frac{m^2}{ e'_1 e'_2 } },\n\\label{Ba}\\end{aligned}$$ with $\\omega_{k} = \\sqrt{\\mu^{2}+(\\vec{p}_1-\\vec{p}\\,'_1)^{\\,2}},\\;\ne_i= \\sqrt{m^{2}+\\vec{p_i}^{\\,2}} $ and $ e_i'= \\sqrt{m^{2}+\\vec{p_i}'^{\\,2}}.$ When the energy is conserved, this equation allows one to recover the standard Feynman propagator. ", "In the center of mass, the two terms representing the contributions of the diagrams displayed in Fig. ", "\\[fig2\\] are equal. ", "Equation (\\[Ba\\]) then simplifies and reads: $$V^{(1)}_E(\\vec{p},\\vec{p}\\,')= \n\\frac{g^{2} \\; O_{1} \\, O_{2} \\,}{\\omega_{k}} \\, \\frac{m}{e} \\, \n\\left( \\frac{1}{E-\\omega_{k}-e-e'} \\right) \\, \\frac{m}{e'},\n\\label{Bb}$$ with $\\omega_{k} = \\sqrt{\\mu^{2}+\\vec{k}^{\\,2}},\\; \n\\vec{k}=\\vec{p}-\\vec{p}\\,',\\;\ne= \\sqrt{m^{2}+\\vec{p}^{\\,2}} $ and $\ne'= \\sqrt{m^{2}+\\vec{p}\\,'^{\\,2}}, \\; $ where $\\vec{p}$ and $\\vec{p}\\,'$ represent the relative 3-momenta of the constituent particles. ", "The two normalization factors, $\\frac{m}{e}$ and $\\frac{m}{e'}$ in Eq. (", "\\[Bb\\]), are appropriate for the case where the total free energy of the constituent particles has the semi-relativistic expression, $e=\\sqrt{m^{2}+\\vec{p}^{\\,2}}$, the corresponding equation to be fulfilled being of the Klein type [@KLEI]: $$(2 \\,e - E) \\, \\psi(\\vec{p}\\,) =\n-\\int \\frac{d\\vec{p}\\,'}{(2\\pi)^3} \\; \n\\left(V^{(1)}_E(\\vec{p},\\vec{p}\\,')+ \\dots \\right) \\, \\psi(\\vec{p}\\,').", "\n\\label{Bc}$$ The dots represent multi-boson exchange terms, some of which will be explicitly considered in the following. ", "An important feature of the interaction (\\[Bb\\]) is its dependence on the total energy of the system, $E$, which prevents one from using it in a Schrödinger equation without some caution. ", "This energy dependence has the same origin as the one in the full Bonn model of the nucleon-nucleon interaction [@BONN]. ", "It is reminded that the above equation may be obtained from the Bethe-Salpeter equation, Eq. (", "\\[Aa\\]), by putting: $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\left(m^2-(\\frac{P}{2}+p)^2\\right)\\,\\left(m^2-(\\frac{P}{2}-p)^2\\right) \\; \n\\Phi(p,P) \n\\hspace{4cm}\\nonumber \\\\\n\\simeq \\left( 2 \\, e \\right)^2 \\; \n\\left( e-\\frac{E}{2}-p_0 \\right) \\;\n \\left( e-\\frac{E}{2}+p_0 \\right) \\; \\Phi(p,P) \\hspace{1cm}\n\\nonumber \\\\\n \\equiv \\frac{2\\,e}{E} \\; (2e-E)\\,\\psi(\\vec{p}\\,), \\hspace{1cm}\n \\label{Bd}\\end{aligned}$$ consistently neglecting the dependence on $p_0$ (but not $p'_0$!) ", "in the kernel as well as corrections of order $\\frac{E-2e}{2\\, E}$ (we assume that the mass of the exchanged boson, $\\mu$, is smaller than the constituent mass, $m$). ", "In accordance with the center of mass validity of Eq. (", "\\[Bb\\]), $P_0$ has been replaced by $E$. It is also reminded that an equation like Eq. (", "\\[Bc\\]) (or similar ones used below) can always be cast into the form of a 4-dimensional, but non-covariant equation, as it can be checked from the following: $$(2e-E) \\; \\psi(\\vec{p}\\,) =\ni\\int \\frac{d^4 p \\,'}{(2\\pi)^4} \\;\\, \n\\frac{\\left(V^{(1)}_E(\\vec{p},\\vec{p}\\,')+ \\dots \\right) \\;\\;(2e'-E)\\, \n\\psi(\\vec{p}\\,')}{\\left( \ne'-\\frac{E}{2}-p'_0+i\\epsilon \\right) \\;\n \\left( e'-\\frac{E}{2}+p'_0+i\\epsilon \\right) }.", "\n\\label{Bdd}$$\n\nA non-relativistic, but still energy-dependent form of Eq. (", "\\[Bc\\]) may be used: $$\\left(\\frac{p^2}{m} - (E-2m)\\right) \\, \\psi(\\vec{p}\\,) =\n-\\int \\frac{d\\vec{p}\\,'}{(2\\pi)^3} \\; \n\\left(V^{(1)}_E(\\vec{p},\\vec{p}\\,')+ \\dots \\right) \\; \\psi(\\vec{p}\\,'),\n\\label{Be}$$ where the normalization factors $\\frac{m}{e}$ appearing in $V^{(1)}_E$ should be consistently neglected. ", "This last equation represents an intermediate step in our effort to derive an effective non-relativistic interaction in the next subsection.", "\n\nIn order to make a meaningful comparison with the ladder Bethe-Salpeter approach, box-type multi-boson exchange contributions to the interaction $V_E$ should be considered. ", "Some of them are shown in Fig. ", "\\[fig3\\]. ", "The most important one corresponds to diagram a) in this figure. ", "Its contribution is of order $\\left(\\frac{1}{m}\\right)^0$ and has the same magnitude as the off-shell effects due to the presence of the term $E-e-e'$ in the denominator of Eq. (", "\\[Bb\\]) (see also ref. [", "@AMGH]). ", "Its expression is given by: $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\nonumber\nV^{(2a)}(\\vec{p\\,},\\vec{p}\\,') =- \\frac{g^4}{2} \\int \\frac{d \n\\vec{q}}{(2\\pi)^3} \\; \\frac{m}{e} \\frac{(O_{1} \\, O_{2}) \\, \n(O_{1} \\, O_{2})}{\\omega \\, \\omega'} \\frac{m}{e'} \\left(\\frac{m}{e_q}\\right)^2 \n\\hspace{2cm} \\\\ \\times \\frac{1}{\\left(\\omega+e+e_q-E\\right)} \n\\frac{1}{\\left(\\omega'+e'+e_q-E\\right)} \n\\frac{1}{\\left(\\omega+\\omega'+e+e'-E\\right)},\n \\label{Bf} \\end{aligned}$$ with $\\omega=\\sqrt{\\mu^{2}+(\\vec{p}-\\vec{q}\\,)^{2}}$, $\\omega'=\\sqrt{\\mu^{2}+(\\vec{p}\\,'-\\vec{q}\\,)^{2}}$ and $e_q=\\sqrt{m^{2}+\\vec{q}\\,^{\\,2}}$. The quantity $\\vec{q}$ represents the momentum of the constituent particle in the intermediate state and the operators $O_{i}$ are put between parentheses to remind that they do not necessarily commute. ", "As we do not pay much attention to contributions of order $g^6$, one could be tempted to drop terms like $E-e-e'$ in the denominator of Eq. (", "\\[Bf\\]), which are of the same order. ", "Doing this also has the advantage that the integral of Eq. (", "\\[Bf\\]) can be worked out analytically (see Appendix \\[appA\\]). ", "We shall nevertheless retain the full expression of Eq. (", "\\[Bf\\]) in our calculations, in order to deal consistently with the energy dependence of the box diagram. ", "Numerically, the effect of the latter one turned out to be substantial. ", "On the other hand, contributions of Z-diagrams like Fig. ", "\\[fig3\\] b,c have a typical relativistic character and are of order $\\left(\\frac{1}{m}\\right)^1$ and $\\left(\\frac{1}{m}\\right)^3$, respectively.", "\n\nThe expression of the interaction given by Eq. (", "\\[Bb\\]) is much simpler than the one used in ref. [", "@BILA], which was however derived on a different basis. ", "The latter one most probably incorporates higher order corrections like those of Fig. ", "\\[fig3\\] b,c, and, furthermore, should be used with a different equation.", "\n\nEnergy-independent approach and effective interaction\n-----------------------------------------------------\n\nIn order to get an energy-independent interaction from the general interaction kernel given by Eq. (", "\\[Bb\\]), the energy dependence of the latter one was approximated in ref. [", "@AMGH] by a linear term (see ref. [", "@DESP] for examples in relation with the present work):\n\n$$\\frac{1}{ E-2m -\\omega_{k} -\\frac{\\vec{p}^{\\,2}}{2m} \n-\\frac{\\vec{p}\\,'^{\\,2}}{2m} }=\n-\\frac{1}{\\omega_{k}}\n-\\frac{ E-2m-\\frac{\\vec{p}^{\\,2}}{2m}-\\frac{\\vec{p}\\,'^{\\,2}}{2m} }{ \n\\omega^{2}_{k} \n}+\\cdots ,\n\\label{Ca}$$\n\nwhere we replaced, as we shall do from now on, the relativistic expressions for the kinetic energies by their non-relativistic counterparts. ", "The second term on the right hand side of Eq. (", "\\[Ca\\]), after insertion in Eqs. (", "\\[Bc\\]) or (\\[Be\\]), was then removed by a transformation which is formally similar to the one introduced by Perey and Saxon [@PERE] in order to change a linear energy-dependent term of an optical potential into a dependence on the squared momentum and vice versa. ", "The inverse transformation is used for solving an equation with a squared momentum-dependent term when employing the Numerov algorithm. ", "In both cases, it has no definite physical ground beyond its mathematical character. ", "The transformation which was performed here is more in the spirit of the Foldy-Wouthuysen one (see ref. [", "@AMGH] for details). ", "It implicitly corresponds to introducing effective degrees of freedom with the drawback that the interaction generally acquires a non-local character. ", "An expansion similar to that given in Eq. (", "\\[Ca\\]) was used by Lahiff and Afnan [@AFNA], so that some of our results obtained with the full energy dependence of the interaction kernel have a relationship to theirs. ", "However, these authors have not considered the possibility of removing the energy dependence by the transformation mentioned above. ", "The resulting energy-independent interaction is the main object of studies in the present work.", "\n\nSince the expansion parameter in Eq. (", "\\[Ca\\]) is roughly equivalent to the interaction strength, this equation makes sense as long as the coupling is not too large. ", "In the present work, we will improve upon this approximation, extending to massive bosons what was done in ref. [", "@AMGH] for the zero-mass case. ", "In the latter one, the Coulomb-like potential kept its analytical form, only the coupling constant was renormalized by a factor that was determined by solving a self-consistency equation. ", "The zero-mass case will be reminded in Sect. ", "3.2 below, together with further developments.", "\n\nStarting from the formal expression of the interaction in configuration space: $$V_E(r) = g^{2} \\; O_{1} \\, O_{2} \\; \\frac{1}{2\\pi^{2}}\n \\int \\frac{dk k^{2} j_{0}(kr)}{\\omega_{k}\\left( E-2m -\\omega_{k} \n-\\frac{\\vec{p}^{\\,2}}{2m} -\\frac{\\vec{p}\\,'^{\\,2}}{2m} \\right)},\n \\label{Cz}$$ we assume that the quantity $E-2m -\\frac{\\vec{p}^{\\,2}}{2m} \n-\\frac{\\vec{p}\\,'^{\\,2}}{2m}$ in the denominator under the integral can be approximated by the effective potential we want to determine. ", "This procedure is often used in other domains of physics where it underlies for instance the Thomas-Fermi-, WKB-, or eikonal approximations [@RING; @MAHA], and it immediately provides a self-consistency equation: $$V^{nr}_{eff,sc}(r)=-g^{2} \\; O_{1} \\, O_{2} \\; \\frac{1}{2\\pi^{2}}\n \\int \\frac{dk k^{2} j_{0}(kr)}{\\omega_{k}\n \\left(\\omega_{k} -V^{nr}_{eff,sc}(r)\\right)}.", "\n \\label{Cy}$$ By neglecting the effective interaction under the integral, one recovers the standard expression of the instantaneous one-boson exchange potential: $$V_{0}(r)=-g^{2} \\, O_{1} \\, O_{2} \\; \\frac{ e^{-\\mu r} }{4\\pi r}.", "\n\\label{Cd}$$ One can go a step further and make an expansion of the r.h.s. ", "of Eq. (", "\\[Cy\\]) up to first order in the effective potential: $$V^{nr}_{eff}(r)=V_{0}(r)-V^{nr}_{eff}(r)\\;V_{1}(r),\n \\label{Cx}$$ where $$V_{1}(r) = g^{2} \\; O_{1} \\, O_{2} \\; \\frac{1}{2\\pi^{2}}\n \\int \\frac{dk k^{2} j_{0}(kr)}{(\\omega_{k})^{3}}\n = \\frac{g^{2} \\; O_{1} \\, O_{2}}{2\\pi^{2}}\\; K_0(\\mu r).", "\n \\label{Ce}$$ By rearranging terms in Eq. (", "\\[Cx\\]), one recovers the expression of the effective interaction given in ref. [", "@AMGH]: $$V^{nr}_{eff}(r)=\\frac{V_{0}(r)+...}{\\left(1+V_{1}(r)+...\\right)},\n\\label{Ci}$$ where the dots may account for two, three, ... boson exchange. ", "This expression has a simple interpretation in the limit of small couplings. ", "It corresponds to the instantaneous approximation potential renormalized by the probability that the system is in a two-body component. ", "Notice that the self-consistent potential of Eq. (", "\\[Cy\\]) can be put in a form analogous to Eq. (", "\\[Ci\\]), with a generalized renormalization factor: $$V^{nr}_{eff,sc}(r)=\\frac{V_{0}(r)+...}{1+ \n\\frac{g^{2} \\; O_{1} \\, O_{2}}{2\\pi^{2}}\n \\int \\frac{dk k^{2} \nj_{0}(kr)}{\\omega_{k}^{2}\\left(\\omega_{k}-V^{nr}_{eff,sc}(r)\\right)}+...}.", "\n\\label{Cj}$$\n\nWhile making the above developments, we assumed that the operator $p^2$ could be treated as a number. ", "To go beyond this approximation, an expansion of the denominator in Eq. (", "\\[Cz\\]) should be performed in the vicinity of $$E-2m -\\frac{\\vec{p}^{\\,2}}{2m} -\\frac{\\vec{p}\\,'^{\\,2}}{2m} \\simeq \nV^{nr}_{eff,sc}(r).", "\n\\label{Cv}$$ This approximate equality is valid provided it is applied to a solution of a Schrödinger equation. ", "One thus gets up to first order in the expansion: $$V_E(r) = V^{nr}_{eff,sc}(r)+ \\frac{1}{2} \\left\\{ \n\\left(\\frac{\\vec{p}^{\\,2}}{m}+V^{nr}_{eff,sc}(r)+2m-E\\right), \nV_{1,sc}(r)\\right\\},\n \\label{Ct}$$ where $$V_{1,sc}(r)=g^{2} \\; O_{1} \\, O_{2} \\; \\frac{1}{2\\pi^{2}}\n \\int \\frac{dk k^{2} \nj_{0}(kr)}{\\omega_{k}\\left(\\omega_{k}-V^{nr}_{eff,sc}(r)\\right)^{2}}\n \\label{Cu}$$ generalizes the result given by Eq. (", "\\[Ce\\]). ", "The expression of Eq. (", "\\[Ct\\]) can now be inserted in the equation that corresponds to Eq. (", "\\[Be\\]) in configuration space. ", "One thus gets the following equation with an energy-dependent interaction: $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\Bigg( V^{nr}_{eff,sc}(r) ( 1+V_{1,sc}(r) ) + \\frac{1}{2} \n\\left\\{ \\frac{\\vec{p}^{\\,2}}{m},\\Big(1+V_{1,sc}(r) \\Big) \\right\\} \\hspace{3cm} \n \\nonumber \\\\ - (E-2m) \\Big(1+V_{1,sc}(r)\\Big) \\Bigg) \\psi(r)=0.", "\n\\label{Cb}\\end{aligned}$$ The equation relative to the energy-independent scheme is obtained by multiplying Eq. (", "\\[Cb\\]) from the left by $\\Big(1+V_{1,sc}(r)\\Big)^{-1/2}$ and making the substitution: $$\\psi(r)=\\Big(1+V_{1,sc}(r)\\Big)^{-1/2} \\, \\phi(r). ", "\n\\label{Cf}$$ One thus gets a usual non-relativistic Schrödinger equation: $$\\left( V_{eff}(r)+\\frac{\\vec{p}^{\\,2}}{m} -(E-2m) \\right) \\phi(r)=0,\n\\label{Cg}$$ with an effective potential $$V_{eff}(r)=V^{nr}_{eff,sc}(r)\n -\\frac{1}{4m} \\frac{\\left(\\vec{\\nabla}V_{1,sc}(r)\\right)^2}\n {\\Big(1+V_{1,sc}(r)\\Big)^2}.", "\n \\label{Ch}$$ The (presumably) dominant first term, of order $\\left(\\frac{1}{m}\\right)^0$, has a typical non-relativistic character. ", "It can be checked that its contribution to order $g^4$ (i.e. including the box diagram, Fig. ", "\\[fig3\\] a) is identical to the one obtained by substracting from the Feynman two-boson exchange diagram that part resulting from iterating the one-boson exchange. ", "This represents another way of calculating the contributions to energy-independent potentials with the range of two-boson exchange [@DURS; @PARI]. ", "However, the present approach allows one to take into account higher order corrections that are relevant when $V_{1,sc}(r)$ becomes large. ", "The second term in Eq. (", "\\[Ch\\]) is required for consistency with Eq. (", "\\[Cb\\]) and, most importantly, it represents the first correction to the approximation given by Eq. (", "\\[Cv\\]) at the denominator of Eq. (", "\\[Cz\\]). ", "Being of a higher order in $\\frac{1}{m}$, it will be neglected in most calculations using the effective interaction. ", "This is consistent with neglecting other relativistic corrections of the same order, especially the normalization factors $\\frac{m}{e}$ present in Eq. (", "\\[Bb\\]). ", "These ones provide some non-locality that, most probably, could be accounted for in the above developments, but at the price of a tremendous numerical work. ", "For the same reason, we will retain, for the numerical calculations presented below, the expression of the self-consistent, effective potential given by the solution of Eq. (", "\\[Cy\\]). ", "When accounting for the higher-order terms in $\\frac{1}{m}$, the derivation of the effective potential proceeds analogously, by incorporating the second term of Eq. (", "\\[Ch\\]) in the self-consistency equation.", "\n\nThe dressed (effective) character of the object described by $\\phi(r)$, Eq. (", "\\[Cg\\]), is better seen by looking at the expression of the norm in the local approximation: $$\\begin{aligned}\nN = \\int d\\vec{r} \\; \\phi^2(r)\n = \\int d\\vec{r} \\; \\bigg( \\frac{\\phi^2(r)}{ \\Big(1+V_{1,sc}(r)\\Big)}+ \n\\frac{\\phi^2(r)\\;V_{1,sc}(r)}{ \\Big(1+V_{1,sc}(r)\\Big)} \\bigg)\n = \\hspace{1cm} \\nonumber \\\\ \\int d\\vec{r} \\; \\left( \\psi^2(r) + \n\\psi(r)\\,V_{1,sc}(r)\\,\\psi(r) \\right) .", "\n \\label{Cjj}\\end{aligned}$$ The quantity $\\phi^2(r)$ describes a hybrid state that is a coherent superposition of two components, with weights respectively given by $\\frac{1}{1+V_{1,sc}(r)}$ and $\\frac{V_{1,sc}(r)}{1+V_{1,sc}(r)}$. The first one, which from Eq. (", "\\[Cf\\]) is seen to be described by $\\psi(r)$, corresponds to the bare two-body component. ", "The second one, which corresponds to a three-body component, has a more complicated structure. ", "The relation in this case can be obtained from the expression of the component with one boson in flight: $$|{\\rm boson}+2 \\, {\\rm constituents}\\rangle= \\frac{1}{E-\\omega_k-e_1-e_2}\\, \nH_I \\, |2 \\, {\\rm constituents}\\rangle,\n\\label{Ck}$$ where $H_I$ is the boson-constituent interaction. ", "Using this expression, it can be checked that the part corresponding to extra bosons in flight (discarding the boson cloud of the constituents) provides a contribution to the normalization given by $\\int \nd\\vec{r} \\; \\psi^2(r) (-\\frac{\\partial V_E(r)}{\\partial E})$. The identification with the last term in Eq. (", "\\[Cjj\\]) is achieved via the expression given by Eq. (", "\\[Ct\\]), or equivalently from an explicit calculation starting with Eq. (", "\\[Cz\\]), allowing one to directly obtain Eq. (", "\\[Cu\\]).", "\n\nInstantaneous one-boson exchange approximation\n----------------------------------------------\n\nIt is noticed that the potential of Eq. (", "\\[Ch\\]) does not correspond to the so-called instantaneous approximation given by $V_{0}(r)$ in Eq. (", "\\[Cd\\]). ", "This one, which is often used as a reference, underlies many models dealing with hadronic systems and, at first sight, the well known Coulomb potential. ", "It can be partly justified as follows. ", "Starting from the usual covariant expression for a boson propagator in configuration space, $$\\Delta(x_1-x_2)= i \\int \\, \\frac{d^4q}{(2\\pi)^4} \\, \n\\frac{e^{iq \\cdot (x_1-x_2)}}{\\mu^2+\\vec{q}^{\\,2}-q_0^2-i\\epsilon},\n\\label{Da}$$ and assuming that the energy transfer $q_0$ is small, one gets $$\\Delta_B(x_1-x_2) \\simeq i \\, \\delta (t_1-t_2) \\, \\frac{e^{-\\mu \\, r}}{4 \\pi \nr}, \n\\;\\;\\;({\\rm with} \\; r=|\\vec{r}_1-\\vec{r}_2|).", "\n\\label{Db}$$ The assumption that $q_0$ is small is valid for a Born amplitude in the non-relativistic domain. ", "Beyond this approximation, $q_0$, which is an integration variable at the r.h.s. ", "of Eq. (", "\\[Da\\]), is not limited to small values. ", "It may be large and, in particular, can give rise to singularities when $q_0= \\pm \\sqrt{\\mu^2 + \n\\vec{q}^{\\,2}}$. These poles are responsible for the renormalization of the so-called instantaneous potential, Eq. (", "\\[Cd\\]), leading to the effective potential of Eq. (", "\\[Ch\\]). ", "Their contributions are omitted in the spectator approach [@GROS] where they could allow one to symmetrize the role of the two constituent particles. ", "This omission is generally justified by the fact that these extra contributions are cancelled by crossed-boson exchange diagrams, thus recovering an instantaneous-like single-boson exchange interaction. ", "However, this only works for neutral, spinless bosons, which discards two important cases in hadronic physics: pions and gluons.", "\n\nWhile the potentials of Eqs. (", "\\[Ch\\]) and (\\[Cd\\]) both have an instantaneous character, there is not necessarily a contradiction as they do not correspond to the same mathematical description. ", "In one case, one works with asymptotic, bare particles that exchange bosons. ", "In the other, one works with dressed particles that are eigenstates of the Hamiltonian, incorporating components with bosons in flight. ", "The concept of an instantaneous propagation of the interaction is therefore partly scheme dependent. ", "It will become clear from our results that the effects implicitly incorporated in the effective interaction account at least partially for the dynamics of the original relative time (or energy) variable, which has been integrated out (as for instance in Eq. (", "\\[Bc\\])). ", "The effects under discussion may therefore not be relativistic ones as sometimes advocated in the literature. ", "Instead, they are quite similar to those appearing in the many-body problem. ", "In the case of the nucleon-nucleus interaction for instance, they originate from the energy dependence of the optical potential due to the coupling to other channels, whose effects can be partly incorporated in mean-field approximations through a contribution to the effective mass [@MAHA]. ", "The close relationship between the quasi-particle strength introduced in that work, $Z=(1-\\frac{d}{dE}\\Delta \nV(E))^{-1}$, and the quantity $(1+V_{1})^{-1}$ appearing in many equations of the present section, is evident.", "\n\nThe non-relativistic character of the effects we are looking at is further supported by the examination of the energy denominator obtained from time-ordered diagrams, which describes the evolution of the system from time $t_1$ to time $t_2$. This quantity contains the energy of the exchanged boson $\\omega_k$ and, also, the difference of the total energy of the system and the energies of the constituents, $E-e-e'$. The non-relativistic limit of this last factor can be taken but, appearing on the same footing as the $\\omega_k$ term, it cannot be put to zero as the so-called instantaneous approximation would suppose. ", "At best, it can be considered as a recoil correction of order $\\frac{\\mu}{m}$. This can be seen by expanding the energy denominator appearing in Eq. (", "\\[Bb\\]), $$E-e-e'-\\omega_k= -\\mu-\n\\frac{(\\vec{p}-\\vec{p}\\,')^2}{2\\mu}-\\frac{\\vec{p}^{\\,2}}{2m}\n-\\frac{\\vec{p}\\,'^{\\,2}}{2m} + ...\n\\label{Dc}$$ On the other hand, corrections which arise from the expansion of Eq. (", "\\[Bb\\]) up to terms of order $\\frac{1}{\\omega^3 }$, are consistent with Galilean invariance in the standard non-relativistic approximation where $e_p$ is replaced by $ m+ \\frac{p^2}{2m}$. This supposes that the contributions of both two terms in Eq. (", "\\[Ba\\]) are taken into account. ", "It can indeed be shown that the complete numerator of the second term in the expansion given by Eq. (", "\\[Ca\\]) is then independent of the total momentum, as it follows from the equality $$E_{c.m.}+\\frac{(\\vec{p_1}+\\vec{p_2})^{\\,2}}{4m} -\\frac{\\vec{p_1}^{\\,2}}{4m} \n-\\frac{\\vec{p_2}^{\\,2}}{4m} -\\frac{\\vec{p_1}\\,'^{\\,2}}{4m} \n-\\frac{\\vec{p_2}\\,'^{\\,2}}{4m} =\nE_{c.m.}-\\frac{\\vec{p}^2}{2m}-\\frac{\\vec{p}\\,'^{\\,2}}{2m},$$ where $E_{c.m.}$ is the energy in the center of mass (simply written $E$ elsewhere in the text). ", "The corrections under discussion are therefore completely consistent with a non-relativistic approach.", "\n\nCorrections of higher order in $\\frac{1}{\\omega }$ depend on the total momentum of the system. ", "Contrary to the previous ones, they have a relativistic character, accounting in particular for the fact that two events that occur in a given order in one frame may occur in a different order in another one. ", "This effect is also closely related to the occurence of two different terms in Eq. (", "\\[Ba\\]), which reduce to a single one in the center of mass system.", "\n\nBeing justified in the Born approximation, the one-boson exchange instantaneous approximation cannot correctly account for higher order (off-shell) effects. ", "How large these ones are will be discussed in the next sections where binding energies are compared with corresponding ones of more complete approaches. ", "The above statement also applies to the many quasi-potential approaches that have been considered in the literature [@GROS; @BSLT], often with the idea to provide some link to the Bethe-Salpeter equation. ", "Frequently, they differ by the two-particle propagator while using an interaction similar to the so-called instantaneous approximation. ", "Little attention has been given to a significant modification of the interaction, like the one provided by a renormalization as given by Eq. (", "\\[Ch\\]). ", "This one, as will be seen below, is essential to reveal the close relationship with the Bethe-Salpeter equation. ", "Notice that, in the domain of hadronic physics, this renormalization is accounted for correctly in different ways at the two-pion level in the Paris [@PARI] and full Bonn [@BONN] models of the NN interaction, but treated phenomenologically in most other ones.", "\n\nEnergy-dependent corrections beyond the instantaneous approximation, which we are interested in here, have different names, depending on the domain where they are employed: norm corrections in the case of mesonic exchange currents [@CHEM], dispersive effects in scattering processes involving composite systems [@MAHA] or retardation effects in two-body scattering [@BONN]. ", "It is remarked that retardation effects sometimes represent different kind of corrections, involving terms of the order $\\left(\\frac{\\Delta E}{\\omega}\\right)^2$ [@FRIA], rather than the ones retained here, that involve terms of the order $\\frac{\\Delta E}{\\omega}$. As already mentioned, the former ones are of the order $\\left(\\frac{1}{m}\\right)^2$, and have a typical relativistic character.", "\n\nSome notes on abnormal states\n-----------------------------\n\nIt is a common feature of all non-relativistic reduction formalisms of the Bethe-Salpeter equation, that the original relative time degree of freedom is somehow eliminated. ", "One is thereby faced with the question whether an essential dynamical ingredient is lost in this step and if yes, how to recover it. ", "The main motivation of this work came from the conviction that the dynamics involving the relative time can indeed be accounted for in a non-relativistic scheme. ", "If this is the case, also excited states should be well described in an effective approach. ", "This is why we shall put some emphasis on the simultaneous description of ground and excited states when we present our results in the next section.", "\n\nIf we claim that the dynamics of the time variable is well described in a non-relativistic approach, one may immediately ask about states, that are intrinsically connected to this fourth variable, that are the so-called abnormal states. ", "Being excitations in the fourth dimension, it is difficult to imagine describing them in a three-dimensional formalism. ", "It was noted however [@BIJT] that just this may be achieved by an energy-dependent potential. ", "The existence of “extra” solutions (i.e. solutions that do not have an analogue when the energy dependence in the potential is neglected) to the Schrödinger equation was analytically demonstrated in ref. [", "@KHEL]. ", "The authors considered the equivalent of our Eq. (", "\\[Be\\]) for the zero-mass boson case ($\\mu=0$). ", "The key point was the observation, that the asymptotic behaviour of the potential in configuration space changes discontinuously at large distances if the energy dependence is kept. ", "The potential then takes the asymptotic form $$\\label{asypot}\nV_E(r)|_{Er\\gg1} \\sim -\\frac{2\\alpha}{Er^2},$$ instead of the usual Coulomb potential $V_{E=0}(r)=-\\frac{\\alpha}{r}$. Thereby, a new class of solutions appears, characterized by a radial wave function with an infinity of zeroes. ", "It was also noted, that these solutions exist only for large values of the coupling constant, which is just what happens in the relativistic analogue of this case, the Wick-Cutkosky model [@WICK].", "\n\nIt seems possible therefore to account for abnormal states even in a three-dimensional formalism. ", "Unfortunately, neither of the effective interaction potentials that we shall use, Eq. (", "\\[Cy\\]) and Eq. (", "\\[Ci\\]), even though they are supposed to account for a part of the energy dependence of the original potential that they were derived from, will be able to produce these supplementary states. ", "The reason is, that they both have the same asymptotic behaviour for large distances in configuration space as the original Coulomb potential, so the argument of ref. [", "@KHEL] does not apply. ", "This shows the nonperturbative nature of these states and the necessity to keep track of the full energy dependence of the original potential if one wants to account for them. ", "However, from a calculational point of view, it seems to be difficult to identify these solutions numerically, since there is no obvious criterion to distinguish them from normal ones. ", "For that reason and in order to render a comparison meaningful for all approaches considered here, we shall only investigate normal states in this work.", "\n\nResults in ladder approximation\n===============================\n\nWe present here binding energies calculated in ladder approximation using the different approaches described in the last section. ", "Explicitly, these ones include:\n\n- the Bethe-Salpeter (B.S.) equation, Eq. (", "\\[Aa\\]), together with an interaction kernel given by Eq. (", "\\[Ab\\]) (ladder approximation),\n\n- a semi-relativistic equation, Eq. (", "\\[Bc\\]), with an energy-dependent interaction ($V_E$) given by Eq. (", "\\[Bb\\]),\n\n- the standard non-relativistic Schrödinger equation, Eq. (", "\\[Cg\\]), together with an effective interaction ($V_{eff,sc}$) given by Eq. (", "\\[Cy\\]), which accounts for energy-dependent effects in a self-consistent calculation,\n\n- the same equation, but with an effective interaction ($V_{eff}$) as given by Eq. (", "\\[Ci\\]), accounting for energy-dependent effects only at the lowest order,\n\n- the same equation in the so-called instantaneous approximation (IA) with an interaction given by Eq. (", "\\[Cd\\]).", "\n\nIn Fig. ", "\\[fig4\\], we plot the potential functions of the last three of these approaches in configuration space with the box contribution included for two values of the coupling constant and two values of the boson mass. ", "It can be seen that the effective potentials are significantly smaller than the instantaneous approximation, especially at small distances, the effect being larger for $V_{eff}$ than for its self-consistent version, $V_{eff,sc}$.\n\nIn the following, we give results for the above two different boson masses as well as different angular momenta. ", "The aim is to show that binding energies are relatively close to each other for the four first approaches and significantly depart from those obtained in the instantaneous one-boson exchange approximation. ", "In the second, third and fourth approaches, the results with and without the contribution of the box diagram (Fig. ", "\\[fig3\\] a) are considered, so that a comparison with the Bethe-Salpeter approach is fully relevant at order $\\left(\\frac{1}{m}\\right)^0$.\n\nFinite-mass boson case\n----------------------\n\n[@cccccccc]{}\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n$\\mu/m$ & $\\alpha$ & ${\\rm B.S.}$ & $V_E \\;(-{\\rm box}) $& $V^{nr}_{eff,sc} \\;(-{\\rm box}) $ & $V^{nr}_{eff} \\;(-{\\rm box}) $ & & ${\\rm IA}^{nr} $\\\n\\[1.ex\\] $$ & $0.50$ & 0.0059& 0.0052 (0.0045)&0.0062 (0.0051) & 0.0055 (0.0040) & & 0.013\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $$ & $0.75$ & 0.023 & 0.020 (0.017) &0.023 (0.020) & 0.020 (0.014) & & 0.056\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $.15$ & $1.00$ & 0.047 & 0.039 (0.034) &0.048 (0.039) & 0.038 (0.026) & & 0.129\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $$ & $1.25$ & 0.076 & 0.061 (0.052) &0.076 (0.063) & 0.059 (0.037) & & 0.233\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $$ & $1.50$ & 0.109 & 0.084 (0.073) &0.108 (0.088) & 0.081 (0.047) & & 0.367\\\n\\[1.ex\\] $$ & $1.50$ & 0.0125& 0.0071 (0.0051)&0.0144 (0.0090)& 0.0098 (0.0028) & & 0.093\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $$ & $1.75$ & 0.028 & 0.017 (0.013) &0.031 (0.021) & 0.023 (0.008) & & 0.180\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $.50$ & $2.00$ & 0.049 & 0.030 (0.024) &0.053 (0.037) & 0.038 (0.014) & & 0.296\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $$ & $2.25$ & 0.073 & 0.045 (0.036) &0.078 (0.056) & 0.056 (0.022) & & 0.442\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $$ & $2.50$ & 0.100 & 0.061 (0.050) &0.106 (0.077) & 0.077 (0.030) & & 0.619\\\n\\[1.ex\\]\n\n[@ccccccccc]{}\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n$\\mu/m$&$l$&$\\alpha$ & ${\\rm B.S.}$ & $V_E \\;(-{\\rm box}) $ & $V^{nr}_{eff,sc} \\;(-{\\rm box}) $ &$V^{nr}_{eff} \\;(-{\\rm box}) $ & & ${\\rm IA}^{nr} $\\\n\\[1.ex\\] $ $&$ $&$ 2.00 $ & 0.005 & 0.003 (0.002) &0.006 (0.004) &0.003 & & 0.054\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ $&$ 2.25 $ & 0.010 & 0.006 (0.004) &0.011 (0.007) &0.005 & & 0.086\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$0^{*}$&$ 2.50 $ & 0.015 & 0.009 (0.007) &0.016 (0.011) &0.009 (0.001) & & 0.124\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ $&$ 2.75 $ & 0.022 & 0.013 (0.010) &0.023 (0.015) &0.013 (0.002) & & 0.170\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ $&$ 3.00 $ & 0.029 & 0.018 (0.014) &0.030 (0.021) &0.018 (0.003) & & 0.223\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $0.15 $ & & & & & &\\\n$ $&$ $&$ 2.00 $ & 0.003 & 0.002 (0.001) &0.003 (0.001) &0.002 & & 0.042\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ $&$ 2.25 $ & 0.009 & 0.006 (0.003) &0.009 (0.005) &0.006 (0.001) & & 0.073\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ 1 $&$ 2.50 $ & 0.015 & 0.011 (0.007) &0.015 (0.009)&0.011 (0.003) & & 0.111\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ $&$ 2.75 $ & 0.022 & 0.016 (0.011) &0.022 (0.014)&0.016 (0.005) & & 0.156\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ $&$ 3.00 $ & 0.030 & 0.022 (0.016) &0.029 (0.020)&0.022 (0.007) & & 0.209\\\n\\[1.ex\\] $ $&$ $&$ 9 $ & 0.022 & &0.031 (0.012) &0.017 & & 1.787\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ $&$ 10 $ & 0.042 & 0.004 (0.001) & 0.053 (0.024) & 0.035 & & 2.494\\\n\\[0.ex\\] &\\[0pt\\][$0^{*}$]{} &$ 11 $ & 0.067 & 0.012 (0.005) & 0.079 (0.040) & 0.057 & & 3.324\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ $&$ 12 $ & 0.096 & 0.022 (0.011) & 0.108 (0.058) & 0.084 & & 4.279\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ 0.5 $ & & & & & &\\\n$ $ &$ $&$ 9 $ & 0.012 & & 0.014 & & & 1.627\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $ &$ $&$ 10 $ & 0.037 & 0.003 &0.039 (0.008) &0.022 & & 2.327\\\n\\[0.ex\\] &\\[0pt\\][$1$]{} &$ 11 $ & 0.067 & 0.015 (0.002) &0.067 (0.026) &0.046 & & 3.150\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $ &$ $&$ 12 $ & 0.101 & 0.031 (0.012) &0.099 (0.046) &0.075 & & 4.099\\\n\\[1.ex\\]\n\nCalculations have been performed with boson masses $\\mu=0.15\\,m$ and $\\mu=0.5\\,m$, a choice that was made in earlier works [@NIEU; @FRED]. ", "In the instantaneous approximation, these results are not independent. ", "The ratio of the binding energy and the squared boson mass is a unique function of the ratio of the coupling constant and the boson mass: $$\\frac{m\\,E_{be}}{ \\mu^2}= f \\left(\\frac{\\alpha m }{ \\mu}\\right).", "\n\\label{Ea}$$ For the coupling constant, $\\alpha=\\frac{g^2}{4\\pi}$, we considered ranges appropriate for the states under consideration, in order to provide a significant insight on the variation of the binding energy with the strength of the interaction. ", "Some of the binding energies may be quite large, questioning their physical relevance. ", "However, this should not spoil the comparison of the different approaches we are considering, which is our main intent. ", "For the angular momentum, we obviously considered the ground state with $l=0$ (Table \\[tab1\\]), but also the first excited states with $l=0$ (denoted $0^{*}$) and $l=1$. The energies for the latter ones, which are degenerate in the case of zero-mass boson exchange, are presented in Table \\[tab2\\]. ", "Their examination may provide useful information on the role of the combined effect of the coupling strength and the boson mass.", "\n\nExamination of Tables \\[tab1\\] and \\[tab2\\] shows that results from the first four approaches are relatively close to each other and definitively depart from the instantaneous-approximation results. ", "While this qualitative conclusion is not essentially affected by the contribution of the box diagram, this one is quite important in showing the approximate quantitative equivalence of the four first approaches in all cases.", "\n\nWhen comparing results of $V^{nr}_{eff,sc}(r)$ and $V^{nr}_{eff}(r)$, it is noted that the self-consistency condition of Eq. (", "\\[Cy\\]) plays a non-negligible role. ", "It makes the results more consistent with what we expect from possible corrections (see the discussion at the end of the section).", "\n\nConcerning the binding energies of the lowest $l=1$ state and the first excited state with $l=0$, some track of the degeneracy expected for a Coulomb potential can be seen in Table \\[tab2\\] (for states that are not too weakly bound). ", "It is interesting however to observe the relative order of these states in the various approaches. ", "In the instantaneous approximation the total energy of the first excited state with $l=0$ is always smaller than the one of the $l=1$ state for all values of the coupling constant, as expected from a theorem involving the concavity of the potential [@BMG]. ", "The situation is however different in the energy-dependent model, and in the Bethe-Salpeter case, where a crossing of the 2s and 1p states occurs. ", "This peculiarity is illustrated in Fig. ", "\\[fig5\\], where we plot the ratio of binding energies of the two states for the various approaches. ", "This feature, together with the principal possibility of the description of abnormal states, as discussed earlier, shows the dynamical importance of the energy dependence of the interaction for describing also excited states.", "\n\nZero-mass boson case\n--------------------\n\nBinding energies for the zero-mass boson case have been considered in various works from different viewpoints (see for instance refs. [", "@SILV; @BILA; @JI]). ", "Those for the Wick-Cutkosky model obtained with the Bethe-Salpeter equation in ref. [", "@SILV] are reminded here, complemented by a few more values of the coupling constant, $\\alpha$. Binding energies calculated with the energy-dependent interaction, $V_E$, may be compared to those obtained using the memory-function approach in ref. [", "@BILA]. ", "The latter one includes higher order corrections in $\\frac{1}{m}$, but neglects the contribution of the box diagram (Fig. ", "\\[fig3\\] a). ", "The two last sets of numbers considered here correspond to binding energies calculated in a non-relativistic approach with an effective Coulomb interaction accounting for energy-dependent effects, and the bare Coulomb interaction as a reference. ", "The binding energy for these cases is then given by the standard analytic expression: $$|E_{be}|=\\frac{\\alpha^2}{4n^2}\\;\\;\\;\n\\left({\\rm or} \\; \\frac{\\alpha^2_{eff,sc}}{4n^2}\\right),\n\\label{Fa}$$ where the relation between $\\alpha_{eff,sc}$ and $\\alpha$, first studied in ref. [", "@AMGH], is given in the simplest case by: $$\\alpha_{eff,sc} = \\frac{\\alpha}{ 1 + \\alpha \\, J}\n = \\alpha (1 - \\alpha_{eff,sc} \\, J),\\;\\;{\\rm with}\\;\\; \n J=\\frac{2}{\\pi} \\, \\int_0^{\\infty} \\frac{dy \\, j_0(y)}{\\alpha_{eff,sc}+y}.", "\n \\label{Fb}$$ This equation can also be obtained from Eq. (", "\\[Cy\\]) for the zero-mass boson case. ", "It can be improved by incorporating the contribution of the box diagram, in which case it gets modified as follows: $$\\alpha_{eff,sc} = \\frac{\\alpha(1+\\alpha J^b)}{ 1 + \\alpha \\, J}\n = \\alpha (1+\\alpha J^b - \\alpha_{eff,sc} \\, J),\n \\label{Fc}$$ where $J$ is still given by the integral in Eq. (", "\\[Fb\\]). ", "The quantity $J^b$, which involves the contribution of the box diagram (Fig. ", "\\[fig3\\] a), is given by: $$\\begin{aligned}\n J^b=\\frac{1}{\\pi^2}\\,\\int_0^{\\infty}dx \\, j_0(x)\\int_0^{\\infty}\\frac{dy \n\\;\\;\\;x}{y(\\alpha_{eff,sc}+y)} \\,\\nonumber \\hspace{5cm} \\\\ \\times\n \\log\\left(\\frac{(\\alpha_{eff,sc}+|x+y|)(\\alpha_{eff,sc}+y+|x-y|)}{\n (\\alpha_{eff,sc}+|x-y|)(\\alpha_{eff,sc}+y+|x+y|)} \\right),\n \\label{Fd}\\end{aligned}$$ where the second integral becomes equal to $4 \\, \\log 2$ in the limit of small $\\alpha_{eff,sc}$. It is calculated from an expression similar to Eq. (", "\\[Bf\\]) where the terms $E-\\frac{p^2}{m}$ appearing in the full expression have been kept and approximated by $-\\frac{\\alpha_{eff,sc}}{r}$. This is consistent with the calculation of $J$, allowing one to factorize a local Coulomb-type contribution. ", "While the relation of $J^b$ to the two-boson exchange can be traced back without too much difficulty, this is not so obvious for the quantity $J$ which was obtained by accounting for off-shell effects arising from one-boson exchange. ", "However, it can be made more transparent by rewriting $J$ in a more complicated form that is formally similar to Eq. (", "\\[Fd\\]). ", "Using the identity: $$\\sin(y)=\\frac{1}{\\pi} \\, \\int_0^{\\infty}dx \\, \\sin(x)\n\\, \\, \\log \\left( \\frac{|x+y|}{|x-y|} \\right),$$ one gets: $$J=\\frac{2}{\\pi^2} \\, \\int_0^{\\infty}dx \\, j_0(x)\\int_0^{\\infty}\\frac{dy \n\\;\\;\\;x}{y(\\alpha_{eff,sc}+y)} \\, \\log \\left( \\frac{|x+y|}{|x-y|} \\right ).$$\n\nCurves showing $\\alpha_{eff,sc}$ as a function of the coupling $\\alpha$ are given in Fig. ", "\\[fig6\\] for the different cases corresponding to Eqs. (", "\\[Fb\\]) and (\\[Fc\\]). ", "More precisely, we represent the quantity $\\frac{\\alpha_{eff,sc}^2}{4}$ as a function of $\\alpha$. This one offers the advantage of being directly comparable to the binding energy obtained for the lowest $l=0$ state in a non-relativistic Coulomb-like potential, $-\\frac{\\alpha_{eff,sc}}{r}$ (we set $m=1$ here). ", "It can be as well compared to the product of the binding energy by the factor $n^2$ where $n$ is the quantum number relative to the excited states obtained in such a potential. ", "It can also be compared to the quantity $\\frac{4m^2-E^2}{4m}$ (possibly multiplied by the factor $n^2$) which replaces the above binding energy in some relativistic approaches while the equations to be solved keep the same form. ", "For large couplings, $\\alpha_{eff,sc}$ varies like $\\sqrt{\\alpha}$, which can be checked from Eq. (", "\\[Fb\\]) or equivalently from Eq. (", "\\[Cy\\]) in the limit of a large effective potential. ", "One gets the asymptotic relation $ \n\\alpha_{eff,sc}^2 \\rightarrow \\frac{2}{\\pi} \\, \\alpha$ for one-boson exchange, Eq. (", "\\[Fb\\]) and $\\alpha_{eff,sc}^2 \\rightarrow \\frac{2}{\\pi(\\sqrt{3}-1)} \\, \n\\alpha $ when also including two-boson exchange, Eq. (", "\\[Fc\\]). ", "The corresponding result for the Wick-Cutkosky model would be $\n \\alpha_{eff,sc}^2 \\rightarrow \\frac{4}{\\pi} \\, \\alpha $.", "\n\n[@clccccc]{}\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n$\\alpha$ & $l$ & ${\\rm B.S.}$ & $V_E \\;(-{\\rm \nbox}) $ & $V^{nr}_{eff,sc}\\; (-{\\rm box}) $ & & ${\\rm IA}^{nr} \n$\\\n\\[1.ex\\] $$ & $0,$ & 1.274-5 & & 1.274-5 (1.266-5) & & 1.331-5\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $1/137.036$ & $0^{*},1,$ & 0.318-5 & & 0.318-5 (0.316-5) & & 0.333-5\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $$ & $0^{**},1^{*},2,$ & 0.141-5 & & 0.141-5 (0.140-5) & & 0.148-5\\\n\\[1.ex\\] $$ & $0,$ & 1.849-3 & & 1.859-3 (1.770-3) & & 2.500-3\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $0.10$ & $0^{*},1,$ & 0.465-3 & & 0.465-3 (0.442-3) & & 0.625-3\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $$ & $0^{**},1^{*},2,$ & 0.207-3 & & 0.207-3 (0.197-3) & & 0.278-3\\\n\\[1.ex\\] $$ & $0,$ & 2.867-2 & & 2.883-2 (2.547-2) & & 6.250-2\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $0.50$ & $0^{*},1,$ & 0.727-2 & & 0.721-2 (0.637-2) & & 1.562-2\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $$ & $0^{**},1^{*},2,$ & 0.324-2 & & 0.320-2 (0.283-2) & & 0.694-2\\\n\\[1.ex\\] $$ & $0,$ & 0.842-1 & 0.725-1 (0.637-1) & 0.832-1 (0.711-1) & & 2.50-1\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $1.00$ & $0^{*},1,$ & 0.213-1 & 0.202-1 (0.174-1) & 0.208-1 (0.178-1) & & 0.62-1\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $$ & $0^{**},1^{*},2,$ & 0.095-1 & 0.093-1 (0.081-1) & 0.092-1 (0.079-1) & & 0.28-1\\\n\\[1.ex\\] $$ & $0,$ & 1.545-1 & 1.239-1 (1.071-1) & 1.494-1 (1.247-1) & & 5.62-1\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $1.50$ & $0^{*},1,$ & 0.388-1 & 0.353-1 (0.300-1) & 0.373-1 (0.312-1) & & 1.41-1\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $$ & $0^{**},1^{*},2,$ & 0.173-1 & 0.164-1 (0.138-1) & 0.166-1 (0.139-1) & & 0.62-1\\\n\\[1.ex\\]\n\nThe different results for the binding energies are given in Table \\[tab3\\]. ", "The results of $V^{nr}_{eff}$ relative to those of $V^{nr}_{eff,sc}$ are very similar to the corresponding ones of Table \\[tab1\\], so we do not give the numbers here. ", "In the case of $V_E$, the small binding energies obtained here for small couplings cannot be reliably determined by the variational procedure that we employ. ", "Only values for relatively large couplings are given here, in order to allow for a comparison of different approaches. ", "Note also, that for the energy-dependent interaction, $V_E$, binding energies for excited states are not degenerate, as it is the case for all the other models considered here, even though the splitting is expected to be small. ", "The numbers that we present in Table \\[tab3\\] for this case correspond to the state with the highest value of angular momentum, $l$, in that row.", "\n\nAs for the massive boson case, the three first calculations are close to each other and depart from the instantaneous approximation results. ", "Again, the contribution of the box diagram, without affecting the above conclusion, significantly helps in narrowing the gap between the Bethe-Salpeter approach (B.S.) and those accounting for energy-dependent effects, $V_E$ and $V_{eff,sc}$. The results for the Bethe-Salpeter case and the effective interaction are very close to each other, especially if one compares them to those obtained with the energy-dependent interaction, $V_E$. This is due to the cancellation of different relativistic corrections that will be discussed in the next subsection. ", "It is also noticed that the discrepancy between the B.S. and $V_E$ results decreases with $l$. As this difference mainly originates from Z-type diagrams, which produce a $\\frac{1}{r^2}$ contribution to the interaction in the non-relativistic limit, it is expected that its effect be reduced by the centrifugal barrier, providing an explanation for the above observation.", "\n\nDue to the way the effective potential is derived, it evidences the degeneracy pattern of the Wick-Cutkosky model in the ladder approximation, as does the IA results. ", "Less trivial is the fact that the same effective potential does equally well for the ground and excited states. ", "The consideration of the results for the energy-dependent model ($V_E$), where none of the above properties are a priori fulfilled, allows one to make more precise statements about the validity of the effective potential.", "\n\nDiscussion\n----------\n\nThe present calculations with effective interactions ($V^{nr}_{eff,sc}$ and $V^{nr}_{eff}$) have neglected various corrections of relativistic order. ", "In these cases, the binding energies obtained are likely to be overestimated. ", "The largest correction would come from the normalization factors $\\frac{m}{e}$, that have a repulsive character. ", "Their reduction effect tends to increase with the boson mass, with the angular momentum and the radial excitation. ", "For the $l=0$ ground state, it is of the order of 25% for $\\mu=0.15 \\, m$ and 60% for $\\mu=0.5 \\, m$. These corrections (which get partly cancelled however by the attractive second term neglected in Eq. (", "\\[Ch\\])) have a size comparable to those obtained by Elster et al. [", "@ELST] in a schematic description of the deuteron or later on by Mangin-Brinet and Carbonell [@MANG] (see also ref. [", "@BILA] for the zero-mass boson case). ", "They are not small, but in the present case they should be compared to the difference between results obtained with $V^{nr}_{eff,sc}$ and IA$^{nr}$ which roughly amount to a factor 2-3 $(\\mu=0.15\\,m)$ and 6 $(\\mu=0.50\\,m)$. Curiously, the discrepancy with the Bethe-Salpeter results is rather small in many cases. ", "In view of the corrections due to the factors $\\frac{m}{e}$, the agreement should therefore be considered with caution. ", "The effect of these factors is actually welcome since it will bring values obtained with $V^{nr}_{eff,sc}\\; (-{\\rm box})$ closer to those obtained with $V_E \\;(-{\\rm box})$, leaving some room for the contribution of Z-type diagrams as well as diagrams with higher order boson exchange, whose role should increase with the coupling. ", "Both have an attractive character for the field-theory model considered in this work. ", "On the other hand, we would like to mention the role of the term $E-e-e'$ in the meson propagator, Eq. (", "\\[Bb\\]), and the corresponding one, $V^{nr}_{eff,sc}$, introduced in the self-consistent derivation of the effective interaction, Eq. (", "\\[Cy\\]). ", "The effect of these terms is especially important when the coupling becomes large, though the binding energy remains small. ", "Properly taking into account these factors is essential to get a reliable estimate of the two-boson exchange contribution both in the energy-dependent and in the effective interaction schemes. ", "Once this was done correctly, contributions dropped by one or two orders of magnitude for the second set of values given in Table \\[tab2\\] ($\\mu=0.5\\,m$), bringing the results in an acceptable range. ", "Contrary to the statement made in ref. [", "@MANG], it is possible to roughly account in a non-relativistic approach for binding energies obtained in relativistic calculations even for large couplings, provided one includes in the interaction corrections that have the range of multi-boson exchange.", "\n\nKeeping in mind the above remarks about the non-relativistic calculations, it is instructive to look at the convergence of various approximate results to the ones obtained from solving the Bethe-Salpeter equation in the ladder approximation. ", "For instance, the binding energies obtained with this equation for the $l=0$ ground state and $\\mu=0.15 \\, m$ are equal to 0.0059, 0.023, 0.047, 0.076, 0.109 for $\\alpha=$ 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.25, 1.50 respectively (see Table \\[tab1\\]). ", "They can be compared to the binding energies calculated in the light-front approach, 0.0057, 0.022, 0.044, 0.070, 0.100 [@MANG] and with the effective interaction, $V_{eff}$, 0.0040, 0.014, 0.026, 0.037, 0.047 [@AMGH]. ", "The difference, which is dominated in both cases by the contribution of the box diagram, is significantly smaller in the former one [@FRED]. ", "While this contribution is largely sufficient to reproduce the Bethe-Salpeter results in the light-front approach, it is not for approaches using energy-dependent and effective interactions. ", "In these cases, one has to incorporate also extra contributions due to Z type diagrams (among other ones) to account for the Bethe-Salpeter results.", "\n\nWhile the superiority of the light-front approach in calculating binding energies is obvious for massive bosons, the advantage for zero-mass bosons is less striking. ", "With this respect, it is interesting to compare the corresponding binding energies obtained from a variational calculation with present ones. ", "Expressions given by Ji and Furnstahl [@JI] for the $l=0$ and $l=1$ states allow one to derive an effective coupling in terms of $\\alpha$ in each case, and it is found that they compare well with the ones given in Fig. ", "\\[fig6\\].", "\n\nFor the zero-mass boson case, present results are obviously in agreement with those obtained in ref. [", "@SILV]. ", "They can be compared to those given by Bilal and Schuck (Table 1 of ref. [", "@BILA]). ", "From the examination of their approach, it is found that the memory-function results with vacuum correlations neglected (MFN) should be close to the ones obtained with the energy-dependent approach without box contribution, denoted $V_E(-{\\rm box}) $. ", "For $\\alpha=1$, the numbers are 0.607-1 and 0.637-1 respectively, indicating that the dominant energy-dependent effect is accounted for in both approaches. ", "The box contribution is absent in the MFN calculation, where it appears on a different footing and should be considered separately. ", "It is probably a sizeable part of what the memory function (MF) result is missing to reproduce the Bethe-Salpeter result. ", "This is confirmed by the comparison of this difference with our estimate of the box contribution. ", "For $\\alpha=1$, numbers for the lowest state are respectively 0.100-1 for B.S. $-$ MF and 0.088-1 for $V_E-V_E(-box)$ or 0.121-1 for $V^{nr}_{eff,sc}-V^{nr}_{eff,sc}(-box)$. Finally, the difference between the MF and MFN results, which is due to vacuum correlations, should be comparable to what our results for $V_E$ miss to reproduce the B.S. results (Z-diagrams essentially). ", "This is again verified, numbers being 0.135-1 for MF $-$ MFN and 0.117-1 for B.S. $-$ $V_E$ for the same case ($\\alpha=1$, $l=0$).", "\n\nIn all cases, the Bethe-Salpeter, the energy-dependent and the non-relativistic effective interaction approaches produce smaller binding energies than the instantaneous approximation. ", "This would indicate that the range of validity of a non-relativistic approach should be larger than what is often infered from the results of the instantaneous approximation. ", "How this conclusion is modified when going beyond the ladder approximation is discussed in the next section.", "\n\nResults with crossed-boson exchange\n===================================\n\nWe consider in this section the role of genuine crossed two-boson exchanges in the different approaches, including in particular those ones that have the same order as the correction brought about by the renormalization factor $\\left(1+V_1(r)\\right)^{-1}$ in Eq. (", "\\[Ci\\]) or what generalizes this quantity in Eq. (", "\\[Cj\\]). ", "We first remind the general expression for these contributions and subsequently look at particular cases for both neutral and charged bosons.", "\n\nGeneral case\n------------\n\nAs invoked in Sect. ", "2, the full kernel of the Bethe-Salpeter equation, Eq. (", "\\[Aa\\]), also contains diagrams of the non-ladder type. ", "The simplest examples of these are shown in Fig. ", "\\[fig7\\], involving crossed two- and three-boson exchanges.", "\n\nThe full expression of the crossed two-boson exchange is taken from ref. [", "@THEU], where it was put into the form of a dispersion relation appropriate to be used with the Bethe-Salpeter equation, Eq. (", "\\[Aa\\]). ", "Among the different expressions given in this work, we retain here that one which is independent of the energy, with $u=0$: $$K^{(2)}=- \\frac{g^4}{8\\pi^2} \\int_{4\\mu^2}^{\\infty} \\frac{dt'}{t'-t} \n\\; \\sqrt{ \\frac{t'-4\\mu^2}{t'} } \\;\\; \n\\frac{1}{2\\left( \\mu^4 + m^2(t'-4\\mu^2)\\right)} .", "\n\\label{Ha}$$ Provided that the binding energy is not too large, the other expressions give close results.", "\n\nThe expressions appropriate for the energy-dependent picture are obtained from the time-ordered diagrams shown in Fig. ", "\\[fig8\\] that have to be added to the box diagram of Fig. ", "\\[fig3\\] a. They read:\n\n$$\\begin{aligned}\n\\nonumber\nV^{(2b)}(\\vec{p\\,},\\vec{p}\\,') =- \\frac{g^4}{2} \\int \\frac{d \n\\vec{q}}{(2\\pi)^3} \\; \\frac{m}{e_q} \\frac{m}{e} \\;\n\\frac{O_{1} \\, ( O_{1} \\cdot O_{2}) \\, O_{2}}{\\omega \\, \\omega'} \\;\n\\frac{m}{e'} \\frac{m}{e_{q'}} \\hspace{2cm} \\\\\n\\times \\frac{1}{\\left(\\omega+e+e_q-E\\right)} \n\\frac{1}{\\left(\\omega'+e'+e_q-E\\right)} \n\\frac{1}{\\left(\\omega+\\omega'+e_q+e_{q'}-E\\right)},\n \\label{Hb1} \\\\\n\\nonumber \\rule[0em]{0em}{3em}\nV^{(2c)}(\\vec{p\\,},\\vec{p}\\,') =- \\frac{g^4}{2} \\int \\frac{d \n\\vec{q}}{(2\\pi)^3} \\; \\frac{m}{e_q} \\frac{m}{e} \\;\n\\frac{O_{1} \\, ( O_{1} \\cdot O_{2}) \\, O_{2}}{\\omega \\, \\omega'} \\;\n\\frac{m}{e'} \\frac{m}{e_{q'}} \\hspace{2cm} \\\\\n\\nonumber\n\\times \\frac{1}{\\left(\\omega+e+e_q-E\\right)} \n\\frac{1}{\\left(\\omega+e'+e_{q'}-E\\right)} \\hspace{2cm} \\\\\n\\times \n\\left\\{ \\frac{1}{\\left(\\omega+\\omega'+e+e'-E\\right)} +\n\\frac{1}{\\left(\\omega+\\omega'+e_q+e_{q'}-E\\right)} \\right\\}.", "\n \\label{Hb2} \\end{aligned}$$\n\nIn addition to the factors defined after Eq. (", "\\[Bf\\]), we have used here $e_{q'}=\\sqrt{m^2+\\vec{q}\\,'\\,^2}$ with $\\vec{q}\\,'=\\vec{q}-\\left( \\vec{p}+\\vec{p}\\,' \\right)$. Z-type diagrams have a higher order in $\\frac{1}{m}$ and are expected to be smaller. ", "They are not incorporated in Eqs. (", "\\[Hb1\\], \\[Hb2\\]). ", "By retaining terms of the lowest order, $\\left(\\frac{1}{m}\\right)^0$, one gets the expression of the crossed two-boson exchange that we will include in $V_{eff,sc}^{nr}$ and $V_{eff}^{nr}$. It can be checked that it is equal to the contribution obtained with the dispersion relation, Eq. (", "\\[Ha\\]), in the same limit.", "\n\nFor a charged boson, the crossed-box contribution depends on the isospin of the state under consideration. ", "We will consider the case of a state with $T=1$, where it provides further attraction. ", "The effective interaction then reads: $$V^{nr}_{eff}=V_0 \\; \\frac{ 1+\\bar{V}^{(2a)}+\\kappa \\, \n(\\bar{V}^{(2b)}+\\bar{V}^{(2c)})}\n{1+\\bar{V}^{(2a)}+\\bar{V}^{(2b)}+\\bar{V}^{(2c)}},\n\\label{Hc}$$ where the barred potentials are the same as the ones defined in Eqs. (", "\\[Bf\\], \\[Hb1\\], \\[Hb2\\]) but without the isospin operators $O_i$. The factor $\\kappa$ is the result of the isospin algebra. ", "For a charged boson, $\\kappa=5$, whereas for a neutral boson, $\\kappa=1$, in which case the expression greatly simplifies, leaving $V_0$ as an effective interaction. ", "Notice that, up to order $\\left(\\frac{1}{m}\\right)^0$, this cancellation is expected to hold at all orders in the coupling $g^2$, i.e. even including multi-boson exchange diagrams [@AMGH]. ", "The effective interaction is thus also given by $V_0$ in this case.", "\n\nMassive spinless bosons (without and with “charge”)\n---------------------------------------------------\n\n[cccccccc]{}\n\n------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n$\\mu/m$ &$ \\alpha$ & ${\\rm B.S.}$ & $V_E$ & $V^{nr}_{eff,sc}$ & $V^{nr}_{eff} $ & & ${\\rm IA}^{nr} $\\\n\\[1.ex\\] $ {\\rm neutral~case }$ & & & & & &\\\n\\[1.ex\\] $ $&$ 0.50 $ & 0.013 & 0.0076 & 0.0096& 0.013 & & 0.013\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ 0.75 $ & 0.062 & 0.027 & 0.035 & 0.056 & & 0.056\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ .15 $&$ 1.00 $ & 0.158 & 0.054 & 0.071 & 0.129 & & 0.129\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ 1.25 $ & 0.324 & 0.083 & 0.114 & 0.233 & & 0.233\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ 1.50 $ & 0.593 & 0.115 & 0.161 & 0.367 & & 0.367\\\n\\[1.ex\\] $ $&$ 1.50 $ & 0.077 & 0.014 & 0.034 & 0.093 & & 0.093\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ 1.75 $ & 0.162 & 0.029 & 0.064 & 0.180 & & 0.180\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ .50 $&$ 2.00 $ & 0.290 & 0.047 & 0.101 & 0.296 & & 0.296\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ 2.25 $ & 0.479 & 0.068 & 0.143 & 0.442 & & 0.442\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ 2.50 $ & 0.761 & 0.092 & 0.189 & 0.619 & & 0.619\\\n\\[1.ex\\] ${\\rm charged~case } $ & & & & &\\\n\\[1.ex\\] $ $&$ 0.30 $ & 0.0062 & 0.0015 & 0.0024& 0.0095& & 0.00046\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ 0.40 $ & 0.037 & 0.0083 & 0.012 & 0.053 & & 0.0046\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ .15 $&$ 0.50 $ & 0.107 & 0.020 & 0.028 & 0.152 & & 0.013\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ 0.60 $ & 0.229 & 0.034 & 0.049 & 0.322 & & 0.027\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ 0.70 $ & 0.425 & 0.050 & 0.073 & 0.573 & & 0.045\\\n\\[1.ex\\] $ $&$ 0.90 $ & 0.092 & 0.0007 & 0.011 & 0.336 & & 0.0007\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ 1.00 $ & 0.183 & 0.0041 & 0.023 & 0.59 & & 0.0052\\\n\\[0.ex\\] \\[0pt\\][$.50$]{} &$ 1.10 $ & 0.319 & 0.0098 & 0.040 & 0.93 & & 0.0138\\\n\\[0.ex\\] $ $&$ 1.20 $ & 0.517 & 0.0170 & 0.061 & 1.36 & & 0.0267\\\n\\[1.ex\\]\n\nThe results for the massive boson case are given in Table \\[tab4\\]. ", "As in the ladder approximation, results for the energy-dependent and the non-relativistic self-consistent effective interaction approaches are relatively close to each other in the neutral-boson model. ", "The discrepancy, which tends to increase with the coupling and the boson mass, can be understood as being primarily due to the omission of factors $\\sqrt{\\frac{m}{e}}$ in the non-relativistic calculation. ", "Taking this into account, it can be considered that the effective self-consistent interaction, $V^{nr}_{eff,sc}$, represents the physics underlying the energy-dependent interaction, $V_{E}$, which it was derived from. ", "However, contrary to the ladder approximation (Table \\[tab1\\]), the corresponding results significantly depart from those obtained with the Bethe-Salpeter equation or the (non self-consistent) effective interaction, $V^{nr}_{eff}$, which both are close (or identical) to the results obtained in the instantaneous approximation. ", "It is reminded that the exact equality of the two last columns simply results from the identity, $V_{eff}^{nr}= V_0$, which holds for this particular case, see Eq. (", "\\[Hc\\]) for $\\kappa=1$. We notice here that the discrepancy between the two sets of results tends to increase with the coupling or the boson mass. ", "This feature has a general character in the domain and points to the larger role of higher-order contributions that should show up simultaneously (Z-diagrams or multi-boson exchange).", "\n\nDiscarding results in the instantaneous approximation, those obtained in the charged-boson case show qualitative features similar to the neutral-boson case. ", "Results rather go by pair, $V^{nr}_{eff,sc}$ and $V_{E}$ on one side, B.S. and $V^{nr}_{eff}$ on the other. ", "Relative differencies however are larger. ", "On the one hand, most results are larger than those obtained with the instantaneous approximation. ", "While the latter one was apparently supported by the results for the neutral-boson case, the charged-boson ones show that this approximation is a poor one. ", "On the other hand, a feature evidenced by the examination of Table \\[tab4\\] is the smaller binding energy obtained with the Bethe-Salpeter equation as compared to what is obtained with the effective interaction $V_{eff}^{nr}$. This suggests that the closeness of the corresponding results in the neutral boson case is partly misleading. ", "As mentioned for the ladder approximation, the effective interaction misses attractive contributions due to Z-type diagrams while the Bethe-Salpeter approach involves some renormalization which reduces the attraction. ", "These effects may be roughly equal in the neutral-boson case but could differ substantially in the charged-boson one.", "\n\nDiscussion\n----------\n\nBy incorporating the contribution of crossed diagrams, we expected the different approaches, B.S., $V_{E}$, $V_{eff,sc}^{nr}$ and $V_{eff}^{nr}$, to produce a pattern similar to the one evidenced by these models in the ladder approximation. ", "As shown in the previous subsection, this is not the case. ", "An important remark is that, contrary to the ladder approximation, we miss here reliable benchmark results such as the B.S. ones there. ", "The results for the B.S. approach given in Table \\[tab4\\] rely on dispersion relations for calculating the crossed-boson exchange contribution [@THEU]. ", "These ones are well defined within a certain procedure to deal with off-shell effects but this procedure itself is not unique. ", "This prevents one from making a meaningful comparison of the different approaches without entering into a detailed examination. ", "It is only in the case where it has a perturbative character that this examination could be skipped. ", "A different benchmark is that one provided by $V_{eff}^{nr}(={\\rm IA}^{nr})$ in the neutral boson case, which can be seen to represent the sum of all contributions at the lowest order $(\\frac{1}{m})^0$ [@AMGH]. ", "A last benchmark is given by the results obtained by Nieuwenhuis and Tjon using the Feynman-Schwinger representation [@NIEU]. ", "They incorporate implicitly all contributions of crossed-boson exchanges. ", "In comparison, the crossed-box exchange contribution calculated here with the B.S. equation only explains about half of the total contribution calculated by these authors.", "\n\nSince $V_{eff}^{nr}$ represents at the same time the sum of all contributions (box and crossed box, see ref. [", "@AMGH]) and the contributions with the range of two-boson exchange (see Eq. (", "\\[Hc\\]) for $\\kappa=1$), it could be infered that the convergence in terms of the number of exchanged bosons is quickly achieved. ", "This conclusion has an ambiguous character however since accounting for all contributions with the range of three boson exchange also allows one to recover the expected total sum which is nothing but the IA$^{nr}$ result for $\\kappa=1$. A better insight on the role of three, four... boson exchange is provided by the examination of the difference between results obtained with $V_{eff}^{nr}$ and with the self-consistent potential, $V_{eff,sc}^{nr}$. This likely represents an underestimate of the effect however. ", "These extra contributions will reduce the part due to two-boson exchange in the effective interaction. ", "The comparison of results obtained with $V_{eff}^{nr}$ at the order of two-boson exchange, and those obtained with $V_{E}$ provides an estimate on the role of various ingredients entering the calculation: factors $\\sqrt{\\frac{m}{e}}$ and ($E-e-e'$)-corrections in the meson propagators. ", "The large effect prevents one from considering the results obtained with $V_{eff}^{nr}$ as really representative of a complete calculation. ", "This observation is especially important when the comparison is made with results obtained with the B.S. approach, which they roughly agree with, or with those of Nieuwenhuis and Tjon.", "\n\nAt first sight, results obtained with the B.S. approach seem reasonable if they are compared to the FSR results. ", "They leave some room for contributions of three- or multi-boson exchange, which should be roughly equal to the two-boson exchange contribution for the largest couplings for which a comparison is possible. ", "The large discrepancy between our results for the B.S. and $V_{E}$ approaches suggests that the situation is not so simple however. ", "This discrepancy, which should be due in first approximation to Z-type diagrams, is much larger than in the ladder approximation, as shown in Table \\[tab1\\]. ", "This may be partly due to the possible proximity of a situation where the binding energy would rapidly increase while the coupling approaches a critical value. ", "More probably, it seems that the dispersion-relation approach does not take fully into account the renormalization effects that $V_{E}$ and $V_{eff,sc}^{nr}$ implicitly incorporate. ", "This situation has some similarity with that one encountered for $V_{eff}^{nr}$, which, for the crossed two-boson exchange, turns out to provide results identical to the instantaneous approximation ones. ", "If correct, the above interpretation would have consequences for approaches based on dispersion relations for calculating crossed-box diagrams. ", "In the simplest case, beside the full three crossed-boson exchange contribution, there should be destructive contributions of the same range, corresponding to the topology (crossed-box $\\otimes$ single-boson) exchange.", "\n\nWhile the present work was completed, we were informed about different results accounting for the full crossed-boson exchange diagram [@TJON3]. ", "These ones are close to those obtained with $V_{E}$ or $V_{eff,sc}^{nr}$, possible discrepancies in the first case being likely due to the contribution of Z-type diagrams omitted here. ", "They tend to support the idea that calculating the crossed-box with dispersion relations is not the best way to provide an estimate of its contribution as soon as the coupling increases. ", "Despite the fact that the obtained values are far from reproducing the FSR results for large couplings, they could still be an overestimate.", "\n\nConclusion\n==========\n\nIn this work we investigated different approaches based on the Bethe-Salpeter equation, in particular a 3-dimensional equation with an energy-dependent interaction and a non-relativistic equation with an energy-independent effective interaction. ", "This has been done for the ladder approximation as well as the more complete approach involving crossed-boson exchange with the idea that approximation schemes should not be limited to one of these cases. ", "We especially compared the binding energies for the lowest (normal) states for the case of distinguishable scalar particles with masses for the exchanged boson varying from 0 to $0.5\\,m$. This work completes and improves upon another one where the emphasis was rather put on the wave functions obtained from the last two approaches, with and without energy-dependent interactions. ", "Up to departures of relativistic order, we found a strong continuity between the results from different approaches in the ladder approximation. ", "The inclusion of crossed-diagram contributions points to a strong sensitivity to the way the problem is approached.", "\n\nThe reasons why we are able to account in a non-relativistic approach for results of the Bethe-Salpeter equation in the ladder approximation deserve some explanation. ", "The difference between the results obtained with the Bethe-Salpeter equation and those using the instantaneous single-boson exchange approximation in a non-relativistic approach is not due to relativity, as sometimes advocated, but to the fact that the latter misses the field-theory character underlying the former. ", "Since a field-theory can be dealt with in a non-relativistic scheme, it should be no surprise that one is able to get rid of the above difference. ", "The so-called instantaneous approximation, often employed to provide some non-relativistic interaction, simply represents a too naive view of what the interaction in a non-relativistic picture should be, missing many-body effects in its determination. ", "Contrary to a common belief, the dynamics involving the relative time variable can be accounted for partly, if not totally, in a three-dimensional approach, in a way which is not Lorentz-covariant however. ", "The main effect in the small coupling limit, which implies corrections with the range of multi-boson exchange, is a renormalization of the so-called instantaneous interaction by the probability of having two constituents only. ", "Since in the ladder-approximation, the part with in-flight bosons plays no role, the force turns out to be effectively weakened. ", "This is one of the most intuitive effects one can think of. ", "The intensity of the force being smaller, it becomes easier for a self-consistent, non-relativistic approach to account for effects obtained in a relativistic one. ", "The improvement we introduced in calculating the effective interaction is quite significant. ", "While it removes partly the agreement with more elaborate calculations achieved in some cases, we believe that the effect is fully relevant. ", "This points to ingredients missing in the effective interaction, especially those in relation with non-locality effects, which are obviously more difficult to incorporate.", "\n\nWe also looked at the contribution due to crossed two-(massive) boson exchange. ", "This exchange represents an essential improvement upon the ladder approximation, which offers interest with certain respects but remains academic with other ones. ", "The effects are generally quite large, especially in the case of charged-boson exchange where one should be seriously concerned by higher order crossed-boson exchange contributions. ", "In any case, this casts serious doubts on the possibility to reliably describe physical systems in the strong-interaction regime by only retaining one-boson exchange contributions. ", "This could be however partly remedied by fitting parameters of a certain model, when possible, as it is done for the NN interaction models. ", "In view of these large effects, the fact that, in some cases, we recover more or less the results of the so-called instantaneous approximation for the neutral-boson exchange should be considered with a lot of caution. ", "This result is obtained because the contribution of the crossed two-boson exchange, most often neglected, has been included consistently with the box two-boson exchange contribution. ", "Such a result may have a more general character and be simply due to the fact that, for neutral, spinless-boson exchange, the interaction, supposed to be given by the instantaneous approximation, is the same for components with an undetermined number of accompanying bosons and, therefore, transparent to the presence of bosons in flight. ", "By no means, one can draw an argument from this result in favor of the validity of the one-boson exchange contribution in the non-relativistic approach.", "\n\nThis conclusion is supported by another feature of our results. ", "The binding energies calculated with the Bethe-Salpeter equation and the effective interaction are significantly smaller than the completely non-perturbative ones obtained by Nieuwenhuis and Tjon [@NIEU] (a factor of 2 at $\\alpha \\simeq 0.9$), indicating the existence of further sizeable corrections of higher order [@THEU]. ", "Most probably, the closeness of our results for the Bethe-Salpeter equation and the effective interaction, which was obtained in a few cases, is partly accidental, as already mentioned above. ", "Those with the effective interaction miss contributions of relativistic order, like Z-type diagrams, while the Bethe-Salpeter equation, where these ones are included, does not take into account contributions with a higher number of exchanged bosons. ", "The accidental character of the closeness of these different results is further supported by the examination of those we obtained for the charged boson case.", "\n\nWe presented results for zero-mass bosons only in the ladder approximation. ", "Some results were obtained for the crossed-boson exchange diagram but they did not evidence any striking difference with the $\\mu=0.15\\,m$ case. ", "These results need to be more elaborated, especially in view of possible applications to the photon or gluon case. ", "The cancellation between the renormalization of the instantaneous approximation interaction and the effect of the crossed-boson exchange, which is expected in the massive neutral-boson case at order $\\left(\\frac{1}{m}\\right)^0$, and has been partly obtained in our calculations, is more difficult to be achieved in the zero-mass case. ", "For small couplings, the corrections to the binding energies that are dominated by the term $\\frac{\\alpha^2}{4n^2}$ are of the order $\\alpha^3\\, \\log (c\\alpha)$ [@FELD], while the total correction is expected to be of order $\\alpha^4$. The reason is that solving a certain integral equation allows one to sum up an infinite set of contributions with increasing order, but also an increasingly divergent character in the infra-red limit. ", "This prevents one from reproducing numerically the above expected cancellation without considering an infinite set of selected crossed-boson exchanges, having similar properties. ", "From present results and further studies performed separately, it seems that the convergence to the full result is likely to be slow for couplings of the order $\\alpha \\simeq 1$.\n\nAll studies presented here have been performed in a model involving scalar particles only. ", "This greatly simplifies the discussions by providing a better insight on the origin of various corrections (renormalization of the instantaneous approximation interaction, relativistic corrections,....). ", "Despite the fact that the model is not an especially realistic one, we nevertheless believe that our conclusions have some general character. ", "The most important one is probably the very limited validity range of the instantaneous one-boson exchange approximation which, strictly speaking, is valid only for small energy transfers and therefore only makes sense for the Born amplitude in the non-relativistic regime. ", "Its apparent success in QED or in hadronic physics is largely misleading. ", "It rather points to large contributions from multi-boson exchanges. ", "In the case of QED, they are required to recover the Coulomb potential as is well known, whereas in hadronic physics, they provide a more microscopic description of the forces, most often simulated by instantaneous exchanges of single bosons with fitted parameters.", "\n\n[**Acknowledgements**]{} We are indebted to E. Moulin and N. Ploquin, whose work on non-locality effects provided useful insight on their role in the context of the present work. ", "We are also grateful to D. Phillips for providing results concerning the contribution of the crossed-box diagram.", "\n\nThe box diagram \\[appA\\]\n========================\n\nWe give here the analytic result for the box diagram of Fig. ", "\\[fig3\\] a, in the case where the factors $\\frac{m}{e_q}$ and terms like $E-e-e'$ in the denominator of Eq. (", "\\[Bf\\]) are neglected. ", "It is not what we actually used in the calculations presented in this work but it turned out to be quite useful for numerical tests. ", "The (energy-independent) expression for $V^{(2a)}(\\vec{p\\,},\\vec{p}\\,')$ then takes the form\n\n$$V^{(2a)}(\\vec{p\\,},\\vec{p}\\,') =- \\frac{1}{2} \\int \\frac{d \n\\vec{q}}{(2\\pi)^3} \\; \\frac{m}{e} \\left( \\frac{g^{4} \\; \n(O_{1} \\, O_{2}) \\, \n(O_{1} \\, O_{2})}{\\omega \\, \\omega'\\; (\\omega +\\omega') } \n \\;\\; \\frac{1}{\\omega \\, \\omega' }\\right)\\frac{m}{e'},\n \\label{box0}$$\n\nwith the definitions $\\omega=\\sqrt{\\mu^{2}+(\\vec{p}-\\vec{q}\\,)^{2}}$, $\\omega'=\\sqrt{\\mu^{2}+(\\vec{p}\\,'-\\vec{q}\\,)^{2}}$, $e=\\sqrt{m^{2}+\\vec{p}^{\\,2}}$ and $e'=\\sqrt{m^{2}+\\vec{p}\\,'^{\\,2}}$. If one defines the integral $ I$ by $$\\label{box1}\nV^{(2a)}(\\vec{p\\,},\\vec{p}\\,') =: -\\frac{1}{2} \\frac{m^2}{e e'}\n\\frac{g^4}{(2\\pi)^{3}} (O_{1} \\, O_{2}) \\, (O_{1} \\, O_{2}) \\, I,$$ then it is found that $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{box2}\n I &=& \\int \\frac{d\\vec{q}}{\\left[ \\mu^2 +(\\vec{p}-\\vec{q})^2\\right] \n\\left[ \\mu^2 +(\\vec{p}\\,'-\\vec{q})^2\\right] \n\\left[ \\sqrt{\\mu^2 +(\\vec{p}-\\vec{q})^2} + \n\\sqrt{\\mu^2 +(\\vec{p}\\,'-\\vec{q})^2}\\right] } \\nonumber \\\\\n &=& \\frac{2\\pi}{k}\\int_0^{\\infty} \\frac{q\\;dq}{\\left(\n \\mu^2+q^2\\right)^{\\frac{3}{2}}}\n \\log \\frac{\\sqrt{\\mu^2 +(k+q)^2}\n \\left[ \\sqrt{\\mu^2+q^2} + \\sqrt{\\mu^2 +(k-q)^2} \\right]}\n {\\sqrt{\\mu^2 +(k-q)^2}\n\\left[ \\sqrt{\\mu^2+q^2} + \\sqrt{\\mu^2 +(k+q)^2} \\right]}, \\nonumber \\\\\\end{aligned}$$ where $k=|\\vec{k}| = |\\vec{p} - \\vec{p}\\,'|$. From this form one derives the following analytical properties of the integral $ I$: $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\nonumber\n I = \\frac{2\\pi}{3\\mu^2} \\hspace{1cm} \\;\\;\\; & {\\rm if} & \\;\\; \\vec{k}=0 , \\\\\n\\label{box4}\n I = \\frac{2\\pi}{k^2} \\; 4\\log 2 \\;\\;\\; & {\\rm if} & \\;\\; \\mu=0 , \\\\\n\\nonumber\n I \\rightarrow \\frac{2\\pi}{k^2} \\; 4\\log2 \\;\\;\\; & {\\rm for} & \\;\\; k \n\\rightarrow \\infty .\\end{aligned}$$ Integrating by parts, one finds the following expression for $ I$: $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{box6} \\nonumber\n I &=& \\frac{2\\pi}{k\\sqrt{k^2+4\\mu^2}} \\left\\{ \n\\frac{2}{\\sqrt{1-c}} \\log \\frac{1+\\sqrt{1-c}}{1-\\sqrt{1-c}} \\right.\\\\\n&& \\hspace{3cm}\\left. ", "-4\\sqrt{\\frac{c}{1-c}} \\arctan \\sqrt{\\frac{1-c}{c}} + 2\\log c\n\\right\\},\\end{aligned}$$ where the factor $c$ is given by $$\\label{box7}\nc=\\frac{\\sqrt{k^2+4\\mu^2}-k}{\\sqrt{k^2+4\\mu^2}+k}.$$ A careful analysis reveals that the expression of Eq. 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{ "pile_set_name": "ArXiv" }

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[ "---\nabstract: 'The response functions for small spatial perturbations of a homogeneous granular fluid have been described recently. ", "In appropriate dimensionless variables, they have the form of stationary state time correlation functions. ", "Here, these functions are expressed in terms of reduced single particle functions that are expected to obey a linear kinetic equation. ", "The functional assumption required for such a kinetic equation, and a Markov approximation for its implementation are discussed. ", "If, in addition, static velocity correlations are neglected, a granular fluid version of the linearized Enskog kinetic theory is obtained. ", "The derivation makes no *a priori* limitation on the density, space and time scale, nor degree of inelasticity. ", "As an illustration, recently derived Helfand and Green-Kubo expressions for the Navier-Stokes order transport coefficients are evaluated with this kinetic theory. ", "The results are in agreement with those obtained from the Chapman-Enskog solution to the nonlinear Enskog kinetic equation.'", "\nauthor:\n- Aparna Baskaran\n- 'James W. Dufty'\n- 'J. Javier Brey'\ntitle: '**Kinetic Theory of Response Functions for the Hard Sphere Granular Fluid**'\n---\n\nIntroduction\n============\n\nOne of the most productive methods to study transport in normal fluids is through the measurement, simulation, and theory of linear response functions [@Martin68; @Forster75; @Boon91; @McL89]. ", "Of particular interest are those that describe the linear response of the “hydrodynamic fields” (mass, energy, and momentum densities) to small spatial perturbations of the homogeneous equilibrium state. ", "The terminology, hydrodynamic fields, is due to the fact that these are the variables expected to obey the phenomenological hydrodynamic equations on large space and time scales. ", "The response functions provide the means to study such hydrodynamic excitations starting from their fundamental basis in non-equilibrium statistical mechanics. ", "For example, they provide the formally exact Helfand [Helfand60]{} and Green-Kubo [@McL63; @McL89] representations for transport coefficients. ", "More generally, the response functions describe the broader range of excitations on shorter space and time scales as well. ", "One of the most instructive theoretical approaches to their evaluation has been kinetic theory, with the greatest progress made for the idealized fluid of hard spheres [@Resibois77; @McL89].", "\n\nRecently, this linear response approach has been extended to granular fluids [@DBB06; @BDB06]. ", "The objective here is to demonstrate the application of kinetic theory methods for the evaluation of the granular response functions. ", "Only the case of smooth, inelastic hard spheres is considered both for simplicity and to parallel closely the corresponding developments for normal fluids. ", "Such an idealized model still captures the most important features of many granular fluids [@chemE]. ", "The usual notion of kinetic theory is a nonlinear equation for the probability density in single particle phase space. ", "An advantage of the linear response functions is that their kinetic equation is inherently linear. ", "For practical purposes, a Markovian approximation to this linear kinetic equation is described, based on the neglect of dynamical correlations. ", "The approximations leading to this equation, and the differences between its implications for normal and granular fluids, are discussed. ", "The nature of the approximation does not *a priori* assume weak dissipation, low density, or large length and time scales. ", "In the elastic limit, it becomes the linear Enskog kinetic equation for the response functions of a normal equilibrium fluid. ", "A granular Enskog limit is described here as well, by the further neglect of all velocity correlations in the Markov approximation.", "\n\nA related set of time correlation functions involving the fluxes of the hydrodynamic fields, instead of the fields themselves, determine the Helfand and Green-Kubo representations for the transport coefficients of the Navier-Stokes order hydrodynamic equations [@DBB06; @BDB06]. ", "These can be evaluated by the same kinetic theory developed for the response functions. ", "This is described in detail for the shear viscosity in the Markov approximation, indicating how the time dependence of these flux correlation functions can be determined, as well as the associated transport coefficient. ", "The remaining Navier-Stokes transport coefficients are evaluated in the Appendix \\[ap4\\]. ", "It is confirmed that, in the linear Enskog approximation, the results agree in detail with those obtained from the Chapman-Enskog method to solve the nonlinear Enskog equation for the distribution function [@GD99].", "\n\nA similar program has already been carried out in the limited context of dynamics for an impurity particle in a granular fluid [@DBL02; @GD01]. ", "In that case, the only hydrodynamic field is the impurity particle probability density, and the response function is its autocorrelation function. ", "The hydrodynamic equation is a diffusion equation, and the Green-Kubo expression for the diffusion coefficient is given by the time integral of the velocity autocorrelation function. ", "This was evaluated by kinetic theory in the Enskog approximation, and both the correlation function and the transport coefficient were compared with molecular dynamics simulation data over a wide range of densities and degrees of inelasticity. ", "The results provide an instructive characterization of the domain of validity for the Enskog (Enskog-Lorentz in this case) kinetic equation, and expose important differences between impurity dynamics in normal and granular fluids. ", "The presentation here constitutes an extension of that theoretical analysis to the full range of multi-particle mass, energy, and momentum transport.", "\n\nThe origin of a kinetic theory is an exact hierarchy (the BBGKY hierarchy [@Resibois77; @McL89]) of equations for the reduced few particle representations for a property of interest. ", "A kinetic equation is comprised of the first hierarchy equation together with a “closure”, expressing the solution to the second hierarchy equation as a functional of that for the first. ", "This leads to a closed, deterministic equation for the latter which is the kinetic equation. ", "Practical methods have been developed for normal fluids based on inversion of cluster expansions and partial resummations, as well as more phenomenological estimates. ", "This is the point at which kinetic theory confronts the difficult many body problem, and one objective of the current work is to motivate a corresponding attention to such details for the granular fluid. ", "Only in this way can the qualitative speculations about differences between normal and granular fluid be made more precise. ", "An example of such uncertainties is the role of velocity correlations in the construction of the closure. ", "It is well known that velocity correlations generated by collective many particle collisions (e.g., ring collisions) are responsible for the dominant density dependence of transport coefficients at very high densities, but they are relatively unimportant at low to moderate densities where simple spatial correlations (e.g., excluded volume effects) are dominant. ", "The latter are incorporated in the Enskog approximation for accurate corrections to the predictions of the low density Boltzmann equation. ", "Granular fluids introduce a complication to this separation of dynamical velocity correlations and static structural correlations, according to the density considered. ", "In these systems, there are inherent static velocity correlations, not directly associated with many particle dynamics, that are present even at low to moderate densities. ", "The kinetic theory for response functions provides an appropriate setting for the study of the quantitative importance of these correlations on properties of interest.", "\n\nThe response functions in the Markovian approximation are expressed in terms of the linear generator for dynamics. ", "Questions about the existence and dominance of hydrodynamics can be made precise at this point, by asking if the hydrodynamic modes (eigenvalues) appear in the spectrum of this operator and if they are the slowest modes. ", "The first part, existence of hydrodynamic modes, can be demonstrated at long wavelengths if expected conditions of analyticity are satisfied (see Sec. ", "\\[s6\\] below). ", "The second issue of dominance at long times can be addressed practically using simplified kinetic models for this generator. ", "Such results support the primary assumptions in references [@DBB06] and [@BDB06], for a derivation of formally exact expressions for the hydrodynamic transport coefficients in terms of time correlation functions. ", "However, the linear kinetic equation applies as well to short space and time scales, that are important for non-hydrodynamic response.", "\n\nThe main points of this analysis are summarized in the last section.", "\n\nLinear Response Functions {#s2}\n=========================\n\nAn idealized granular fluid of $N$ smooth, inelastic hard spheres ($d=3$) or disks ($d=2$) of mass $m$ and diameter $\\sigma$ is considered. ", "The inelasticity is characterized by a constant coefficient of normal restitution $\\alpha $. ", "The properties of interest are the average number density $n({\\bm r},t)$, the granular temperature $T({\\bm r},t)$, and the local flow velocity ${\\bm\nU}({\\bm r},t)$, collectively denoted by $y({\\bm r},t) \\equiv \\left\\{\ny_{\\beta}({\\bm r},t) \\right\\}$. The response to be studied here is the variation of these fields at time $t$ due to a variation in their initial values at time $t=0$. The initial conditions are spatial variations of a homogeneous reference state, $y_{\\beta }({\\bm r},0)=y_{\\beta , h}(0)+\\delta\ny_{\\beta }({\\bm r},0)$. In the most general case, the response $\\delta\ny_{\\beta }[{\\bm r},t | y \\left( 0\\right)]$ depends nonlinearly on the perturbations $\\delta y({\\bm r},0)$, but if these are small, the linear order gives the dominant response, $$\\delta y_{\\beta }\\left[ {\\bm r},t | y \\left( 0\\right) \\right] =\n\\sum_{\\gamma} \\int d{\\bm r}^{\\prime }\\, C_{\\beta \\gamma }\\left( {\\bm r}-{\\bm %\nr}^{\\prime },t\\right) \\delta y_{\\gamma }({\\bm r}^{\\prime },0), \\label{2.1}$$ with the linear response functions defined as $$C_{\\beta \\gamma }\\left( {\\bm r}-{\\bm r}^{\\prime },t\\right) =\\left[\\frac{%\n\\delta y_{\\beta }\\left[{\\bm r},t|y(0)\\right]}{\\delta y_{\\gamma }({\\bm r}%\n^{\\prime },0)}\\right] _{\\delta y(0)= 0 }. ", " \\label{2.2}$$ Since the reference state is homogeneous, the linear response functions depend on ${\\bm r}$ and ${\\bm r}^{\\prime }$ only through their difference.", "\n\nThe difference between granular and normal fluids occurs already at the level of the homogeneous reference state. ", "For normal fluids, this is the equilibrium stationary state and all the time dependence of the response functions is due to the spatial perturbations. ", "For granular fluids, the homogeneous reference state is inherently time-dependent, even without perturbation, due to the “cooling” of inelastic collisions. ", "As a consequence, the temperature $T_{h}$ of the homogeneous granular fluid decreases in time according with a cooling law $$\\frac{\\partial T_{h}(t)}{\\partial t}=-\\zeta _{0}\\left[ T_{h}(t)\\right]\nT_{h}(t), \\label{2.3}$$ where the cooling rate $\\zeta _{0}\\left( T_{h}\\right) $ is a characteristic function of the homogeneous cooling reference state. ", "Thus the relevant response at time $t$ is measured relative to the reference homogeneous state at the same time rather than to the initial state. ", "Then, dimensionless fields $\\delta y^{*}_ {\\beta}$ are introduced by $$\\left\\{ \\delta y_{\\beta}^{*} \\right\\} \\equiv \\left\\{ \\frac{\\delta y_{\\beta}}{%\n\\overline{y}_{\\beta,h}(t)} \\right\\} \\equiv \\left\\{ \\frac{\\delta n}{n_{h}},\n\\frac{\\delta T }{T_{h}(t)},\\frac{\\delta {\\bm U}}{v_{0}(t)} \\right\\},\n\\label{2.4}$$ where the definition of the reference fields $\\overline{y}_{\\beta,h} (t)$ follows from the second identity and $$v_{0}(t) \\equiv \\left[ \\frac{2T_{h}(t)}{m} \\right]^{1/2} \\label{2.5}$$ is a thermal velocity. ", "The dependence of the linear response functions on ${%\n\\bm r}-{\\bm r}^{\\prime}$ suggests the utility of a Fourier representation of Eq.", " (\\[2.1\\]) that is expressed in the form $$\\delta \\widetilde{y}_{\\beta }^{*}({\\bm k}^{*},s)=\\sum_{\\gamma} \\widetilde{C}%\n_{\\beta \\gamma }^{*} \\left( {\\bm k}^{*},s\\right) \\delta \\widetilde{y}%\n_{\\gamma }^{*}({\\bm k}^{*},0), \\label{2.6}$$ where a tilde over a function denotes its dimensionless Fourier transform, defined by $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\widetilde{f}({\\bm k}^{*}) & \\equiv & \\ell^{-d} \\int d{\\bm r}\\, e^{i{\\bm %\nk^{*}\\cdot {\\bm r}}/\\ell }f\\left( {\\bm r}\\right) \\notag \\\\\n&=& \\int d{\\bm r}^{*} e^{i {\\bm k}^{*} \\cdot {\\bm r}^{*}} f\\left( {\\bm r}%\n\\right), \\label{2.7}\\end{aligned}$$ with ${\\bm r}^{*} ={\\bm r}/\\ell$, and dimensionless response functions have been identified as $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\widetilde{C}_{\\beta \\gamma }^{\\ast }\\left( {\\bm k}^{\\ast },s\\right) & = &\n\\overline{y}_{\\beta, h}^{-1}(t) \\ell^{d} \\widetilde{C}_{\\beta \\gamma} ({\\bm k%\n}^{*},t) \\overline{y}_{\\gamma,h}(0) \\notag \\\\\n& = &\\overline{y}_{\\beta, h}^{-1}(t) \\int d{\\bm r}\\, e^{i{\\bm k}^{*} \\cdot {%\n\\bm r} /\\ell }C_{\\beta \\gamma }\\left({\\bm r},t\\right) \\overline{y}_{\\gamma,\nh}(0). ", " \\label{2.8}\\end{aligned}$$ Here ${\\bm k}^{\\ast }={\\bm k}\\ell $ is a dimensionless wavevector, with $%\n\\ell $ being a characteristic length of the system. ", "Moreover, a dimensionless time scale $$s= \\int_{0}^{t} dt^{\\prime}\\, \\frac{v_{0}(t^{\\prime})}{\\ell } \\label{2.9}$$ has been introduced. ", "This time $s$ has the interpretation of an average collision number per particle up to time $t$, if $\\ell$ is chosen to be the mean free path of the particles. ", "The remainder of this presentation focuses on the dimensionless linear response functions $\\widetilde{C}_{\\beta\n\\gamma}^{*}$.\n\nFor small ${\\bm k}^{\\ast }$ and large $s$, the functions $\\delta y_{\\beta\n}^{\\ast }( {\\bm k}^{\\ast },s)$ are expected to obey the linearized hydrodynamic Navier-Stokes equations, and the response functions correspond to the Green functions for the solution to the initial value problem associated with those equations [@BDB06]. ", "That description is only phenomenological, since it is parameterized by the unknown transport coefficients. ", "A more complete and exact description for all ${\\bm k}^{\\ast }$ and $s$ is provided by non-equilibrium statistical mechanics, as described in references [@DBB06] and [@BDB06]. ", "Briefly, the construction is as follows.", "\n\nThe hydrodynamic fields $y_{\\beta}({\\bm r},t)$ are defined from averages of the microscopic number density, energy density, and momentum density over the phase space density $\\rho (\\Gamma,t)$, representing the probability that the positions ${\\bm q}_{r}$ and velocities ${\\bm v}_{r}$ of the particles have specified values denoted by $\\Gamma \\equiv \\left\\{ x_{1}, \\ldots, x_{N}\n\\right\\}$. The latter is a point in the $2Nd$ dimensional phase space with the notation $x_{r} \\equiv \\left\\{ {\\bm q}_{r}, {\\bm v}_{r} \\right\\}$. For any specified initial state, $\\rho (\\Gamma,0)$, this probability density evolves in time according to the Liouville equation $$\\left( \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial t} + \\overline{L} \\right) \\rho (\\Gamma,t) =\n0, \\label{2.10}$$ with $$\\overline{L} = \\sum_{r=1}^{N} {\\bm v}_{r} \\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {%\n\\bm q}_{r}}-\\frac{1}{2}\\sum_{r=1}^{N} \\sum_{s \\neq r}^{N} \\overline{T}\n(x_{r},x_{s}). ", " \\label{2.11}$$ The time independent operator $\\overline{L}$ is the generator for the hard sphere dynamics, where the singular binary collisions are described by $$\\overline{T}(x_{r},x_{s})=\\delta (q_{rs}-\\sigma )|\\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs} \\cdot\n{\\bm g}_{rs} |\\left[ \\Theta \\left( \\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs} \\cdot {\\bm g}_{rs}\n\\right) \\alpha^{-2} b_{rs}^{-1}-\\Theta \\left( - \\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs} \\cdot {%\n\\bm g}_{rs} \\right) \\right] . ", " \\label{2.12}$$ In this expression, ${\\bm q}_{rs} = {\\bm q}_{r}-{\\bm q}_{s}$, ${\\bm\ng}_{rs} = {\\bm v}_{r}-{\\bm v}_{s}$, $\\Theta$ is the Heaviside step function, $\\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs} \\equiv {\\bm q}_{rs}/ q_{rs}$, and $b_{rs}^{-1}$ is the substitution operator that replaces the velocities ${\\bm v}_{r}$, ${\\bm v}%\n_{s}$ by their “precollisional” values ${\\bm v}_{r}^{\\prime \\prime}$,${\\bm %\nv}_{s}^{ \\prime \\prime }$, $$b_{rs}^{-1}F\\left({\\bm v}_{r},{\\bm v}_{s}\\right) =F\\left( {\\bm v}_{r}^{\n\\prime \\prime },{\\bm v}_{s}^{ \\prime \\prime }\\right) , \\label{2.13}$$ $${\\bm v}_{r}^{ \\prime \\prime }={\\bm v}_{r} -\\frac{ 1+\\alpha }{2\\alpha }\\left(\n\\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs} \\cdot {\\bm g}_{rs}\\right) \\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs},\n\\label{2.14}$$ $${\\bm v}_{s}^{\\ast \\prime \\prime }={\\bm v} _{s}+ \\frac{ 1+\\alpha }{2\\alpha }%\n\\left( \\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs} \\cdot {\\bm g}_{rs} \\right) \\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs}.", "\n\\label{2.15}$$\n\nFor an isolated system, instead of the equilibrium state for a normal fluid, there is a spacial solution to the Liouville equation of the form $$\\rho_{h}(\\Gamma,t) = \\left[ \\ell v_{0}(t) \\right]^{-Nd} \\rho^{*}_{h} \\left(\n\\left\\{ {\\bm q}_{rs}/\\ell, {\\bm v}_{r}/v_{0}(t) \\right\\} \\right) \\equiv %\n\\left[ \\ell v_{0}(t) \\right]^{-Nd} \\rho^{*}_{h} (\\Gamma^{*}). ", " \\label{2.16}$$ The dimensionless phase point $\\Gamma^{*} \\equiv \\left\\{ x^{*}_{1},\n\\ldots,x^{*}_{N} \\right\\}$ is now expressed in terms of the scaled positions and velocities $x^{*}_{r} = \\left\\{ {\\bm q}^{*}_{r},{\\bm\nv}^{*}_{r} \\right\\} \\equiv \\left\\{ {\\bm q}_{r} /\\ell, {\\bm\nv}_{r}/v_{0}(t) \\right\\}$. This solution depends on the positions only through the relative variables ${\\bm q}_{rs}$ and, therefore, it has translational invariance, representing a homogeneous state. ", "All of the time dependence occurs through the thermal velocity defined by Eqs. (", "\\[2.5\\]) and (\\[2.3\\]), so the Liouville equation becomes for $\\rho_{h}^{*}(%\n\\Gamma^{*})$ $$\\overline{\\mathcal{L}}^{\\ast }\\rho _{h}^{\\ast }(\\Gamma^{*} )=0. ", " \\label{2.17}$$ The operator $\\overline{\\mathcal{L}}^{*}$ is the sum of the original generator for trajectories, now in the dimensionless variables, plus a scaling operator representing the time dependenc of $v_{0}(t)$ using Eq. (", "\\[2.3\\]), $$\\overline{\\mathcal{L}}^{\\ast }=\\overline{L}^{\\ast } +\\frac{\\zeta _{0}^{\\ast }%\n}{2}\\sum_{r=1}^{N} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}^{*}_{r}} \\cdot {\\bm v}%\n_{r}^{*}, \\label{2.18}$$ where $\\zeta_{0}^{*}$ is the dimensionless cooling rate $$\\zeta _{0}^{\\ast } = \\frac{\\ell }{v_{0}(t)}\\, \\zeta _{0}\\left[ T_{h}(t)%\n\\right] . ", " \\label{2.19}$$ The solution to Eq.", " (\\[2.17\\]) will be referred to as the homogeneous cooling state (HCS).", "\n\nFor more general solutions to the Liouville equation, it is useful to introduce the same scaled velocities to account for this inherent cooling. ", "Then, the Liouville equation in dimensionless form becomes $$\\left( \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial s} +\\overline{\\mathcal{L}}^{*} \\right)\n\\rho^{*} (\\Gamma^{*},s) =0. ", " \\label{2.20}$$ In this form, it is seen that the HCS is a stationary solution to the dimensionless Liouville equation. ", "This is an important result for the representation of granular response functions. ", "It shows that, in the appropriate dimensionless form, the reference state is again stationary, just as for equilibrium fluids. ", "However, the introduction of this stationary representation comes at the price of changing the generator for the dynamics from $\\overline{L}^{*}$ to $\\overline{\\mathcal{L}}^{*}$. For the purposes of the discussion here, it is assumed that all properties of this homogeneous reference state are known. ", "Further comments on the HCS are given in the Appendix \\[ap1\\].", "\n\nThe deviations of the relative hydrodynamic fields form their values in the HCS, $\\delta \\widetilde{y}_{\\beta }^{\\ast }({\\bm k}^{\\ast },s)$, are the averages of associated phase functions $\\widetilde{a}_{\\beta }^{\\ast\n}(\\Gamma ^{\\ast },s)$, $$\\delta \\widetilde{y}_{\\beta }^{\\ast }({\\bm k}^{\\ast },s)=\\int d\\Gamma ^{\\ast\n}\\,\\widetilde{a}_{\\beta }^{\\ast }\\left( \\Gamma ^{\\ast };{\\bm k}^{\\ast\n}\\right) \\left[ \\rho ^{\\ast }(\\Gamma ^{\\ast },s)-\\rho _{h}^{\\ast }(\\Gamma\n^{\\ast })\\right] , \\label{2.21}$$with $$\\widetilde{a}_{\\beta }^{\\ast }\\left( \\Gamma ^{\\ast };{\\bm k}^{\\ast }\\right) =%\n\\frac{1}{n_{h}^{\\ast }}\\sum_{r=1}^{N}e^{i{\\bm k}^{\\ast }\\cdot {\\bm q}%\n_{r}^{\\ast }}a_{\\beta }^{\\ast }\\left( {\\bm v}_{r}^{\\ast }\\right) ,\n\\label{2.22}$$where $n_{h}^{\\ast }\\equiv n_{h}\\ell ^{d}$ is the number density of the HCS in the reduced units and the single particle functions $a_{\\beta }^{\\ast }({%\n\\bm v^{\\ast }}_{r})$ are defined by $$\\left\\{ a_{\\beta }^{\\ast }({\\bm v})\\right\\} \\equiv \\left\\{ 1,\\frac{2v^{\\ast\n2}}{d}-1,v_{\\parallel }^{\\ast },{\\bm v}_{\\perp }^{\\ast }\\right\\} .", "\n\\label{2.23}$$For later convenience, the components of the flow field and the velocity of the particles have been chosen to be a longitudinal component along ${\\bm k}%\n^{\\ast }$, and $d-1$ transverse components, so that $v_{\\parallel }^{\\ast\n}\\equiv \\widehat{\\bm k}\\cdot {\\bm v}^{\\ast }$ and $v_{\\perp i}^{\\ast }\\equiv\n\\widehat{\\bm e}_{i}\\cdot {\\bm v}^{\\ast }$, with $\\left\\{ \\widehat{\\bm k}%\n\\equiv {\\bm k}^{\\ast }/k^{\\ast },\\widehat{\\bm e}_{i};i=1,\\ldots ,d-1\\right\\}\n$ forming a set of $d$ pairwise perpendicular unit vectors. ", "To formulate the linear response problem, the initial state $\\rho ^{\\ast }(\\Gamma ^{\\ast },0)$ for the solution to the Lioville equation in (\\[2.20\\]) is chosen to be close to the HCS, in the sense that it is a functional of the initial fields $\\delta y_{\\beta }^{\\ast }({\\bm r}^{\\ast },0)$ and becomes the HCS for $%\n\\delta y_{\\beta }^{\\ast }\\rightarrow 0$. More specifically, the system is viewed as partitioned into small cells such that the distribution function is the HCS in each cell, but with different values for the hydrodynamic fields. ", "This is the analogue of the local equilibrium distribution for normal fluids, and will be referred to as the *local* HCS, $\\rho\n_{lh}^{\\ast }[\\Gamma ^{\\ast }|\\delta y^{\\ast }]$. ", "Its construction is discussed in Appendix \\[ap1\\]. ", "For small $\\delta y_{\\beta }^{\\ast }$, the solution to the Liouville equation for the initial local HCS expanded to first order is $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\rho ^{\\ast }(\\Gamma ^{\\ast },s)-\\rho _{h}^{\\ast }(\\Gamma ^{\\ast }) &=&e^{-s%\n\\mathcal{L}^{\\ast }}\\rho ^{\\ast }(\\Gamma ^{\\ast },0) \\notag \\\\\n&\\rightarrow &e^{-s\\mathcal{L}^{\\ast }}\\sum_{\\gamma =1}^{d+2}\\int d{\\bm r}%\n^{\\ast }\\,\\left[ \\frac{\\delta \\rho _{\\ell h}^{\\ast }\\left[ \\Gamma ^{\\ast\n}|\\delta y^{\\ast }\\right] }{\\delta y_{\\gamma }^{\\ast }\\left( {\\bm r}^{\\ast\n}\\right) }\\right] _{\\delta y^{\\ast }=0}\\delta y_{\\gamma }^{\\ast }({\\bm r}%\n^{\\ast },0). ", " \\label{2.24}\\end{aligned}$$Substitution into Eq.", " (\\[2.21\\]) allows identification of the response functions $C_{\\beta \\gamma }^{\\ast }({\\bm r}^{\\ast },s)$ and their equivalent Fourier representation (using translational invariance of the functional derivative at $\\delta y^{\\ast }=0$), $$\\widetilde{C}_{\\beta \\gamma }^{\\ast }\\left( {\\bm k},s\\right) =\\int d\\Gamma\n^{\\ast }\\,\\widetilde{a}_{\\beta }^{\\ast }\\left( \\Gamma ^{\\ast };{\\bm k}^{\\ast\n}\\right) \\psi _{\\gamma }^{\\ast }\\left( \\Gamma ^{\\ast };{\\bm0}^{\\ast\n},s\\right) , \\label{2.25}$$with $$\\psi _{\\gamma }^{\\ast }\\left( \\Gamma ^{\\ast };{\\bm r}^{\\ast },s\\right) =e^{-s%\n\\overline{\\mathcal{L}}^{\\ast }}\\psi _{\\gamma }^{\\ast }\\left( \\Gamma ^{\\ast };%\n{\\bm r}^{\\ast }\\right) \\label{2.26}$$and $$\\psi _{\\gamma }^{\\ast }\\left( \\Gamma ^{\\ast };{\\bm r}^{\\ast }\\right) =\\left[\n\\frac{\\delta \\rho _{\\ell h}^{\\ast }\\left[ \\Gamma ^{\\ast }|\\delta y^{\\ast }%\n\\right] }{\\delta y_{\\gamma }^{\\ast }\\left( {\\bm r}^{\\ast }\\right) }\\right]\n_{\\delta y=0}. ", " \\label{2.27}$$These results are closely analogous to those for a normal fluid, where $\\rho\n_{\\ell h}^{\\ast }[\\Gamma ^{\\ast }|\\delta y^{\\ast }]$ is an initial local equilibrium ensemble and $\\rho _{h}^{\\ast }(\\Gamma ^{\\ast })$ is the reference equilibrium Gibbs ensemble, $\\rho _{e}^{\\ast }(\\Gamma ^{\\ast })$. ", "For example, if the grand canonical ensemble were used, the $\\widetilde{\\psi\n}_{\\gamma }^{\\ast }$’s would become linear combinations of the set $\\left\\{\n\\widetilde{a}_{\\gamma }^{\\ast }\\right\\} $ times the equilibrium ensemble, and the response functions would be equilibrium time correlation functions for the local conserved quantities.", "\n\nKinetic Theory {#s3}\n==============\n\nAll of the following analysis is carried out in terms of the dimensionless variables, so the asterisk will be left implicit for simplicity. ", "The response functions of Eq.", " (\\[2.25\\]) are expressed in terms of the full $%\nN $-particle phase space. ", "A reduced description in terms of the single particle phase space is possible because the functions $\\widetilde{a}_{\\beta\n}\\left( \\Gamma ,{\\bm k}\\right) $ defined in Eq.", " (\\[2.22\\]) are sums of single particle functions. ", "Consequently, integrating over the positions and momenta for all except one particle leads to the exact alternative representation: $$\\widetilde{C}_{\\beta \\gamma }\\left( {\\bm k},s\\right) =\\frac{1}{n_{h}}\\int d{%\n\\bm v}_{1}\\,a_{\\beta }\\left( {\\bm v}_{1}\\right) \\widetilde{\\psi }_{\\gamma\n}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm k},s), \\label{3.1}$$where $$\\widetilde{\\psi }_{\\gamma }^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm k},s)=\\int d{\\bm q}%\n_{1}e^{i{\\bm k}\\cdot {\\bm q}_{1}}\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x_{1},s). ", " \\label{3.3}$$The function $\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x_{1},s)$ is the first element of a hierarchy of $N$ functions $\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(m)}(x_{1},x_{2},\\ldots\n,x_{m},s)$, $m=1,\\ldots ,N$, defined through $$\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(m)}(x_{1},\\ldots ,x_{m},s)\\equiv \\left[ \\frac{\\delta\nf^{(m)}(x_{1},\\ldots ,x_{m},s)}{\\delta y_{\\gamma }({\\bm0},0)}\\right]\n_{\\delta y=0}, \\label{3.3a}$$$$f^{(m)}(x_{1},\\ldots ,x_{m},s)\\equiv \\frac{N!}{(N-m)!}\\int\ndx_{m+1}..dx_{N}\\,\\rho (\\Gamma ,s), \\label{3.3b}$$$1\\leq m\\leq N$. The functions $f^{(m)}(x_{1},\\ldots ,x_{m},s)$ are the reduced distribution functions associated with the solution to the Liouville equation (\\[2.20\\]). ", "They obey the corresponding BBGKY hierarchy of equations [@McL89]. ", "The first equation of this hierarchy is $$\\left( \\frac{\\partial }{\\partial s}+{\\bm v}_{1}\\cdot \\frac{\\partial }{%\n\\partial {\\bm q}_{1}}\\right) f^{(1)}(x_{1},s)+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\frac{%\n\\partial }{\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}}\\cdot \\left[ {\\bm v}_{1}f^{(1)}(x_{1},s)%\n\\right] =\\int dx_{2}\\,\\overline{T}(x_{1},x_{2})f^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s).", "\n\\label{3.3c}$$Then, it follows directly from the definition (\\[3.3a\\]) that the function $\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x_{1},s)$ obeys the analogous equation $$\\left( \\frac{\\partial }{\\partial s}+{\\bm v}_{1}\\cdot \\frac{\\partial }{%\n\\partial {\\bm q}_{1}}\\right) \\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x_{1},s)+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}%\n}{2}\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}}\\cdot \\left[ {\\bm v}_{1}\\psi\n_{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x_{1},s)\\right] =\\int dx_{2}\\,\\overline{T}(x_{1},x_{2})\\psi\n_{\\gamma }^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s). ", " \\label{3.5}$$\n\nThe representation given by Eq.", " (\\[3.1\\]) is very appealing, since the $N$-particle problem has been expressed without approximation in terms of the effective dynamics in the single particle phase space. ", "The fundamental difficulty, however, is that the first hierarchy equation (\\[3.5\\]) does not determine this effective dynamics without specifying $\\psi _{\\gamma\n}^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)$. An equation similar to (\\[3.5\\]) can be written for $\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)$, the second BBGKY hierarchy equation, but it in turn requires specification of $\\psi _{\\gamma\n}^{(3)}(x_{1},x_{2},x_{3},s)$. In this way, a coupling to the full $N$ particle problem recurs. ", "This coupling is broken if $\\psi _{\\gamma\n}^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)$ can be specified as an explicit functional of $\\psi\n_{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x_{1},s).$ It is argued in Appendix \\[ap2\\] that this functional, when it exists, is independent of $\\delta y_{\\gamma }({\\bm r},0)$, linear in $\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x,s)$, and has the general form $$\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)=\\int dx\\,K(x_{1},x_{2},s;x)\\psi\n_{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x,s). ", " \\label{3.9}$$The kernel defining the functional is $$K(x_{1},x_{2},s;x)=\\left[ \\frac{\\delta f^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)}{\\delta\nf^{(1)}(x,s)}\\right] _{\\delta y=0}. ", " \\label{3.10}$$Once $K(x_{1},x_{2},s;x)$ is known, Eq.", " (\\[3.5\\]) becomes a closed, deterministic, linear kinetic equation for $\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}$ in its most general form, $$\\left[ \\frac{\\partial }{\\partial s}+{\\bm v}_{1}\\cdot \\frac{\\partial }{%\n\\partial {\\bm q}_{1}}+M(s)\\right] \\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x_{1},s)+\\frac{\\zeta\n_{0}}{2}\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}}\\cdot \\left[ {\\bm v}_{1}\\psi\n_{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x_{1},s)\\right] =0, \\label{3.11}$$with the formal collision operator $M$ given by $$M\\left( x_{1},s\\right) \\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x_{1},s)\\equiv -\\int dx\\,\\left[\n\\int dx_{2}\\,\\overline{T}(x_{1},x_{2})K(x_{1},x_{2},s;x)\\right] \\psi\n_{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x,s). ", " \\label{3.12}$$This notion of a kinetic equation makes no *a priori* assumptions regarding the density or degree of dissipation, as is sometimes assumed. ", "In fact, it is formally exact so any restrictions arise only when specific approximations are introduced to construct the functional.", "\n\nThe utility of the kinetic theory representation in any specific application depends on an accurate construction of the kernel $K(x_{1},x_{2},s;x)$ defined in Eq.", " (\\[3.10\\]). ", "This is the point at which the full many-body problem must be confronted. ", "The idea originated with Bogoliubov [Bogoliubov46]{}, who conceived that all $f^{(m)}(x_{1},\\ldots,x_{m},s)$ with $%\nm>1$ take a simpler form, $f^{(m)}[x_{1},..,x_{m} | f^{(1)}(s)]$, after a brief “synchronization” time, where all time dependence occurs only through $f^{(1)}(s)$. For normal fluids at low density, construction of this functional can be accomplished by formal density expansions, leading to a sequence of contributions from clusters of particles of increasing size [Cohen]{}. ", "At lowest order, the closure is that associated with the Boltzmann equation, while at next order three particle scattering is described. ", "Even for normal fluids, these sophisticated cluster expansions have limited direct use due to many-particle recollisions events that contribute secular terms in the formal expansions, violating the notion of a short synchronization time [@recollisions]. ", "These recollisions (“rings”) in turn signal non-analytic density dependence and slow algebraic decay of correlations in time [@Alder2]. ", "The experience gained in such studies over the past forty years has provided important insight for the construction of more phenomenological closures, such as the Enskog approximation for moderately dense gases and mode coupling models for very dense and metastable (glassy) fluids [@Modecoupling]. ", "The development of a kinetic theory for granular fluids provides an opportunity to revisit many of these issues in an even more challenging context [@vanNoije01]. ", "The analysis of the next sections illustrates this for the simplest “mean field” approximation to describe density effects beyond the Boltzmann limit.", "\n\nThe Markovian Approximation {#s4}\n===========================\n\nThe approximation described in this section is based on the assumption that the form of the correlations and their effect on collisional properties are essentially the same at all times. ", "If so, the kernel $K(x_{1},x_{2},s;x) $ that determines these properties at the two-particle level, can be represented approximately by its form at the initial time $s=0$, $$K(x_{1},x_{2},s;x)\\simeq K(x_{1},x_{2},0;x). ", " \\label{4.1}$$ The collision operator term in Eq.", " (\\[3.12\\]) then becomes $$M(x_{1}) \\psi ^{(1)}_{\\gamma}\\left( x_{1},s\\right) = -\\int dx\\, \\int\ndx_{2}\\, \\overline{ T}(x_{1},x_{2}) \\left[ \\frac{\\delta f_{\\ell h}^{(2)}%\n\\left[ x_{1},x_{2}|\\delta y \\right]}{\\delta f_{\\ell h }^{(1)}[x|\\delta y]} %\n\\right]_{\\delta y=0} \\psi ^{(1)}_{\\gamma}(x,s), \\label{4.6}$$ where it has been used that the initial conditions $%\nf^{(m)}(x_{1},..,x_{m},0) $ are the corresponding reduced distribution functions associated with the local HCS, $\\rho _{\\ell h }\\left[ \\Gamma\n|\\delta y\\right] $, given in Eq.", " (\\[a.7\\]), $$f^{(m)}(x_{1},..,x_{m},0)=f_{\\ell h}^{(m)}[x_{1},..,x_{m}| \\delta y ])=\n\\frac{N!}{(N-m)!}\\int dx_{m+1}..dx_{N}\\, \\rho _{\\ell h}\\left[ \\Gamma |\\delta\ny\\right].$$ Since the approximate operator $M(x_{1})$ is time-independent, the entire generator for the dynamics of $\\psi ^{(1)}_{\\gamma}(x_{1},s)$ in Eq.", " ([3.11]{}) also is independent of time. ", "The equation is written in compact form as $$\\left[ \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial s}+\\Lambda (x_{1}) \\right] \\psi\n^{(1)}_{\\gamma}(x_{1},s)=0, \\label{4.5}$$ with the generator $\\Lambda(x_{1})$ given by $$\\Lambda(x_{1}) X(x_{1}) \\equiv \\left[ {\\bm v}_{1}\\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{%\n\\partial {\\bm q}_{1}}+M (x_{1})\\right] X (x_{1})+\\frac{\\zeta_{0}}{2} \\frac{%\n\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}} \\cdot \\left[ {\\bm v}_{1}X(x_{1})\\right],\n\\label{4.5a}$$ for arbitrary $X(x_{1})$. This is a necessary condition for a Markovian description and, consequently, Eq.", " (\\[4.1\\]) will be referred to as the Markovian approximation. ", "The resulting kinetic theory is exact at asymptotically short times, and the nature of the approximation makes no explicit limitation on the density or the degree of dissipation. ", "Of course, two particle correlations that develop over time are neglected. ", "For a normal fluid, this Markov approximation leads to the Enskog approximation, where only time independent two-particle correlations are taken into account. ", "The neglected time-dependent correlations are found in that case to be important only at high densities, and the Enskog approximation provides relevant corrections to the Boltzmann results up to moderate densities. ", "It is reasonable to expect a similar context for granular fluids, although conditioned by the additional parameter space of the coefficient of restitution $\\alpha $.", "\n\nThe construction of $K(x_{1},x_{2},0;x)$ now involves only analysis of the initial reduced distribution functions associated with the local HCS, and the corresponding collision operator $M$ is entirely characterized by properties of this state. ", "It is useful to make this more explicit in terms of the pair correlation function $g_{\\ell h }^{(2)}[x_{1},x_{2}|\\delta y]$ for the HCS, defined by $$f_{\\ell h}^{(2)}[x_{1},x_{2}|\\delta y]\\equiv f_{\\ell h}^{(1)}[x_{1}|\\delta\ny]\\, f_{\\ell h}^{(1)}[x_{2}|\\delta y]\\, g_{\\ell h }^{(2)}[x_{1},x_{2}|\\delta\ny]. ", " \\label{4.7}$$ Then Eq.", " (\\[3.10\\]) in the Markovian approximation yields $$\\begin{aligned}\nK(x_{1},x_{2},0;x)& = & g_{h}^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2})\\left[ f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})%\n\\delta \\left( x-x_{2}\\right) + f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{2}) \\delta \\left(\nx-x_{1}\\right) \\right] \\notag \\\\\n& & + f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{2}) \\left[ \\frac{\\delta g_{\\ell h\n}^{(2)}[x_{1},x_{2}|\\delta y]}{\\delta f_{\\ell h }^{(1)}[x|\\delta y]} \\right]%\n_{\\delta y=0}\\, . ", " \\label{4.8}\\end{aligned}$$ The first term on the right side is given explicitly in terms of the HCS correlations, while the second term requires further analysis of the dependence of local HCS correlations on $f_{\\ell h}^{(1)}$. For a *normal fluid*, these correlations are independent of the velocities and depend on the local equilibrium distribution $f_{\\ell e }^{(1)}$ only through the local density, $$\\left[ \\frac{\\delta g_{\\ell h}^{(2)}\\left[ x_{1},x_{2}|\\delta y\\right] }{%\n\\delta f_{\\ell h}^{(1)}[x|\\delta y]} \\right] _{\\delta y=0} \\rightarrow \\frac{%\n1}{n_{h}}\\left[ \\frac{\\delta g_{\\ell e }^{(2)}[{\\bm q}_{1},{\\bm q}%\n_{2}|\\delta y]}{\\delta n({\\bm q}) }\\right]_{\\delta y=0}\\, . ", " \\label{4.9}$$ The functional form of the local equilibrium pair correlation functional $%\ng_{\\ell e }^{(2)}[{\\bm q}_{1},{\\bm q}_{2}|\\delta y ]$ is known, so explicit construction of the collision operator $M$ is possible in this case. ", "The result is the linear revised Enskog kinetic equation [@vanBeijeren73]. ", "For granular fluids, $g_{\\ell h}^{(2)}[x_{1},x_{2}|\\delta y]$ has a more general functional functional dependence on $f_{\\ell h }^{(1)}$ through its explicit functional dependence on $\\delta y,$ since $$\\delta y_{\\gamma }\\left({\\bm q}\\right) =\\frac{1}{n_{h}}\\int dx_{1}\\,\na_{\\gamma }\\left( x_{1}\\right) \\delta \\left( {\\bm q}-{\\bm q}_{1}\\right)\n\\left\\{ f_{\\ell h}^{(1)}[x_{1}|\\delta y]-f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1}) \\right\\},\n\\label{4.9a}$$ where the $a_{\\gamma }\\left( x_{1}\\right) $’s are the single particle functions given in Eq.", " (\\[2.23\\]). ", "Thus $$\\left[ \\frac{\\delta g_{\\ell h}^{(2)}[x_{1},x_{2}|\\delta y]}{\\delta f_{\\ell\n}^{(1)}[x|\\delta y]}\\right]_{\\delta y=0}=\\frac{1}{n_{h}} \\sum_{\\lambda} %\n\\left[ \\frac{\\delta g_{\\ell h }^{(2)}[x_{1},x_{2}|\\delta y]}{\\delta\ny_{\\lambda }({\\bm q})}\\right] _{\\delta y=0}a_{\\lambda }\\left({\\bm v} \\right)\n. ", " \\label{4.9b}$$ This provides the practical route for constructing the Markovian kinetic theory for granular fluids. ", "The collision operator becomes $$\\begin{aligned}\nM(x_{1}) \\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x_{1},s) &= &-\\int dx_{2}\\, \\overline{T}\n(x_{1},x_{2})g_{h}^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2})\\left[ f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})\\psi _{\\gamma\n}^{(1)}(x_{2},s)+f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{2}) \\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x_{1},s)\\right]\n\\notag \\\\\n&&- \\sum_{\\lambda} \\int d{\\bm q}_{2}\\, c_{\\lambda }({\\bm v}_{1,}{\\bm q}_{12})%\n\\frac{1}{n_{h}} \\int d{\\bm v}_{2}\\, a_{\\lambda }\\left( {\\bm v}_{2}\\right)\n\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x_{2},s), \\label{4.10}\\end{aligned}$$ with $$c_{\\lambda }({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm q}_{12})=\\int dx\\overline{T }%\n(x_{1},x)f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})f_{h}^{(1)}(v)\\left[ \\frac{\\delta g_{\\ell\nh}^{(2)}[x_{1},x|\\delta y]}{\\delta y_{\\lambda }({\\bm q}_{2})}\\right]\n_{\\delta y=0}. ", " \\label{4.11}$$ Further discussion and simplification of $c_{\\lambda }({\\bm\nv}_{1,} {\\bm q}_{12})$ is given in Appendix \\[ap3\\].", "\n\nThe response functions of Eq.", " (\\[3.1\\]) are given in terms of $\\widetilde{%\n\\psi }_{\\gamma }^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},-{\\bm k},s)$, that is proportional to the Fourier transform of $\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x_{1},s)$ as indicated in Eq.", " (\\[3.3\\]). ", "An equation for the latter can be easily derived from Eq.", " ([3.11]{}), $$\\left[ \\frac{\\partial }{\\partial s}+\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm k})\\right]\n\\widetilde{\\psi }_{\\gamma }^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},-{\\bm k},s)=0, \\label{4.15}$$where the generator for the dynamics is the Fourier transform of $\\Lambda $ defined in Eq.", " (\\[4.5a\\]), $$\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm k})=-i{\\bm k}\\cdot {\\bm v}_{1}+\\widetilde{M}\\left(\n{\\bm k}\\right) +\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\left( d+{\\bm v}\\cdot \\frac{\\partial }{%\n\\partial {\\bm v}}\\right) . ", " \\label{4.16}$$with $\\widetilde{M}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm k})$ defined by $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\widetilde{M}\\left( {\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm k}\\right) X({\\bm v}_{1}) &\\equiv &-\\int\ndx_{2}\\,\\overline{T}(x_{1},x_{2})g_{h}^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2})\\left[ e^{i{\\bm k}%\n\\cdot {\\bm q}_{12}}f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})X({\\bm v}_{2})+f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{2})X({\\bm %\nv}_{1})\\right] \\notag \\\\\n&&-\\sum_{\\lambda }\\widetilde{c}_{\\lambda }({\\bm v}_{1,}{\\bm k})\\frac{1}{n_{h}%\n}\\int d{\\bm v}_{2}\\,a_{\\lambda }\\left( {\\bm v}_{2}\\right) X({\\bm v}_{2}),\n\\label{4.14}\\end{aligned}$$for arbitrary $X({\\bm v}_{1})$, $\\widetilde{c}_{\\lambda }({\\bm v}_{1,}{\\bm k}%\n)$ being the Fourier transform of $c_{\\lambda }({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm q}_{12})$.\n\nThe response functions in Eq.", " (\\[3.1\\]) become $$\\widetilde{C}_{\\beta \\gamma }\\left( {\\bm k},s\\right) =\\frac{1}{n_{h}}\\int d{%\n\\bm v}_{1}a_{\\beta }\\left( {\\bm v}_{1}\\right) e^{-s\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm %\nk})}\\widetilde{\\psi }_{\\gamma }^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm k}), \\label{4.17}$$$$\\widetilde{\\psi }_{\\gamma }^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},-{\\bm k})=\\int d{\\bm q}_{1}e^{i%\n{\\bm k}\\cdot {\\bm q}_{1}}\\,\\left[ \\frac{\\delta f_{\\ell h}^{(1)}[x_{1}|\\delta\ny]}{\\delta \\widetilde{y}_{\\gamma }({\\bm0})}\\right] _{\\delta \\widetilde{y}=0}.", "\n\\label{4.17a}$$\n\nEquation (\\[4.17\\]) is the primary practical result of our analysis here. ", "It provides a realistic kinetic theory description of the most fundamental time dependent fluctuations in a granular fluid: those induced by perturbations of the hydrodynamic fields. ", "To appreciate the scope and generality of this result, note that the Markovian approximation is exact at short times for all ${\\bm k}$, densities, and degrees of restitution. ", "In this short time limit, Eq.", " (\\[4.17\\]) yields $$\\lim_{s\\rightarrow 0}\\widetilde{C}_{\\beta \\gamma }\\left( {\\bm k},s\\right)\n=\\lim_{s\\rightarrow 0}\\left( e^{-sN\\left( {\\bm k}\\right) }\\right) _{\\beta\n\\gamma }, \\label{4.18}$$with $$N_{\\beta \\gamma }\\left( {\\bm k}\\right) =\\frac{1}{n_{h}}\\int d{\\bm v}%\n_{1}a_{\\beta }\\left( {\\bm v}_{1}\\right) \\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm k})%\n\\widetilde{\\psi }_{\\gamma }^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm k}). ", " \\label{4.19}$$At longer times, the Markovian approximation is expected to continue to provide a good approximation across this parameter space, since the derivation does not explicitly require any limitations on ${\\bm k}$, densities, or degrees of restitution. ", "This expectation is borne out in the elastic limit, where the linear Enskog theory for equilibrium time correlation functions is recovered, as discussed in the next section. ", "In that case, comparisons with molecular dynamics simulations (wavevector dependent transport [@Alley]) and neutron scattering experiments [deSchepper]{}, confirm the accuracy and practical utility of this kinetic theory over a wide range of wavevectors and densities. ", "A determination of the corresponding domain of accuracy for granular fluids, awaits similar comparisons with simulation and experiments, but there is no simple reason to expect qualitative rather than quantitative differences from normal fluids.", "\n\nIn Sec. ", "\\[s6\\], it is shown that the operator $\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm k}\n) $ contains the hydrodynamic modes in its spectrum for small $k$. Thus the response functions in Eq.", " (\\[4.17\\]) provide a means to study the transition from short time dynamics to a presumed dominant hydrodynamics at long times for granular fluids, in a manner similar to that done for normal fluids [@McL89]. ", "In addition, since it is valid for all ${\\bm\nk}$, the nature of hydrodynamics beyond the Navier-Stokes approximation can be studied.", "\n\nAn important application of general linear response methods, is the derivation of Helfand and Green-Kubo expressions for the transport coefficients [@DBB06; @BDB06]. ", "These are formally exact results given in terms of time correlation functions. ", "The above analysis for the response functions applies to these as well, and their dynamics in the Markovian approximation is generated by the same operator $\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm k}%\n)$. ", "The evaluation of the Helfand and Green-Kubo expressions for the shear viscosity is illustrated in Sec. ", "\\[s7\\]. ", "The results provide a generalization of those from Enskog kinetic theory [@GD99], to include pair velocity correlations. ", "When such correlations are neglected, the results of ref. [", "@GD99] are recovered in detail. ", "This is verified for the other Navier-Stokes transport coefficients as well in Appendix \\[ap5\\].", "\n\nGranular Enskog Approximation {#s5}\n=============================\n\nThe Markovian approximation discussed in the previous section, requires specification of $g_{ \\ell h}^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2})$ and $c_{\\lambda }(x_{1},{%\n\\bm q}_{12})$, or equivalently $\\delta g_{\\ell h}^{(2)}[x_{1},x|\\delta\ny]/\\delta y_{\\lambda }( {\\bm\nq}_{2})$ for $\\delta y=0$. While these are well defined in terms of the local HCS distribution, little is know about their detailed forms as yet, except in the elastic limit where they are accurately determined from liquid state theory of the pair correlation function. ", "The important simplification in that case is the absence of velocity correlations. ", "It is plausible to assume that such correlations remain weak for the granular fluid as well, and to make the approximation $$g_{\\ell h }^{(2)}[x_{1},x_{2}|\\delta y]\\simeq g_{\\ell h }^{(2)}[{\\bm q}_{1},\n{\\bm q}_{2}|\\delta y]=g_{\\ell h}^{(2)}[{\\bm q}_{1},{\\bm q}_{2}|\\delta n].", "\n\\label{5.1}$$ The last equality recognizes that the neglect of velocity correlations leads to a functional that is independent of $\\delta T$ and $\\delta {\\bm U}$ (for hard spheres or disks) and hence is a functional only of the density. ", "Furthermore, $g_{\\ell h }^{(2)}[{\\bm q}_{1},{\\bm q}%\n_{2}|0]=g_{h}^{(2)}(q_{12})$ as a consequence of fluid symmetry. ", "Then, Eq.", " (\\[4.11\\]) reduces to $$c_{\\lambda }^{(E)}({\\bm v}_{1,}{\\bm q}_{12})= \\delta _{\\lambda 1}c^{(E)}( {%\n\\bm v}_{1, },{\\bm q}_{12}) = \\delta _{\\lambda 1}\\int dx\\, \\overline{T}\n(x_{1},x)f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})f_{h}^{(1)}(v) \\left[ \\frac{\\delta g_{\\ell\nh}^{(2)}( {\\bm q}_{1},{\\bm q}|\\delta n)}{\\delta n({\\bm q}_{2})}\\right]\n_{\\delta n=0}. ", " \\label{5.2}$$ The collision operator (\\[4.14\\]) now simplifies to $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\widetilde{M}^{E} X({\\bm v}_{1}) & = &-g_{h}^{(2)}(\\sigma )\\int dx_{2}\\,\n\\overline{T}(x_{1},x_{2})\\left[ e^{- i {\\bm k} \\cdot {\\bm q}_{12}\n}f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1}) X({\\bm v}_{2})+f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{2}) X({\\bm v}_{1})\\right]\n\\notag \\\\\n&&- \\frac{1}{n_{h}} \\widetilde{c}^{(E)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm k})\\int d{\\bm v}%\n_{2}\\, X({\\bm v}_{2}). ", " \\label{5.3}\\end{aligned}$$ It remains to give the explicit density dependence for $g_{\\ell h }^{(2)}[ {%\n\\bm r}_{1},{\\bm r}|\\delta n]$ [@lutsko01]. ", "As a practical matter, it can be chosen to be the pair distribution for a nonuniform normal fluid for which a well-developed theory exists. ", "In that case, $g_{h}^{(2)}(\\left| {\\bm %\nr}_{1}-{\\bm r}\\right| ) = g_{eq}^{(2)}(\\left| {\\bm r} _{1}-{\\bm r}\\right| )$, the radial distribution function for a uniform hard sphere fluid. ", "Also, for this choice the functional derivative appearing in the expression of $%\n\\widetilde{c}^{(E)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm k})$ can be evaluated for the first few terms of a ${\\bm k}$ expansion, as is required for evaluation of transport coefficients. ", "The context of such a choice would be that the static spatial correlations of a hard sphere system are due to excluded volume effects, and these can be captured using the pair correlation function of a fluid of elastic hard spheres. ", "The generator $\\Lambda({\\bm k})$ obtained in this approximation from Eq.", " (\\[5.3\\]) gives the granular Enskog kinetic theory, and is the linearized version of the one studied in ref. [", "@GD99].", "\n\nHydrodynamic Modes {#s6}\n==================\n\nAn important feature of the response functions considered here is their relationship to hydrodynamic response. ", "At small $k$ and large $s$, these response functions should correspond to those from the phenomenological hydrodynamic equations. ", "For example, it is this relationship that allows the derivation of Helfand and Green-Kubo expressions for the transport coefficients. ", "Any acceptable approximate kinetic theory for the response functions should preserve this relationship to hydrodynamics. ", "More specifically, the hydrodynamic excitations should appear in the spectrum of the linear operator $\\widetilde{ \\Lambda }({\\bm k})$, $$\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm k},{\\bm v})\\phi ^{(\\beta)}({\\bm k},{\\bm v}%\n)=\\lambda ^{(\\beta)}( {\\bm k})\\phi ^{(\\beta)}({\\bm k},{\\bm v}), \\quad \\beta\n= 1,\\ldots, d+2, \\label{6.1}$$ where the set $\\left\\{ \\lambda ^{(\\beta)}({\\bm k})\\right\\} $ are the eigenvalues of the $d+2$ linearized hydrodynamic equations. ", "The above eigenfunctions and eigenvalues are determined in the limit ${\\bm k}={\\bm 0}$ in Appendix \\[ap4\\] with the results $$\\left\\{ \\lambda ^{(\\beta)}({\\bm 0}) \\right\\} = \\left\\{ 0,\\frac{\\zeta_{0}}{2}%\n,-\\frac{\\zeta_{0}}{2} \\right\\} , \\label{6.2}$$ $$\\left\\{ \\phi^{(\\beta)} ({\\bm v},{\\bm 0}) \\right\\} = \\left\\{ \\widetilde{\\psi}%\n_{1}^{(1)} ({\\bm v},{\\bm 0})-2 \\left( \\frac{\\partial \\ln \\zeta_{0}}{\\ln n_{h}%\n} \\right)_{T_{h}} \\widetilde{\\psi}_{2}^{(1)} ({\\bm v},{\\bm 0}),\\widetilde{%\n\\psi}_{2}^{(1)} ({\\bm v},{\\bm 0}),\\widetilde{\\bm \\psi}_{3}^{(1)} ({\\bm v},{%\n\\bm 0}) \\right\\}. ", " \\label{6.3}$$ The eigenvalue $-\\zeta_{0}/2$ is $d$-fold degenerate, and the associated eigenfunctions are the components of the vector $\\widetilde{\\bm \\psi}%\n_{3}^{(1)} ({\\bm v},{\\bm 0}) \\equiv - \\partial f_{h}^{(1)}(v) / \\partial {%\n\\bm v}$.\n\nIn the elastic limit, these eigenvalues are all zero, corresponding to the $%\nd+2$ conservation laws, and the eigenfunctions become Maxwellians times linear combinations of the summational invariants $\\left( 1,v^{2},{\\bm v}\n\\right) $. ", "For inelastic collisions, the nonzero eigenvalues describe response of the cooling temperature to linear perturbations and growth of a constant velocity perturbation relative to the characteristic cooling thermal velocity. ", "In both cases, these are also the eigenvalues of the phenomenological linearized hydrodynamic equations in the long wavelength limit.", "\n\nWith the eigenfunctions and eigenvalues known at ${\\bm k}=0$, their values for finite but small $k$ can be obtained by perturbation theory. ", "In this way the Navier-Stokes transport coefficients can be determined directly from the coefficients up through order $k^{2}$. This direct calculation of the spectrum for the generator of a linear kinetic theory has been described in detail recently for the granular Boltzmann equation [@Dufty03], and its extension to the Markovian kinetic theory given here is straightforward. ", "Instead, the remainder of this presentation addresses the calculation of the transport coefficients from an approximate evaluation of their Helfand and Green-Kubo representations that have been obtained from linear response.", "\n\nHelfand and Green-Kubo Expressions {#s7}\n==================================\n\nAs noted above, the exact response functions defined in Sec. ", "\\[s2\\] must agree with those of the linearized phenomenological hydrodynamic equations in the long wavelength and long time limit. ", "This relationship allows identification of the parameters of those phenomenological equations in terms of the response functions in this limit. ", "The results of this analysis for granular fluids has been given recently, leading to expressions for the transport coefficients in terms of certain time correlation functions derived from the response functions [@BDB06]. ", "These correlation functions can be evaluated approximately by the Markov kinetic theory, to obtain explicit results for all transport coefficients appearing in the Navier-Stokes hydrodynamic equations. ", "Further, neglecting the velocity correlations in the Markov theory, allows the evaluation of these quantities in the granular Enskog theory, reproducing the results reported in [GD99]{}. ", "In this section, only the shear viscosity is considered as an example, while all remaining transport coefficients are analyzed in Appendix \\[ap5\\].", "\n\nThe exact Helfand and Green-Kubo expressions for the shear viscosity are (dimensionless units are still assumed) $$\\eta =\\lim \\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }\\left( s\\right) =\\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }\\left(\n0\\right)+\\lim \\int_{0}^{s}ds^{\\prime }\\, \\Omega _{G}^{\\eta }\\left( s^{\\prime\n}\\right), \\label{7.1}$$ respectively, where the symbol $\\lim $ denotes the hydrodynamic limit of $%\nV\\rightarrow \\infty $, followed by $s \\rightarrow \\infty$. The correlation functions in the above equation are defined by $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }\\left( s\\right) =- \\frac{V^{-1}}{d^{2}+d-2}\n\\sum_{i=1}^{d} \\sum_{j=1}^{d} \\int d\\Gamma\\, H_{ij}(\\Gamma) e^{-s \\left(\n\\overline{\\mathcal{L}}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) } \\mathcal{M}_{\\eta\n,ij}(\\Gamma), \\label{7.2}$$ $$\\Omega _{G}^{\\eta }\\left( s\\right) =\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial s} \\Omega\n_{H}^{\\eta }\\left( s\\right)=- \\frac{V^{-1}}{d^{2}+d-2} \\sum_{i=1}^{d}\n\\sum_{j=1}^{d} \\int d\\Gamma\\, H_{ij}(\\Gamma) e^{-s \\left( \\overline{\\mathcal{%\nL}}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) }\\Upsilon _{\\eta ,ij}(\\Gamma). ", " \\label{7.3}$$ Here, $H_{ij}(\\Gamma)$ is the volume integrated momentum flux, $$H_{ij}(\\Gamma) =\\sum_{r=1}^{N}v_{r,i}v_{r,j}+ \\sum_{r=1}^{N} \\sum_{s \\neq\nr}^{N}H_{ij}^{(2)}\\left( x_{r},x_{r}\\right) , \\label{7.3a}$$ $$H_{ij}^{(2)}\\left( x_{r},x_{s}\\right) =\\frac{(1+\\alpha)\\sigma}{4} \\delta\n\\left( q_{rs}-\\sigma \\right) \\Theta \\left( -\\widehat{\\bm q} _{rs}\\cdot {\\bm g%\n}_{rs}\\right) \\left( \\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs}\\cdot {\\bm g}_{lm}\\right) ^{2}%\n\\widehat{q}_{rs,i}\\widehat{q}_{rs,j}, \\label{7.3b}$$ $\\mathcal{M}_{\\eta ,ij}\\mathcal{\\ }$is the traceless tensor $$\\mathcal{M}_{\\eta ,ij}=- \\frac{1}{2}\\sum_{r=1}^{N} \\left( q_{ri} \\frac{%\n\\partial}{\\partial v_{r,j}}+ q_{r,j} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial v_{r,i}} -\n\\frac{2}{d} \\delta_{ij} {\\bm q}_{r} \\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}%\n_{r}} \\right) \\rho_{h}(\\Gamma), \\label{7.4}$$ and $\\Upsilon _{\\eta ,ij}(\\Gamma)$ is the associated Green-Kubo conjugate flux, $$\\Upsilon _{\\eta ,ij}(\\Gamma) =-\\left( \\overline{\\mathcal{L}}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}%\n}{2} \\right) \\mathcal{M}_{\\eta ,ij}(\\Gamma). ", " \\label{7.5}$$ It is seen in Eqs.", " (\\[7.2\\]) and (\\[7.3\\]) that the generator of dynamics is $\\overline{\\mathcal{L}}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0} }{2} $. ", "This reflects the fact that the $k=0$ mode $\\lambda =-\\zeta _{0}/2,$ of Eq.", " (\\[6.2\\]), has been subtracted out.", "\n\nThe time independent contribution $\\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }\\left( 0\\right) $ in the Green-Kubo expression, can be evaluated exactly from the definitions (\\[7.3a\\]) and (\\[7.4\\]) with the result: $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }\\left( 0\\right)=\\frac{V^{-1}}{d^{2}+d-2} \\sum_{i=1}^{d}\n\\sum_{j=1}^{d} \\int dx_{1}\\, h_{ij}({\\bm v}_{1}) \\frac{1}{2} \\left( q_{1,i}\n\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial v_{1,j}} +q_{1,j} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial v_{1,y}}\n-\\frac{2}{d} \\delta_{ij} {\\bm q}_{1} \\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}%\n_{1}} \\right) f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1}), \\label{7.6}$$ where $$h_{ij}({\\bm v})=v_{i}v_{j}+\\int dx_{1} \\int dx_{2}\\, H_{ij}^{(2)}\\left(\nx_{1},x_{2}\\right) K(x_{1},x_{2},0;x). ", " \\label{7.6a}$$ The first term in the above expression of $h_{ij}$ gives no contribution to $%\n\\Omega_{H}^{\\eta}(0)$, from fluid symmetry. ", "The second term can be recognized as being proportional to the average collision frequency, $\\nu\n_{av}$, as determined by the loss part of the right hand side of the hard sphere BBGKY hierarchy (\\[3.3c\\]) specialized for the HCS, $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }\\left( 0\\right)=\\frac{(1+\\alpha)\\sigma^{2}}{4(d^{2}+2d)}%\n\\, \\nu _{av} \\label{7.7}$$ $$\\nu _{av}=2 \\sigma ^{d-1}\\int d\\widehat{\\bm \\sigma }\\int d{\\bm v}_{1} \\int d\n{\\bm v}_{2}\\, \\Theta \\left( -\\widehat{\\bm \\sigma }\\cdot {\\bm g }_{12}\\right)\n\\left( \\widehat{\\bm \\sigma }\\cdot {\\bm g}_{12}\\right) f_{h}^{\\left( 2\\right)\n}\\left({\\bm \\sigma },{\\bm v}_{1}, {\\bm v}_{2}\\right) . ", " \\label{7.8}$$\n\nEvaluation in the Markov Approximation\n--------------------------------------\n\nA complete evaluation of the correlation function $\\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }\\left(\ns\\right) $ is possible using the Markov kinetic theory. ", "As in Sec. ", "\\[s3\\], the correlation function can be given a representation in terms of one and two particle functions $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }\\left( s\\right) & = & -\\frac{V^{-1}}{d^{2}+d-2}\n\\sum_{i=1}^{d} \\sum_{j=1}^{d} \\int dx_{1}\\, v_{1,i}v_{1,j} \\mathcal{M}_{\\eta\n,ij}^{(1)}\\left( x_{1},s\\right) \\notag \\\\\n& - & \\frac{V^{-1}}{d^{2}+d-2} \\sum_{i=1}^{d} \\sum_{j=1}^{d} \\int dx_{1}\n\\int dx_{2}\\, H_{ij}^{(2)}\\left( x_{1},x_{2}\\right) \\mathcal{M}_{\\eta\n,ij}^{(2)}\\left( x_{1},x_{2},s\\right) , \\label{7.9}\\end{aligned}$$ with the reduced functions $\\mathcal{M}_{\\eta ,ij}^{(m)}\\left(\nx_{1},..,x_{m},s\\right) $ defined by $$\\mathcal{M}_{\\eta ,ij}^{(m)}\\left( x_{1},\\ldots ,x_{m},s\\right) \\equiv \\frac{%\nN!}{ (", "N-m)!}\\int dx_{m+1}\\ldots \\int dx_{N}e^{-s \\left( \\overline{\\mathcal{L}%\n}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) }\\mathcal{M}_{\\eta ,ij}(\\Gamma). ", " \\label{7.10}$$ Similarly to the functions $\\psi_{\\gamma}$ considered in Sec.", " \\[s3\\], the above functions obey a BBGKY hierarchy, the first equation of which is $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\left( \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial s} + \\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}+ {\\bm v}_{1}\\cdot\n\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm q}_{1}}\\right) \\mathcal{M}_{\\eta\n,ij}^{(1)}(x_{1},s)& + & \\frac{\\zeta_{0}}{2} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial{\\bm v}%\n_{1}} \\cdot \\left[ {\\bm v}_{1} \\mathcal{M}_{\\eta ,ij}^{(1)}(x_{1},s)\\right]\n\\notag \\\\\n& = & \\int dx_{2}\\, \\overline{T}(x_{1},x_{2})\\mathcal{M}_{\\eta\n,ij}^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s). ", " \\label{7.11}\\end{aligned}$$ The Markovian approximation in the present case is the same as that defined by Eqs.", " (\\[3.9\\]) and (\\[4.1\\]) $$\\mathcal{M}_{\\eta ,ij}^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s) \\simeq \\int dx\\,\nK(x_{1},x_{2},0;x)\\mathcal{M}_{\\eta ,ij}^{(1)}(x,s). ", " \\label{7.12}$$ Then, Eq.", " (\\[7.11\\]) becomes the Markovian kinetic equation $$\\left( \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial s}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}+\\Lambda \\right)\n\\mathcal{M}_{\\eta ,ij}^{(1)}=0, \\label{7.13}$$ where the linear operator $\\Lambda $ is the same as defined in Eq.", " ([4.5a]{}).", "\n\nIn this approximation, the Helfand expression of the shear viscosity of a hard sphere or disk granular fluid becomes $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\eta = \\lim \\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }\\left( s\\right) & \\simeq & \\frac{V^{-1}}{%\nd^{2}+d-2} \\sum_{i=1}^{d} \\sum_{j=1}^{d}\\int dx_{1}\\, h_{ij}({\\bm v}%\n_{1})e^{-s \\left( \\Lambda +\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) } \\notag \\\\\n&& \\times \\frac{1}{2} \\left( q_{1,i} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial v_{1,j}}\n+q_{1,j} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial v_{1,y}} -\\frac{2}{d} \\delta_{ij} {\\bm q}%\n_{1} \\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}} \\right) f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1}),\n\\label{7.16a}\\end{aligned}$$ where $h_{ij}({\\bm v})$ is defined in Eq.", " (\\[7.6a\\]).", "\n\nNext, the Green-Kubo expression for $\\eta $ in the Markov approximation can be identified from Eqs.", " (\\[7.1\\]) and (\\[7.3\\]), $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }\\left( 0\\right) = \\frac{V^{-1}}{d^{2}+d+2} \\sum_{i=1}^{d}\n\\sum_{j=1}^{d} \\int dx_{1\\, }h_{ij}({\\bm v}_{1}) \\frac{1}{2} \\left( q_{1,i}\n\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial v_{1,j}} +q_{1,j} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial v_{1,y}}\n-\\frac{2}{d} \\delta_{ij} {\\bm q}_{1} \\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}%\n_{1}} \\right) f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1}) \\label{7.17a}$$ and $$\\Omega _{G}^{\\eta }\\left( s\\right) = \\frac{V^{-1}}{d^{2}+d-2} \\sum_{i=1}^{d}\n\\sum_{j=1}^{d} \\int dx_{1}\\, h_{ij}({\\bm v}_{1})e^{-s \\left( \\Lambda +\\frac{%\n\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) }\\gamma _{ij}\\left( {\\bm v}_{1}\\right). ", " \\label{7.18}$$ The reduced conjugate flux $\\gamma _{ij}$ is $$\\gamma _{ij}\\left( {\\bm v}_{1}\\right) =-\\left( \\Lambda +\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{ 2}%\n\\right) \\frac{1}{2} \\left( q_{1,i} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial v_{1,j}}\n+q_{1,j} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial v_{1,y}} -\\frac{2}{d} \\delta_{ij} {\\bm q}%\n_{1} \\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}} \\right) f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1}).", "\n\\label{7.19a}$$ Comparison of Eqs.", " (\\[7.6\\]) and (\\[7.17a\\]) shows that $\\Omega\n_{H}^{\\eta }\\left( 0\\right) $ is given exactly in the Markov approximation. ", "The Green-Kubo representation for the shear viscosity requires the large $s$ limit of the integral over $s$ in Eq.", " (\\[7.1\\]). ", "It can be verified that $%\n\\Omega _{G}^{\\eta }\\left( s\\right) $ has no invariant part, so that this limit is expected to exist. ", "This issue is discussed in some detail in Appendix \\[ap5\\]. ", "Then the Green-Kubo expression for shear viscosity can be written as $$\\eta =\\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }\\left( 0\\right) +\\frac{1}{d^{2}+d-2} \\sum_{i=1}^{d}\n\\sum_{j=1}^{d} \\int d{\\bm v}_{1}h_{ij}({\\bm v}_{1})\\mathcal{D}_{ij}\\left({%\n\\bm v}_{1}\\right), \\label{7.22}$$ where $D_{ij}\\left({\\bm v}\\right) $ is a solution to the integral equation $$\\left( \\frac{\\zeta_{0}}{2} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}} \\cdot {\\bm v} +\nM + \\frac{\\zeta_{0}}{2}\\right) \\mathcal{D}_{ij}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) =\\gamma\n_{ij}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) . ", " \\label{7.23}$$ Upon writing the above equation, it has been taken into account that terms involving spatial derivatives give a vanishing contribution to the expression of the shear viscosity. ", "This is the traditional form in which expressions for transport coefficients are obtained from a Chapman Enskog expansion of a normal solution to the kinetic equation governing the dynamics of the system.", "\n\nEvaluation in the Granular Enskog Approximation\n-----------------------------------------------\n\nThe further neglect of velocity correlations in the collision operator $M$, leads to the granular Enskog approximation, i.e., the results given by Eqs.(\\[7.16a\\]) and (\\[7.18\\]) apply with only the replacement $\\Lambda$ by $%\n\\Lambda ^{E}$, with $$\\Lambda ^{E}(x) \\equiv {\\bm v} \\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm q}} +\nM^{E} (x) + \\frac{\\zeta_{0}}{2} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}} \\cdot {\\bm %\nv} , \\label{7.25}$$ and the operator $M^{E}$ given by, $$\\begin{aligned}\nM^{E}X(x_{1}) &\\equiv &-g_{h}^{2}\\left( \\sigma \\right) \\int dx_{2}\\,\n\\overline{T} (x_{1},x_{2})\\left[\nf_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})X(x_{2})+X(x_{1})f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{2})\\right] \\notag \\\\\n&&-\\frac{1}{n_{h}} \\int d {\\bm q}_{2}\\, c_{1}(x_{1,},{\\bm q}_{2})\\int d{\\bm v%\n}_{2}\\, X(x_{2}). ", " \\label{7.26}\\end{aligned}$$ The function $c_{1}$ is given in Eq.", " (\\[5.2\\]). ", "In the Enskog approximation, the conjugate flux $\\gamma_{ij}$ in Eq.", " (\\[7.19a\\]) becomes $$\\gamma _{ij}\\left( {\\bm v}_{1}\\right) =-\\left( \\Lambda^{E} +\\frac{\\zeta _{0}%\n}{ 2}\\right) \\frac{1}{2} \\left( q_{1,i} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial v_{1,j}}\n+q_{1,j} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial v_{1,y}} -\\frac{2}{d} \\delta_{ij} {\\bm q}%\n_{1} \\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}} \\right) f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1}).", "\n\\label{7.27}$$\n\nOne final simplification occurs for the shear viscosity and some other transport coefficients. ", "The mean field term in Eq.", " (\\[7.26\\]) vanishes when acting on $\\gamma _{ij}\\left( \\mathbf{v}\\right) $ and, therefore, $$\\left( \\Lambda ^{E}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) \\gamma _{ij}\\left( {\\bm v}%\n\\right) =\\left( \\mathcal{J}(x)+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) \\gamma\n_{ij}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) , \\label{7.31}$$where the operator $\\mathcal{J}(x)$ has been introduced, $$\\mathcal{J}(x)\\equiv \\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial {\\bm v}}%\n\\cdot {\\bm v}-g_{h}^{(2)}(\\sigma )\\mathcal{I}. ", " \\label{7.34a}$$Here, $\\mathcal{I}$ is the linearized Boltzmann collision operator for inelastic hard spheres or disks, $$\\mathcal{I}X(x_{1})\\equiv \\int dx_{2}\\overline{T}(x_{1},x_{2})\\left[\nf_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})X(x_{2})+X(x_{1})f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{2})\\right] . ", " \\label{7.31a}$$Therefore, the correlation function in Eq.", " (\\[7.18\\]) and the expression for the shear viscosity in Eq.", " (\\[7.22\\]) take the final forms $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\Omega _{G}^{\\eta E}\\left( s\\right) &=&\\frac{1}{d^{2}+d-2}\\left[ 1+\\frac{%\n(1+\\alpha )\\sigma ^{d}n_{h}\\pi ^{d/2}g_{h}^{(2)}(\\sigma )}{4\\Gamma \\left(\n\\frac{d+4}{2}\\right) }\\right] \\notag \\\\\n&&\\times \\sum_{i=1}^{d}\\sum_{j=1}^{d}\\int d{\\bm v}\\,v_{i}v_{j}\\exp \\left[\n-s\\left( \\mathcal{J}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) \\right] \\gamma _{ij}({\\bm v}%\n) \\label{7.32}\\end{aligned}$$and $$\\eta =\\Omega _{H}^{\\eta E}(0)+\\frac{1}{d^{2}+d-2}\\sum_{i=1}^{d}%\n\\sum_{j=1}^{d}\\int d{\\bm v}\\,h_{ij}({\\bm v})\\mathcal{D}_{ij}^{E}\\left( {\\bm v%\n}\\right) , \\label{7.33}$$respectively. ", "The Enskog approximation for $\\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }\\left(\n0\\right) $ is $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\eta E}\\left( 0\\right) =\\frac{\\pi ^{(d-1)/2}(1+\\alpha )\\sigma\n^{d+1}g_{h}^{(2)}(\\sigma )}{2(d^{2}+2d)\\Gamma \\left( \\frac{d+1}{2}\\right) }%\n\\int d{\\bm v}_{1}\\int d{\\bm v}_{2}\\,|{\\bm v}_{1}-{\\bm v}_{2}|f_{h}^{\\left(\n1\\right) }\\left( v_{1}\\right) f_{h}^{\\left( 1\\right) }\\left( v_{2}\\right)\n\\label{7.34}$$and $\\mathcal{D}_{ij}^{E}$ is a solution to the integral equation $$\\left( \\mathcal{J}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) \\mathcal{D}_{ij}^{E}({\\bm v}%\n)=\\gamma _{ij}({\\bm v}), \\label{7.35}$$The above result for the shear viscosity agrees in detail with that obtained in ref. [", "@GD99], through a Chapman-Enskog procedure applied to the non-linear granular Enskog equation.", "\n\nThe results in Eqs.", " (\\[7.18\\]) and (\\[7.32\\]) for the Green-Kubo integrand are new. ", "At the formally exact level, the integrand is given by the correlation between the flux and the conjugate flux. ", "In detail, the contributions from $H_{ij}^{(2)}$ and the $\\overline{T}(i,j)$ terms of $%\n\\overline{\\mathcal{\\ L}}$, appear to yield singularities at $t=0$, signaling a possible nonanalytic dependence on $t$. This occurs even in the elastic limit, and is a peculiarity of hard particle dynamics. ", "Consequently, previous theoretical and simulation studies have avoided this by studying the Helfand forms for transport coefficients. ", "The approximate kinetic theory described here gives an explicit analytic estimate for $\\Omega _{G}^{\\eta\n}\\left( s\\right) $, whose integral yields a good estimate for the transport coefficients. ", "This suggests that $\\Omega _{G}^{\\eta }\\left( s\\right) $ may have a dominant analytic part with a relatively small non-analytic correction.", "\n\nDiscussion {#s8}\n==========\n\nKinetic theory has been used extensively as a formal tool for approximate evaluation of response functions, in the study of hard spheres as a model for normal fluids. ", "The objective of this work is to take a first step in the development and application of this tool in the analogous field of granular fluids. ", "The advantage of developing kinetic theory in the context of linear response functions, lies in the fact that the resulting theories are inherently linear, and provide a more tractable setting to explore questions such as aging to hydrodynamics and short wavelength behavior of the exact hydrodynamic response. ", "The two primary contributions here are: 1) the development of a practical kinetic theory for an important class of granular time correlation functions and, 2) the demonstration of its utility for the evaluation of Helfand and Green-Kubo expressions for Navier-Stokes order transport coefficients.", "\n\nThe linear kinetic theory is summarized by Eq.", " (\\[4.15\\]). ", "Based on corresponding studies for the elastic limit of this equation, it is expected to have a wide domain of validity with respect to space and time scales, as well as densities. ", "The nature of the approximation, short time functional relationship, does not explicitly entail questions of inelasticity so it is expected to apply as well for a finite range of inelasticity. ", "It encompasses the granular Boltzmann equation, in the low density limit, and the familiar Enskog equation in the elastic limit. ", "The focus here has been on hydrodynamic response, but the theory includes hydrodynamics beyond the Navier-Stokes approximation, and even describes very short wavelength non-hydrodynamic behavior, that can be more important at moderate and high densities for granular fluids. ", "Finally, this kinetic theory applies beyond the set of hydrodynamic fields considered here. ", "For any observable, $%\nz(\\Gamma ;{\\bm r})$, that can be written as a sum of single particle functions so that $$\\widetilde{z}\\left( \\Gamma ,{\\bm k}\\right) =\\sum_{r=1}^{N}e^{i{\\bm k}\\cdot {%\n\\bm q}_{r}}z\\left( {\\bm v}_{r}\\right) , \\label{8.1}$$and for the same initial perturbation as considered in Sec. ", "\\[s2\\], the response functions are given in the appropriate units by $$\\widetilde{C}_{\\gamma }\\left( {\\bm k};s\\right) =\\frac{1}{n_{h}}\\int d{\\bm v}%\n\\,z\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) e^{-s\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm k})}\\widetilde{\\psi }%\n_{\\gamma }^{(1)}({\\bm v},{\\bm k}). ", " \\label{8.2}$$This opens the possibility to study a wide range of experimental probes and also fundamental questions such as the relationship between fluctuations and response.", "\n\nThe second contribution, evaluation of the formal representations for Navier-Stokes transport coefficients, begins the process of exploring the utility of such formal representations, as well as verifying their consistency with earlier Chapman-Enskog based studies. ", "These are long wavelength properties of the kinetic theory, and therefore a more controlled context for its tests. ", "For example, the Markovian approximation provides a practical context for the introduction of velocity correlations associated with the reference homogeneous state [@BGMyR04; @BRMyG05]. ", "Their effect on transport coefficients at strong dissipation is expected to be important but has not been quantified to date. ", "The kinetic theory scheme developed here also provides the basis for formulating and assessing more complex theories, such as those describing mode coupling dynamical correlations, which are expected to dominate at very high densities. ", "Finally, the verification of the agreement between the kinetic theory evaluation of the Helfand and Green-Kubo representations here and the earlier Chapman-Enskog method provides further support for the implicit assumptions of these complementary formal approaches.", "\n\nAn interesting new result, both for normal and granular fluids, is the expression of the Green-Kubo time-correlation function $\\Omega _{G}(s)$. In the Enskog approximation, the corresponding function for the shear viscosity is given by Eq.", " (\\[7.32\\]). ", "To interpret this result, the time dependence may be estimated from a leading order cumulant expansion, $$\\Omega _{G}^{\\eta E}\\left( s\\right) \\simeq \\Omega _{G}^{\\eta E}\\left(\n0\\right) e^{-s/\\tau }, \\label{7.5A}$$$$\\frac{1}{\\tau }=\\frac{\\sum_{i,j}^{d}\\int d{\\bm v}\\,h_{ij}({\\bm v})\\left(\n\\mathcal{J}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) \\gamma _{ij}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) }{%\n\\sum_{i,j}^{d}\\int d{\\bm v}\\,h_{ij}\\gamma _{ij}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) }\\,.", "\n\\label{7.5B}$$The corresponding Helfand correlation functions, $\\Omega _{H}(s)$, can be inferred directly from this, $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\eta E}\\left( s\\right) \\simeq \\Omega _{H}^{\\eta E}\\left(\n0\\right) +\\Omega _{G}^{\\eta E}\\left( 0\\right) \\tau \\left( 1-e^{-s/\\tau\n}\\right) , \\label{3}$$and the shear viscosity can be identified as $$\\eta \\simeq \\Omega _{H}^{\\eta E}\\left( 0\\right) +\\Omega _{G}^{\\eta E}\\left(\n0\\right) \\tau . ", " \\label{4}$$These results expose the qualitative nature of the time dependence in each case. ", "The resulting shear viscosity in these approximations agrees with that obtained by a leading order solution to the integral equation (\\[7.35\\]) as an expansion in Sonine polynomials [@GD99].", "\n\nIn conclusion, it is hoped that this work provides a starting point to explore systematic analytic approximations to the hydrodynamic response of a granular fluid, with the same attention to detail given in the context of normal fluids. ", "These, together with numerical studies of exact results, provide a means to understand transport mechanisms in this system.", "\n\nAcknowledgements\n================\n\nThe research of A.B. and J.D. was supported in part by the Department of Energy Grant (DE-FG03-98DP00218). ", "A.B. also acknowledges a McGinty Dissertation Fellowship and a IFT Michael J Harris Fellowship from the University of Florida. ", "The research of J.J.B. was partially supported by the Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia (Spain) through Grant No. ", "BFM2005-01398.", "\n\nLocal Homogeneous State {#ap1}\n=======================\n\nThe *local* HCS ensemble chosen as the initial perturbation of the HCS, represents a system decomposed into spatial cells, each in a HCS with its own local temperature, density, and flow velocity. ", "It is constructed formally as follows. ", "First, the HCS ensemble is determined as the solution to the homogeneous, stationary Liouville equation (\\[2.17\\]) in dimensionless form, $$\\rho _{h}^{\\ast }(\\Gamma^{*})=\\rho _{h}^{\\ast }\\left( \\left\\{ \\frac{q_{rs}}{%\n\\ell} ,\\frac{{\\bm v}_{r}-{\\bm U}_{h}}{v_{0}(T_{h})}; r,s=1,\\ldots,N \\right\\}\n\\right) , \\label{a.1}$$ where ${\\bm U}_{h}$, $T_{h}$, and $n_{h}$ (not shown explicitly) are the flow field, temperature, and particle number density characterizing the HCS. ", "Next, a conservative external force is added to Eq.", " (\\[2.12\\]) keeping the same $\\overline{\\mathcal{L}}^{\\ast }$ operator, $$\\left\\{ \\overline{\\mathcal{L}}^{\\ast }- \\sum_{r=1}^{N}\\left[ \\frac{\\partial}{%\n\\partial {\\bm q}_{r}^{*}}\\phi _{ext}^{*}\\left({\\bm q} _{r}\\right) \\right]\n\\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v^{*}_{r}}} \\right\\} \\rho _{h}^{* \\prime\n}=0. ", " \\label{a.2}$$ Here $\\phi _{ext}^{*} \\equiv \\phi_{ext}/2T_{h} $, with $\\phi_{ext}({\\bm r})$ being the potential associated with the external force. ", "The solution of Eq.(\\[a.2\\]) is, therefore, a function of this potential, $$\\rho _{h}^{\\ast \\prime }=\\rho _{h}^{\\ast \\prime }\\left( \\left\\{ \\frac{q_{rs}%\n}{\\ell}, \\frac{{\\bm v}_{r}-{\\bm U}_{h}}{v_{0}(t)}, \\frac{\\phi _{ext}\\left({%\n\\bm q} _{r}\\right) }{T_{h}} ; r,s=1,\\ldots,N \\right\\} \\right) . ", " \\label{a.3}$$ This can be considered as the nonuniform fluid ensemble corresponding to the uniform limit $\\rho _{h}^{\\ast }$, since in general the density will be nonuniform through its functional dependence on $\\phi _{ext}\\left({\\bm r}\n\\right) $, $$n=n\\left[ {\\bm r}| \\phi_{ext} \\right] , \\label{a.4a}$$ $$\\phi_{ext}= \\phi _{ext}\\left[{\\bm r}|n \\right] . ", " \\label{a.4b}$$ The second equality assumes the functional dependence of the density on the external potential is invertible so that the potential can be expressed as a functional of the density field. ", "For normal fluids in the equilibrium Gibbs state, density functional theory assures that this is the case. ", "In particular, for any chosen density field there is a unique external potential creating that field from the uniform state. ", "It will be assumed that these properties hold as well here for the granular fluid, so that Eq.(\\[a.3\\]) can be expressed in terms of the local density instead of the potential, $$\\rho _{h}^{\\ast \\prime }=\\rho _{h}^{\\ast \\prime \\prime }\\left( \\left\\{ \\frac{%\n{q}_{rs}}{\\ell}, \\frac{{\\bm v}_{r}-{\\bm U}_{h}}{v_{0}(T_{h})}, n({\\bm q}%\n_{r})\\ell ^{d}; r,s=1,\\ldots,N \\right\\} \\right) . ", " \\label{a.5}$$ With $\\rho _{h}^{\\ast \\prime \\prime }$ known from the solution to Eq.", " ([a.2]{} ), the local HCS is constructed by the replacements $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\frac{{\\bm v}_{r}-{\\bm U}_{h}}{v_{0}(T_{h})} & \\rightarrow & \\frac{{\\bm v}%\n_{r}-{\\bm U}_{h}- \\delta {\\bm U}({\\bm q}_{r})}{v_{0}[T_{h}+\\delta T ({\\bm q}%\n_{r})]}, \\notag \\\\\nn({\\bm q}_{r}) & \\rightarrow &n_{h}+ \\delta n({\\bm q}_{r}), \\label{a.6}\\end{aligned}$$ to get $$\\rho _{\\ell h }^{\\ast }\\left[ \\Gamma^{*} |\\delta y^{*} \\right] \\equiv \\rho\n_{h}^{\\ast \\prime \\prime }\\left( \\left\\{ \\frac{q_{rs}}{\\ell}, \\frac{{\\bm v}%\n_{r}-{\\bm U}_{h}-\\delta {\\bm U}({\\bm q}_{r})}{v_{0}\\left[T_{h}+\\delta T ({%\n\\bm q}_{r})\\right]}, \\left[ n_{h}+\\delta n\\left({\\bm q}_{r}\\right) \\right]\n\\ell ^{d}; r,s=1, \\ldots, N \\right\\} \\right) . ", " \\label{a.7}$$\n\nNote that the local HCS is no longer a solution to any Liouville equation, but rather is simply a reference ensemble representing an hypothetical HCS with different hydrodynamic parameters in each spatial cell of the fluid. ", "Its construction in the way presented above, supports that interpretation in the sense that $\\rho _{\\ell h }^{\\ast }\\left[ \\Gamma ^{*}|\\delta y^{*}=\\text{%\nconstant}\\right] =\\rho _{h}^{\\ast }\\left( \\Gamma^{*}; y_{h}^{*}+\\delta y\n^{*}\\right) $ so that both $\\left\\{ \\rho _{\\ell h}^{\\ast }\\left[\n\\Gamma^{*}|\\delta y^{*} \\right] \\right\\}_{\\delta y^{*}=0} = \\rho _{h}^{\\ast\n}\\left(\\Gamma^{*}; y_{h}^{*}\\right) $ and all functional derivatives of $%\n\\rho _{\\ell h }^{\\ast }\\left[ \\Gamma^{*} |\\delta y^{*} \\right] $ become derivatives of $\\rho _{h}^{\\ast }\\left( \\Gamma^{*}; y_{h}^{*}\\right) $ at $%\n\\delta y^{*}=0$. More explicitly, it is $$\\int d{\\bm r}_{1} \\ldots \\int d{\\bm r}_{p}\\, \\left[ \\frac{\\delta^{p}\n\\rho_{lh}[\\Gamma|\\delta y]}{\\delta y_{\\alpha}({\\bm r}_{1}) \\ldots \\delta\ny_{\\beta}({\\bm r}_{p})} \\right]_ {y =\\left\\{n_{h},T_{h},{\\bm 0}\\right\\}} = %\n\\left[ \\frac{\\partial^{p} \\rho_{h}(\\Gamma; n_{h},T_{h},{\\bm U}_{h})}{%\n\\partial y_{\\alpha,h} \\ldots \\partial y_{\\beta,h}} \\right]_{{\\bm U}_{h}={\\bm %\n0}}, \\label{a.8}$$ where $\\Gamma$ is a point in the phase space associated to the original positions and velocities and $\\rho(\\Gamma)$ the corresponding density. ", "It is instructive to carry out this construction of the local ensemble for the case of a normal fluid. ", "Then Eq.", " (\\[a.1\\]) gives the familiar equilibrium Gibbs ensemble, and Eq.", " (\\[a.2\\]) gives the same ensemble with the Hamiltonian modified to include the external potential. ", "Finally, the construction in Eq. (", "\\[a.7\\]) gives the familiar local equilibrium ensemble used in linear response theory for spatial perturbations of the equilibrium state. ", "In the grand ensemble the dependence on the local density is implicit through a local chemical potential $\\mu =\\mu \\left[{\\bm r}| n %\n\\right] $.", "\n\nTwo Particle Functional {#ap2}\n=======================\n\nThe reduced distribution functions associated with the solution to the Liouville equation (\\[2.20\\]) are defined as $$f^{(m)}(x_{1},\\ldots,x_{m},s)\\equiv \\frac{N!}{(N-m)!}\\int dx_{m+1}\\ldots\n\\int dx_{N}\\, e^{- s \\overline{\\mathcal{L}}}\\rho _{\\ell h}[\\Gamma | \\delta\ny]. ", " \\label{b.1}$$ As is done in the main text, the asterisk indicating the use of dimensionless variables is left implicit. ", "The $f^{(m)}$’s are clearly not independent functions. ", "For example, $f^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)$ is related to $%\nf^{(1)}(x_{1},s)$ by $$(N-1)f^{(1)}(x_{1},s)=\\int dx_{2}\\, f^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s). ", " \\label{b.2}$$ This implies that $f^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)$ has the representation $$f^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)=f^{(1)}(x_{1},s)f^{(1)}(x_{2},s)g^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s),\n\\label{b.3}$$ where the pair correlation function $g^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)$ has the properties $$g^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)=g^{(2)}(x_{2},x_{1},s), \\label{b.4}$$ $$\\int dx_{2}f^{(1)}(x_{2},s)g^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)=\\int\ndx_{1}f^{(1)}(x_{1},s)g^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)=N-1. ", " \\label{b.5}$$ This in turn shows that $g^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)$ is a functional of $%\nf^{(1)}(x_{1},s)$. Quite generally then, $f^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)$ can be considered a functional of $f^{(1)}(x_{1},s)$, $$f^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)=f^{(2)}\\left[ x_{1},x_{2},s | f^{(1)}\\left( s\\right) %\n\\right]. ", " \\label{b.6}$$ However, this functional relationship is not unique. ", "The utility of Eq.", " (\\[b.6\\]) lies in discovering a choice that leaves the simplest functional dependence. ", "In the low density limit, where it is expected that $%\ng^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)$ tends to unity, this is clearly the case, since the functional becomes a constant independent of $x_{1},x_{2},$ and $s$. More generally, finding an appropriate functional form for $%\ng^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s) $ requires the detailed analysis of the full many-body problem.", "\n\nThe corresponding functional for $\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)$ defined by Eq.", " (\\[3.3a\\]) can be computed as $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s) &\\equiv &\\left[ \\frac{\\delta\nf^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)}{\\delta y_{\\gamma }({\\bm0},0)}\\right] _{\\delta y=0}\n\\notag \\\\\n&=&\\int dx\\,\\left[ \\frac{\\delta f^{(2)}\\left[ x_{1},x_{2},s|f^{(1)}\\left(\ns\\right) \\right] }{\\delta f^{(1)}(x,s)}\\,\\frac{\\delta f^{(1)}(x,s)}{\\delta\ny_{\\gamma }({\\bm0},0)}\\right] _{\\delta y=0} \\notag \\\\\n&=&\\int dx\\,\\left[ \\frac{\\delta f^{(2)}[x_{1},x_{2},s|f^{(1)}\\left( s\\right)\n]}{\\delta f^{(1)}(x,s)}\\right] _{\\delta y=0}\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x,s)\n\\notag \\\\\n&=&\\int dx\\,K(x_{1},x_{2},s;x)\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}(x,s), \\label{b.7}\\end{aligned}$$with $K(x_{1},x_{2},s;x)$ given by Eq.", " (\\[3.10\\]). ", "This entails the additional requirement that the functional $f^{(2)}[x_{1},x_{2},s|\\cdot ]$ is independent of the specific initial fields $\\delta y({\\bm r},0)$, i.e. $%\nf^{(2)}\\left[ x_{1},x_{2},s|f^{(1)}\\left( s\\right) \\right] $ depends on these fields only through $f^{(1)}(x,s)$. Consequently, $K(x_{1},x_{2},s;x)$ is also independent of such initial data. ", "This is expected, since the collision operator $M(s)$ constructed from $K(x_{1},x_{2},s;x)$ by means of Eq.", " (\\[3.12\\]) should be universal for a wide class of initial conditions. ", "Finally, the functional form for $\\psi _{\\gamma\n}^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2},s)$ is seen to be linear in $\\psi _{\\gamma }^{(1)}(s)$, while in general $f^{(2)}[x_{1},x_{2},s|f^{(1)}\\left( s\\right) ]$ is a nonlinear functional of $f^{(1)}\\left( s\\right) $.", "\n\nInterpretation of $\\widetilde{c}_{\\protect\\lambda }({\\bm\nv}, {\\bm k%\n})$ {#ap3}\n========================================================\n\nThe contribution to the action of the collision operator $\\widetilde{M}({\\bm %\nk})$ on $\\widetilde{\\psi}_{\\gamma}^{(1)}({\\bm\nv}_{1},-{\\bm k},s) $ from the term proportional to $\\widetilde{c}_{\\lambda }(%\n{\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm k}) $ in Eq.", " (\\[4.14\\]) is $$- \\sum_{\\lambda} \\widetilde{c}_{\\lambda }({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm k}) \\frac{1}{n_{h}%\n} \\int d {\\bm v}\\, a_{\\lambda }\\left({\\bm v} \\right) \\widetilde{\\psi }%\n_{\\gamma }^{(1)}( {\\bm v},-{\\bm k},s)=- \\sum_{\\lambda} \\widetilde{c}%\n_{\\lambda }({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm k })\\widetilde{C}_{\\lambda \\gamma }\\left({\\bm k}%\n;s\\right) , \\label{c.1}$$ where Eq.", " (\\[3.1\\]) has been employed. ", "The above contribution depends on only low order moments of the dependent variable $\\widetilde{\\psi}%\n_{\\gamma}^{(1)}$ in the kinetic equation (\\[4.15\\]), and in fact only those moments are of interest for determining the response functions. ", "In this sense, $\\widetilde{c}_{\\lambda}$ is a mean field operator rather than a true collision operator, since its action does not depend directly on differences in $\\widetilde{\\psi }_{\\gamma }^{(1)}$ before and after a collision like the first term of (\\[4.14\\]). ", "Instead, Eq. (", "\\[4.11\\]) shows that $\\widetilde{c}_{\\lambda}$ reflects an average of collisional effects induced through changes in the correlations. ", "To provide some interpretation of this term, consider first the elastic limit.", "\n\nElastic limit\n-------------\n\nIn this case, $g_{\\ell h }^{(2)}[x_{1},x_{2}|\\delta y] = g_{\\ell e }^{(2)}[{%\n\\bm q}_{1},{\\bm q}_{2}|\\delta n]$, independent of the velocities, temperature, and flow field, i.e. it is a function of the spacial coordinates and a functional of the density. ", "Equation (\\[4.11\\]) becomes $$c_{\\lambda }({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm q}_{12})=\\delta _{\\lambda 1}n_{h}^{2}\\int dx\\,\n\\overline{T}(x_{1},x)\\varphi \\left( v_{1}\\right) \\varphi \\left( v\\right) %\n\\left[ \\frac{\\delta g_{\\ell e }^{(2)}[{\\bm q}_{1},{\\bm q} |\\delta n]}{\\delta\nn({\\bm q}_{2})} \\right] _{\\delta n=0}, \\label{c.3}$$ where $\\varphi \\left( v \\right) $ is the Maxwellian. ", "The pair correlation function for a nonuniform fluid, $g_{\\ell e }^{(2)}[{\\bm\nq}_{1},{\\bm q}_{2} |\\delta n ]$, appears in the stationary first BBGKY hierarchy equation ( \\[3.3c\\]) in the presence of an external potential $%\n\\phi_{ext}$ associated with the given density (see Appendix \\[ap1\\]), $$\\left[ {\\bm v}_{1} \\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm q}_{1}} - \\left(\n\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm q}_{1}} \\phi_{ext} \\left[ {\\bm q}_{1} |n %\n\\right] \\right) \\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}} \\right] n({\\bm q}%\n_{1}) \\varphi (v_{1})$$ $$= \\int dx_{2}\\, \\overline{ T}(x_{1},x_{2})\\varphi \\left( v_{1}\\right)\n\\varphi \\left( v_{2}\\right) n\\left( {\\bm q}_{1}\\right) n\\left( {\\bm q}%\n_{2}\\right) g_{\\ell e}^{(2)} \\left[ {\\bm q} _{1},{\\bm q}_{2} | \\delta n%\n\\right] . ", " \\label{c.4}$$ The functional derivative of this equation with respect to $\\delta n\\left( {%\n\\bm q}_{3}\\right) $ evaluated at at $\\delta n =0$ gives $$\\begin{aligned}\nn_{h} \\varphi \\left( v_{1}\\right) {\\bm v}_{1} \\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial\n{\\bm q}_{1}} C(q_{13}) &=&n_{h}\\int dx_{2}\\, \\overline{T}(x_{1},x_{2})%\n\\varphi \\left( v_{1}\\right) \\varphi \\left( v_{2}\\right) g_{e}^{(2)}\\left(\nq_{12} \\right) \\left[ \\delta \\left( {\\bm q}_{31} \\right) +\\delta \\left( {\\bm %\nq}_{32} \\right) \\right] \\notag \\\\\n&&+n_{h}^{2}\\int dx_{2}\\, \\overline{T}(x_{1},x_{2})\\varphi \\left(\nv_{1}\\right) \\varphi \\left( v_{2}\\right) \\left[ \\frac{\\delta g_{\\ell e}^{(2)}%\n\\left[ {\\bm q}_{1},{\\bm q} _{2}| \\delta n\\right] }{\\delta n\\left( {\\bm q}%\n_{3}\\right) }\\right] _{\\delta n=0}. ", " \\label{c.5}\\end{aligned}$$ where it has been used that $g_{e}\\left( q_{12} \\right) =g_{\\ell e }\\left[ {%\n\\bm q}_{1},{\\bm q}_{2} | 0\\right] $ and $c\\left( q_{13} \\right) $ is the direct correlation function defined by [@Hansen] $$n_{h} c\\left( {\\bm q}_{1}-{\\bm q}_{3}\\right) =\\delta \\left( {\\bm q}_{1}- {%\n\\bm q}_{3}\\right) +2 n_{h} \\left[ \\frac{\\delta \\phi_{ext} \\left[{\\bm q}%\n_{1}|n \\right]}{\\delta n({\\bm q}_{3})} \\right]_{\\phi_{ext}=0}. ", " \\label{c.6}$$ The first term on the right hand side of Eq.", " (\\[c.5\\]) can be evaluated using the elastic limit of the explicit form for $\\overline{T}(x_{1},x_{2})$ given in Eq.", " (\\[2.13\\]). ", "The result is $$\\int dx_{2}\\, \\overline{T}(x_{1},x_{2})\\varphi \\left( v_{1}\\right) \\varphi\n\\left( v_{2}\\right) g_{e}^{(2)}\\left( q_{12} \\right) \\left[ \\delta \\left( {%\n\\bm q}_{31} \\right) +\\delta \\left( {\\bm q}_{32} \\right) \\right] =g_{e}^{(2)}\n\\left( \\sigma \\right) \\varphi \\left( v_{1}\\right) \\delta (q_{13}-\\sigma )\n\\widehat{\\bm q}_{13} \\cdot {\\bm v}_{1} \\label{c.6a}$$ Finally, therefore, Eq.", " (\\[c.5\\] gives $$n_{h}\\int dx_{2}\\, \\overline{T}(x_{1},x_{2})\\varphi \\left( v_{1}\\right)\n\\varphi \\left( v_{2}\\right) \\left[ \\frac{\\delta g_{\\ell e}^{(2)} \\left[ {\\bm %\nq}_{1},{\\bm q} _{2}| \\delta n\\right] }{\\delta n\\left( {\\bm q}_{3}\\right) }%\n\\right]_{\\delta n=0}$$ $$=\\varphi \\left( v_{1}\\right) {\\bm v}_{1} \\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm %\nq}_{1}} \\left[ c(q_{13})-g_{e}^{(2)}(\\sigma) \\Theta (q_{13}-\\sigma) \\right],\n\\label{c.9}$$ where the delta function in Eq.", " (\\[c.6\\]) has been written in terms of the derivative of $\\Theta (q_{13}-\\sigma)$. Using this into Eq. (", "\\[c.3\\]) gives the desired result, $$c_{\\lambda}({\\bm v}_{1}, {\\bm q}_{12})= \\delta_{\\lambda 1} n_{h} \\varphi\n(v_{1}) {\\bm v}_{1} \\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm q}_{1}} \\left[\nc(q_{12})-g_{e}^{(2)}(\\sigma) \\Theta (q_{12}-\\sigma) \\right]. ", " \\label{c.9a}$$ In the elastic case, it is seen that the contribution shown in Eq.", " ([c.1]{}) is the same as that for an external force whose potential is $c\\left(\nq_{13} \\right) -g_{h}^{(2)}\\left( \\sigma \\right) \\Theta \\left( q_{13}-\\sigma\n\\right) $. ", "The direct correlation function has a discontinuity at $%\nq_{13}=\\sigma $, with value $c\\left( \\sigma \\right) =g_{e}^{(2)}\\left(\n\\sigma \\right) $, so the subtracted theta function contribution assures that this potential is continuous.", "\n\nInelastic collisions\n--------------------\n\nFor inelastic collisions, the effects of $\\widetilde{c}_{\\lambda }({\\bm v }%\n_{1,}{\\bm k})$ are more complex and more difficult to interpret. ", "However, a significant difference from the elastic case can be seen already for the simplest case of ${\\bm k} ={\\bm 0}$. From Eq.", " (\\[4.10\\]), it follows that $$\\widetilde{c}_{\\lambda }({\\bm v}_{1,}{\\bm 0})=\\int d{\\bm q}_{12}\\,\nc_{\\lambda }(x_{1,}{\\bm q}_{12})=\\int dx\\, \\overline{T}%\n(x_{1},x)f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})f_{h}^{(1)}(v) \\left[ \\frac{\\partial\ng_{h}^{(2)}(x_{1},x;n_{h},T_{h},{\\bm U}_{h})}{\\partial y_{\\lambda,h }} %\n\\right]_{{\\bm U}_{h}={\\bm 0}}, \\label{c.10}$$ where use has been made of the identity $$\\int d{\\bm q}\\, \\left[ \\frac{\\delta g_{\\ell h }^{(2)}[x_{1},x_{2}|\\delta y]}{%\n\\delta y_{\\lambda }({\\bm q})} \\right]_{\\delta y=0}= \\left[ \\frac{\\partial\ng_{h}^{(2)}(x_{1},x;y)}{\\partial y_{\\lambda }}\\right]_{\\{n,T,{\\bm U}\\}\n=\\{n_{h},T_{h},{\\bm 0}\\} }. ", " \\label{c.11}$$ This ${\\bm k}={\\bm 0}$ limit vanishes for elastic collisions, as it can be seen directly from Eq. (", "\\[c.9a\\]), but is nonzero for inelastic collisions. ", "This can be verified in the Enskog approximation, where velocity correlations are neglected and, therefore, $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\widetilde{c}_{\\lambda }^{E}({\\bm v}_{1,}{\\bm 0}) &= &\\delta _{\\lambda 1}\n\\left( \\frac{\\partial g_{h}^{(2)}(\\sigma ;n )}{\\partial n} \\right)_{n=n_{h}}\n\\int dx\\, \\overline{ T}(x_{1},x)f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})f_{h}^{(1)}(v) \\notag \\\\\n&=&\\delta _{\\lambda 1}\\left( \\frac{\\partial \\ln g_{h}^{(2)}(\\sigma;n )}{%\n\\partial n} \\right)_{n=n_{h}} \\frac{\\zeta_{0}}{2} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {%\n\\bm v}_{1}} \\cdot \\left[ {\\bm v}_{1} f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1}) \\right].", "\n\\label{c.12}\\end{aligned}$$ The second equality follows from the first hierarchy equation (\\[3.3c\\]) particularized for the HCS, $$\\frac{\\zeta_{0}}{2} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}}\\cdot \\left[ {\\bm v}%\n_{1} f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1}) \\right]=\\int dx\\overline{T}\n(x_{1},x)g_{h}^{(2)}(x_{1},x)f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})f_{h}^{(1)}(V), \\label{c.13}$$ when velocity correlations are neglected. ", "Thus, it is seen that $\\widetilde{%\nc }_{\\lambda }({\\bm v}_{1,},{\\bm 0})$ includes changes in the correlations of collisional effects associated with cooling.", "\n\nMore generally, the Enskog approximation for arbitrary ${\\bm k}$ reads $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\widetilde{c}_{\\lambda }^{E}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm k}) & = & \\delta _{\\lambda\n1}\\int d{\\bm q}\\, e^{i{\\bm k}\\cdot {\\bm q}}c_{\\lambda }(x_{1},{\\bm q})\n\\notag \\\\\n& = & \\int dx_{2}\\, \\overline{T}\n(x_{1},x_{2})f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{2})\\int d{\\bm q}\\, e^{i {\\bm k}%\n\\cdot {\\bm q}} \\left[ \\frac{\\delta g_{\\ell h }^{(2)}[{\\bm q}_{1},{\\bm q}\n_{2}|\\delta y]}{\\delta n({\\bm q})}\\right] _{\\delta n=0}. ", " \\label{c.14}\\end{aligned}$$\n\nHydrodynamic modes of $\\widetilde{\\Lambda }(\\mathbf{0})$ {#ap4}\n========================================================\n\nIn this Appendix, some of the details leading to the solution of the eigenvalue problem (\\[6.1\\]) at ${\\bm k=0}$ are given. ", "Consider first the functions $\\widetilde{\\psi }_{\\gamma }^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm k})$, defined in Eq.", " (\\[4.17a\\]), at ${\\bm k}=0$. By translational invariance$$\\left[ \\frac{\\delta f_{\\ell h}^{(1)}[\\mathbf{q}_{1},\\mathbf{v}_{1}|\\delta y]%\n}{\\delta y_{\\gamma }({\\bm0})}\\right] _{\\delta y=0}=\\left[ \\frac{\\delta\nf_{\\ell h}^{(1)}[\\mathbf{q}_{1}+\\mathbf{r},\\mathbf{v}_{1}|\\delta y]}{\\delta\ny_{\\gamma }({\\bm r})}\\right] _{\\delta y=0}, \\label{d.0}$$and so $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\widetilde{\\psi }_{\\gamma }^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm0}) &=&\\int d{\\bm q}_{1}%\n\\left[ \\frac{\\delta f_{\\ell h}^{(1)}[x_{1}|\\delta y]}{\\delta y_{\\gamma }({\\bm%\n0})}\\right] _{\\delta y=0}=\\frac{1}{V}\\int d{\\bm q}_{1}\\int d{\\bm r}\\,\\left[\n\\frac{\\delta f_{\\ell h}^{(1)}[x_{1}|\\delta y]}{\\delta y_{\\gamma }({\\bm r})}%\n\\right] _{\\delta y=0} \\notag \\\\\n&=&\\left[ \\frac{\\partial f_{h}^{(1)}\\left( {\\bm v};y\\right) }{\\partial\ny_{\\gamma }}\\right] _{y=y_{h}}. ", " \\label{d.1}\\end{aligned}$$The last equality is a consequence of the construction of the local HCS, assuring that all functional derivatives in the homogeneous limit are related with ordinary derivatives of the HCS (see Appendix \\[ap1\\]). ", "Use of the expression of the operator $\\widetilde{\\Lambda }$, Eq.", " (\\[4.16\\]), yields $$\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm0})\\widetilde{\\psi }_{\\gamma }^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{%\n\\bm0})=\\widetilde{M}\\left( {\\bm0}\\right) \\left[ \\frac{\\partial\nf_{h}^{(1)}\\left( {\\bm v}_{1};y\\right) }{\\partial y_{\\gamma }}\\right]\n_{y=y_{h}}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}}\\cdot\n\\left\\{ {\\bm v}_{1}\\left[ \\frac{\\partial f_{h}^{(1)}\\left( {\\bm v}%\n_{1};y\\right) }{\\partial y_{\\gamma }}\\right] _{y=y_{h}}\\right\\} .", "\n\\label{d.2}$$Next, Eq.", " (\\[4.14\\]) gives $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\widetilde{M}({\\bm0})\\left[ \\frac{\\partial f_{h}^{(1)}\\left( {\\bm v}%\n_{1};y\\right) }{\\partial y_{\\gamma }}\\right] _{y=y_{h}} &=&-\\int dx_{2}%\n\\overline{T}(x_{1},x_{2})g_{h}^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2})\\left\\{ \\frac{\\partial }{%\n\\partial y_{\\gamma }}\\left[ f_{h}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1};y)f_{h}^{(1)}({\\bm v}%\n_{2};y)\\right] \\right\\} _{y=y_{h}} \\notag \\label{d.3} \\\\\n&&-\\frac{1}{n_{h}}\\sum_{\\lambda }\\int dx\\,\\overline{T}%\n(x_{1},x)f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})f_{h}^{(1)}(v)\\left[ \\frac{\\partial\ng_{h}^{(2)}(x_{1},x;\\delta y)}{\\partial y_{\\lambda }}\\right] _{y=y_{h}}\n\\notag \\\\\n&&\\times \\int d{\\bm v}_{2}\\,a_{\\lambda }({\\bm v}_{2})\\left[ \\frac{\\partial\nf_{h}^{(1)}\\left( {\\bm v}_{2};y\\right) }{\\partial y_{\\gamma }}\\right]\n_{y=y_{h}} \\notag \\\\\n&=&-\\left[ \\frac{\\partial }{\\partial y_{\\gamma }}\\int dx_{2}\\,\\overline{T}%\n(x_{1},x_{2})g_{h}^{(2)}(x_{1},x_{2};y)f_{h}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1};y)f_{h}^{(1)}(%\n{\\bm v}_{2};y)\\right] _{y=y_{h}}\\,, \\notag \\\\\n&&\\end{aligned}$$where Eq.", " (\\[c.10\\]) has been employed. ", "The right hand side in the above equation can be further simplified by means of Eq.", " (\\[c.13\\]), after changing ${\\bm v}_{r}$ into ${\\bm v}_{r}-{\\bm U}$, $$\\widetilde{M}\\left( {\\bm0}\\right) \\left[ \\frac{\\partial f_{h}^{(1)}\\left( {%\n\\bm v}_{1};y\\right) }{\\partial y_{\\gamma }}\\right] _{y=y_{h}}=-\\left\\{ \\frac{%\n\\partial }{\\partial y_{\\gamma }}\\left[ \\frac{\\zeta _{0}(y)}{2}\\frac{\\partial\n}{\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}}\\cdot ({\\bm v}_{1}-{\\bm U})f_{h}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},y)%\n\\right] \\right\\} _{y=y_{h}}, \\label{d.6}$$and Eq.", " (\\[d.2\\]) becomes $$\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm0})\\widetilde{\\psi }_{\\gamma }^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{%\n\\bm0})=-\\left[ \\frac{\\partial \\zeta _{0}(y)}{\\partial y_{\\gamma }}\\right]\n_{y=y_{h}}\\frac{1}{2}\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}}\\cdot \\left[ {\\bm %\nv}_{1}f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})\\right] +\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\left( \\frac{\\partial {%\n\\bm U}}{\\partial y_{\\gamma }}\\right) _{y=y_{h}}\\cdot \\frac{\\partial }{%\n\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}}f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1}). ", " \\label{d.7}$$Realizing that $$\\left[ \\frac{\\partial f_{h}^{(1)}\\left( {\\bm v},y\\right) }{\\partial y_{2}}%\n\\right] _{y=y_{h}}=-\\frac{1}{2}\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial {\\bm v}}\\cdot \\left[\n{\\bm v}f_{h}^{(1)}\\left( v\\right) \\right] \\label{d.8}$$and $$\\left[ \\frac{\\partial f_{h}^{(1)}({\\bm v},y)}{\\partial {\\bm y}_{3}}\\right]\n_{y=y_{h}}=-\\frac{\\partial f_{h}^{(1)}(v)}{\\partial {\\bm v}}, \\label{d.8a}$$Eq.", " (\\[d.7\\]) is seen to be equivalent to $$\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm0})\\widetilde{\\psi }_{\\gamma }^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{%\n\\bm0})=\\left[ \\frac{\\partial \\zeta _{0}(y)}{\\partial y_{\\gamma }}\\right]\n_{y=y_{h}}\\widetilde{\\psi }_{2}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm0})-\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2%\n}\\left( \\frac{\\partial {\\bm U}}{\\partial y_{\\gamma }}\\right) _{y=y_{h}}\\cdot\n\\widetilde{\\bm\\psi }_{3}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm0}). ", " \\label{d.8b}$$Above, the index 3 and vectorial notation has been used to identify the $d$ components associated to the velocity field.", "\n\nThe specific cases following from Eq.", " (\\[d.8b\\]) are $$\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm0})\\widetilde{\\psi }_{1}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm0}%\n)=n_{h}\\left( \\frac{\\partial \\zeta _{0}}{\\partial n_{h}}\\right) _{T_{h}}%\n\\widetilde{\\psi }_{2}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm0}), \\label{d.9}$$$$\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm0})\\widetilde{\\psi }_{2}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm0})=%\n\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\widetilde{\\psi }_{2}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm0}),\n\\label{d.10}$$and $$\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm0})\\widetilde{\\bm\\psi }_{3}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm0}%\n)=-\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\widetilde{\\bm\\psi }_{3}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm0}).", "\n\\label{d.11}$$Equations (\\[d.9\\]) and (\\[d.10\\]) can be combined to give $$\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm0})\\left[ \\widetilde{\\psi }_{1}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{%\n\\bm0})-2\\left( \\frac{\\partial \\ln \\zeta _{0}}{\\partial \\ln n_{h}}\\right)\n_{T_{h}}\\widetilde{\\psi }_{2}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm0})\\right] =0.", "\n\\label{d.12}$$The above equations (\\[d.10\\])-(\\[d.12\\]) have the form of eigenvalue equations $$\\widetilde{\\Lambda }({\\bm0})\\phi ^{(\\beta )}({\\bm0},{\\bm v}_{1})=\\lambda\n^{(\\beta )}({\\bm0})\\phi ^{(\\beta )}({\\bm0},{\\bm v}_{1}), \\label{d.13}$$$\\beta =1,\\ldots ,d+2$, with the eigenvalues and eigenfunctions given in Eqs.", " (\\[6.2\\]) and (\\[6.3\\]).", "\n\nTransport Coefficients {#ap5}\n======================\n\nIn this appendix, the pressure, the cooling rate, and the Navier-Stokes transport coefficients are evaluated in the kinetic theory approximations developed in the main text. ", "These quantities are identified from the linearized phenomenological Navier-Stokes equations for an isolated granular fluid, that in dimensionless units have the form $$\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial s} \\delta \\widetilde{y}^{*}_{\\beta} ({\\bm k}^{*},s)\n+\\sum_{\\gamma=1}^{d+2} \\mathcal{K}_{\\beta \\gamma}^{* hyd} \\delta\ny^{*}_{\\gamma} ({\\bm k}^{*},s) =0, \\label{E.0.1}$$ where the transport matrix $\\mathcal{K}^{* hyd}$ is found to be block diagonal with a “longitudinal” part, corresponding to the fields $\\{\n\\delta n^{*}, \\delta T^{*}, \\delta U_{\\perp}^{*} \\}$, given by $$\\mathcal{K}^{ \\ast hyd }\\left( {\\bm k}^{\\ast }\\right) =\\left(\n\\begin{array}{ccc}\n0 & 0 & -ik^{\\ast} \\\\\n\\zeta _{0}^{\\ast }\\frac{\\partial \\ln \\zeta _{0}}{\\partial \\ln n_{h}}+\\left(\n\\frac{2 \\mu ^{\\ast }}{d}-\\zeta^{ \\ast n}\\right) k^{\\ast 2} & \\frac{\\zeta\n_{0}^{\\ast }}{2}+\\left( \\frac{2 \\lambda ^{\\ast }}{d}-\\zeta^{\\ast T }\\right)\nk^{\\ast 2} & - i \\left( \\frac{2 p_{h}^{\\ast }}{d} +\\zeta^{ \\ast U }\\right)\nk^{\\ast } \\\\\n-\\frac{i p_{h}^{\\ast }}{2} \\frac{\\partial \\ln p_{h}}{\\partial \\ln n_{h}}\nk^{\\ast } & -\\frac{i p^{\\ast}_{h}}{2}\\, k^{\\ast} & -\\frac{\\zeta _{0}^{\\ast }%\n}{2}+\\left[ \\frac{2(d-1)}{d}\\eta ^{\\ast }+\\kappa ^{\\ast }\\right] k^{\\ast 2}%\n\\end{array}\n\\right). ", " \\label{E.0.2}$$ The “transverse” components, $\\delta U^{*}_{\\perp,i}$, decouple from the longitudinal ones, and their transport matrix reads $$\\mathcal{K}^{hyd *} ({\\bm k}) =\\left( - \\frac{\\zeta_{0}^{*}}{2} + \\eta^{*}\nk^{* 2} \\right) I, \\label{E.0.3}$$ with $I$ being the unit matrix of dimesnsion $d-1$. These expressions include the unspecified functions $p_{h}(n_{h},T_{h})$ and $\\zeta\n_{h}\\left(n_{h},T_{h} \\right) $, defining the pressure and the cooling rate of the HCS, respectively, as well as the unknown shear viscosity $\\eta\n(n_{h},T_{h})$, the bulk viscosity $\\kappa (n_{h},T_{h})$, the thermal conductivity $\\lambda (n_{h},T_{h})$, and the new coefficient, $\\mu\n(n_{h},T_{h}) $, associated with the contribution of the density gradient to the heat transport in a granular fluid. ", "Finally, $\\zeta^{n}(n_{h},T_{h})$, $%\n\\zeta^{T}(n_{h},T_{h})$, and $\\zeta^{U}(n_{h},T_{h})$ are transport coefficients arising from the local cooling rate. ", "The dimensionless form of the cooling rate was defined in Eq.", " (\\[2.19\\]), and the definitions for the remaining dimensionless quantities are $$p^{\\ast }_{h}=\\frac{p_{h}}{n_{h}T_{h}}, \\quad \\eta ^{\\ast }=\\frac{\\eta}{\nmn_{h}l v_{0}}, \\quad \\kappa ^{\\ast }=\\frac{\\kappa}{mn_{h} l v_{0}},$$ $$\\lambda ^{\\ast }=\\frac{\\lambda}{l n_{h} v_{0} }, \\quad \\mu ^{\\ast }=\\frac{\\mu%\n}{l T_{h} v_{0}},$$ $$\\zeta^{\\ast U }=\\zeta^{U}, \\quad \\zeta^{\\ast n }=\\frac{n_{h} \\zeta^{n}}{ l\nv_{0}}, \\quad \\zeta^{ \\ast T }=\\frac{T_{h} \\zeta^{T}}{ l v_{0}}.", "\n\\label{E.0.4}$$ Formal expressions for these parameters have been obtained in ref. [", "BDB06]{}, by carrying out a linear response analysis. ", "Each of those expressions is evaluated below by means of the kinetic theory developed in the text, for comparison to the results obtained by a Chapman-Enskog solution to the nonlinear Enskog equation [@GD99]. ", "First, some general considerations that apply to all of the transport coefficients will be addressed. ", "Dimensionless units will be used in the remaining of this Appendix, and the asterisk will be suppressed for simplicity, as done in the main text.", "\n\nReduced Form of the Transport Coefficients\n------------------------------------------\n\nThe Helfand form for a generic dimensionless transport coefficient $\\chi $ as obtained in ref.", " [@BDB06] is $$\\chi =\\lim \\Omega _{H}\\left( s\\right) =\\lim \\frac{1}{V}\\int d\\Gamma\n\\,j\\left( \\Gamma \\right) \\left( 1-\\mathcal{P}\\right) e^{-s\\left( \\overline{%\n\\mathcal{L}}-\\lambda \\right) }\\mathcal{M}\\left( \\Gamma \\right) ,\n\\label{E.1.1}$$where $j\\left( \\Gamma \\right) $ is a flux associated with the densities of the hydrodynamic variables, and $\\lambda $ denotes one of the eigenvalues in (\\[6.2\\]). ", "These fluxes have the generic form $$j\\left( \\Gamma \\right) =\\sum_{r=1}^{N}j_{1}\\left( x_{l}\\right)\n+\\sum_{r=1}^{N}\\sum_{s\\neq r}^{N}j_{2}\\left( x_{r},x_{s}\\right) ,\n\\label{E.1.2}$$$j_{1}$ and $j_{2}$ being one and two-particle functions of the phase point, respectively. ", "The adjoint functions $\\mathcal{M}\\left( \\Gamma \\right) $ are related to the conjugate densities in the hydrodynamic response defined in Eq.", " (\\[2.27\\]), and read $$\\mathcal{M}\\left( \\Gamma \\right) =M\\int d{\\bm r}\\,\\widehat{\\bm k}\\cdot {\\bm r%\n}\\left[ \\frac{\\delta \\rho _{lh}[\\Gamma |y]}{\\delta y\\left( {\\bm r}\\right) }%\n\\right] _{y=y_{h}}, \\label{E.1.3}$$$M$ being some constant. ", "Moreover, $\\mathcal{P}$ is the projection operator defined by $$\\mathcal{P}(\\Gamma )X\\left( \\Gamma \\right) =\\frac{1}{V}\\sum_{\\gamma =1}^{d+2}%\n\\widetilde{\\psi }_{\\gamma }\\left( \\Gamma ;{\\bm0}\\right) \\int d\\Gamma\n^{\\prime }\\,\\widetilde{a}_{\\gamma }\\left( \\Gamma ^{\\prime };{\\bm0}\\right)\nX\\left( \\Gamma ^{\\prime }\\right) , \\label{E.1.4}$$where the phase functions $\\widetilde{a}_{\\gamma }\\left( \\Gamma ;{\\bm0}%\n\\right) $ and $\\widetilde{\\psi }_{\\gamma }\\left( \\Gamma ;{\\bm0}\\right) $ are the densities defined by Eqs.", " (\\[2.22\\]) and the Fourier transform of (\\[2.27\\]), respectively, both evaluated at ${\\bm k}={\\bm0}$. The generator for the dynamics is $\\overline{\\mathcal{L}}-\\lambda $, where $\\lambda $ is one of the hydrodynamic modes at ${\\bm k}={\\bm0}$ identified in Eq.", " ([6.2]{}). ", "Both the projection operator and the additional time dependence of the term containing $\\lambda $ are necessary to ensure that the long time limit of the correlation function in Eq.", " (\\[E.1.1\\]) is well defined.", "\n\nProceeding as in Sec. ", "\\[s7\\] for the shear viscosity, a reduced expression for these transport coefficients in the Markov approximation can be obtained. ", "The generic correlation function $\\Omega _{H}\\left( s\\right) $ of Eq.", " (\\[E.1.1\\]) becomes $$\\Omega _{H}\\left( s\\right) \\simeq \\frac{1}{V}\\int dx_{1}\\, J\\left(\nx_{1}\\right) \\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right)} (x_{1})\\right] e^{ -s\n(\\Lambda - \\lambda)} \\mathcal{M} ^{\\left( 1\\right) }\\left( x_{1}\\right).", "\n\\label{E.1.6}$$ The direct flux $J\\left( x_{1}\\right) $ in this reduced time correlation function is $$J\\left( x\\right) \\equiv j_{1}\\left( x\\right) +\\int dx_{1}\\int dx_{2}\\,\nj_{2}\\left( x_{1},x_{2}\\right) K\\left( x_{1},x_{2},0;x\\right), \\label{E.1.7}$$ where $K\\left( x_{1},x_{2},0;x\\right) $ is the kernel for the collision operator given by Eq.", " (\\[4.8\\]), and $\\mathcal{M} ^{\\left( 1\\right) }$ is the one-particle function in the hierarchy associated with $\\mathcal{M} $ $$\\mathcal{M} ^{\\left( 1\\right) }\\left( x_{1}\\right) = N \\int dx_{2} \\ldots\n\\int dx_{N}\\, \\mathcal{M} \\left( \\Gamma \\right) . ", " \\label{E.1.8}$$ The generator for the Markov dynamics $\\Lambda $ is given in (\\[4.5a\\]). ", "Lastly, $\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right) }$ is the one particle analog of $%\n\\mathcal{P}$ defined in Eq.", " (\\[E.1.4\\]), $$\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right) } (x_{1}) X\\left( x_{1}\\right) \\equiv \\frac{1}{V%\n} \\sum_{\\gamma=1}^{d+2} \\widetilde{\\psi}_{\\gamma }^{(1)}\\left( {\\bm v}_{1},{%\n\\bm 0}\\right) \\frac{1}{n_{h}}\\int dx\\, a_{\\gamma }\\left( {\\bm v}\\right)\nX\\left( x\\right) , \\label{E.1.10}$$ where the $\\widetilde{\\psi}_{\\gamma}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm 0})$ are the functions defined in Eq.", " (\\[d.1\\]).", "\n\nEquation (\\[E.1.1\\]) can be transformed into the Green-Kubo form to give $$\\chi =\\Omega _{H}\\left( 0\\right) +\\lim \\int_{0}^{s}ds^{\\prime }\\, \\frac{%\n\\partial}{\\partial s^{\\prime}} \\Omega _{H}\\left( s^{\\prime }\\right) \\equiv\n\\Omega _{H}(0)+\\lim \\int_{0}^{s}ds^{\\prime }\\, \\Omega _{G}\\left( s^{\\prime\n}\\right) . ", " \\label{E.1.10a}$$ The Markov approximation in this representation follows directly from Eq.", " (\\[E.1.6\\]), $$\\Omega _{H}(0) \\simeq \\frac{1}{V}\\int dx_{1}\\, J\\left( x_{1}\\right) \\left[\n1- \\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right)}(x_{1})\\right] \\mathcal{M} ^{\\left( 1\\right)\n}\\left( x_{1}\\right) , \\label{E.1.11}$$ $$\\Omega _{G}\\left( s\\right) \\simeq \\frac{1}{V}\\int dx_{1}\\, J\\left(\nx_{1}\\right) \\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right) } (x_{1})\\right] e^{-s\n(\\Lambda - \\lambda)} \\gamma \\left( x_{1}\\right) , \\label{E.1.11a}$$ with the conjugate flux $\\gamma (x_{1}) $ given by $$\\gamma \\left( x_{1}\\right) \\equiv - \\left( \\Lambda - \\lambda \\right)\n\\mathcal{M}^{\\left( 1\\right) }\\left( x_{1}\\right) . ", " \\label{E.1.11b}$$ In this Green-Kubo form, the role of the projection operator can be readily interpreted as follows. ", "Taking into account that $\\mathcal{P}^{(1)}$ projects over the subspace spanned by the hydrodynamic eigenfunctions of $%\n\\widetilde{\\Lambda}({\\bm 0})$, the property $$\\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right)}(x_{1}) \\right] e^{ - s \\left( \\Lambda\n-\\lambda \\right)} =\\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P} ^{\\left( 1\\right)} (x_{1}) \\right]\ne^{- s (\\Lambda -\\lambda )} \\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right)} (x_{1}) %\n\\right] ,$$ is obtained. ", "This shows that the presence of the projection operator in Eq.(\\[E.1.11a\\]) ensures that the generator of dynamics $\\exp [-s ( \\Lambda\n-\\lambda )] $ acts on a function that is orthogonal to its invariants and, therefore, has a well defined long time limit.", "\n\nThe above expressions can be specialized to the granular Enskog approximation by replacing the Markovian kernel $K$ in Eq.", " (\\[E.1.7\\]) with its Enskog approximation, and by replacing the linear operator $\\Lambda\n$ by $\\Lambda ^{E}$, defined in Eq.", " (\\[7.25\\]). ", "Further, the reduced conjugate functions in (\\[E.1.8\\]) and Eqs.", " (\\[E.1.10\\]) in the Enskog approximation become $$\\left\\{ \\mathcal{M} _{\\gamma}^{(1)} (x) \\right\\} \\simeq \\left\\{ M \\widehat{%\n\\bm k} \\cdot {\\bm q} f_{h}^{(1)}(v),\\frac{M}{2} \\widehat{\\bm k} \\cdot {\\bm q}\n\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}} \\cdot \\left[ {\\bm v} f_{h}^{(1)}(v)\\right]\n,-M \\widehat{\\bm k} \\cdot {\\bm q} \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}}\nf_{h}^{(1)}(v) \\right\\}$$ and $$\\left\\{ \\psi_{\\gamma}^{(1)} ({\\bm v},{\\bm 0}) \\right\\} \\simeq \\left\\{\nf_{h}^{(1)}(v),\\frac{1}{2}\\, \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}} \\cdot \\left[ {%\n\\bm v} f_{h}^{(1)}(v)\\right] ,- \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}}\nf_{h}^{(1)}(v) \\right\\},$$ respectively. ", "Now, $f_{h}^{(1)}(v)$ is the one-particle distribution of the HCS obtained from the nonlinear Enskog kinetic equation. ", "In the rest of the appendix, explicit expressions for the hydrodynamic parameters are given in the granular Enskog approximation.", "\n\nEvaluation in the Enskog Approximation\n--------------------------------------\n\nThe Helfand and Green-Kubo expressions for the Navier-Stokes transport coefficients of a hard sphere granular fluid are reported in ref. [", "BDB06]{}. ", "From those expressions, the $N$ particle functions $j\\left( \\Gamma\n\\right) $ and $\\mathcal{M} \\left( \\Gamma \\right) $, together with the eigenvalue $\\lambda$ appearing in Eq.", " (\\[E.1.1\\]) for each of the transport coefficients, can be read off. ", "Then, following the procedure illustrated above and, in the context of the shear viscosity in the main text, the results reported below are obtained. ", "Attention is restricted to the transport coefficients that were calculated in ref. [", "@GD99], which excludes the transport coefficients $\\zeta ^{T}$ and $\\zeta ^{n}$ from the local cooling rate. ", "Moreover, the parameter $\\ell$ defining the length scale is chosen such that $n_{h} \\ell^{3} =1$ in the following, for the sake of simplicity.", "\n\n### The pressure\n\nThe expression for the pressure has been identified in [@BDB06] as $$p=1+\\frac{\\left( 1+\\alpha \\right) \\sigma }{2Vd}\\int dx_{1} \\int dx_{2}\\,\n\\delta (q_{12} - \\sigma) \\Theta \\left( - \\widehat{\\bm q}_{12}\\cdot {\\bm g}\n_{12}\\right) ( \\widehat{\\bm q}_{12} \\cdot {\\bm g}_{12})^{2} f_{h}^{(2)} ({%\n\\bm q}_{12}, {\\bm v}_{1}, {\\bm v}_{2} ). ", " \\label{E.2.1a}$$ This is the second moment of the normal component of the relative velocity averaged over the two-particle distribution at contact. ", "In the Enskog approximation, all velocity correlations in the two-particle distribution are neglected, and the above expression simplifies to $$p=1+ \\frac{\\pi^{d/2} (1+ \\alpha) \\sigma^{d}}{ 2 \\Gamma (d/2) d}\\,\ng_{h}^{(2)}(\\sigma). ", " \\label{E.2.2}$$\n\n### The zeroth order cooling rate $\\protect\\zeta _{0}$\n\nThe homogeneous dynamics in Eq.", " (\\[E.0.1\\]) is determined entirely determined by $\\zeta _{0}$, for which the expression $$\\zeta _{0}=\\frac{1-\\alpha ^{2}}{2Vd} \\int dx_{1}\\int dx_{2}\\, \\delta (q_{12}\n- \\sigma) \\Theta \\left( \\widehat{\\bm q}_{12}\\cdot {\\bm g} _{12}\\right) |\n\\widehat{\\bm q}_{12} \\cdot {\\bm g}_{12}|^{3} f_{h}^{(2)} ({\\bm q}_{12}, {\\bm %\nv}_{1}, {\\bm v}_{2} ) \\label{E.2.0a}$$ was derived in [@BDB06]. ", "When the Enskog approximation for the two-particle distribution function is used, this simplifies to $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\zeta _{0} & = & \\frac{ \\pi^{(d-1)/2} \\sigma^{d-1} g_{h}^{(2)}\n(\\sigma)(1-\\alpha^{2})}{2 \\Gamma \\left( \\frac{d+3}{2} \\right) d} \\int d{\\bm v%\n}_{1} \\int d{\\bm v}_{2}\\, g_{12}^{3}f_{h}^{(1)}\\left( v_{1}\\right)\nf_{h}^{(1)}\\left(v_{2}\\right) \\notag \\\\\n& = & \\frac{\\Gamma \\left( d/2 \\right) (1- \\alpha)}{\\pi^{1/2} \\Gamma \\left(\n\\frac{d+3}{2} \\right) \\sigma }\\, (p-1) \\int d{\\bm v}_{1} \\int d{\\bm v}_{2}\\,\ng_{12}^{3}f_{h}^{(1)}\\left(v _{1}\\right) f_{h}^{(1)}\\left( v_{2}\\right) .", "\n\\label{E.2.1}\\end{aligned}$$\n\n### The Euler transport coefficient $\\protect\\zeta ^{U}$\n\nThis is a new transport coefficient unique to granular fluids. ", "Its expression, as obtained in ref. [", "@BDB06], reads $$\\zeta ^{U}=\\lim \\Omega _{H}^{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( s\\right) =\\Omega _{H}^{\\zeta\n^{U}}(0)+\\lim \\int_{0}^{s}ds^{\\prime }\\,\\Omega _{G}^{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left(\ns^{\\prime }\\right) , \\label{E.3.1}$$where $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( s\\right) =V^{-1}\\int d\\Gamma \\,W\\left( \\Gamma\n\\right) \\left( 1-\\mathcal{P}\\right) e^{-s\\left( \\overline{\\mathcal{L}}+\\frac{%\n\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) }\\mathcal{M}_{\\zeta ^{U}}(\\Gamma ) \\label{E.3.2}$$and $$\\Omega _{G}^{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( s\\right) =V^{-1}\\int d\\Gamma \\,W\\left( \\Gamma\n\\right) \\left( 1-\\mathcal{P}\\right) e^{-s\\left( \\overline{\\mathcal{L}}+\\frac{%\n\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) }\\Upsilon _{\\zeta ^{U}}(\\Gamma ). ", " \\label{E.3.4}$$In the above expressions, $W\\left( \\Gamma \\right) $ is the source term in the microscopic energy balance equation that characterizes the dissipation due to the inelastic collisions, $$W\\left( \\Gamma \\right) =\\frac{1-\\alpha ^{2}}{2d}\\sum_{r=1}^{N}\\sum_{s\\neq\nr}^{N}\\delta (q_{rs}-\\sigma )\\Theta (-\\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs}\\cdot {\\bm g}%\n_{rs})|\\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs}\\cdot {\\bm g}_{rs}|^{3}, \\label{E.3.5}$$and the conjugate density and flux are $$\\mathcal{M}_{\\zeta ^{U}}(\\Gamma )=-\\sum_{r}^{N}{\\bm q}_{r}\\cdot \\frac{%\n\\partial }{\\partial {\\bm v}_{r}}\\rho _{h}(\\Gamma ), \\label{E.3.5a}$$$$\\Upsilon _{\\zeta ^{U}}(\\Gamma )=-\\left( \\overline{\\mathcal{L}}+\\frac{\\zeta\n_{0}}{2}\\right) \\mathcal{M}_{\\zeta ^{U}}(\\Gamma ). ", " \\label{E.3.6}$$The Helfand form for this transport coefficient in the Enskog approximation can be obtained by application of Eq.", " (\\[E.1.6\\]) with the result $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( s\\right) \\simeq V^{-1}\\int dx\\,J_{\\zeta\n^{U}}(x)\\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x)\\right] e^{-s\\left(\n\\Lambda ^{E}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) }\\mathcal{M}_{\\zeta ^{U}}^{\\left(\n1\\right) }(x), \\label{E.3.8}$$where $$J_{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) =\\frac{\\pi ^{\\frac{d-1}{2}%\n}g_{h}^{(2)}(\\sigma )\\sigma ^{d-1}}{\\Gamma \\left( \\frac{d+3}{2}\\right) d}%\n\\int d{\\bm v}_{1}\\,|{\\bm v}-{\\bm v}_{1}|^{3}f_{h}^{(1)}\\left( {v}_{1}\\right)\n, \\label{E.3.9}$$$$\\mathcal{M}_{\\zeta _{U}}^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x_{1})=-{\\bm q}_{1}\\cdot \\frac{%\n\\partial }{\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}}\\widetilde{\\psi }_{1}^{(1)}({\\bm v}_{1},{\\bm0%\n}), \\label{E.3.10}$$and $\\Lambda ^{E}$ is the collision operator given in Eq.", " (\\[7.25\\]). ", "The Green-Kubo form of this transport coefficient is determined by $\\Omega\n_{H}^{\\zeta ^{U}}(0)$ and $\\Omega _{G}^{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( s\\right) $. ", "Direct evaluation of the former gives [@BDB06] $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\zeta ^{U}}(0)=-\\frac{3}{d}\\left( 1-\\alpha \\right) \\left(\np-1\\right) . ", " \\label{E.3.11}$$Here $p$ is the pressure in the Enksog approximation, Eq.", " (\\[E.2.2\\]). ", "The time correlation function is (see Eq.", " (\\[E.1.11a\\])) $$\\Omega _{G}^{\\zeta {U}}\\left( s\\right) =V^{-1}\\int dx\\,J_{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left(\nx\\right) \\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x)\\right] e^{-s\\left(\n\\Lambda ^{E}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) }\\gamma _{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( x\\right)\n\\label{E.3.12}$$with the conjugate flux given by $$\\gamma _{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( x\\right) =-\\left( \\Lambda ^{E}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2%\n}\\right) \\mathcal{M}_{\\zeta ^{U}}^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x). ", " \\label{E.3.12a}$$Proceeding as in the case of the shear viscosity, it can be shown that $$e^{-s\\left( \\Lambda ^{E}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) }\\gamma _{\\zeta\n^{U}}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) =e^{-s\\left( \\mathcal{J}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}%\n\\right) }\\gamma _{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) , \\label{E.3.12c}$$where $\\mathcal{J}$ is the operator defined in Eq.", " (\\[7.34a\\]). ", "The time correlation function in Eq.", " (\\[E.3.12\\]) can be expressed as $$\\Omega _{G}^{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( s\\right) =\\int d{\\bm v}\\,J_{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left(\n{\\bm v}\\right) \\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x)\\right] e^{-s\\left(\n\\mathcal{J}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) }\\gamma _{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( {\\bm v}%\n\\right) . ", " \\label{E.3.12f}$$Therefore, this Euler order transport coefficient is given in the Enskog approximation by $$\\zeta ^{U}=-\\frac{3}{d}\\left( 1-\\alpha \\right) \\left( p-1\\right) +\\int d{\\bm %\nv}\\,J_{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) \\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left(\n1\\right) }(x)\\right] \\mathcal{D}_{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) ,\n\\label{E.3.12g}$$where $\\mathcal{D}_{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) $ is the solution to the integral equation $$\\left( \\mathcal{J}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) \\mathcal{D}_{\\zeta\n^{U}}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) =\\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x)\\right]\n\\gamma _{\\zeta ^{U}}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) . ", " \\label{E.3.12h}$$\n\n### The bulk viscosity $\\protect\\kappa $\n\nThe expression for the bulk viscosity reported in ref. [", "@BDB06] is $$\\kappa =\\lim \\Omega _{H}^{\\kappa }\\left( s\\right) =\\Omega _{H}^{\\kappa\n}(0)+\\lim \\int_{0}^{s}ds^{\\prime }\\Omega _{G}^{\\kappa }\\left( s^{\\prime }\\,\n\\right) , \\label{E.4.1}$$ where $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\kappa }\\left( s\\right) =- \\frac{1}{Vd^{2}}\\int d\\Gamma\\, \\text{%\ntr } \\mathsf{H} \\left( 1- \\mathcal{P} \\right) e^{-s \\left( \\overline{%\n\\mathcal{L}}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2} \\right) }\\mathcal{M}_{\\kappa } (\\Gamma),\n\\label{E.4.2}$$ and $$\\Omega _{G}^{\\kappa }\\left( s\\right) =- \\frac{1}{V d^{2}}\\int d\\Gamma\\,\n\\text{tr } \\mathsf{H} \\left( 1- \\mathcal{P} \\right) e^{- s \\left( \\overline{%\n\\mathcal{L}}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2} \\right) }\\Upsilon _{\\kappa } (\\Gamma).", "\n\\label{E.4.5}$$ The direct flux $\\text{tr } \\mathsf{H}$ is the trace of the momentum flux given in Eq.", " (\\[7.3a\\]), and the adjoint density is the same as that for $%\n\\zeta^{U}$, i.e., $$\\mathcal{M}_{\\kappa }(\\Gamma)= \\mathcal{M}_{\\zeta^{U}} (\\Gamma) =\n-\\sum_{r=1}^{N} {\\bm q}_{r}\\cdot \\frac{\\partial}{\\partial {\\bm v}_{r}} \\rho\n_{h}(\\Gamma). ", " \\label{E.4.6}$$ Consequently, the conjugate flux is also the same, $\\Upsilon _{\\kappa\n}=\\Upsilon _{\\zeta ^{U}},$ given by (\\[E.3.6\\]). ", "In the Enskog approximation, the time correlation function $\\Omega _{H}^{\\kappa }\\left(\ns\\right) $ becomes $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\kappa }\\left( s\\right) \\simeq V^{-1} \\int dx\\, J_{\\kappa\n}\\left(x \\right) \\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x)\\right] e^{-s\n\\left( \\Lambda ^{E}+\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) }\\mathcal{M} _{\\kappa\n}^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x), \\label{E.4.7}$$ with the direct flux given by $$\\begin{aligned}\nJ_{\\kappa }\\left( x_{1} \\right) &=& - \\frac{v_{1}^{2}}{d^{2}}+\\frac{1 }{2d}%\n\\, \\frac{\\partial \\ln g_{h}^{(2)}(\\sigma)}{\\partial n_{h}} \\left( p-1\\right)\n\\notag \\\\\n&&- \\frac{\\left( 1+\\alpha \\right) \\sigma g _{h}^{(2)} \\left( \\sigma \\right)}{%\n2d^{2}} \\int dx_{2}\\, \\delta \\left( q_{12}-\\sigma \\right) \\Theta \\left( -%\n\\widehat{\\bm q}_{12}\\cdot \\mathbf{g} _{12}\\right) \\left| \\widehat{{\\bm q}}%\n_{12}\\cdot {\\bm g}_{12}\\right| ^{2}f_{h}^{(1)}\\left( v_{2}\\right)\n\\label{E.4.8}\\end{aligned}$$ and $\\mathcal{M}_{\\kappa }^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x)=\\mathcal{M}_{\\zeta\n^{U}}^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x)$, given in Eq.", " (\\[E.3.10\\]). ", "The instantaneous contribution $\\Omega _{H}^{\\kappa }(0)$ is simply related to $%\n\\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }(0)$ in (\\[7.34\\]) through [@BDB06] $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\kappa }(0)=\\frac{d+2}{d}\\, \\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }(0).", "\n\\label{E.4.9}$$ Furthermore, the correlation function $\\Omega _{G}^{\\kappa }(s)$ vanishes. ", "This can be seen as follows. ", "The conjugate flux and the generator of dynamics can be simplified as in the case of $\\zeta ^{U}$ above, so that they become independent of the coordinate ${\\bm\nq}$. Then, the direct flux above can be simplified to give $$\\begin{aligned}\nJ_{\\kappa }\\left( {\\bm v}_{1}\\right) & = & - \\left[ 1+\\frac{(1+\\alpha)\n\\sigma^{d} \\pi^{d/2} g_{h}^{(2)}(\\sigma)}{ 2 \\Gamma \\left( \\frac{d}{2}\n\\right)d} \\right] \\frac{v_{1}^{2}}{d^{2}} \\notag \\\\\n&& - \\left[ \\frac{1}{2} \\frac{\\partial \\ln g_{h}^{(2)} (\\sigma)}{\\partial\nn_{h}} +1 \\right] \\frac{p-1}{d}.\\end{aligned}$$ Since $J_{\\kappa }\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) $ is orthogonal to the subspace spanned by $1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right) } (x) $, $\\Omega _{G}^{\\kappa\n}(s) $ vanishes. ", "Therefore, the bulk viscosity in the Enskog approximation is simply $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\kappa &=&\\frac{d+2}{d}\\, \\Omega _{H}^{\\eta }(0)= \\frac{\\pi^{(d-1)/2}\n(1+\\alpha) \\sigma^{d+1} g_{h}^{(2)}(\\sigma)}{2 d^{2} \\Gamma \\left( \\frac{d+1%\n}{2} \\right)} \\int d {\\bm v}_{1} \\int d {\\bm v} _{2}\\, | {\\bm v}_{1}-{\\bm v}%\n_{2} | f_{h}^{\\left( 1\\right) }\\left( v_{1}\\right) f_{h}^{\\left( 1\\right)\n}\\left( v_{2}\\right) \\notag \\\\\n&=& \\frac{\\pi^{-1/2} \\Gamma \\left( d/2 \\right) \\sigma (p-1)}{\\Gamma \\left(\n\\frac{d+1}{2} \\right) d} \\int d {\\bm v}_{1} \\int d {\\bm v} _{2}\\, | {\\bm v}%\n_{1}-{\\bm v}_{2} | f_{h}^{\\left( 1\\right) }\\left( v_{1}\\right) f_{h}^{\\left(\n1\\right) }\\left( v_{2}\\right). ", " \\label{E.4.11}\\end{aligned}$$\n\n### The thermal conductivity $\\protect\\lambda $\n\nThe thermal conductivity is expressed in ref. [", "@BDB06] as $$\\lambda =\\lim \\Omega _{H}^{\\lambda }\\left( s\\right) =\\Omega _{H}^{\\lambda\n}(0)+\\lim \\int_{0}^{s}ds^{\\prime }\\,\\Omega _{G}^{\\lambda }\\left( s^{\\prime\n}\\right) , \\label{E.5.1}$$where $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\lambda }\\left( s\\right) =-(Vd)^{-1}\\int d\\Gamma \\,{\\bm S}%\n(\\Gamma )\\cdot \\left( 1-\\mathcal{P}\\right) e^{-s\\left( \\overline{\\mathcal{L}}%\n-\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) }\\bm{\\mathcal M}_{\\lambda }(\\Gamma )\n\\label{E.5.2}$$and $$\\Omega _{G}^{\\lambda }\\left( s\\right) =-(Vd)^{-1}\\int d\\Gamma \\,{\\bm S}%\n(\\Gamma )\\cdot \\left( 1-\\mathcal{P}\\right) e^{-s\\left( \\overline{\\mathcal{L}}%\n-\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) }{\\bm\\Upsilon }_{\\lambda }(\\Gamma ).", "\n\\label{E.5.4}$$The direct flux ${\\bm S}$ is the heat flux in the microscopic balance equation for the energy density, $$\\mathbf{S}=\\sum_{r=1}^{N}v_{r}^{2}{\\bm v}_{r}+\\sum_{r=1}^{N}\\sum_{s\\neq\nr}^{N}{\\bm s}_{2}\\left( x_{r},x_{s}\\right) , \\label{E.5.5}$$with $${\\bm s}_{2}\\left( x_{r},x_{s}\\right) =\\frac{(1+\\alpha )\\sigma }{2}\\delta\n(q_{rs}-\\sigma )\\Theta \\left( -\\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs}\\cdot {\\bm g}_{rs}\\right)\n(\\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs}\\cdot {\\bm g}_{rs})^{2}\\left( \\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs}\\cdot\n{\\bm G}_{rs}\\right) \\widehat{\\bm q}_{rs}, \\label{E.5.6}$$where ${\\bm G}_{rs}\\equiv ({\\bm r}+{\\bm v}_{s})/2$. The conjugate density in Eq.", " (\\[E.5.2\\]) is $$\\bm{\\mathcal M}_{\\lambda }(\\Gamma )=-\\frac{1}{2}\\sum_{r=1}^{N}{\\bm q}_{r}%\n\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial {\\bm v}_{r}}\\cdot \\left[ {\\bm v}_{r}\\rho\n_{h}(\\Gamma )\\right] \\label{E.5.7}$$and the associated flux is $${\\bm\\Upsilon }_{\\lambda }(\\Gamma )=-\\left( \\overline{\\mathcal{L}}-\\frac{%\n\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) \\bm{\\mathcal M}_{\\lambda }(\\Gamma ). ", " \\label{E.5.8}$$In the Enskog approximation, the time correlation function determining the Helfand form of the thermal conductivity $\\lambda $ is $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\lambda }\\left( s\\right) \\simeq V^{-1}\\int dx\\,{\\bm J}_{\\lambda\n}\\left( x\\right) \\cdot \\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x)\\right]\ne^{-s\\left( \\Lambda ^{E}-\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) }\\bm{\\mathcal M}%\n_{\\lambda }^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x), \\label{E.5.9}$$where $$\\begin{aligned}\n{\\bm J}_{\\lambda }\\left( x_{1}\\right) &=&\\frac{v_{1}^{2}{\\bm v}_{1}}{d}-%\n\\frac{(1+\\alpha )\\sigma g_{h}^{(2)}(\\sigma )}{d}\\int dx_{2}\\,\\delta \\left(\nq_{12}-\\sigma \\right) \\Theta \\left( -\\widehat{\\bm q}_{12}\\cdot {\\bm g}%\n_{12}\\right) \\notag \\\\\n&&\\times (\\widehat{\\bm q}_{12}\\cdot {\\bm g}_{12})^{2}(\\widehat{\\bm q}%\n_{12}\\cdot {\\bm G}_{12})\\widehat{\\bm q}_{12}f_{h}^{(1)}\\left( v_{2}\\right)\n\\label{E.5.10}\\end{aligned}$$and $$\\bm{\\mathcal M}_{\\lambda }^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x_{1})=-\\frac{{\\bm q}_{1}}{2}%\n\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial {\\bm v}_{1}}\\cdot \\left[ {\\bm v}%\n_{1}f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})\\right] . ", " \\label{E.5.11}$$The function ${J}_{\\lambda }$ defined in Eq.", " (\\[E.5.10\\]) differs from the generic form given in (\\[E.1.7\\]) by a velocity independent term which does not contribute to $\\Omega _{H}^{\\lambda }$. ", "The contribution from the initial correlation function to the Green-Kubo form of this transport coefficient is given by $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\Omega _{H}^{\\lambda }(0) &=&\\frac{\\Gamma (\\frac{d}{2})}{2\\pi ^{1/2}\\Gamma\n\\left( \\frac{3+d}{2}\\right) }\\sigma \\left( p-1\\right) \\int d{\\bm v}_{1}\\int d%\n{\\bm v}_{2}\\,f_{h}^{(1)}(v_{1})f_{h}^{(2)}(v_{2}) \\notag \\\\\n&&\\times \\left[ g_{12}G_{12}^{2}+g_{12}(\\widehat{\\bm g}_{12}\\cdot {\\bm G}%\n_{12})^{2}+\\frac{1}{4}g_{12}^{3}+\\frac{3}{2}\\left( \\widehat{\\bm g}_{12}\\cdot\n{\\bm G}_{12}\\right) \\right]\\end{aligned}$$while the time-dependent correlation function becomes $$\\Omega _{G}^{\\lambda }\\left( s\\right) =-\\left[ 1+\\frac{3(p-1)}{d+2}\\right]\n\\int d{\\bm v}\\,\\frac{v^{2}{\\bm v}}{d}\\cdot \\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left(\n1\\right) }({\\bm v})\\right] e^{-s\\left( \\mathcal{J}-\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}%\n\\right) }{\\bm\\gamma }_{\\lambda }({\\bm v}). ", " \\label{E.5.10b}$$Proceeding as in the case of the shear viscosity in Sec. ", "\\[s7\\], it is found that $${\\bm\\gamma }_{\\lambda }=\\left( \\Lambda ^{E}-\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right)\n\\frac{1}{2}{\\bm q}\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial {\\bm v}}\\cdot \\left[ {\\bm v}%\nf_{h}^{1}(v)\\right] . ", " \\label{E.5.11c}$$Thus the thermal conductivity in the Enskog approximation is given by $$\\lambda =\\Omega _{H}^{\\lambda }(0)-\\left[ 1+\\frac{3(p-1)}{d+2}\\right] \\int d{%\n\\bm v}\\,\\frac{v^{2}{\\bm v}}{d}\\cdot \\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right) }({%\n\\bm v})\\right] \\bm{\\mathcal A}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) ,$$where $\\mathcal{\\bm A}$ is the solution to the integral equation $$\\left( \\mathcal{J}-\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) \\bm{\\mathcal A}({\\bm v})=%\n\\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{(1)}({\\bm v})\\right] {\\bm\\gamma }_{\\lambda }({\\bm v}),\n\\label{E.5.12}$$with $\\mathcal{J}$ the operator defined in Eq. (", "\\[7.34a\\]).", "\n\n### The coefficient $\\protect\\mu $\n\nThis is a new transport mechanism for granular fluids that arises due to the inelasticity of collisions. ", "As discussed in detail in ref. [", "@BDB06], this transport coefficient consists of two time correlation functions, one of which can be recognized as the time correlation part of the thermal conductivity. ", "Therefore, the quantity in terms of which the time correlation function takes the simplest form is the linear combination $$\\overline{\\mu }\\equiv \\mu -2\\frac{\\partial \\ln \\zeta _{h}}{\\partial \\ln n_{h}%\n}\\lambda =\\lim \\Omega _{H}^{\\overline{\\mu }}\\left( s\\right) =\\Omega _{H}^{%\n\\overline{\\mu }}(0)+\\lim \\int_{0}^{s}ds^{\\prime }\\,\\Omega _{G}^{\\overline{%\n\\mu }}\\left( s^{\\prime }\\right) , \\label{E.6.1}$$with $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\overline{\\mu }}\\left( s\\right) =-(Vd)^{-1}\\int d\\Gamma \\,{\\bm S%\n}(\\Gamma )\\cdot \\left( 1-\\mathcal{P}\\right) e^{-s\\overline{\\mathcal{L}}}%\n\\bm{\\mathcal M}_{\\overline{\\mu }}(\\Gamma ), \\label{E.6.2}$$and $$\\Omega _{G}^{\\overline{\\mu }}\\left( s\\right) =-(Vd)^{-1}\\int d\\Gamma \\,{\\bm S%\n}(\\Gamma )\\cdot \\left( 1-\\mathcal{P}\\right) e^{-s\\overline{\\mathcal{L}}}{\\bm%\n\\Upsilon }_{\\mu }(\\Gamma ). ", " \\label{E.6.4}$$The direct flux ${\\bm S}$ above is the heat flux given in Eq.", " (\\[E.5.5\\]). ", "The conjugate density is $$\\begin{aligned}\n\\bm{\\mathcal M}_{\\overline{\\mu }} &=&\\int d{\\bm r}\\,{\\bm r}\\left[ \\frac{%\n\\delta \\rho _{lh}}{\\delta n\\left( {\\bm r}\\right) }-2\\frac{\\partial \\ln \\zeta\n_{0}}{\\partial \\ln n}T\\frac{\\delta \\rho _{lh}}{\\delta T\\left( {\\bm r}\\right)\n}\\right] _{y=y_{h}} \\notag \\\\\n&=&\\int d{\\bm r}\\,{\\bm r}\\left[ \\left( \\frac{\\delta \\rho _{lh}[\\Gamma |y]}{%\n\\delta n({\\bm r})}\\right) _{\\zeta _{0}}\\right] _{y=y_{h}}, \\label{E.6.5}\\end{aligned}$$where the functional derivative with respect to the density in the last equality is to be taken at constant cooling rate, as indicated. ", "In the Enskog approximation, the Helfand form becomes $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\overline{\\mu }}\\left( s\\right) \\simeq V^{-1}\\int dx\\,{\\bm J}_{%\n\\overline{\\mu }}\\left( x\\right) \\cdot \\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{\\left( 1\\right)\n}(x)\\right] e^{-s\\left( \\Lambda ^{E}-\\frac{\\zeta _{0}}{2}\\right) }%\n\\bm{\\mathcal M}_{\\overline{\\mu }}^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x). ", " \\label{E.6.6}$$Here, ${\\bm J}_{\\overline{\\mu }}\\left( x\\right) ={\\bm J}_{\\lambda\n}\\left( x\\right) $, given in Eq.", " (\\[E.5.10\\]), and $$\\bm{\\mathcal M}_{\\overline{\\mu }}^{\\left( 1\\right) }={\\bm q}\\left\\{\nf_{h}^{(1)}\\left( v\\right) +\\frac{\\partial \\ln \\zeta _{0}}{\\partial \\ln n_{h}%\n}\\frac{\\partial }{\\partial {\\bm v}}\\cdot \\left[ {\\bm v}f_{h}^{(1)}(v)\\right]\n\\right\\} . ", " \\label{E.6.7}$$The Green-Kubo form is determined from $\\Omega _{H}^{\\overline{\\mu }}(0)$ and $\\Omega _{G}^{\\overline{\\mu }}\\left( s\\right) $. ", "Direct evaluation shows the relationship $$\\Omega _{H}^{\\overline{\\mu }}(0)=-2\\frac{\\partial \\ln \\zeta _{0}}{\\partial\n\\ln n_{h}}\\,\\Omega _{H}^{\\lambda }(0). ", " \\label{E.6.8}$$The time correlation function $\\Omega _{G}^{\\overline{\\mu }}\\left( s\\right) $ can be simplified as in the previous cases yielding $$\\Omega _{G}^{\\mu }\\left( s\\right) =\\int d{\\bm v}\\,{\\bm J}_{\\overline{\\mu }%\n}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) \\cdot \\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{(1)}({\\bm v})\\right] e^{-s%\n\\mathcal{J}}{\\bm\\gamma }_{\\overline{\\mu }}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) ,\n\\label{E.6.9a}$$with $${\\bm\\gamma }_{\\mu ,i}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) =-{v}_{i}f_{h}^{(1)}\\left(\nv\\right) -\\left[ 1+\\frac{1}{2}\\frac{\\partial \\ln g_{h}^{(2)}\\left( \\sigma\n\\right) }{\\partial \\ln n_{h}}\\right] Q_{i}\\left[ f_{h}^{(1)}\\left( v\\right) %\n\\right] -2\\frac{\\partial \\ln \\zeta _{0}}{\\partial \\ln n_{h}}\\gamma _{\\lambda\n,i}\\,. ", " \\label{E.6.10}$$The Green-Kubo form for the transport coefficient $\\mu $ is $$\\mu -2\\frac{\\partial \\ln \\zeta _{0}}{\\partial \\ln n_{h}}\\lambda =-2\\frac{%\n\\partial \\ln \\zeta _{0}}{\\partial \\ln n_{h}}\\,\\Omega _{H}^{\\lambda }(0)+\\int\nd{\\bm v}{\\bm J}_{\\lambda }\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) \\cdot \\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}%\n^{\\left( 1\\right) }(x)\\right] \\bm{\\mathcal C}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) ,\n\\label{E.6.11}$$where ${\\bm C}\\left( {\\bm v}\\right) $ is a solution to the integral equation $$\\mathcal{J}\\bm {\\mathcal C}({\\bm v})=\\left[ 1-\\mathcal{P}^{(1)}(x)\\right] {%\n\\bm J}_{\\lambda }({\\bm v}). ", " \\label{E.6.12}$$\n\nAll of the above results agree in detail (for $d=3$) with those obtained in ref. [", "@GD99] by means of the Chapman-Enskog solution of the non-linear Enskog kinetic equation.", "\n\n[99]{} See, for example, P.C. Martin in *Many Body Physics*, edited by C. de Witt and R. Balian (Gordon and Breach, New York, 1968).", "\n\nD. Forster, *Hydrodynamic Fluctuations, Broken Symmetry, and Correlation Functions* (Benjamin, Reading MA, 1975).", "\n\nJ-P. Boon and S. Yip, *Molecular Hydrodynamics* (Dover, New York, 1991).", "\n\nJ.A. McLennan, *Introduction to Nonequilibrium Statistical Mechanics* (Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1989).", "\n\nE. Helfand, Phys. ", "Rev. **119**, 1 (1960).", "\n\nJ.A. McLennan, in Advances in Chemical Physics, edited by I. Prigogine (Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1963), Vol. ", "5.", "\n\nP. Résibois and M. De Leener, *Classical Kinetic Theory of Fluids* (Wiley Interscience, New York, 1977).", "\n\nJ.W. Dufty, A. Baskaran, and J.J. Brey, submitted to Phys. ", "Rev. E.,cond-mat/0612408\n\nA. Baskaran, J.W. Dufty, and J.J. Brey, submitted to Phys. ", "Rev. E.,cond-mat/0612409\n\nHydrodynamics derived from inelastic hard sphere models has found widespread use in multi-phase computational fluid dynamics methods, to describe numerous industrial processes involving solid particulates in gas fluidized systems (e.g., software packages such as Fluent 2122 and MFIX).", "\n\nV. Garzó and J.W. Dufty, Phys. ", "Rev. E **59**, 5895 (1999).", "\n\nJ.W. Dufty, J.J. Brey, and J. Lutsko, Phys. ", "Rev. E **65**, 051303 (2002); J. Lutsko, J.J. Brey, and J.W. Dufty, Phys. ", "Rev. E **65**, 051304 (2002).", "\n\nV. Garzó and J.W. Dufty, J. Stat. ", "Phys. **", "105**, 723-744 (2001).", "\n\nN. N. Bogoliubov, *Problems in a Dynamical Theory in Statistical Physics*, English trans. ", "by E. Gora in *Studies in Statistical Mechanics I*, edited by G.E. Uhlenbeck and J. de Boer (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1962).", "\n\nE.G.D Cohen, Physica **28**, 1025 (1962); ibid. **", "28**, 1045 (1962); ibid **28** 1060 (1962).", "\n\nY. Pomeau and P. Résibois, Phys. ", "Rep. **19**, 63 (1975); J. R. Dorfman in *Perspectives in Statistical Physics*, edited by H. Raveche (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1981).", "\n\nB. Alder and T. Wainwright, Phys. ", "Rev. A **1**, 18 (1970).", "\n\nE. Leutheusser, Phys. ", "Rev. A **29**, 2765 (1984).", "\n\nT. P. C. van Noije and M. H. Ernst, in * Granular Gases*, editde by T. Pöschel and S. Luding (Springer, New York, 2001).", "\n\nH. van Beijeren and M.H. Ernst, Physica A **68**, 437 (1973); ibid. **", "70**, 225 (1973); J. Stat. ", "Phys. **", "21,** 125 (1979).", "\n\nW.E. Alley, B.J. Alder, and S. Yip, Phys. ", "Rev. A **27**, 3174 (1984).", "\n\nI.M. de Schepper, E.G.D. Cohen, C. Bruin, J.C. van Rijs, W. Montfrooij, and L.A. de Graaf, Phys. ", "Rev. A **38**, 271 (1988).", "\n\nJ.F. Lutsko, Phys. ", "Rev. E **63**, 061211 (2001).", "\n\nJ. W. Dufty and J.J. Brey, Phys. ", "Rev. E **68**, 030302(R) (2003); J.J. Brey and J.W. Dufty, Phys. ", "Rev. E **72**, 011303 (2005).", "\n\nJ.J. Brey, M.I. 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{ "pile_set_name": "ArXiv" }

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[ "Opioid use in the treatment of chronic pain: assessment of addiction.", "\nAddiction medicine specialists, besieged with the adverse consequences of opioids, not unreasonably develop reservations about their use. ", "Opioid prohibition may be appropriate when working with addicts, but drug abstinence is not always the most appropriate nor optimal treatment of pain patients. ", "Consultation concerning the management of chronic pain patients may require an attitude adjustment of challenging proportions for the addiction medicine specialist; it is a role substantially different from that usually assumed in treating alcohol- and drug-dependent patients. ", "Rather than relentlessly pursuing psychotropic drug abstinence as the treatment goal, restoration of function should be the primary treatment goal for the chronic pain patient. ", "Unlike the chemically dependent patient whose level of function is impaired by substance use, the chronic pain patient's level of function may improve with adequate, judicious use of medications, which may include opioids. ", "Evaluating for addiction in a patient who is prescribed long-term opioids for pain control is often problematic. ", "While the concept of addiction may include the symptoms of physical dependence and tolerance, physical dependence and/or tolerance alone does not equate with addiction. ", "In the chronic pain patient taking long-term opioids, physical dependence and tolerance should be expected, but the maladaptive behavior changes associated with addiction are not expected. ", "Thus, it is the presence of these behaviors in the chronic pain patient that is far more important in diagnosing addiction." ]

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[ "Q:\n\nMVC Core + Azure Active Directory Get Groups from GraphAPI\n\nI am trying to implement authentication in an MVC Core 2.2 application using Azure Active Directory by following this tutorial.", "\nI have configured the manifest appropriately by setting the “groupMembershipClaims\": \"SecurityGroup\" but am still not getting the groups as part of the user claims. ", "It appears that I should be getting something like this \nhttps://www.red-gate.com/simple-talk/cloud/security-and-compliance/azure-active-directory-part-4-group-claims/\n\nwhen inspecting the claims however all I appear to be getting is \"http://schemas.microsoft.com/ws/2008/06/identity/claims/groupsid:\"\n\nIt seems that if the user has more than 4 groups assigned that they \nwill not be sent as part of the token. ", "and that one would need to use the GraphAPI to pull the groups for the user. ", "\nI cannot seem to find any resources that illustrate how to accomplish this and get it to work with \n services.", "AddAuthorization(options =>\n {\n\n options.", "AddPolicy(\"Editor\", policy => policy.", "RequireClaim(\"groups\",\"XXXXXXXXXXXX\"));\n\n });\n\nCan someone possibly point me in the right direction?", "\n\nA:\n\nThere is a good answer on this @here.", "\nIt however suggests you to get all the group membership for a given user - which might not be efficient if user has large number of group memberships.", "\nYou can instead use the checkMemberGroups api. ", "It can take up to 20 group ids for each call which should be good enough for most of the cases.", "\n\n" ]

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[ "Human Rights Watch (HRW) has urged the United Arab Emirates (UAE) authorities to reveal the whereabouts of Sheikha Latifa, the daughter of the Dubai ruler, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, after the woman reportedly failed to flee the country.", "\n\nAccording to HRW, the case of missing Sheikha Latifa, 32, could constitute \"enforced disappearance.\"", "\n\n\"UAE authorities should immediately reveal the whereabouts of Sheikha Latifa, confirm her status and allow her contact with the outside world,\" Sarah Leah Whitson, the HRW's Middle East director, said in a statement on Saturday.", "\n\nShe added that in case the Dubai leader's daughter is detained, she should be given the rights all detainees deserve, such as being taken before an independent judge.", "\n\nEarlier in March the princess announced she was fleeing the emirate because of mistreatment and restrictions imposed by her family. ", "But on April 17, a source close to the Dubai government told HRW the runaway princess \"was brought back\" to the country.", "\n\nA witness told HRW that authorities in the UAE had intercepted Sheikha Latifa on March 4, 2018 less than 80 kilometers off the coast of India as she tried to escape by ship to a third country. ", "She was reportedly returned to the UAE and has not been seen or heard from since then.", "\n\nREAD MORE: UAE Files Complaint Against Qatar With ICAO — Reports\n\nThe rights organization said it was seriously concerned about the woman's safety and well-being.", "\n\n\"Failure to disclose the whereabouts and status of the princess could qualify as an enforced disappearance, given the evidence suggesting that she was last seen as UAE authorities were detaining her,\" HRW said.", "\n\nLatifa's cause has been taken up by the Britain-based campaign group Detained in Dubai, which is working to help victims of injustice in the UAE.", "\n\nDubai has not commented publicly about Sheikha Latifa since The Associated Press reported in April on her disappearance.", "\n\nThe woman's father is also the United Arab Emirates' vice president and prime minister. ", "Latifa is one of 30 children he has with six wives.", "\n\nIn her video Latifa claimed she had been prohibited from leaving the UAE since 2000. ", "She said she was also not allowed to drive and had her movements monitored 24 hours a day. ", "She wasn't allowed to keep her own passport and could not even go to another emirate without royal authorization." ]

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[ "// Copyright 2009 the Sputnik authors. ", " All rights reserved.", "\n// This code is governed by the BSD license found in the LICENSE file.", "\n\n/**\n * Operator uses PutValue\n *\n * @path ch11/11.13/11.13.2/S11.13.2_A2.2_T7.js\n * @description If Type(LeftHandSideExpression) is not Reference, throw ReferenceError (or SyntaxError). ", "Check operator is \"x >>= y\"\n * @negative\n */\n\n//CHECK#1\ntry {\n var z = (1 >>= 1);\n $ERROR('#1.1: 1 >>= 1 throw ReferenceError (or SyntaxError). ", "Actual: ' + (z)); \n}\ncatch (e) {\n if ((e instanceof ReferenceError) !", "== true) {\n $ERROR('#1.2: 1 >>= 1 throw ReferenceError (or SyntaxError). ", "Actual: ' + (e)); \n } else {\n var z = (1 >>= 1);\n }\n}\n\n" ]

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[ "Assistant Food and Beverage Manager\n\nJumeirah GroupUAE\n\nPosted\nRef: LP168-17\n\nThe Role\n\nAt Jumeirah, we are committed to encouraging and developing our colleagues in world class environments. ", "We value diversity and equal opportunity, employing over 10,000 colleagues from over 90 different countries including locations in Asia Pacific, CIS, Central Asia, Western and Eastern Europe, South America, Africa, USA and the Middle East.", "\n\nPositioned at the epicentre of one of the world's most exciting destinations Jumeirah The Meydan provides a prime location to catch the exhilarating action of the racing season and creates a coveted travel destination all-year round. ", "With 285 extravagantly appointed rooms and suites, Jumeirah The Meydan will change your perception of travel with unrivalled standards in luxury hospitality.", "\n\nWe are currently recruiting for a highly motivated and talented Assistant Food and Beverage Manager to assist the Director of Food and Beverage in supervising and coordinating all aspects of the Food and Beverage Operation. ", "With a team of 8 direct reports you will also have responsibility for 90 colleagues.", "\n\nThis role will include a mix of financial, operational and administrative duties.", "\n\nYou will be expected to maximise profitability and revenue by setting targets to meet budgets, participate in preparing the performance plan and annual budget, monitor and take corrective action to reduce waste and breakage and prepare and analyse monthly reports.", "\n\nYou will also ensure that standard operating procedures are consistently adhered to and that the service and kitchen areas are kept to the highest cleanliness and health and safety standard as well as assisting the Outlet Managers in the planning and implementation of activities in order to achieve maximum revenues.", "\n\nQualified ideally to Degree level in Hospitality, you must be able to demonstrate at least two years experience of working in a first class property which contains multi food and beverage outlets and will be a mix of bars and fine dining restaurants. ", "You will also be very comfortable working with high volume.", "\n\nYou will be commercially aware and a very strong communicator. ", "This role requires a leader and not just a Manager as we are seeking an ambitious and inspirational individual who will ensure that the customers not only receive the highest service but also that the colleagues are kept motivated.", "\n\nA very good command, verbally and written, of the English language is essential as is experience of working in and managing a multicultural team.", "\n\nAbout the Company\n\nJumeirah Hotels & Resorts are regarded as among the most luxurious and innovative in the world and have won numerous international travel and tourism awards. ", "The company was founded in 1997 with the aim to become a hospitality industry leader through establishing a world class portfolio of luxury hotels and resorts. ", "Building on this success, in 2004 Jumeirah Group became a member of Dubai Holding - a collection of leading Dubai-based businesses and projects - in line with a new phase of growth and development for the Group." ]

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[ "Background information\n\nTonj State is one of the 28 states of South Sudan. ", "It is located in the Bahr el Ghazal region and it borders Wau to the west, Gbudwe to the southwest, Gogrial to the northwest, Northern Liech to the northeast, Gok and Southern Liech to the east, and Western Lakes to the south and east. ", "The capital city of the state is Tonj Town located on a river in the northwestern part of South Sudan and is the largest city in the Warrap region. ", "The town is located along the main highway from Wau to Rumbek. ", "Tonj is a key town along the main trade route from Uganda heading north into South Sudan.", "\n\nTonj State is home to the Dinka Rek people, a sub-tribe of the Dinka. ", "The people of Tonj grow crops and raise livestock. ", "In the village’s central market, food, vegetables and basic goods are sold daily. ", "The main crops grown by farmers in the area includes Maize, Sorghum, Sesame, Groundnuts, Other Vegetables, Millet, Cassava and Rice. ", "The majority of the farmers in the state are growing these crops on subsistence basis.", "\n\nThe main natural sources of water for the residents of Tonj State include rivers, streams and springs. ", "There are two main rivers that cut through the state of Tonj. ", "The Jur river passes through the northern part of the state while the Tonj river passes through the southern and eastern part of the state. ", "The western and central part of the state is not served by any river. ", "The residents also get water from boreholes that have been drilled in several areas of the state. ", "However some villages still experience a lack of accessible clean water as they are located very far from rivers and no boreholes have been drilled in these villages.", "\n\nThe many challenges facing the people of Tonj State and other parts of South Sudan can be blamed on the many years that the country was engaged in war with Northern Sudan. ", "The first civil war between the Muslim Arab North and the Christian African South started in 1955 and stopped through a peace accord in 1972. ", "That war lasted 17 years. ", "The South was the war arena and carried the full brunt of the war. ", "There was a peace lull between 1972– 1982. ", "Another civil war broke out in 1983 until 9th January 2005 when another peace agreement between the North and the South was signed between the main belligerents, still the South was the field of the war and a very high price was paid by the Southern Sudanese. ", "Over 2 million were killed, 4 million were displaced from their homes and another 1 million fled to neighboring countries to seek refuge. ", "The two civil wars also resulted in the destruction of infrastructure in the entire South Sudan and also that there was no meaningful development during the period of the war.", "\n\nEven with the civil war now ended and the independence of South Sudan about 5 years ago, the challenges are still many and the government which is still at its infancy is struggling to cope with these challenges. ", "The inter-ethnic conflicts among the various communities of South Sudan are compounding these challenges. ", "The government alone cannot manage to address these challenges and it requires input from the international community, donors, the church and other stakeholders to come up with effective solutions to address the many challenges facing the people of South Sudan.", "\n\nIt is against this long established background that the Tonj Area Diocese feels obliged to participate and mobilise the communities of Tonj State in the general development of the area and the development of clean water sources.", "\n\nProject Goal\n\nTo improve hygiene and sanitation of residents of 8 villages in Tonj Area Diocese through the provision of clean and accessible water. ", "The villages are Adol, Makuach, Juol gok, Wunlit, Lurchuk, Ngapagok, Wunangui and Arich Villages.", "\n\nProject Objectives\n\n1) To provide clean drinking water to residents of the 8 villages in Tonj Area Diocese.", "\n\n2) To contract an experienced borehole driller to drill the boreholes and install hand pumps.", "\n\n3) To coordinate with the local communities to identify and train community pump caretakers and maintenance/repair staff.", "\n\nJustification\n\nTonj Area diocese occupies the flat grassland plains of northern Bahr El Ghazal. ", "Half of the year is dry season and people look for drinking water at distant water points for hours. ", "These water points are natural holes or pools or dug wells which are not protected from polluting sources e.g. Tree leaves, rubbish, animals or birds. ", "As a result, people are infected with many water borne diseases. ", "During the rainy seasons, Tonj Area plains are flooded except on the highlands. ", "At this time, people get water nearer to homes but still as much polluted water, causing many diseases. ", "The provision of boreholes water will ensure that incidences of water borne diseases are reduced.", "\n\nProject Activities\n\nThe Diocesan leadership in conjunction with the community will identify the sites where the boreholes will be drilled. ", "The villages that will benefit from this project and where the boreholes will be drilled are Adol, Makuach, Marialou Juol gok, Wunlit, Lurchuk, Ngapagok, Wunangui and Alich. ", "Tonj Area Diocese shall appoint a supervisor for the boreholes.", "\n\nObjective 3.2 – To contract water driller to drill the wells and install hand pumps\n\nTonj Area Diocese will award a contract to a driller of boreholes that has had experience and track record in Southern Sudan in general and in Bahr el Ghazal in particular. ", "Tonj Area Diocese shall spell out very clearly what types of pumps, protection of wells and maintenance procedures are to be carried out by the contractor/driller.", "\n\nObjective 3.3 – To coordinate with local community to identify and train community pump caretakers, hygiene and maintenance/repair staff.", "\n\nThe Tonj Area Diocese shall coordinate with community to identify suitable members who can be trained to take care of the pump/well. ", "A hygiene person (preferably a woman) will be trained on each well so that water at the borehole is protected from pollution. ", "Another person shall be appointed in the community to maintain/repair the pump in case of breakdowns.", "\n\nBeneficiaries\n\nThe beneficiaries of the water borehole project are residents in 8 villages of Tonj State. ", "These villages are Adol, Makuach, Juol gok, Wunlit, Lurchuk, Ngapagok, Wunangui and Alich Villages. ", "Each borehole will be used by upto 150 households. ", "The average household in the area has 5 members and therefore the project will benefit about 6000 beneficiaries.", "\n\nLocal Contribution\n\nThe local communities that will be allotted the boreholes shall contribute land on which the borehole will be located. ", "The communities shall also contribute labor and food to assist and feed the drillers when they are working in the area. ", "Hygiene and maintenance staff shall be identified by the local community. ", "The maintenance/repair staff shall be trained to take care of their boreholes.", "\n\nSustainability\n\nEach borehole shall have l Borehole Management Committee 9BMC) to supervise usage and maintenance of the borehole. ", "The committees shall be made up of 5 members selected from the beneficiaries using the borehole. ", "The membership of the committee shall be gender sensitive, include the pastor from the local church, a women, a youth and the disabled. ", "This committee can impose a small fee of water to be collected per month from each household using the borehole. ", "The money collected from the users shall be used to undertake repairs in case the borehole breaks down.", "\n\nExpected Results/Outcomes\n\n8 boreholes drilled and functional.", "\n\nImproved access to clean water to the residents in 8 villages.", "\n\nFormation of 8 Borehole Management Committee (BMC).", "\n\nMonitoring and Evaluation\n\nThe Tonj Area Diocese will have the overall responsibility for monitoring the implementation of project activities, including producing progress and financial reports. ", "An approach, which embraces participatory principles involving the beneficiary communities and other development partners, for regular review to assess achievement of agreed goals and objectives of the programme, will be developed.", "\n\nA mid-term evaluation of the project will be conducted by Operation Christ Abroad staff during the fourth month of project implementation. ", "This will offer an opportunity to make any adjustments in programme implementation. ", "At the end of the project, an external and independent evaluation of the project will be conducted. ", "The diocese will also prepare financial and narrative reports about the implementation of the project.", "\n\nBudget\n\nItem\n\nQuantity\n\nUnit Price (US$)\n\nTotal (US$)\n\nBorehole Drilling\n\n5\n\n15,000\n\n75,000\n\nMonitoring and Evaluation\n\n1,500\n\nSub Total\n\n76,500\n\nAdministration Cost (5%)\n\n3,825\n\nTotal\n\n$ 80,325\n\nActivity Schedule\n\nYEAR 1\n\nActivities\n\nM1\n\nM2\n\nM3\n\nM4\n\nM5\n\nM6\n\nResponsibility\n\nProject Mobilization Activities (meetings with community and relevant government departments)" ]

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[ "Diversity of alternative hosts of maize stemborers in Trans-Nzoia district of Kenya.", "\nGenetically-engineered (GE) crops such as those expressing insecticidal Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin genes have the potential to greatly reduce the use of broad spectrum insecticides and increase crop productivity. ", "However, development of resistance by the target insect species is an important consideration in the deployment of this strategy. ", "In areas where GE crops are deployed on a large scale, current resistance management strategies rely on a 'refuge strategy', comprising the incorporation of a certain proportion of non-GE plants in the agro-ecosystems, to conserve susceptible individuals of the target pests. ", "In the USA, simulation models indicate that at least 20% of the crop should be non-Bt plants. ", "In Africa, the target lepidopteran stemborers attack a wide range of wild grass species as well as cultivated cereal crops. ", "Wild grasses generally occur in the vicinity of maize and other cereal fields, and may provide a refuge if GE crops are in the farming systems. ", "To assess the quality of these grasses as refuges, it is critical to obtain information about their size and spatial distribution. ", "In this study, we have assessed the abundance and diversity of alternative refuge of stemborers, mainly wild grasses occurring in the proximity of maize fields, in Trans-Nzoia district, one of the most important maize growing areas in Kenya. ", "The proportion of wild host plants relative to maize was found to decline from 100% during the non-cropping season to <8% during the maize-growing season. ", "The Shannon-Weaver diversity index indicated high variation in the diversity of wild hosts of stemborers between agro-ecological zones in the district. ", "The results of this study are discussed in light of the possible role that wild host plant species might play in stemborer resistance management following the introduction of Bt maize." ]

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[ "Direct thrombin injection into aneurysmal sac in a patient with a type II endoleak.", "\nEndovascular grafting of abdominal aortic aneurysms provides a good alternative to open surgery, especially in high-risk patients. ", "Endoleaks are a well-recognized complication and are typically diagnosed on CT. ", "We describe a case in which a patient's endoleak was evaluated by MRI and successfully treated by direct thrombin injection into the site of the leak." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts" }

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[ "The genomes of hundreds of bacteria have been sequenced, with even more to come. ", "Yet, versatile genetic tools available for genome manipulations post-sequencing are far lacking behind. ", "The proposed research is an initiation to solve some of these problems. ", "With these available bacterial genomes and relentless occurrences of new emerging and reemerging infectious bacteria, existing universal genetic tools should be explored and modified further to increase the range of usefulness in these bacteria. ", "The available universal genetic tools will allow studies to be performed on various bacterial pathogens that are serious burdens to public health. ", "Thus, we are proposing to make significant improvements to two existing universal tools, namely, the promiscuous genetic transfer ability of bacterial RP4-based conjugation and the broadly applied Flp-FRT of the yeast 2-micron plasmid. ", "More specifically, we will engineer several RP4-based conjugal donors that are suicidal post-conjugation. ", "This will broaden the recipient-range of this universal system by alleviating the need for prior determination of appropriate selective media. ", "In addition, such tools will be extremely useful in high-throughput genomic experiments, complementing other high-throughput technologies such as microarrays, genomic, and proteomics. ", "The second aim is to engineer numerous useful constructs, containing unique FRTs (flip-recombination-target) of the yeast 2-micron plasmid, for bacterial genome manipulations. ", "Developing universal genetic tools to study bacteria is our long-term goal, ', since this will aid in various research aspects of our laboratory and others, dealing with infectious diseases of bacteria. [", "unreadable] [unreadable] [unreadable]" ]

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[ "[\n {\n \"scope\": \"https://boundless-stealer.glitch.me:443\",\n \"method\": \"GET\",\n \"path\": \"/\",\n \"body\": \"\",\n \"status\": 200,\n \"response\": \"<!-- ", "This is a static file -->\\n<!-- served from your routes in server.js -->\\n\\n<!-- You might want to try something fancier: -->\\n<!-- html/nunjucks docs: https://mozilla.github.io/nunjucks/ -->\\n<!-- pug: https://pugjs.org/ -->\\n<!-- haml: http://haml.info/ -->\\n<!-- hbs(handlebars): http://handlebarsjs.com/ -->\\n\\n<!DOCTYPE html>\\n<html lang=\\\"en\\\">\\n <head>\\n <title>Welcome to Glitch!</title>\\n <meta name=\\\"description\\\" content=\\\"A cool thing made with Glitch\\\">\\n <link id=\\\"favicon\\\" rel=\\\"icon\\\" href=\\\"https://glitch.com/edit/favicon-app.ico\\\" type=\\\"image/x-icon\\\">\\n <meta charset=\\\"utf-8\\\">\\n <meta http-equiv=\\\"X-UA-Compatible\\\" content=\\\"IE=edge\\\">\\n <meta name=\\\"viewport\\\" content=\\\"width=device-width, initial-scale=1\\\">\\n\\n <!-- ", "import the webpage's stylesheet -->\\n <link rel=\\\"stylesheet\\\" href=\\\"/style.css\\\">\\n \\n <!-- ", "import the webpage's client-side javascript file -->\\n <script src=\\\"/client.js\\\" defer></script>\\n </head>\\n <body>\\n <header>\\n <h1>\\n A Dream of the Future\\n </h1>\\n </header>\\n\\n <main>\\n <p class=\\\"bold\\\">Oh hi,</p>\\n \\n <p>Tell me your hopes and dreams:</p>\\n \\n <form>\\n <input name=\\\"dream\\\" type=\\\"text\\\" maxlength=\\\"100\\\" placeholder=\\\"Dreams!\\\" aria-labelledby=\\\"submit-dream\\\">\\n <button type=\\\"submit\\\" id=\\\"submit-dream\\\">Submit Dream</button>\\n </form>\\n \\n <section class=\\\"dreams\\\">\\n <ul id=\\\"dreams\\\"></ul>\\n </section>\\n </main>\\n\\n <footer>\\n Made with <a href=\\\"https://glitch.com\\\">Glitch</a>!\\n </footer>\\n\\n <!-- ", "include the Glitch button to show what the webpage is about and\\n to make it easier for folks to view source and remix -->\\n <div class=\\\"glitchButton\\\" style=\\\"position:fixed;top:20px;right:20px;\\\"></div>\\n <script src=\\\"https://button.glitch.me/button.js\\\"></script>\\n\\n </body>\\n</html>\\n\",\n \"rawHeaders\": [\n \"Date\",\n \"Tue, 26 Mar 2019 14:43:52 GMT\",\n \"Content-Type\",\n \"text/html; 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[ "CLASSES\n\nYou selected the most fabulous fabrics, pieced to perfection your quilt top and free-motion quilted a masterpiece! ", "Now what?! ", "You gotta bind your baby…that’s what! ", "Jo’s going to be back in the Two Thimbles Classroom to not only help you put the finishing touches on your project but will share her tips, tricks and techniques for better binding. ", "Learn double fold, bias and machine binding in this 3 hour session. ", "Please contact Two Thimbles to sign up for this class.", "\n\nThe classroom at Two Thimbles has expanded so there are still a few spots left open for this class. ", "Please contact the shop if you are interested.", "\n\nEver had an image you loved and wanted to recreate it in cloth? ", "This class is for you!", "\n\nThis is not just another landscape quilt class. ", "In this 2-part class, Jo will share her process in how to choose/modify a good image, create a pattern, and use a variety of techniques to create that image in cloth.", "\n\nThe first 2hr class (Wed April 17, 10:30-12:30) will help you decide what you want to do and then go about preparing for the second part. ", "The second workshop will be held on Saturday, April 27, 2019 from 10:00am - 4pm to get you started on assembling your pictorial art quilt.", "\n\nWe have started a second round this Block of the Month class of the Full Bloom pattern at Kori's Fabric Creations. ", "This is a beautiful quilt! ", "It employs the \"edge-color\" applique technique. ", "It's easy, it's fun, and you can be as sloppy as you like with your free-motion \"coloring\". ", "It’s not too late to start, but you must begin in April in order to catch up and keep up. ", "Please contact Kori for more details if you want to sign up for this class. ", "We will meet once a month for 12 months.", "\n\nWe started this Block of the Month class of the Full Bloom pattern at Kori's Fabric Creations in May. This is a beautiful quilt! ", "It employs the \"edge-color\" applique technique. ", "It's easy, it's fun, and you can be as sloppy as you like with your free-motion \"coloring\". ", "This class is nearing it’s completion. ", "Please contact Kori for more details if you want to sign up for a future class. ", "We meet once a month for 12 months. ", "Please contact Kori at 360-671-7570 for more information.", "\n\nIn this class Jo will cover the basics of free-motion machine quilting. ", "You will learn how to use a darning foot to do free motion quilting. ", "You will learn several methods to mark a quilt and how to use pre-cut stencils and tissue paper. ", "Jo will discuss the use of various types of thread, needles and batting. ", "What are you waiting for? ", "Finish all those UFO's!", "\n\nI think the only thing better than receiving a lovingly, handmade quilt is giving one! ", "If you like to sew but have yet to try your hand at quilt making, now is the time! ", "Learn accurate and safe rotary cutting, color value, pressing vs. ironing, accurate 1/4” seam allowance and other quilt-piecing-basics in this two-part class at Two Thimbles Quilt Shop in Bellingham. ", "The second class will be one week later on Feb 9, 2019. ", "This introduction to quilt piecing will have you well on your way to a completed quilt top and ready for more quilting activities. ", "Please contact Two Thimbles to sign up for this class.", "\n\nIf the weekend does not work for you, we are offering a mid week class on March 7 & 14.", "\n\nEver had an image you loved and wanted to recreate it in cloth? ", "This class is for you!", "\n\nThis is not just another landscape quilt class. ", "In this 2-part class, Jo will share her process in how to choose/modify a good image, create a pattern, and use a variety of techniques to create that image in cloth.", "\n\nThe first 2hr class will help you decide what you want to do and then go about preparing for the second part. ", "The second workshop will be held on Saturday, Jan 26, 2019 from 10:30a - 4pm to get you started on assembling your pictorial art quilt.", "\n\nIn this class you will learn how to create a design with just thread on a single piece of plain fabric. ", "You will learn how to create a good design and the techniques to make it pop off the fabric. ", "We will discuss fabric choice, batting, thread, marking, and technique.", "\n\nThis class is appropriate for a confident beginner to intermediate quilter motivated to do machine quilting. ", "You will be making one of the two Sunflower quilts Jo's designed, but will discuss the use of stencils and ideas for making your own design.", "\n\nPre-requisite:You must have taken Jo's beginning free-motion class, OR equivalent, OR feel comfortable with free-motion quilting and your sewing machine." ]

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[ "/****************************************************************************\n * arch/arm/src/armv8-m/systick.h\n *\n * Licensed to the Apache Software Foundation (ASF) under one or more\n * contributor license agreements. ", " See the NOTICE file distributed with\n * this work for additional information regarding copyright ownership. ", " The\n * ASF licenses this file to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the\n * \"License\"); you may not use this file except in compliance with the\n * License. ", " You may obtain a copy of the License at\n *\n * http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0\n *\n * Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software\n * distributed under the License is distributed on an \"AS IS\" BASIS, WITHOUT\n * WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. ", " See the\n * License for the specific language governing permissions and limitations\n * under the License.", "\n *\n ****************************************************************************/\n\n#ifndef __ARCH_ARM_SRC_ARMV8_M_SYSTICK_H\n#define __ARCH_ARM_SRC_ARMV8_M_SYSTICK_H\n\n/****************************************************************************\n * Included Files\n ****************************************************************************/\n\n#include <nuttx/config.h>\n#include <nuttx/timers/timer.h>\n\n/****************************************************************************\n * Public Function Prototypes\n ****************************************************************************/\n\n#ifdef __cplusplus\n#define EXTERN extern \"C\"\nextern \"C\"\n{\n#else\n#define EXTERN extern\n#endif\n\n/****************************************************************************\n * Name: systick_initialize\n *\n * Description:\n * This function initialize SYSTICK hardware module which is part of NVIC\n * and return an instance of a \"lower half\" timer interface.", "\n *\n * Input parameters:\n * coreclk - false if SYSTICK working clock come from the external\n * reference clock, otherwise true.", "\n * freq - The clock frequency in Hz. ", "If freq is zero, calculate the value\n * from NVIC_SYSTICK_CALIB register.", "\n * minor - The timer driver minor number, skip the registration if minor\n * < 0.", "\n *\n * Returned Value:\n * On success, a non-NULL timer_lowerhalf_s is returned to the caller.", "\n * In the event of any failure, a NULL value is returned.", "\n *\n ****************************************************************************/\n\n#ifdef CONFIG_ARMV8M_SYSTICK\nstruct timer_lowerhalf_s *systick_initialize(bool coreclk, unsigned int freq,\n int minor);\n#else\n# define systick_initialize(coreclk, freq, minor) NULL\n#endif /* CONFIG_ARMV8M_SYSTICK */\n\n#undef EXTERN\n#ifdef __cplusplus\n}\n#endif\n\n#endif /* __ARCH_ARM_SRC_ARMV8_M_SYSTICK_H */\n" ]

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[ "This is a recent project made to honor both the Battle of the Bulge and to display two legendary WW2 Era pistols, the American 1911A1 and the German Luger P08. ", "I like to design displays which attempt to tell the story of an event where the item did (or may have) participated in. ", "In this case the focus was on the famous Battle of the Bulge in the Ardennes forest around December 1944. ", "Some of the included details: A 3D map of the area around Bastogne where the American 101st Airborne fought (familiar to any \"Band of Brothers\" fans). ", "The German case features a copy of the German letter demanding the American surrender of the encircled town of Bastogne, and the other case has the famous reply of \"Nuts!\" ", "Each back panel features division symbols of famous American and German units which fought in the battle, and the German case includes an original Iron Cross 2nd Class. ", "The common cover graphic is a combination of American and German symbols with the Reich's Adler (Eagle) perched upon the American Star, and somewhat symbolic of the German's pouncing on the unsuspecting American's at the beginning of the battle.", "\n\nI have a homemade CNC machine which helps me with carving the detailed designs better than I could do by hand. ", "I used Walnut, Maple, Padauk, and Cherry for this project. ", "I hope you like it. ", "I have other similar projects on my facebook page https://www.facebook.com/CustomHistoricalDisplays/\n\nFinally - I realize that WW2 German Symbols are understandably a very sensitive subject for some people and in fact even illegal in some countries. ", "Please understand that I use these only in an effort to present an authentic historical perspective, and in no way does that indicate a support for some of the terrible crimes committed during that horrible part of human history. ", "Thanks" ]

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[ "Q:\n\nEspresso with AsyncTask\n\nI'm trying to write a test for my SignIn Activity, in which I'm using an AsyncTask.", "\npublic class SignInActivity extends Activity{\n\n@Override\nprotected void onCreate(Bundle savedInstanceState) {\n\n .........\n\n new AsyncSignButton().execute();\n}\n\nclass AsyncSignButton extends AsyncTask<Void, Void, Integer>{\n ....... \n}\n\nFor testing, I have tried using IdlingResource, but I do not understand how would use it with an AsyncTask, not with a WebView as in the examples, just simple a AsyncTask.", "\n\nHere is my Test code:\npublic class Test extends ActivityInstrumentationTestCase2<SplashActivity> {\n\nprivate SplashActivity mActivity;\n\npublic Test(){\n super(SplashActivity.class);\n}\n\npublic Test(Class<SplashActivity> activityClass) {\n super(activityClass);\n}\n\n@Override\nprotected void setUp() throws Exception{\n super.setUp();\n mActivity = getActivity();\n //how call it?", "\n}\n\n@LargeTest\npublic void testList() throws InterruptedException {\n\n //wait AsyncTask before call\n onView(withId(R.id.action_bar_accept_button)).perform(click());\n\n}\n\npublic final class AsyncIdlingResource implements IdlingResource {\n\n private AsyncTask asyncTask;\n private ResourceCallback callback;\n\n public AsyncIdlingResource(AsyncTask asyncTask){\n this.asyncTask = checkNotNull(asyncTask);\n }\n\n @Override\n public String getName() {\n return \"Sign idling resource\";\n }\n\n @Override\n public boolean isIdleNow() {\n if(asyncTask == null) return true;\n return asyncTask.getStatus() == AsyncTask.", "Status.", "FINISHED;\n }\n\n @Override\n public void registerIdleTransitionCallback(ResourceCallback resourceCallback) {\n this.callback = resourceCallback;\n }\n}\n\n}\n\nA:\n\nGood news, you don't need any custom IdlingResource for AsyncTask: Espresso already waits for all tasks to have run before executing actions/assertions. ", "This is mentioned for example here.", "\n\n" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "StackExchange" }

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[ "Q:\n\njquery ui (drag and drop component)\n\nhttp://www.edigitsoftware.com/formbuilder-v2/edit.php?id=8091\nwhen drag any component that place make new component and drag component place value also post in PHP side and that value store in database\n\nA:\n\nLike Some Example\ndrag any items after Dropped items After call Function Drop Then Inside Function Call Ajax or some different function\n$(\"#DropDivid\").droppable({\n\n drop:function (event, ui) \n {\n\n // Here Your Ajax Code Store Value in Database\n }\n });\n\n" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "StackExchange" }

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[ "\f conviction in their respective districts and has not completed the sentence\n imposed pursuant to the judgment of conviction\"). ", "Accordingly, we\n ORDER the judgment of the district court AFFIRMED.", "\n\n\n\n J.\n\n\n\n J.\n\n\n\n\n cc: Hon. ", "Jerome Polaha, District Judge\n James Corey McGee\n Attorney General/Carson City\n Washoe County District Attorney\n Washoe District Court Clerk\n\n\n\n\nSUPREME COURT\n OF\n NEVADA\n\n\n(0) 1947A\n\n MESE\n\f" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "FreeLaw" }

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[ "Christmas Cutie Dress Up\n\nChristmas Cutie Dress UpUse Mouse to dress up the cute girl for the Christmas celebrations. ", "Are you ready for Christmas? ", "Got all your gifts ready? ", "Excited to see what your friends and family got you? ", "Well dress up this cutie in holiday spirit while you wait!" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "Pile-CC" }

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[ "Realizing the cognitive potential of children 5-7 with a mathematics focus: post-test and long-term effects of a 2-year intervention.", "\nIn the context of the British Government's policy directed on improving standards in schools, this paper presents research on the effects of a programme intended to promote the cognitive development of children in the first 2 years of primary school (Y1 & 2, aged 5-7 years). ", "The programme is based on earlier work dealing with classroom-based interventions with older children at both primary and secondary levels of schooling. ", "The hypothesis tested is that it is possible to increase the cognitive ability of children by assisting teachers towards that aim in the context of mathematics. ", "A corollary hypothesis is that such an increase would result in an increase in long-term school achievement. ", "The participants were 8 teachers in one local education authority (LEA) and 10 teachers in another. ", "Data were analysed on 275 children present at Year 1 pre-test in 2002 and at long-term Key Stage 2 post-test in 2008. ", "Two intervention methods were employed: a Y1 set of interactive activities designed around Piagetian concrete operational schemata, and mathematics lessons in both Y1 and Y2 designed from a theory-base derived from both Piaget and Vygotsky. ", "At post-test in 2004, the mean effect sizes for cognitive development of the children - assessed by the Piagetian test Spatial Relations - were 0.71 SD in one LEA and 0.60 SD in the other. ", "Five classes achieved a median increase of 1.3 SD. ", "The mean gains over pre-test in 2002 for all children in Key Stage 1 English in 2004 were 0.51 SD, and at Key Stage 2 English in 2008 - the long-term effect - were 0.36 SD, an improvement of 14 percentile points. ", "The main hypothesis was supported by the data on cognitive development. ", "The corollary hypothesis is supported by the gains in English. ", "The implications of this study are that relative intelligence can be increased and is not fixed, and that children can be led into collaborating with each other to the benefit of their own thinking, and that there does exist a theory-based methodology for the improvement of teaching." ]

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[ "---\nabstract: 'Laser cooling is a fundamental technique used in primary atomic frequency standards [@Ludlow2008], quantum computers [@Benhelm2008], quantum condensed matter physics [@Bloch2008] and tests of fundamental physics [@Romero2011], among other areas. ", "It has been known since the early 1990s that laser cooling can, in principle, be improved by using squeezed light as an electromagnetic reservoir [@Graham1991; @Cirac1993]; while quantum feedback control using a squeezed light probe is also predicted to allow improved cooling. ", "Here, we implement quantum feedback control of a micro-mechanical oscillator for the first time with a squeezed probe field. ", "This allows quantum-enhanced feedback cooling with a measurement rate greater than it is possible with classical light, and a consequent reduction in the final oscillator temperature. ", "Our results have significance for future applications in areas ranging from quantum information networks [@Stannigel2010], to quantum-enhanced force and displacement measurements [@LIGO2013; @Bowen2016] and fundamental tests of macroscopic quantum mechanics [@Arndt2014].'", "\nauthor:\n- Clemens Schäfermeier\n- Hugo Kerdoncuff\n- 'Ulrich B. Hoff'\n- Hao Fu\n- Alexander Huck\n- Jan Bilek\n- 'Glen I. Harris'\n- 'Warwick P. Bowen'\n- Tobias Gehring\n- 'Ulrik L. Andersen'\ntitle: Quantum enhanced feedback cooling of a mechanical oscillator\n---\n\n=1\n\nReal-time quantum feedback control [@Wiseman1994] often involves time-continuous measurements of a quantum state followed by control of a physical system with the aim of steering that system into a desired state. ", "Such control has been demonstrated in numerous experiments, including the preparation of microwave Fock states [@Sayrin2011] and the generation of deterministic entanglement in quantum superconducting circuits [@Riste2013]. ", "Quantum feedback control also allows the control of motional states via continuous measurements of a probe field followed by actuation back upon the motional degree of freedom. ", "It has been used to steer single trapped atoms [@Kubanek2009], levitated microspheres [@Li2011], micromechanical oscillators [@Cohadon1999; @Wilson2015] and suspended kilogram-scale mirrors [@Abbott2009] towards their motional ground states; and proposed as a means to prepare both mechanical Fock [@Woolley2010PRB] and superposition states [@Jacobs2009PRL]. ", "However, to-date, all such experiments have used a classical probe field.", "\n\nThe use of a non-classical probe field for quantum control can both increase the effectiveness of steering to the desired quantum state and introduce new functionalities. ", "For instance, it can be used to prepare a mechanical oscillator in a non-Gaussian quantum state even in the linear coupling regime [@Khalili2010; @Bennett2015; @Hoff2016], thereby circumventing the usual requirement to reach the single-photon strong coupling regime [@Bose1997]. ", "Moreover, quantum feedback control using squeezed light can enable an efficient interface for quantum information networks [@Filip2009], and allow the standard quantum limit of force measurements to be surpassed via squeezing-enhanced measurements [@LIGO2013]. ", "Here we demonstrate a first critical step towards such functionalities by realizing a quantum-enhanced cooling rate using a squeezed probe field and real-time feedback control of a mechanical mode.", "\n\nThe basic idea is to continuously monitor the position of the mechanical oscillator and subsequently use the measurement record to steer the oscillator towards the ground state with real-time feedback. ", "The cooling rate is limited by the precision with which the position of the oscillator can be monitored, which in turn is often limited by the noise of the tracking laser beam [@Hoff2013]. ", "Therefore, by engineering the quantum state of the laser beam to reduce the measurement noise, an enhanced cooling rate can be expected. ", "Using squeezed light with variance $V_\\text{sq}$ to continuously monitor the mechanical motion, a feedback loop with signal detection efficiency $\\eta$, an overall detection efficiency $\\eta_d$ for the squeezed light, and feedback gain ${G_\\text{Fb}}$, can lower the temperature to $${T_\\text{Fb}}= \\left(1 + \\frac{V_d}{8 \\eta {n_\\text{th}}C} {G_\\text{Fb}}^2 \\right) \\frac{1}{1 + {G_\\text{Fb}}} T_0,\n \\label{eq:theory}$$ where $V_d$ is the detected variance $\\eta_d V_\\text{sq} + (1 - \\eta_d) / 2$, $T_0$ is the equilibrium temperature of the mechanical oscillator prior to feedback cooling, ${n_\\text{th}}$ the corresponding mean phonon occupancy, and we have neglected radiation pressure induced heating due to the measurement process. ", "Considering a cavity opto-mechanical system with cavity energy decay rate $\\kappa$ and mechanical dissipation rate $\\Gamma_m$, the linearised interaction is characterised by the cooperativity $C = 4 g_0^2 N_c / \\kappa \\Gamma_m$, where $g_0$ is the single-photon opto-mechanical coupling strength and $N_c$ the mean intra-cavity photon number. ", "As the feedback gain is increased, the temperature drops, reaching a minimum for ${G_\\text{Fb}}^\\text{opt} = \\sqrt{1 + 8 \\eta {n_\\text{th}}C / V_d} - 1$. At higher gain the oscillator begins to heat up due to the imparted measurement noise. ", "In essence, the application of squeezed measurement noise acts to shift this onset of heating to higher gain values, thereby allowing cooling to temperatures below the shot noise imposed limit, as illustrated in [Fig.]{}", " \\[fig:schematic\\]d. ", "Alternatively, the improved cooling efficiency can be appreciated as a consequence of an increased measurement rate $\\mu = C \\cdot \\Gamma_m / 2 V_d = 2 N_c g_0^2 / \\kappa V_d$, resulting from the squeezing-enhanced signal-to-noise ratio of the transduced mechanical motion [@Bowen2016]. ", "In comparison to a coherent state probe, the improvement is directly given by the degree of squeezing as $\\mu_\\text{sq} / \\mu_\\text{coh} = (2 V_d)^{-1}$. As the measurement rate is intimately related to the ability to achieve ground state cooling, requiring $\\mu \\gtrsim \\Gamma_\\text{th} \\approx \\Gamma_m {n_\\text{th}}$, squeezing-enhanced feedback cooling can greatly relax the structural requirements for the mechanical oscillator and thereby facilitate the preparation of macroscopic oscillators in their motional ground state. ", "It should be noted that improved cooling can be also realized by increasing the power of the probe beam. ", "However, it is challenging, in practice, to achieve cooling rates sufficient for ground state cooling due to localised bulk heating introduced by absorption of the probe field.", "\n\nThe experimental setup for squeezed light enhanced feedback cooling is shown in [Fig.]{}", " \\[fig:schematic\\]a and a scanning electron micrograph of the opto-mechanical system – a micro-toroidal resonator – is displayed in [Fig.]{}", " \\[fig:schematic\\]b.", "\n\nTo demonstrate the principle of quantum-enhanced feedback cooling, we chose to work with the fundamental flexural mode of the micro-toroid. ", "The mechanical resonance frequency of the mode was $\\Omega_m / 2 \\pi = \\SI{6.13}{\\mega\\hertz}$, well within the bandwidth of our feedback loop, and its effective mass was determined to be via finite element modelling. ", "From the optically read out position power spectral density shown in [Fig.]{}", " \\[fig:coolcurves\\]c the damping rate was characterised to be $\\Gamma_m / 2 \\pi = \\SI{13}{\\kilo\\hertz}$. We note that, the predominantly vertical motion (see finite element model in [Fig.]{}", " \\[fig:coolcurves\\]c) of the fundamental flexural mode reduces the strength with which it couples to the optical field. ", "While the coupling is sufficient for our proof-of-principle demonstration, stronger coupling – sufficient to enter the quantum-coherent coupling regime [@Verhagen2012] – can be achieved using a radial breathing mode. ", "This was precluded in our case, since the resonance frequency $> \\SI{50}{\\mega\\hertz}$ of this mode lays outside of our available control bandwidth.", "\n\n**a**\\\n\\\n**b**\\\n\\\n**c**\\\n\n**a**\\\n\\\n**b**\\\n\nIn a first experiment, we implemented feedback cooling using coherent states of light with a power of . ", "The results are illustrated in [Fig.]{}", " \\[fig:coolcurves\\], where we cooled from a temperature of down to the limit set by the imprecision noise corresponding to the quantum noise of a coherent state. ", "We carefully characterized the noise floor through attenuation measurements and balanced detection to verify that it is of true quantum origin, that is, pure vacuum noise. ", "As the feedback gain is increased, the temperature of the mechanical mode is decreased to . ", "Increasing the gain further leads to heating of the oscillator as the shot noise of the probing field dominates the control.", "\n\nThe demonstration of squeezed light enhanced cooling is presented in [Fig.]{}", " \\[fig:coolcurves\\]. ", "Here, we used the same coherent excitation as for the coherent state cooling experiment, but the quantum fluctuations of the probe beam were now suppressed below vacuum noise. ", "The actual noise suppression of the generated squeezed state was $V_\\text{sq} = \\SI{8}{\\decibel}$ (see Supplementary information), but as a result of evanescent coupling and propagation losses in the tapered fibre, the measured noise reduction was limited to $V_d = \\SI{1.9}{\\decibel}$ below the vacuum noise. ", "Despite the losses a considerable increase in measurement rate of $\\mu_\\text{sq} / \\mu_\\text{coh} = 1.55$ was achieved, and by applying the electronic feedback a clear suppression of the transduced thermally excited mechanical displacement fluctuations was observed, ultimately reaching the squeezed noise level well below shot noise. ", "As a direct result of employing quantum-enhanced feedback cooling, the mechanical mode was cooled to an effective temperature of , more than lower than the minimum temperature achieved using coherent light.", "\n\nA complementary characterisation of the demonstrated cooling scheme is provided by examining the time-domain phase space trajectory of the mechanical oscillator. ", "Due to the large bandwidth of the homodyne detector compared to the mechanical dissipation rate, this could be monitored in real-time by simultaneous down-mixing of the homodyne photo-current with two in-quadrature signals and subsequent low-pass filtering [@Bowen2016]. ", "The recorded thermal trajectories are visualised in [Fig.]{}", " \\[fig:coolcurves\\]b. ", "Both probing strategies result in a significant confinement of the oscillator’s random excursions in phase space when subject to feedback cooling. ", "While the enhancement by using squeezed light is not directly obvious from the phase space trajectories ([Fig.]{}", " \\[fig:coolcurves\\]b) the effect is more pronounced by considering the marginal quadrature distributions ([Fig.]{}", " \\[fig:coolcurves\\]c), revealing a reduction in the variance of the cooled oscillator’s position for the squeezed light probe, which is in good agreement with the temperature reduction.", "\n\nThe resulting temperature estimates as function of inferred feedback gain are presented in [Fig.]{}", " \\[fig:results\\]a. ", "A clear cooling improvement is observed for increasing gain until the thermal noise spectrum reaches the measurement imprecision noise level, after which the mechanical oscillator begins to heat up due to measurement noise being imprinted on its motion. ", "As expected, the reduced imprecision noise of the squeezed probe shifts the onset of heating towards larger feedback gain values, allowing quantum-enabled cooling to temperatures below the limit set by shot noise.", "\n\nThe absolute cooling achieved in the present demonstration is only modest compared to state-of-the-art [@Wilson2015], the main limitations being the relatively poor opto-mechanical cooperativity provided by the flexural mode and the requirement for operating in the under-coupled regime to preserve squeezing.", "\n\nConsiderable improvements in cooling performance can be expected by using an opto-mechanical system with enhanced cooperativity, and realising higher coupling and detection efficiencies for the squeezed mode. ", "For instance, operating the system of Wilson et al.", " [@Wilson2015] in the under-coupled regime ($C / n_c = 0.62$ at a coupling efficiency of $0.028$, where $n_c$ is the intra-cavity photon number of $10^4$) so that the injected squeezed light reflects from the cavity with high efficiency, with unity detection efficiency, and starting from $\\SI{650}{\\milli\\kelvin}$, enables cooling to an occupation number ${n_\\text{th}}= 1.7$ phonons. ", "Using a squeezed probe with an input squeezing of , the occupation number could be lowered to ${n_\\text{th}}= 0.4$. We note that achieving close to unity detection efficiency is challenging for current quantum opto-mechanics experiments. ", "This presents a serious constraint for quantum feedback control experiments. ", "Indeed, with the experimentally realised efficiency reported by Wilson et al.", " of $\\eta = \\SI{23}{\\percent}$, even when achieving a cooperativity $C \\gg {n_\\text{th}}$, the minimum mechanical occupancy that could be achieved with coherent light [@Bowen2016] is $n_\\text{min} = 1 / (2 \\sqrt{0.23}) - 1 / 2 = 0.5$. Interestingly, while squeezed light is degraded by inefficiencies, it also provides a mechanism to mitigate them in feedback control experiments. ", "If, amplitude-, rather than phase squeezing is used the contribution of vacuum noise entering the phase quadrature due to inefficiencies is suppressed relative to the amplified noise of the phase quadrature. ", "This results in a higher effective efficiency for feedback control experiments of $\\eta_\\text{eff} = (1 + (1 - \\eta) / (2 \\eta V_c))^{-1}$, where $V_c$ denotes the intra-cavity variance (see Supplementary information). ", "We see that when $V_c \\gg (1 - \\eta) / 2 \\eta$, $\\eta_\\text{eff}$ approaches unity. ", "As an example, assuming an intra-cavity phase anti-squeezing variance above shot noise, the effective feedback cooling efficiency of Wilson et al.", " could be increased to $\\eta_\\text{eff} = 0.7$, allowing, in principle, feedback cooling to an occupancy of $n_\\text{min} = 0.2$.\n\nWe anticipate that the full benefit of squeezing-enhanced feedback cooling could be harnessed using recently developed tethered membrane mechanical oscillators [@Norte2016] in conjunction with a high-quality optical cavity, or alternatively, by implementation in state-of-the-art opto-mechanical systems in the microwave regime [@Clark2016].", "\n\nOur demonstration of enhanced real-time quantum feedback exploiting squeezed state probing opens up a new avenue in the field of quantum opto-mechanics. ", "Besides the demonstrated cooling effect, it lays the foundation for more advanced schemes including squeezing-enhanced quantum back-action evasion which in turn can be used to prepare mechanically squeezed states in the weak coupling regime and for generation of non-Gaussian mechanical quantum states. ", "As an example, combining of squeezing with active feedback in a pulsed backaction evading scheme [@Hoff2016], it is possible to squeeze the mechanical oscillator by for an interaction strength of $\\chi = 4 g_0 \\sqrt{N_c} / \\kappa = 1$, while for a coherent state input, $\\chi \\ge \\sqrt{10}$ is required to squeeze the mechanics by the same amount. ", "Moreover, supplementing the scheme with photon-subtraction, the mechanics can be driven into a quantum non-Gaussian state even for a modest interaction strength.", "\n\nMethods\n=======\n\nBright squeezed light at for tracking the mechanical motion was provided by the nonlinear process of cavity-enhanced parametric down-conversion and injected into the toroidal optical cavity with decay rate $\\kappa / 2 \\pi = \\SI{94}{\\mega\\hertz}$ via evanescent coupling using a tapered single-mode fibre. ", "The total on-resonance transmission through the optical fibre and toroid was measured to be , mainly limited by scattering losses at the tapered region of the fibre. ", "After interaction with the mechanical mode of the toroid, the phase quadrature of the probe beam was measured by a high efficiency homodyne detector (), and the output photocurrent was split to provide signals for both characterization of the mechanical motion and feedback. ", "The feedback loop, consisting of bandpass filtering, delay, and amplification, was designed to exert a viscous damping force on a selected mechanical mode. ", "The required velocity dependence of the applied force was controlled by a tunable signal delay. ", "To actuate the mechanical motion of the toroid, an electric field was generated between a grounded aluminium plate supporting the toroid and a sharp electrode with a tip diameter of about  [@Lee2010]. ", "A bias voltage of was applied to the electrode to polarize the micro-toroid, in order to enhance the electrical transduction. ", "Following the standard approach [@Poggio2007], the measured and calibrated Lorentzian spectra in [Figs.]{}", " \\[fig:coolcurves\\]a were fitted to a model including the noise squashing effect of in-loop measurements (see Supplementary information). ", "For each measurement, the mechanical resonance frequency, feedback gain, and measurement noise level were used as free parameters. ", "Substituting the fitted values into [equation]{}  the effective mode temperature was calculated.", "\n\nAcknowledgements\n================\n\nThe work was supported by the Lundbeck Foundation, the Danish Council for Independent Research (Sapere Aude 4184-00338B and 0602-01686B), the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence CE110001013, and by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and the Asian Office of Aerospace Research and Development. ", "W.P.B. is supported by the Australian Research Council Future Fellowship FT140100650. ", "Micro-toroid fabrication was undertaken within the Queensland Node of the Australian Nanofabrication Facility.", "\n\nAuthor contributions\n====================\n\nThe authors declare no competing financial interests. ", "U.L.A. conceived the idea while C.S., H.K., T.G. and U.L.A. devised the experiment. ", "C.S. performed the experiment with help from H.K., H.F., U.B.H., G.I.H., T.G. and J.B. C.S. and U.B.H. analysed the data with input from W.P.B. and U.L.A. C.S., U.B.H., T.G., W.P.B. and U.L.A. wrote the paper. ", "C.S. and U.B.H. wrote the supplemental material with input from H.K. T.G., A.H. and U.L.A. supervised the work.", "\n\n10000\n\n[31]{}ifxundefined \\[1\\][ ifx[\\#1]{} ]{}ifnum \\[1\\][ \\#1firstoftwo secondoftwo ]{}ifx \\[1\\][ \\#1firstoftwo secondoftwo ]{}““\\#1””@noop \\[0\\][secondoftwo]{}sanitize@url \\[0\\][‘\\\n12‘\\$12 ‘&12‘\\#12‘12‘\\_12‘%12]{}@startlink\\[1\\]@endlink\\[0\\]@bib@innerbibempty [****,  ()](\\doibase 10.1126/science.1153341) @noop [****,  ()]{} [****,  ()](\\doibase 10.1103/RevModPhys.80.885) [****,  ()](\\doibase\n 10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.020405) [****,  ()](\\doibase 10.1103/PhysRevA.44.7777) [****,  ()](\\doibase 10.1103/PhysRevA.47.2191) [****,  ()](\\doibase\n 10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.220501) [****,  ()](\\doibase 10.1038/nphoton.2013.177) @noop [**]{} (, ) [****, ()](\\doibase 10.1038/nphys2863) [****, ()](\\doibase 10.1103/PhysRevA.49.2133) @noop [****, ()]{} @noop [****, ()]{} [****,  ()](http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature08563) @noop [****,  ()]{} [****,  ()](\\doibase 10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.3174) @noop [****,  ()]{} [****, ()](http://stacks.iop.org/1367-2630/11/i=7/a=073032) [****,  ()](\\doibase 10.1103/PhysRevB.82.094511) [****,  ()](\\doibase\n 10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.057208) [****,  ()](\\doibase\n 10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.070403) @noop [ ()]{} @noop [ ()]{} [****,  ()](\\doibase 10.1103/PhysRevA.56.4175) [****, ()](\\doibase 10.1103/PhysRevA.80.022304) [****,  ()](\\doibase 10.1364/OL.38.001413) [****,  ()](\\doibase 10.1038/nature10787) [****,  ()](\\doibase\n 10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.123604) [****, ()](\\doibase 10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.147202) [ ()](\\doibase\n 10.1038/nphys3701) [****,  ()](\\doibase 10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.017201)\n" ]

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[ "Q:\n\nModelSim compile successfully but i have wrong declaration in my code\n\ni'm beginner in modelSim and verilog \nmodelsim doesn't care about my name declaration and every name for Half_Adder module compile successfully\nin section below i have Half_ that is not correct( because my module name is Half_Adder)but modelsim compile it with no errors\nmodule Half_Adder(input a,b,output s,c );\nxor (s,a,b);\nand(c,a,b);\nendmodule\nmodule Full_Adder(input a,b,c,output sum,carry);\nwire sum1,carry1,carry2;\nHalf_ m1(a,b,sum1,carry1);\nHalf_Adder m2(sum1,c,sum,carry2);\nor(carry,carry1,carry2);\nendmodule\n\nall above code is in one .v file i don't know it's correct or not \ni tested above code in jdoodle online verilog compiler and it has error in name declaration :\njdoodle.v:8: error: Unknown module type: Half_\nbut it's true in modelsim!", "\n\nA:\n\nWhen you run on jdoodle, you are trying to compile and elaborate your code. ", "It will be the elaboration step that is failing (because there is no Half_ module).", "\nWhen you type vlog on Modelsim, you are just compiling, not elaborating your code. ", "When you try to elaborate your code, you get an error in Modelsim:\nvsim Full_adder\n\n** Error: Half_Adder.v(7): Module 'Half_' is not defined.", "\n\nCompiling Verilog is similar to compiling C or other languages. ", "Each module is compiled separately. ", "Elaborating is the final stage where all the modules are attempted to be linked together (and elaboration is somewhat analogous to linking in C and other languages). ", "So, when any simulator tries to elaborate your code, you get an error because there is no Half_ module.", "\n\n" ]

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[ "---\n- name: Templatize SSH key provision script\n template: src=provision_ssh.j2.sh dest=/tmp/openshift_gcp_provision_ssh.sh mode=u+rx\n\n- name: Provision GCP SSH key resources\n command: /tmp/openshift_gcp_provision_ssh.sh\n args:\n chdir: \"{{ files_dir }}\"\n when:\n - state | default('present') == 'present'\n" ]

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[ "Vomifoliol 9-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-4-O-beta-D-xylopyranosyl-6-O-beta-D- glucopyranoside: a trisaccharide glycoside from apple fruit.", "\nFrom a methanolic extract of neutralized apple fruit pulp, a minor compound was isolated by adsorption chromatography on both XAD and PVPP resins followed by rotation locular countercurrent chromatography (RLCC). ", "Clean-up for subsequent spectroscopic studies was performed by preparative HPLC on RP-18 and RP-select B phases. ", "Data available from UV, NMR and mass spectroscopy together with the results obtained by enzymatic and acid hydrolyses revealed the structure of the polar glycoside as vomifoliol 9-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-4-O-beta-D-xylopyranosyl-6-O-beta-D-glucopyran oside." ]

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[ "Tom Hanks on Donald Trump: 'I'm not offended as a husband or a father. ", "I'm offended as a man'\n\nEveryone loves Tom Hanks. ", "Collar someone in the street, anyone, demanding to know if they love Tom Hanks and watch as their initial fear at being collared dissolves into a broad smile and stand back as they scream \"YES!\" ", "If you could distill pure hatred as a chemical and grow it in a petri dish, it would still dissipate on contact with Tom Hanks. ", "Which makes his rebuttal to Donald Trump's 'locker room talk' about sexually assaulting women all the more cutting. ", "Everyone loves Tom Hanks, and Tom Hanks hates Donald Trump.", "\n\nWhile many other male celebs have couched their outrage to Trump by stating they have mothers, daughters and sisters - as if their proxy to women in their own lives is the thing that makes them empathise - Hanks is unequivocal:\n\n\"I’m offended as a man. ", "I’m not offended as a husband or a father, I’m offended as a guy. ", "That’s just not right, I’m sorry. ", "It’s not right at work. ", "It’s not right in the locker room. ", "It’s wrong. ", "Period. ", "The end. ", "That’s all.\"", "\n\nHanks goes on to give a lovely metaphor for this year's US Presidential race: “If you have a horrible painful tooth and you need a root canal, who are you going to go see? ", "A guy who says, ‘Oh, I think i can figure out how to do a root canal for you, lay down.’ ", "Or are you going to see somebody who’s done 6,000 of them, has a degree on the wall and has a great history and expertise when it comes down to it.”" ]

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[ "The present invention relates to a cartridge-holder locking device for a magnetooptical disk player and, more particularly, to a locking device which locks/unlocks a cartridge holder, one side of which is rotatably installed on the deck of a magnetooptical disk player.", "\nThe development of 64 mm diameter magnetooptical disk cartridges (commercially referred to as \"minidisks\") has been under way since the minidisk was first introduced (by Sony of Japan). ", "A portable minidisk player (Sony model MZ-1) for recording and playback operations is currently on the market. ", "The player has a slot into which a minidisk is inserted. ", "A minidisk cartridge is loaded onto the deck of the player by the driving force of a motor, with the shutter of the cartridge being moved aside to open a communicating aperture, and is mounted on a turntable rotated by a spindle motor.", "\nIn general, it is desirable that a portable player be as light and as small as possible, allow the rapid insertion/extraction of a disk cartridge, and have a very low rate of power consumption. ", "However, due to the specific construction of the insertion means, i.e., via a slot, the Sony minidisk player has a complicated structure for insertion/extraction of the cartridge. ", "Further, due to the use of a motor, it is difficult to miniaturize and reduce the weight of the player and to speed up the inserting and extracting operations. ", "That is, the motorized apparatus, which is used to insert and/or draw out the minidisk, increases the player's overall power consumption. ", "Accordingly, battery power is not efficiently utilized." ]

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[ "Treatment strategy for acute pancreatitis.", "\nWhen a diagnosis of acute pancreatitis (AP) is made, fundamental medical treatment consisting of fasting, intravenous (IV) fluid replacement, and analgesics with a close monitoring of vital signs should be immediately started. ", "In parallel with fundamental medical treatment, assessment of severity based on clinical signs, blood test, urinalysis and imaging tests should be performed to determine the way of treatment for each patient. ", "A repeat evaluation of severity is important since the condition is unstable especially in the early stage of AP. ", "At the time of initial diagnosis, the etiology should be investigated by means of blood test, urinalysis and diagnostic imaging. ", "If a biliary pancreatitis accompanied with acute cholangitis or biliary stasis is diagnosed or suspected, an early endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography with or without endoscopic sphincterotomy (ERCP/ES) is recommended in addition to the fundamental medical treatment. ", "In mild cases, the fundamental medical treatment should be continued until clinical symptom is subsided with normal laboratory data. ", "In cases with severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) referral should be considered to medical centers experienced in the treatment of SAP, and intensive care is recommended for preventing both organ failures and infectious complications. ", "Hemodynamic stabilization with vigorous fluid resuscitation, respiratory support and antibiotics are the major parts of intensive care in the early period of SAP. ", "Continuous hemodiafiltration (CHDF) and continuous regional arterial infusion (CRAI) of protease inhibitor and/or antibiotics may be effective to improve pathophysiology of AP especially in the early stage of the disease. ", "In the late stage of AP, infectious complications are critical. ", "If an infectious complication is suspected based on clinical signs, blood test and imaging, a fine needle aspiration (FNA) is recommended to establish a diagnosis. ", "The accuracy of FNA is reported to be 89 ~ 100%. ", "For patients with sterile pancreatitis, non-surgical treatment should be indicated. ", "For patients with infected pancreatic necrosis, therapeutic intervention either by percutaneous, endoscopic, laparoscopic or surgical approach are indicated. ", "The most preferred surgical intervention is necrosectomy, however, non-surgical treatment with antibiotics is still the treatment of choice if the general condition is stable. ", "Necrosectomy should be performed as late as possible. ", "For patients with pancreatic abscess, drainage is recommended." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts" }

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[ "Background {#Sec1}\n==========\n\nRecently, *Neorautanenia brachypus* (Harms) C.A. was identified in the South Eastern Lowveld of Zimbabwe as an important multipurpose legume tuber plant. ", "The plant has been used as an alternative ruminant animal feed during periods of drought, wound remedy for livestock and a botanical pesticide against internal parasites in ruminants \\[[@CR1]\\]. ", "It belongs to the Leguminosae-Papilionaceae family. *", "N. brachypus* produces purple flowers, which forms dehiscent pods densely covered by hairs \\[[@CR2]\\]. ", "The chemical composition and nutritional values of the tubers reported by \\[[@CR1]\\], indicated that the tubers can be used as a sole feed for cattle. ", "Livestock play an important role in the household economies of families in arid regions of Zimbabwe \\[[@CR3], [@CR4]\\] and the worsening climatic conditions will be a huge challenge to livestock production. ", "Farmers will be hard-pressed to ensure their livestock get enough nutrition especially through the harsh dry seasons. ", "Most communities in this arid region are reported to be resource-challenged, thus the farmers struggle to buy in feed supplements and necessary commercial preventative and curative chemicals to fight disease \\[[@CR1]\\]. ", "Livestock would survive on the surrounding key browse plant species in the rangeland such as shrubs, tubers and noxious plants especially during severe dry periods \\[[@CR5]\\]. ", "However, some of the plants could be lethal to the animals. *", "N. brachypus*, like many other noxious plants, have bioactive properties that are awaiting proper understanding.", "\n\nWhile *N. brachypus* exhibits a considerable variation in leaf shape, three distinct colour differences in flesh; white, light brown and dark brown (Additional file [1](#MOESM1){ref-type=\"media\"}) were observed when preparing the tubers to feed the cattle (Zananwe-personal communication). ", "The white tubers are soft and exude milky white substance and the brown tubers are more fibrous. ", "Even though cattle feed on all tuber types of *N. brachypus*, cattle preferred the white tubers. ", "Appropriate identification and characterization of plant materials is essential for their successful selections, domestication and conservation. ", "Plants have many features that aid in their identification such as dimension, branch shape and area of development but one of the most defining features is their leaf \\[[@CR6]\\]. ", "The importance of leaf shape as a defining feature to distinguish species has been acknowledged by \\[[@CR7]--[@CR10]\\]. ", "However, the effect of stage of development, environment and management practices have been cited as the major disadvantages for using morphological and biochemical markers \\[[@CR11]\\].", "\n\nBecause morphological characteristics are considerably affected by the environmental factors \\[[@CR12]\\], molecular markers provide an important tool for assessing the genetic variability and structure of natural populations \\[[@CR13]\\]. ", "The use of molecular techniques such as DNA barcoding, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD) are increasingly being used in plant diversity studies \\[[@CR14], [@CR15]\\]. ", "Specifically RAPDs are increasingly being used because they are simple, quick and require no prior information of the sequence. ", "RAPDs also provide markers that can be used to identify and discriminate genotypes, in addition to providing a means for assessing phenotypic expression and phylogenetic associations in the germplasm under study. ", "RAPD analysis has been used extensively for genetic characterization of cassava plant accessions \\[[@CR16]\\], the medicinal plant *Bacopa monnieri* \\[[@CR17]\\], *hibiscus*, \\[[@CR18]\\], African yam bean \\[[@CR11]\\], *Jacaranda decurrens* Cham. ", "\\[[@CR19]\\] jatropha \\[[@CR20]\\], sweet potato \\[[@CR21], [@CR22]\\], citrus \\[[@CR23]\\] and apples \\[[@CR24]\\]. ", "However, some of the problems with RAPD are related to reproducibility, designing appropriate primers and amplification of RAPD-PCR products.", "\n\nTo our knowledge, nothing has been reported on the genetic diversity within *N. brachypus* wild plant accessions. ", "Current use of the plant as a drought mitigation feed and for veterinary purposes is purely based on indigenous knowledge from the local communities. ", "The objective of this study was to establish the diversity of *N. brachypus* wild plant species through phenotypic and genetic characterization using morphological descriptors and Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers.", "\n\nMethods {#Sec2}\n=======\n\nInvestigation 1: Characterization of *Neorautanenia brachypus* based on leaf morphology {#Sec3}\n---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n### Leaf sample collection {#Sec4}\n\nA total of 100 leaf samples of *N. brachypus* were collected using judgmental sampling along a transect drive from wards 11--15 of Sengwe area, south of Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe (Fig.", " [1](#Fig1){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "Judgmental or purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where the researcher selects units to be sampled based on their knowledge and professional judgment. ", "The sampling technique is employed especially when the desired population is uncommon and difficult to locate. ", "Samples were selected based on perceived visual differences on leaf shape and stem colour. ", "Fully expanded and non-senescent leaves were collected. ", "The leaf samples were clearly labeled with (S) denoting the site from which the sample was collected and (PL) denoting the actual plant number sampled in the ascending order. ", "Specific locations in terms of longitudinal and latitudinal coordinates were captured using a global positioning satellite system (Garmin eTrex 10). ", "Additional information on the different soil type and surrounding vegetation was also collected. ", "The leaf samples were classified based on leaf shape and maintained in a refrigerator at − 20 °C until they were used for DNA extraction.", "Fig.", " 1Distribution of *N. brachypus* in relation to soil type in the South-East Lowveld of Zimbabwe(Adapted with permission from Murungweni et al. ", "\\[[@CR1]\\])\n\n### Classification of *Neorautanenia brachypus* based on leaf shape {#Sec5}\n\nMorphological classification was done with respect to descriptors, leaf shape, leaf lobe type, leaf lobe numbers and shape of the central lobe according to \\[[@CR25]\\] and tip shape, base shape and leaf margin \\[[@CR26]\\]. ", "The different features were recorded as binary data on the presence (one) or absence (zero) of features (Additional file [2](#MOESM2){ref-type=\"media\"}). ", "Photographs of the different leaf shapes were taken using a 16-megapixel digital camera for presentation.", "\n\nA sample of 18 leaf biotypes was selected from the 96 accessions to represent the 14 visually clustered biotypes plus four whose leaves were not easily assigned to a group. ", "From these 18, leaf shape was matched to their tuber pulp colour after cutting the tuber open. ", "Pictures of leaf and the cut tubers were taken side by side. ", "Classification was based on personal judgment basing on a tailor made sliding scale from one to six. ", "The colour corresponded to the degree of whiteness of the tuber pulp and was scored one for more than 95% and for below 55%. ", "The colour bars correspond to the degree of whiteness of the tuber pulp.", "\n\n### Statistical treatment of data {#Sec6}\n\nThe analysis of morphological data was done using hierarchical clustering, a method that is widely used for grouping data over a variety of scales. ", "The binary data was analysed using the Primer 7.0.13. ", "Cluster analysis was performed on the basis of the genetic similarity matrix and the resulting similarity co-efficients were used for constructing a dendrogram using the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic average (UPGMA. ", "Presence or absence data for morphological visually accessible traits was used. ", "The similarities between matrices were based on Jacquard's genetic similarity index. ", "The selection of groups was based on number of clusters k-means using the Elbow method in the R package, where number of clusters is set at a level that explains most of the variability thus determining the threshold.", "\n\nInvestigation 2: Classification of *Neorautanenia brachypus* based on RAPDs {#Sec7}\n---------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n### Genomic DNA isolation from *N. brachypus* leaves {#Sec8}\n\nMolecular markers further characterized the morphologically different leaf groups that were described by hierarchical clustering above. ", "Molecular characterization was important to confirm that the biotypes were indeed different considering that genes are a more precise measure of plant composition. ", "DNA was extracted from young *N. brachypus* leaves according to the ZR Plant/Seed DNA MiniPrep ™ kit protocol (Catalog No. ", "D6020---Zymo Research Corp). ", "DNA was eluted in 60 µl of the DNA elution buffer. ", "DNA quality was determined through gel electrophoresis in EZ-vision ^®^ (New England Bio labs) stained 1% agarose gel for sixty minutes at 100 volts in 1X Tris Borate EDTA (TBE).", "\n\n### PCR amplification {#Sec9}\n\nForty three 10-mer random primers were sourced from Inqaba Biotechnology (Pty) Ltd South Africa. ", "Primer selection was based on primers used in other RAPD marker studies for root and tuber crops (\\[[@CR11]\\] and some randomly selected from Operon and the University of British Columbia pool \\[Operon Technologies, Alameda, Calif., USA) and University of British-Columbia, Canada (UBC primers)\\]. ", "The lyophilized primers were reconstituted to a 10 µM solution by adding Tris Edta buffer according to synthesis report (Inqaba biotec). ", "PCR conditions were optimized considering the Tm min/max of the different primers. ", "The PCR reactions were conducted at a final volume of 25 µl, containing 5 µl DNA template, 4 µl primer (10 µM), 12.5 µl master mix (One Taq 2X master mix with standard buffer) and 3.5 µl nuclease free water. ", "The PCR reaction was conducted using ARKTIK thermal cycler (Inqaba biotec). ", "The thermal cycler was programmed for initial heat denaturation in one step of 1 min at 95 °C. ", "Subsequent 45 cycles of denaturation for 1 min at 94 °C; annealing at 34.5 °C/36 °C for 1 min and extension at 72 °C for one minute. ", "Final extension was at 72 °C for 10 min then holding at 4 °C infinite. ", "The annealing temperature differed for the two groups of primer sets based on their differences in melting temperatures. ", "Finally 10 µl of the PCR product was separated by gel electrophoresis in 1% agarose gel stained by EZ-vision ^®^ in gel stain in 1X TBE buffer for 90 min at 100 volts. ", "PCR amplicon banding patterns were visualized in a gel documentation system (Infinity Vilber Lourmat---Inqaba Biotech) under ultra violet light. ", "Images of the gel were captured on the documentation system. ", "A total of 18 primers were selected from the initial 43 after a screening and PCR optimization process. ", "The primers were screened for their ability to amplify genes of morphologically different leaf groups of *N. brachypus*.", "\n\n### RAPD scoring and data analysis {#Sec10}\n\nThe amplification products (bands) for each lane were scored using the Vision Capt program on the gel documentation system (Infinity Vilber Lourmat). ", "The bands were scored according to their molecular weight. ", "The sizes of produced DNA fragments were estimated by comparison with the standard molecular marker 1 kb and 100 bp DNA ladder (New England BioLabs). ", "The biotypes were scored for presence or absence of a particular DNA fragment size as one or zero respectively. ", "The binary data produced from scoring the amplicon-banding pattern of the RAPD PCR were used for estimating genetic similarity coefficients. ", "Bands were identified either as monomorphic or polymorphic. ", "Monomorphic bands are those which are present in all individuals and polymorphic are unique ones that are absent in at least one individual not in any other (Additional file [3](#MOESM3){ref-type=\"media\"}). ", "Cluster analysis was performed using Jaccard's genetic similarity index, and the resulting similarity co-efficient was used for constructing a dendrogram using the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic average (UPGMA) using Primer 7.0.13.", "\n\nPolymorphic information content (PIC) values was calculated for each RAPD primer according to the formula:$$\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}\n \\usepackage{amsmath}\n \\usepackage{wasysym} \n \\usepackage{amsfonts} \n \\usepackage{amssymb} \n \\usepackage{amsbsy}\n \\usepackage{mathrsfs}\n \\usepackage{upgreek}\n \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt}\n \\begin{document}$${\\text{PIC}} = 1- {\\text{R}}\\left( {\\text{Pij}} \\right) 2,$$\\end{document}$$where Pij is the frequency of the ith pattern revealed by the jth primer summed across all patterns revealed by the primers \\[[@CR27]\\].", "\n\nResults {#Sec11}\n=======\n\nInvestigation 1: Characterization of *Neorautanenia brachypus* based on leaf morphology {#Sec12}\n---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nThe findings from this study clearly show that there is some morphological diversity of leaves within the *N. brachypus* wild accession (Table [1](#Tab1){ref-type=\"table\"}). ", "Initially, 14 morphological groups were identified by visual analysis of *N. brachypus* leaves. ", "All the leaf samples displayed the arcuate venation with differences observed for leaf shape, tip shape and leaf margins. ", "Biotype 12 constituted the largest proportion of leaf samples (27%) and the least proportion of 0.1% was found in biotype eight (Additional file [4](#MOESM4){ref-type=\"media\"}: Appendix S1). ", "Cluster optimization was performed to define the level at which most data is retained with variability well explained. ", "The optimum number of clusters was at k = 6 (Fig.", " [2](#Fig2){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "When cluster analysis was performed based on leaf morphology (leaf lengths, widths and the length to width ratios), six leaf groupings were formed (Fig.", " [3](#Fig3){ref-type=\"fig\"}) at a threshold of 0.80.Table 1Leaf lamina shape variations among *Neorautanenia brachypus* leaf samples collected from five wards in Sengwe Chiredzi district, South-east Zimbabwe Fig.", " 2Cluster optimisation curve based on leaf morphology classified by leaf length (cm), width (mm) and length to width ratio at (K = 6) Fig.", " 3Dendrogram for *Neorautanenia brachypus* on the basis of the phenotypic characterization using hierarchical clustering at a threshold similarity level of 0.80\n\n### Morphological descriptors used for separating *N. brachypus* plants by cluster analysis {#Sec13}\n\nLeaf shape traits separated the 14 selected accessions, representing the 14 visually grouped clusters, into five biotypes; the ovate, obovate, elliptical/diamond and hastate. ", "Ovate leaf types are broad below the middle and roughly 2× as long as it is wide and can be viewed as egg shaped. ", "While obovate leaf types are broadest above the middle and roughly 2× as long as it is wide (leaf shows the reverse of ovate). ", "Triangular leaves with basal lobes are classified as hastate. ", "Elliptical or diamond are leaves that had the broadest width in the middle and then taper off at the ends.", "\n\nLeaf blade edge/margins was separated into three types; entire, lobate and undulate. ", "Entire leaf edges are even and smooth throughout while lobate leaf edges are indented and undulate edges are wavy. ", "Leaf veins are classified as arcuate where veins emerge from the central vein/mid rib in a sort of arc shape.", "\n\nTip shape was separated into three types; acuminate, cuspidate and obtuse. ", "Acuminate tip shape are leaf blades with rounded shoulders leading to a pointed tip; cuspidate are leaf tip forming a short, narrow point. ", "Obtuse leaves are narrow with a rounded tip.", "\n\nThe results show that there is some relationship between *N. brachypus* flesh colour and leaf shape (Fig.", " [4](#Fig4){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "It was observed that all 18 the leaf samples biotypes selected had more than 50% degree of whitening. ", "The colour observation tended to cluster the lobed leaves together as shown by (c) and (d) groups.", "Fig.", " 4Flesh colour of *Neorautanenia brachypus* tubers in relation to leaf shape **a** 95% white, **b** 80% white, **c** 75% white, **d** 70% white, **e** 65% white, **f** 55%. ", "Colour bars correspond to the degree of whiteness of the tuber pulp. ", "The numbers on the pictures depict sample number on collection in the wild\n\nInvestigation 2: Classification of *Neorautanenia brachypus* based on RAPDS {#Sec14}\n---------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nThe results from the study shows that the primers produced polymorphic RAPD fragment patterns. ", "Figure [5](#Fig5){ref-type=\"fig\"} shows typical example of DNA polymorphism as detected for the Operon primers UBC 740 (a) and UBC 738 (b) respectively.", "Fig.", " 5Profiles for RAPD bands obtained with the primers UBC 740 (**a**) and UBC 738 (**b**) for *Neorautanenia brachypus* wild accessions: M1 and M2 are 100 bp and 1 kb DNA markers respectively, C1 and C2 is the control. ", "1--14 indicate biotypes 1 to 14 as described in Table [1](#Tab1){ref-type=\"table\"}\n\nThe selected 18 primers produced a total of 368 bands for the 14 biotypes with 77.5% of the genes showing polymorphism (Table [2](#Tab2){ref-type=\"table\"}). ", "The number of bands produced per primer ranged from four (OPF-02) and 44 (UBC-746). ", "The average number of bands per primer was 17.52 while average number of polymorphic bands was 13.95. ", "The primer OPAD-9 gave the lowest percentage of polymorphism (16.7) while primers OPAB-17, OPAL -11, OPN-11 and UBC- 745 gave the highest percentage of polymorphism (100). ", "The range of PIC values of the primers were 0.1327 (OPE-03) to 0.1873 (OPL-03) with an average of 0.157 (Table [2](#Tab2){ref-type=\"table\"}).Table 2Sequence of 18 RAPD-PCR primers, total number of scored bands, number of polymorphic bands, percentage polymorphism and polymorphic information content of *Neorautanenia brachypus* leaf samplesPrimerPrimer sequence 5′ 3′Total number of bandsNumber of polymorphic bandsPercentage polymorphismPolymorphic information content (PIC)OPE-03CCAGATGCAC8675.000.1327OPL-03CCAGCAGCTT211885.710.1873OPAS-14TCGCAGCGTT6466.670.1429OPAB-17TCGCATCCAG1111100.000.1748OPN-11TCGCCGCAAA88100.000.1451OPAL-14TCGCTCCGTT1111100.000.1497UBC-434TCGCTAGTCC111090.910.1439UBC-737GGTGGGTGTG292689.660.1534UBC-738GGTGGGTGGT403485.000.1747UBC-742CCTCCCTCCT111090.910.1327UBC-743CCACCCCAC241354.170.1622UBC-744CCACCCACCA131292.310.1439UBC-745GGGAAGAGGG1414100.000.1514UBC-746GGGTGTTGGG443784.090.1487UBC-740GGAGGGAGGA281864.290.1851OPAY-10CAAGGCCCCT221463.640.1681OPAY-11ACGCGCCTTC292275.860.1727OPAY-12CTGTCGGCGT211885.710.1577Total368293--Average17.5213.9577.510.157\n\nThe cluster optimization was performed and was fit at k = 5 (Fig.", " [6](#Fig6){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "The dendrogram based on RAPD primers placed the 14 biotypes into five distinct clusters, I, II, III, IV and V (Fig.", " [7](#Fig7){ref-type=\"fig\"}) with cluster grouping determined at threshold 0.05. ", "Leaves in cluster I had a common feature of being lobed except biotype 1 as previously explained by leaf morphology. ", "Cluster II had their leaf tip shape, base shape and entire margin in common except biotype 13. ", "The third cluster had nothing in common. ", "The fourth and fifth clusters were outliers, thus two independent groups constituting one biotype each.", "Fig.", " 6Cluster optimisation curve for *Neorautanenia brachypus* biotypes classified using RAPDs at best fit (k = 5) Fig.", " 7Dendrogram for *Neorautanenia brachypus* on the basis of combined RAPD profiles using hierarchical clustering at a threshold similarity distance level of 0.05\n\nA combination of both morphological and molecular characterizatics placed the biotypes into nine distinct clusters (Fig.", " [8](#Fig8){ref-type=\"fig\"}) after cluster optimization at k = 9 (Fig.", " [9](#Fig9){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "The combination maintained biotypes 2 and 6 and biotypes 3 and 5 as in morphology clustering.", "Fig.", " 8Dendrogram for *Neorautanenia brachypus* on the basis of combined phenotypic characterization and RAPD profiles using hierarchical clustering at a threshold similarity level of 0.16 Fig.", " 9Cluster optimisation curve for *Neorautanenia brachypus* biotypes on the basis of combined phenotypic characterization and RAPD profiles at threshold (k = 9)\n\nDiscussion {#Sec15}\n==========\n\nThis is the first study to use plant morphological characteristics and RAPD molecular markers to examine the genetic variability of *N. brachypus* wild population. ", "The findings from this study show that there is both morphological and genetic diversity within the *N. brachypus* wild accession. ", "Both the morphological and genetic differences substantiate observations by local farmers on tuber colour, quality and animal preferences as pointed out by Zanamwe (personal communications). ", "However, some distinct variations noticeable by leaf shape could not be verified through molecular work as they were placed in different clusters by RAPDs. ", "This confirms arguments by \\[[@CR28]\\], who pointed out that, in general, the association of genetic variation with environmental conditions can be limited by natural selection and local gene dispersal. ", "However, studies by \\[[@CR29]\\] indicate that land use types significantly influences the structural and compositional attributes of vegetation. ", "This finding supports work by \\[[@CR1]\\] who identified that *N. brachypus* is widely distributed in cultivated fields.", "\n\nSince leaves carry out photosynthesis that is important to plant growth and survival, variation in their shape could reflect natural selection for their function. ", "A number of theories proposed to explain leaf diversity include thermoregulation of leaves mostly in arid and hot environments, hydraulic constraints, patterns of leaf expansion, biomechanical constraints, adaptations to avoid herbivory and adaptations to optimise light interception \\[[@CR30]\\]. ", "The variation in *N. brachypus* leaves could explain its adaptation to the semi-arid dry region of Zimbabwe. ", "Being an angiospermous plant, *N. brachypus* also reflects random variation within the context of its phylogenetic history \\[[@CR31]\\]. ", "The leaf morphological variations across the biotypes are testimony to the importance of the leaf organ as an adaptive structure \\[[@CR32]\\]. ", "The lack of a defined relationship between leaf shape and tuber flesh colour can be better explained by its genetic makeup, location of growing and year of growing and or time of harvesting as described by \\[[@CR33], [@CR34]\\] in Irish potatoes. ", "The study identified that the presence of carotenoids and anthocyanins positively influences tuber flesh colour.", "\n\nHowever, due to these restrictions in morphological variability, \\[[@CR17]\\] cited that molecular tools provide valuable data on diversity through their ability to detect variation at the DNA level. ", "High genetic diversity among fruits has been reported; \\[[@CR23]\\] on citrus and \\[[@CR24]\\] on apples using plant morphology and RAPD markers. ", "In this study RAPD primers were also able to detect some genetic diversity among *N. brachypus* wild accessions. ", "The PIC values for 18 primers were on average 0.157 indicating their high discriminatory power. ", "This PIC value is much lower than the maximum value given by \\[[@CR35]\\] of 0.5 for dominant markers.", "\n\nThe combination of phenotypic characterization and RAPDs increased the resolution of identifying diversity as shown by the higher cophenetic correlation coefficient of 0.9316 and a cluster number of 9. ", "However, there were some discrepancies existing between the morphological indicators and molecular indicators. ", "Interestingly, morphological classification placed biotype two and biotype six in different groups but they were placed in one cluster with RAPDs. ", "These discrepancies may be related to genotypes and the selection of RAPD primers. ", "This lack of correlation between morphological traits and molecular markers could be explained by several factors as cited by \\[[@CR36]\\]. ", "The selected primers could not have covered vast area of *N. brachypus* genome or morphological variation could have been strongly influenced by environmental conditions or maybe the morphological similarities observed might be due to different combinations of alleles producing similar phenotypes. ", "Cluster analysis with RAPDs narrowed down biotype groupings from ten to five. ", "Different clustering of genotypes using plant morphology and RAPD polymorphism were previously reported from \\[[@CR24]\\] on citrus, \\[[@CR17]\\] on the medicinal plant *Bacopa monnieri* (L.) and \\[[@CR19]\\] on *Jacaranda decurrens Cham.* ", "This justifies arguments by \\[[@CR11]\\] that morphological characters may not be obvious at all stages of plant development and appearance may be affected by environment.", "\n\nConclusions {#Sec16}\n===========\n\nFindings of the present study reveal that *N. brachypus* germplasm presented some high diversity based on both phenotypic and RAPD-PCR assessment approaches. ", "However, the results of both techniques are slightly different in comparison of their efficiency. ", "The variability shows that RAPD markers are an ideal technique as they give more accurate assessments with a high level of precision as compared to plant morphology. ", "However, it can be concluded that the techniques are more effective when used in combination since molecular work generally follows morphological characterisation. ", "On the basis of results of this study, future studies on genetic diversity, using other molecular markers is possible for higher genetic resolution of the genome. ", "The results of this study may be useful in establishing domestication and conservation strategies of *N. brachypus* in Zimbabwe. ", "We are therefore recommending that selected biotypes be grown and monitored on their growth and developmental stages to ascertain their effects on the tuber colour and possibly composition, which is of preference to livestock.", "\n\nAdditional files\n================\n\n {#Sec17}\n\n**Additional file 1.** *", "Neorautanenia brachypus* tuber flesh colors. ", "The file shows the main tuber flesh colors of sampled *Neorautanenia brachypus.* ", "Three colour differences noted when tubers were cut across are white flesh, light brown flesh and dark brown flesh. ", "Tubers of approximately same size were used as samples. **", "Additional file 2.** ", "Leaf morphological attributes scored. ", "The file shows the measured as well as the scored leaf attributes of the descriptors for each sampled *Neorautanenia brachypus* plant accession. ", "The columns are the descriptors while the rows are the plant accessions. ", "Measurement and scoring of descriptors was done according to \\[[@CR22]\\] and \\[[@CR23]\\]. **", "Additional file 3.** ", "Binary data presentation of the RAPD Polymorphic DNA fragments for the 14 morphologically distinguished biotypes. ", "The file shows the binary score of each polymorphic DNA fragment produced by the RAPD banding pattern. ", "The columns are the biotypes while the rows are the RAPD primers; indicating primer name and polymorphic DNA fragment size. ", "The fragments are scored for each biotype as presence or absent; one and zero respectively. **", "Additional file 4: Appendix S1.** ", "GPS data from leaf collection sites. ", "The file shows the geographical positions from which the *Neorautanenia brachypus* plants were collected. ", "The coordinates shows the exact sites were plant specimens were collected in the South Eastern Lowveld of Zimbabwe. ", "The selected sites were based on previous work by \\[[@CR4]\\].", "\n\nRAPD\n\n: Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA\n\nUPGMA\n\n: unweighted pair group method with arithmetic average\n\nAFLP\n\n: amplified fragment length polymorphism\n\nSNP\n\n: single nucleotide polymorphism\n\nCP\n\n: cophenetic correlation coefficient\n\nPIC\n\n: polymorphic information content\n\nZC---Designed and supervised the experiment, corrected the manuscript; TON---Expanded the morphological data collection protocols, collected data in field and laboratory, analyzed results; TBK---Carried out RAPD analysis of the Zhombwe biotypes; VG---Collected morphological data of the Zhombwe biotypes; CM and ABM---Designed the infield experimental layout and analysed the results in the contest of the known application and distribution of Zhombwe. ", "All authors read and approved the final manuscript.", "\n\nAcknowledgements {#FPar1}\n================\n\nGratitude is extended to Chinhoyi University of Technology, the Department of Agricultural Technology and the Department of Biotechnology for availing the resources required for experiments and access to laboratory space. ", "The effort of each Zhombwe research team member is greatly appreciated in demystifying the ecology and functions of Zhombwe.", "\n\nCompeting interests {#FPar2}\n===================\n\nThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.", "\n\nAvailability of data and materials {#FPar3}\n==================================\n\nPlant material used is available at the designated geographical locations (Additional file [4](#MOESM4){ref-type=\"media\"}: Appendix S1) and upon request from the corresponding author.", "\n\nConsent for publication {#FPar4}\n=======================\n\nNot applicable.", "\n\nEthics approval and consent to participate {#FPar5}\n==========================================\n\nThe plant materials (seeds and leaves) were collected in the wild and farmers' fields following institutional and national guidelines. ", "There is no specimen for this plant in our national herbarium.", "\n\nFunding {#FPar6}\n=======\n\nThe study was wholly funded by Chinhoyi University of Technology Vice Chancellor scholarship and Zhombwe (*N. brachypus*) research funds. ", "The funds covered all the travelling costs to the field for specimen collection and laboratory work.", "\n\nPublisher's Note {#FPar7}\n================\n\nSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.", "\n" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "PubMed Central" }

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[ "1p13 is the most frequently involved band in structural chromosomal rearrangements in human breast cancer.", "\nCytogenetic data on 14 breast carcinomas were examined to determine which chromosome arms and bands are preferentially involved in structural chromosome changes. ", "Chromosome arms 17p, 16q, and 1p and band 1p13 were found to be significantly involved. ", "A review of the world literature confirmed 1p as being the most frequently involved arm in structural chromosome changes in breast cancer and 1p13 as being the band most frequently involved in such changes. ", "The two sets of results were pooled, and the analysis of 113 tumours revealed 229 of 304 bands to be involved, with 1p13 affected in 20% of the tumours." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts" }

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[ "471 F.3d 975\nScott M. WILLIAMS, an individual and all others similarly situated, Plaintiff-Appellee,v.COSTCO WHOLESALE CORPORATION, a Washington corporation, dba Costco, Defendant-Appellant, andDoes 1-150, inclusive, Defendants.", "\nNo. ", "03-56093.", "\nUnited States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit.", "\nArgued and Submitted August 16, 2006.", "\nFiled December 6, 2006.", "\n\nKenwood C. Youmans, David D. Kadue & Thomas J. Wybenga, Seyfarth Shaw LLP, Los Angeles, CA, for the appellant.", "\nFrank J. Coughlin, Coughlin & Conforti, Santa Ana, CA; Earl R. Wallace, Ruzicka, Snyder & Wallace, LLP, Newport Beach, CA, for the respondent.", "\nAppeal from the United States District Court for the Southern District of California; Napoleon A. Jones, District Judge, Presiding. ", "D.C. No. ", "CV-02-02003-NAJ/JFS.", "\nBefore: KOZINSKI, O'SCANNLAIN and BYBEE, Circuit Judges.", "\nPER CURIAM:\n\n\n1\nWilliams sued Costco in California state court, alleging violations of federal and state law. ", "Costco properly removed the case to district court, relying on federal question jurisdiction. ", "After removal, Williams amended his complaint to eliminate the only federal claim and to add new state law claims. ", "He then filed a motion to remand. ", "The district court held that it had discretion to remand the state law claims, and did so.", "\n\n\n2\nAt the time Williams filed his motion to remand, however, the district court had jurisdiction over the remaining state law claims based on diversity of citizenship. ", "The district court recognized this,1 but held that Costco could not rely on this ground because it had not filed a second removal notice within 30 days of the amended complaint — the document that had first made it clear that the requirements for diversity were satisfied.2\n\n\n3\nThe district court erred.3 We have long held that post-removal amendments to the pleadings cannot affect whether a case is removable, because the propriety of removal is determined solely on the basis of the pleadings filed in state court. ", "See Sparta Surgical Corp. v. Nat'l Ass'n of Sec. ", "Dealers, Inc., 159 F.3d 1209, 1213 (9th Cir.1998); O'Halloran v. Univ. ", "of Wash., 856 F.2d 1375, 1379 (9th Cir.1988). ", "It follows that a party that has properly removed a case need not amend its removal notice or file a new notice after an amended complaint changes the ground for federal jurisdiction. ", "Because post-removal pleadings have no bearing on whether the removal was proper, there is nothing a defendant can or need do to perfect the removal. ", "See Yarnevic v. Brink's, Inc., 102 F.3d 753, 755 (4th Cir.1996). ", "Indeed, the idea of filing a notice of removal in a case that is already pending in federal court, having been properly removed, is nonsensical. ", "After all, \"a Supplemental Notice of Removal would, if granted, have the effect of removing a case that has already been removed.\" ", "Nolan v. Boeing Co., 715 F.Supp. ", "152, 153 n. 1 (E.D.La. ", "1989).", "\n\n\n4\nOnce a case has been properly removed, the district court has jurisdiction over it on all grounds apparent from the complaint, not just those cited in the removal notice. ", "See Brockman v. Merabank, 40 F.3d 1013, 1016 (9th Cir.1994). ", "Any post-removal pleadings must be treated just as they would be in a case originally filed in federal court. ", "Here, the district court had authority over the state law claims in the original complaint only on the basis of supplemental jurisdiction. ", "See 28 U.S.C. § 1367. ", "Dismissal of the federal claim would thus, ordinarily, have authorized the district court to remand the pendent state law claims. ", "Id. § 1367(c)(3). ", "But, as defendant pointed out below, the amended complaint presented an independent jurisdictional basis for the state law claims, namely diversity. ", "With rare exceptions not applicable here,4 where the district court is presented with a case within its original jurisdiction, it has \"a `virtually unflagging obligation' to exercise the jurisdiction conferred upon[it] by the coordinate branches of government and duly invoked by litigants.\" ", "United States v. Rubenstein, 971 F.2d 288, 293 (9th Cir. ", "1992) (quoting Colo. River Water Conservation Dist. ", "v. United States, 424 U.S. 800, 817, 96 S.Ct. ", "1236, 47 L.Ed.2d 483 (1976)). ", "The district court had no discretion to remand these claims to state court.", "\n\n\n5\nREVERSED.", "\n\n\n\nNotes:\n\n\n1\n The district court seems to have believed that William's original complaint, the one filed in state court, was unclear as to whether the amount in controversy exceeded $75,000, but the amended complaint cured this uncertainty. ", "We have some doubt that the original complaint failed to clearly allege the jurisdictional amount, but it makes no difference. ", "If the original complaint in fact supported federal jurisdiction on both diversity and federal question grounds, Costco was not required to list both grounds in its notice of removal. ", "The civil removal statute, unlike the removal statute for criminal cases, has no requirement that all grounds for removal be listed in the noticeCompare 28 U.S.C. § 1446(b) with id. § 1446(c)(2). ", "And, if the original complaint already stated a claim for diversity of citizenship, the question that distracted the district court — i.e., whether Costco was required to file a second notice of removal — is rendered moot.", "\n\n\n2\n The district court derived the 30-day time-limit from the second paragraph of 28 U.S.C. § 1446(b), which deals with the situation where the grounds for removal are not apparent from the original state-court pleading, but become apparent upon the filing of an amended pleading or other paper. ", "In such circumstances a defendant has 30 days from service of this document to file a notice of removal\n\n\n3\n Because this remand was not based on lack of subject matter jurisdiction or any defect in the removal — the grounds for which 28 U.S.C. § 1447(d) bars appellate review — we may review the remand orderSee Quackenbush v. Allstate Ins. ", "Co., 517 U.S. 706, 711-12, 116 S.Ct. ", "1712, 135 L.Ed.2d 1 (1996).", "\n\n\n4\n Neither plaintiff nor the district court has suggested that this is the rare case where abstention may be appropriateSee Quackenbush, 517 U.S. at 716-17, 116 S.Ct. ", "1712.", "\n\n\n" ]

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[ "Observation of ionization in a crystal interferometer\nWe present a new interferometric setup where interference of a fast probe electron affects the ionization cross section of an atom. ", "Interference is detected in the intensity of the inelastically scattered electrons at the Bragg scattering angle in transmission. ", "The crystal serves both as a target for core ionization and as a beam-splitting and phase-shifting device." ]

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[ "The Imperial Guard / Astra Militarum have been my ‘back burner’ army for a very, very long time. ", "When ProdigalSon and I first started 40k we had a dream of a joint Guard army but sadly with moves, school and life in general, it never coalesced. ", "Being a creature of immense sentimentality, I kept collecting guardsmen here and there over the years and when I found myself with a Sisters army back when they could have conscripted guard, I switched to hoard mode. ", "By the time I realized what I was doing I had three full platoons. ", "One of the local gang moved away and offered to sell me all his armor and a paycheck later I was the owner of a huge Guard force.", "\n\nBackburner indeed!", "\n\nI find myself in a bit of a quandary now, as my plan initially was to skip over the Astra Militarum codex when it dropped and await the Eldar Craftworld book, again keeping my poor humans in reserve. ", "This week of teases though has gotten my excitement level up and having already had an all tank list written up, when I saw ‘Grinding Advance’ for the Leman Russ I may have changed my mind. ", "For those not keeping up with the teases (see below) from Warhammer Community – If a Leman Russ moves half its full movement, it can fire its turret weapon twice in the shooting phase.", "\n\nI’ve had terrible luck running guardsmen, leading me to continually keep this army on the shelf, not to mention a severe lack of women’s representation (another post for another day), but depending on the Cadian Doctrine, I may have to reconsider my squishy little boys and girls (you heard me) for re-deployment. ", "In the meantime I will have my tanks to keep me warm and happy. ", "Is there a plush Leman Russ out there somewhere? ", "Can Build-a-Bear do that?", "\n\nSo here I am. ", "I have to wait an entire week to sweat out the decision of whether or not to get this book when it releases, and then throw that decision out the window once I actually get to crack open the book and see what’s in there. ", "Then I have to wonder if that decision was right because the Eldar are rumoured to be around the corner. ", "THEN I have to worry about having two codexes of my own before the Warboss gets hers because that’s a little unfair GW. ", "I mean c’mon. ", "😉\n\nP.S. I still believe in Orktober!" ]

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[ "It's that time of year again, when clocks go back one hour, we get some extra sleep Saturday night and police warn about what that means for the risk of accidents, particularly for pedestrians.", "\n\nEarly Sunday morning marks the end of daylight time. ", "Clocks go back one hour at 2 a.m.\n\nAs darkness begins falling earlier, police warn of an increased risk of accidents as everyone sharing the road adjusts to longer periods of reduced visibility.", "\n\n\"The reality is we all have to be careful out there,\" Toronto police Const. ", "Clint Stibbe told CBC Toronto on Friday.", "\n\nSlow down, police tell drivers\n\n\"The shorter days, daylight savings time, the inclement weather, the travel times now when it's dark, these are all factors in collisions. ", "But the reality is, if you are extra careful, you can help minimize that risk and in some cases even eliminate that risk, and that's whether you're a cyclist, pedestrian or driver.\"", "\n\nTo minimize the risk of a collision, Stibbe reminds drivers to reduce their speed, and take extra looks before turning at intersections.", "\n\nPedestrians should make eye contact with drivers before crossing, he said, and can try to make themselves more visible with reflective or light-coloured clothing. ", "Also, he advised against crossing at mid-block.", "\n\nIt may not be illegal, he said. \"", "But it is unsafe.\"", "\n\n\"Just be careful out there,\" he said. \"", "The reality is, as a pedestrian you're always going to be at the losing end of a collision with a vehicle.\"", "\n\nOther forces launch safety campaigns\n\nTo mark the period with less daylight, Durham Regional Police will launch a \"Do the Bright Thing\" campaign next week.", "\n\nStarting Nov. 8, officers will be handing out LED lights to commuters at the Ajax GO Station. ", "They will also launch a public awareness campaign with pedestrians, cyclists and motorists on how to be safe on the roads.", "\n\nEarlier this week, York Regional Police announced that through the months of November and December, officers will be stationed at nine intersections in Markham where cars have struck pedestrians.", "\n\nOfficers will talk to pedestrians about crossing the street safely, including the importance of being visible and staying alert.", "\n\n\"Officers will also be ticketing drivers who fail to stop or yield, who are driving distracted or drivers who fail to proceed when the light turns green because they are busy with their phones,\" police said in a news release.", "\n\nThe initiative kicked off Wednesday at the intersection of Highway 7 East and McCowan Road.", "\n\nThe release noted that road safety \"continues to be one of our community's biggest concerns,\" adding that some types of driving infractions are of particular concern and put drivers, passengers, pedestrians and other road users at risk.", "\n\nThe so-called \"big four\" dangers are:\n\nimpaired driving (by alcohol or drugs)\n\nimproper use or failure to use seatbelts\n\naggressive driving\n\ndistracted driving\n\nThe Toronto Fire Service is also reminding people to use the opportunity to check batteries in their smoke alarms. ", "The service has put out a \"how-to\" video on YouTube." ]

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[ "Introduction\n============\n\nAmong the many investigations of breast cancer, there has been much interest recently in retinoic acid (RA) metabolites used in i) cellular growth process, ii) activating gene transcription by specific nuclear receptors, iii) inhibiting cancer cell growth by several different pathways ([@B10]; [@B19]; [@B23]; [@B33]; [@B38]). ", "Previous studies also suggest an intimate relationship between cancer and serum RA level; possibly in prevention of cancer cell proliferation or development into second malignancy in breast and liver cancer ([@B12]; [@B18]; [@B32]). ", "Treatment with RA in other types of cancer, ischemia or pathophysiology of acne has been shown to be effective as well ([@B4]; [@B10]; [@B24]; [@B36]). ", "Many studies have been conducted on molecular and cellular mechanisms of RA in the past ten years. ", "In particular, the roles of RA in control and gene expression of cancer cell\\'s initiation and apoptosis, in multiple signal pathways inside cancer cells, and in the correlation between cancer cells and RA receptors have been investigated ([@B5]; [@B14]; [@B19]). ", "However, recent clinical experiments that used RA show no effect in reducing first stage or second stage lung cancer for cigarette smokers. ", "In addition, due to the potential toxicity of RA, detailed research is needed on the effect of physiological dose of RA through a close examination of its mechanisms at the cellular level ([@B10]; [@B33]; [@B44]).", "\n\nWhen free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulate in the process of aerobic cell metabolism, it consequently results in diseases and aging by inducing damage to tissues and cells. ", "ROS are also known to be involved in cancer growth, cancer cell regeneration and differentiation, and cell signaling systems ([@B9]). ", "The enzymatic defense mechanisms with superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase participate in converting superoxide anion to H~2~O~2~, and then to H~2~O. Although turnover volume for catalase is very high, its affinity to H~2~O~2~ is relatively low. ", "Therefore, when H~2~O~2~ accumulates in cells in even low concentration, it can cause oxidative damage to DNA, which then induces cancer or cell death ([@B25]). ", "According to studies of relationship between RA and antioxidation, RA stabilizes protein levels in brain cells and the activity of SOD at the mRNA level, thereby reduces oxidative stress and apoptosis ([@B1]). ", "On the other hand, according to other researches, among RA isomers, all-trans RA suppresses cell growth of malignant myeloblastic leukemia and induces its apoptosis, and is known to control the activity levels of antioxidant enzymes in rat sertoli cells. ", "Many different aspects of cellular level mechanisms of RA are currently being discovered. ", "However, inconsistency of the results requires more in-depth research ([@B6]; [@B45]).", "\n\nIn this report, we have investigated to measure the influence of RA isomers (all-trans RA, 13-cis RA, and 9-cis RA) on apoptosis and on enzymatic antioxidant system in breast cancer cell lines using the activity levels of caspases and antioxidant enzymes.", "\n\nMaterials and Methods\n=====================\n\nChemicals and reagents\n----------------------\n\nAll-trans RA, 13-cis RA, and 9-cis RA were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO). ", "Growth media RPMI-1640 and other growth supplements, heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS), penicillin streptomycin, Hank\\'s Balanced Salt Solutions (HBSS) were obtained from Gibco-BRL (Eggenstein, Germany). ", "A spectrophotometric assay kit for SOD activity and a colormetric kit for apoptosis were purchased from R&D Systems (Wiesbaden, Germany). ", "Caspase-8&-9 fluorescent assay kits were purchased from Peptron Co. (Daejeon, Korea).", "\n\nCell culture and treatment of cells\n-----------------------------------\n\nHuman breast ER-positive cells MCF-7 and ER-negative cells MDA-MB-231 obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (Rockville, MD) were grown in Roswell Park Memorial Institute (RPMI) medium-1640 containing HEPES, sodium bicarbonate, penicillin streptomycin, and 10% fetal bovine serum at 37℃ in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO~2~ in air. ", "Around 80% confluent cells were passaged by standard trypsinization procedures. ", "Cells were seeded at a density of 3×10^4^ cells /P-100 dish. ", "The RA isomer solutions dissolved in ethanol (final ethanol concentration was 0.1%) were diluted in culture medium to final concentrations of 10, 100, and 1,000 nM. Cells were treated for up to 4 days. ", "All solutions containing RA isomers were handled under yellow light. ", "The range of RA concentration was 10 nM\\~1 µM. Considering the potential toxicity and resistance of retinoic acid, the concentration over 1 µM was not used. ", "Media in the presence and absence of RA isomers were changed every 48 hrs and cells were harvested and counted with a haemocytometer. ", "Each sample was counted in duplicate, and each experiment was done in triplicate ([@B32]).", "\n\nMTT assay\n---------\n\nFollowing incubation with various reagents, the rate of cell viability was assessed by colormetric measurement of 3-\\[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl\\]-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction ([@B35]). ", "Values from each treatment were calculated as a percentage relative to the untreated control (defined as 100% survival).", "\n\nApoptosis detection assay\n-------------------------\n\nMCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells placed in dishes filled with 3.7% buffered formaldehyde solution for 7 min. ", "at room temperature (RT) were washed twice with 1X PBS. ", "The cells were post-fixed in 100% methanol for 20 min and washed twice with 1X PBS. ", "A portion of 50 µl of cytonin solution was added to each dish and the cells were incubated for 15 min at RT. ", "Fixed cells were washed with 200 µl of DNasa-free water, to which 50 µl of 2.5% H~2~O~2~ solution was added and the cells were incubated for 5 min at RT. ", "After washing the cells again, 150 µl of 1X TdT labeling buffer was added, and the cells were incubated for 5 min. ", "The cells were washed, and 50 µl of labeling reaction mixture was added followed by incubation at 37℃ for 1 hr. ", "The cells were placed in 150 µl of 1X TdT stop buffer for 5 min and washed twice with 1X PBS for 2 min. ", "The cells were placed in 50 µl of streptavidin-HRP solution and incubated at RT for 10 min. ", "Cells were washed four times with 200 µl of PBS and 0.1% Tween 20. ", "The cells were then placed in 100 µl of TACS-Sapphire and incubated at RT for 30 min in the dark. ", "The reaction was stopped by adding 100 µl of 2N HCl. ", "The absorbance of apoptotic cells, which could be detected by labeling of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) and TACS-Sapphire, was measured at 450 nm ([@B17]; [@B31])\n\nCaspase activity assay\n----------------------\n\nTo determine caspase-3 activity, western blot analysis ([@B24]) was used. ", "Fluorometiric assay was used to measure activities of caspase-8 &-9 ([@B16]; [@B40]; [@B43]).", "\n\nDetermination of cytochrome C releasere\n---------------------------------------\n\nThe release of cytochrome C into the cytosol of MCF-7 cells treated with 1 µM of RA isomers for 4 days was measured by a western blot ([@B21]) For the detection of cytochrome C, the lysate from the last centrifugation and mitochondrial fractions were subjected to 12% SDS-PAGE. ", "Proteins in the gel were transferred onto prewetted polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF)-nitrocellulose filters (Bio-Rad, Cambridge, MA). ", "Membranes were blocked with 5% non-fat, dry milk in TBST at RT for 1hr to reduce nonspecific antibody binding. ", "Membranes were washed with PBS three times and incubated with cytochrome C specific antibody. ", "Specific bands of interest were detected by Enhanced Chemiluminescence (ECL; Amersham, Buckinghamshire, U.K.).", "\n\nAntioxidant enzyme activity assay\n---------------------------------\n\nActivities of SOD, catalase and glutathione peroxidase were measured by spectrophotometry ([@B2]; [@B3]; [@B41]).", "\n\nStatistical analysis\n--------------------\n\nFor statistical analysis, each experiment was carried out in triplicate sets and the SAS program was used. ", "Data were expressed as mean ± SE. ", "The differences among mean values were assessed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) coupled with Duncan\\'s multiple range test or student\\'s t test. ", "A *p*-value \\<0.05 was considered to be statistically significant.", "\n\nResults\n=======\n\nEffect of RA isomer concentrations on breast cancer cell growth\n---------------------------------------------------------------\n\nIn the ER-positive MCF-7 cell line, the cancer cell growth was blocked by the high concentration of RA. ", "In particular, all-trans RA showed greater inhibition of cancer cell growth than other isomers did, showing the lowest cell survival rate of 61% at 1 µM concentration. ", "This result was followed by 13-cis RA, which showed a 67% cell survival and 9-cis RA resulted in 75% survival, which showed the least influence in breast cancer cell growth. ", "On the other hand, in the ER-negative MDA-MB-231 cell line, all-trans RA did show a better suppression of cancer cell growth (79% cell survival) than the other isomers similar to shown in ER-positive MCF-7 cell line. ", "The effect on cell growth inhibition in the ER-negative MDA-MB-231 cells was not as significant as in ER-positive MCF-7 cell line ([Fig. ", "1](#F1){ref-type=\"fig\"}).", "\n\nChanges in apoptosis by RA isomers\n----------------------------------\n\nIn both ER-positive MCF-7 and ER-negative MDA-MB-231 cell lines, as the concentration of RA isomers (all-trans RA, 13-cis RA, and 9-cis RA) became higher, the number of cell deaths increased ([Fig. ", "2](#F2){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "All-trans RA in the MCF-7 cell line at 1 µM concentration showed the greatest suppression of cancer cell growth up to 41%, followed by 13-cis RA up to 37%, and 9-cis RA up to 28%. ", "In the MDA-MB-231 cell line, the induction of apoptosis was considerably lower, with all-trans RA showing 18% cell death, 13-cis RA showing 16%, and 9-cis RA showing 11% ([Fig. ", "2](#F2){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "These results indicate that RA isomers are closely related to sensitivity and resistance of breast cancer cells. ", "According to several research results, the ER positive breast cancer cells are known to be related to sensitivity of breast cancer cells due to RA, and exert influence on cell growth inhibition, while ER-negative breast cancer cells are reported to have more effect on cells\\' resistance than on sensitivity ([@B10]; [@B11]).", "\n\nChanges in caspase-3 activity and inhibition by RA isomers\n----------------------------------------------------------\n\nThe effect of RA isomers on cell death of the ER-positive MCF-7cell line was the maximum at 1 µM of RA isomers. ", "Examining with a western blot, the changes in the activity of caspase-3, which can be the major effector inducing apoptosis, showed that all-trans RA increased caspase-3 activity most significantly compared to controls, and it was followed by 13-cis RA and 9-cis RA ([Fig. ", "3](#F3){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "To verify the effect of RA on the increase of caspase-3 activity, an experiment was carried out in which caspase-3 inhibitor, Ac-DEVD-CHO, was treated with all-trans RA to determine whether the increase in caspase-3 activity could be blocked ([Fig. ", "4](#F4){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "In addition, to find out whether it sped up the cancer cell growth again, the viability of MCF-7 cells was measured. ", "The results showed that the cancer cell growth was increased again from 40% to 76% when cells were treated with caspase-3 inhibitor, Ac-DEVD-CHO ([Fig. ", "4](#F4){ref-type=\"fig\"}).", "\n\nChanges in Cytochrome C release in mitochondria by RA isomers\n-------------------------------------------------------------\n\nCytochrome C release in mitochondria was measured using a western blot. ", "The results showed that all-trans RA exerted the most influence on the cytochrome C release, similar to the results for caspase-3 activity. ", "However, 9-cis RA and 13-cis RA released cytochrome C in mitochondria, more so with 9-cis RA than with 13-cis RA. ", "This indicates that in programmed cell death, RA isomers act differently in mechanisms of apoptosis ([Fig. ", "5](#F5){ref-type=\"fig\"}).", "\n\nChanges in caspase-8 and caspase-9 activities by RA isomers\n-----------------------------------------------------------\n\nFor inducing apoptosis, pro-caspase-8 of the death receptors is activated first followed by other caspases activations resulted in caspase cascade. ", "In consistent with other studies, all-trans RA treatment resulted in a four-fold increase in the caspase-8 activity in the MCF-7 cell line. ", "It is plausible that the activation of caspase-3 by all-trans RA arises from the increase in the activity of caspase-8, which is acting as an initiator of apoptosis. ", "The activation of caspase-3 affects the death-receptor pathway resulted in apoptosis induction ([Fig. ", "6](#F6){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "Furthermore, cytochrome C released in mitochondria (which can be called a key regulator of caspase cascade) combines with Apaf-1 and pro-caspase-9 to form apoptosome, which can activate caspase-3. ", "All-trans RA treatment induced, like other caspase activities, the highest increase in the capase-9 activity of mitochondrial pathway, where apoptosis pathway advances. ", "This result may be connected with cytochrome C being released in mitochondria. ", "All-trans RA seems to activate both of the two main pathways that induce apoptosis and thus induce cell death.", "\n\nChanges in the activities of SOD, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase by RA isomers\n------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\nThe treatment of RA isomers (all-trans RA, 13-cis RA, and 9-cis RA) at 1 µM concentration in ER-positive MCF-7 cells showed no significant difference in the activity of antioxidant enzyme SOD as compared to those of control ([Fig. ", "7](#F7){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "On the other hand, when all-trans RA was treated, the catalase activity showed 75% of the control value. ", "9-cis RA caused only a 12% difference with that of the control ([Fig. ", "7](#F7){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "The activity of glutathione peroxidase showed no significant difference among RA isomer treatments. ", "In the case of all-trans RA, the activity of glutathione peroxidase was decreased 18% as compared to that of the control.", "\n\nDiscussion\n==========\n\nMany studies have uncovered therapeutic abilities of RA in breast cancer by either blocking cancer regeneration or inducing cancer apoptosis ([@B10]; [@B19]). ", "Although scientists have focused on molecular and cellular mechanisms of RA for the last decade, research on RA\\'s multiple signal pathways is still scarce. ", "The current study focused on the effect of RA isomers (all-trans RA, 13-cis RA, and 9-cis RA) on the cell growth and cell death in breast cancer cell lines, ER-positive MCF-7 cells and ER-negative MDA-MB-231 cells, as well as on the effect of antioxidant systems in the cell lines. ", "In ER-positive MCF-7 cell line, as the concentration of RA isomer treatment increased, the growth of cancer cells was inhibited as compared to that of the control. ", "All-trans RA specifically displayed the most significant suppression of cancer cell growth over the other isomers. ", "While all-trans RA showed stronger suppression of cancer cell growth than the other isomers in ER-negative MDA-MB-231 cell line similar to the effect on the ER-positive MCF-7 cell line, it produced a higher cell survival rate than that of 9-cis RA in ER-positive MCF-7cell line. ", "It has been reported that breast cancer is closely related to the influence of hormones and cancer cell growth shows significant differences depending on the protein binding affinity of hormone receptors ([@B13]; [@B19]; [@B23]; [@B26]; [@B28]; [@B39]). ", "ER-positive breast cancer cells are known to respond more sensitively to RA isomers in their inhibition of cancer cell growth in contrast to ER-negative breast cancer cells, which are known to influence cancer cell resistance ([@B11]; [@B22]; [@B46]).", "\n\nThe current study indicated that the inhibition of breast cancer cell growth was associated with apoptosis as shown in the MCF-7 cell line where all-trans RA induced the highest level of apoptosis, followed by 13-cis RA and 9-cis RA. ", "It seemed that there was no significant cell death effect in the MDA-MB-231 cell line. ", "In accordance with the previous study ([@B32]), all-trans RA induced greater apoptosis than the other RA isomers in the current study. ", "In normal cells, all-trans RA arrested the G1 phase of the cell cycle without apoptosis induction, whereas in breast cancer cell line, MCF-7, RA not only arrested G0/G1 phases but also induced apoptosis at low concentrations ([@B7]; [@B8]; [@B35]; [@B37]). ", "In addition, it has been reported that RA isomers control the Bcl-2 family protein ([@B29]; [@B30]). ", "Therefore, it is plausible that the effects mentioned above seem to be associated with the caspase activities and cytochrome C as shown in the current study. ", "RA isomers may affect the regulation of Bcl-2 family protein and the release of cytochrome C in mitochondria (thus called a key regulator of caspase cascade). ", "Cytochorme C combines with Apaf-1 and pro-caspase-9 to form apoptosome, which activates caspase-3 resulted in the activation of the apoptosis pathway. ", "It is interesting to note that the current study indicates that RA isomer treatments incrase the activities of caspase-9 and -3. ", "Furthermore, apoptosis is activated when pro-caspase-8 of the death receptor is firstly activated and successively activates other caspases, thereby activating a caspase cascade. ", "When apoptosis is induced, the typical morphological change is known to occur due to the division of key cellular protein that results from the caspase cascade ([@B15]). ", "In this study, the morphological change was also occurred by treatment of RA isomers (Data not shown) and the activity of caspase-8 was also increased in breast cancer cells. ", "Caspases involved in apoptosis are known to be largely classified as initiator caspase-2, -8, -9, -10 and effector caspase-3, -6, -7 ([@B15]; [@B20]). ", "Overall, the results obtained from the current study by treating RA isomers (all-trans RA, 13-cis RA, and 9-cis RA) in estrogen receptor (ER) positive MCF-7 cell line verify that caspase-8, -9, and -3 are acting as initiator and main effectors thereby inducing apoptosis, that cytochrome C derived and released in mitochondria also has influence, and that all-trans RA showed the most significant influence among the RA isomers.", "\n\nRegarding the effect of RA isomers on antioxidant systems, low concentrations of RA (0.1-100 nM) did not show any effect on the activity of antioxidant enzymes, whereas high concentrations (1-10 µM) controlled the activity of antioxidant enzymes ([@B6]). ", "Furthermore, in the neuronal apoptosis case, RA is reported to help the antioxidant system by enhancing the protein levels of SOD-1 (cytosolic Cu-&Zn-SOD) and SOD-2 (Mn-SOD), and reducing the concentration of ROS within cells ([@B1]). ", "In this paper, however, RA isomers did not show any effect on the SOD activity in breast cancer cells, which implied no differences in the protein levels of SOD. ", "In addition, 1 µM of all-trans RA concentration showed differences in the activities of catalase and glutathione peroxidase while showing no difference in the activity of SOD. ", "These observations led to the hypothesis that manipulation of cellular redox state may modulate caspase-mediated death. ", "By using the ratio of SOD and catalase & GPx, H~2~O~2~ can be assumed to be accumulated in the breast cancer cells treated with all-trans RA. ", "Even if H~2~O~2~ concentration in cells is a small molar concentration such as 10 µM, it nevertheless can induce apoptosis and activates caspase-3, which acts as the main effector of the cell death program ([@B34]; [@B42]) contributing to apoptosis induction. ", "The release of cytochrome C into the cytosol by oxidative stress can also stimulate the increase of caspase-3 activity in intracellular level and regulate the apoptosis process ([@B27]).", "\n\nIn conclusion, all-trans RA among RA isomers may be the most potential inducer of apoptosis and modulator of antioxidant enzymes in ER-positive MCF-7 human breast cancer cells.", "\n\nThis work was supported by Korea Research Foundation Grant KRF-2003-042-C20116.", "\n\n{#F1}\n\n{#F2}\n\n{#F3}\n\n{#F4}\n\n{#F5}\n\n{#F6}\n\n{#F7}\n" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "PubMed Central" }

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[ "Q:\n\nos.path.basename to outfile\n\nFor every input file processed (see code below) I am trying to use \"os.path.basename\" to write to a new output file - I know I am missing something obvious...?", "\nimport os\nimport glob\nimport gzip\n\ndbpath = '/home/university/Desktop/test'\n\nfor infile in glob.glob( os.path.join(dbpath, 'G[D|E]/????/*.gz') ):\nprint(\"current file is: \" + infile)\n\n**\n outfile=os.path.basename('/home/university/Desktop/test/G[D|E] \n/????/??????.xaa.fastq.gz').rsplit('.xaa.fastq.gz')[0]\n\n file=open(outfile, 'w+')\n\n**\n gzsuppl = Chem.", "ForwardSDMolSupplier(gzip.open(infile))\n for m in gzsuppl:\n if m is None: continue\n...etc\n\nfile.close()\nprint(count)\n\nIt is not clear to me how to capture the variable [0] (i.e. everything upstream of .xaa.fastq.gz) and use as the basename for the new output file?", "\nUnfortunately it simply writes the new output file as \"??????\" ", "rather than the actual sequence of 6 letters.", "\nThanks for any help given.", "\n\nA:\n\nThis seems like it will get everything upstream of the .xaa.fastq.gz in the paths returned from glob() in your sample code:\nimport os\n\nfilepath = '/home/university/Desktop/test/GD /AAML/DEAAML.xaa.fastq.gz'\nfilepath = os.path.normpath(filepath) # Changes path separators for Windows.", "\n\n# This section was adapted from answer https://stackoverflow.com/a/3167684/355230\nfolders = []\nwhile 1:\n filepath, folder = os.path.split(filepath)\n if folder:\n folders.append(folder)\n else:\n if filepath:\n folders.append(filepath)\n break\nfolders.reverse()\n\nif len(folders) > 1:\n # The last element of folders should contain the original filename.", "\n filename_prefix = os.path.basename(folders[-1]).split('.", "')[0]\n outfile = os.path.join(*(folders[:-1] + [filename_prefix + '.rest_of_filename']))\n print(outfile) # -> \\home\\university\\Desktop\\test\\GD \\AAML\\DEAAML.rest_of_filename\n\nOf course what ends-up in outfile isn't the final path plus filename since I don't know what the remainder of the filename will be and just put a placeholder in (the '.rest_of_filename').", "\n\n" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "StackExchange" }

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[ "1973 New South Wales state election\n\nElections for the New South Wales Legislative Assembly were held in the state of New South Wales, Australia, on Saturday 17 November 1973. ", "The result was a win for the Liberal-Country Party coalition under Sir Robert Askin, which had been in office since 1965. ", "As of 2019, this was the last time the Coalition won a fourth-term in New South Wales.", "\n\nIssues \nThe Legislative Assembly had been enlarged by three members to 99 adding the seats of Woronora, Penrith and Ku-ring-gai.", "\n\nThe election was held just eleven months after the Liberal/Country coalition lost the federal election after 23 years in power. ", "Askin called an early election to take advantage of the increasing economic issues which had been attributed to the Whitlam Labor government.", "\n\nLeader of the Legislative Council Neville Wran, who would become Premier at the next election moved from the unelected Legislative Council to the Legislative Assembly after the late retirement of Clarrie Earl in the seat of Bass Hill.", "\n\nKey dates\n\nResults \n\nThe Democratic Labor Party won its only lower house seat at the 1973 election following the Liberal Party's incumbent for the northern Sydney seat of Gordon — Harry Jago failed to nominate in time. ", "Conservative voters were urged to vote for the DLP candidate, Kevin Harrold.", "\n\n{{Australian elections/Title row\n| table style = float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em;\n| title = New South Wales state election, 17 November 1973\n| house = Legislative Assembly\n| series = New South Wales state election\n| back = 1971\n| forward = 1976\n| enrolled = 2,767,876\n| total_votes = 2,560,653\n| turnout % = 92.51\n| turnout chg = -0.75\n| informal = 69,225\n| informal % = 2.70\n| informal chg = +0.36\n}}\n\n|}\n\nSeats changing hands\n\n Members in italics did not recontest their seats.", "\n Sitting Liberal MP for Gordon, Harry Jago failed to renominate as a candidate by the deadline. ", "As a result, the Liberal party endorsed the DLP candidate against the Labor candidate, and Kevin Harrold won the seat.", "\n In addition, the Liberal party held the seat of Murray, which it had won from an Independent in the 1973 by-election.", "\n\nRedistribution affected seats\n\n Members in italics did not recontest their seats.", "\n Sitting Labor member for Gosford, Keith O'Connell instead contested the new seat of Peats and won.", "\n Sitting Labor member for Nepean, Ron Mulock instead contested the new seat of Penrith and won.", "\n\nPost-election Pendulum\n\n The results for Coogee was based on the result of the by-election that was held as a result of the decision by the Court of Disputed Returns due to the closeness off the result for the electorate at the 1973 election.", "\n\nSee also\nCandidates of the 1973 New South Wales state election\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nCategory:Elections in New South Wales\nCategory:1973 elections in Australia\nCategory:1970s in New South Wales\nCategory:November 1973 events in Oceania" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }

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[ " UNPUBLISHED\n\n UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS\n FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT\n\n\n No. ", "11-7563\n\n\nJAMES ANTHONY MAY,\n\n Plaintiff - Appellant,\n\n v.\n\nSCOTT BRAIN; JAMES R. CHELLIS; JANE DOE; DR. ", " PHILLIP\nPERKINS,\n\n Defendants - Appellees.", "\n\n\n No. ", "11-7564\n\n\nJAMES ANTHONY MAY,\n\n Plaintiff - Appellant,\n\n v.\n\nDR. ", "NINA WARD; NURSE G. MULLEN,\n\n Defendants - Appellees.", "\n\n\nAppeals from the United States District Court for the Eastern\nDistrict of North Carolina, at Raleigh. ", " Louise W. Flanagan,\nDistrict Judge. (", "5:11-ct-03088-FL; 5:11-ct-03065-FL)\n\n\nSubmitted: January 31, 2012 Decided: February 3, 2012\n\n\nBefore NIEMEYER, KING, and GREGORY, Circuit Judges.", "\n\n\nDismissed by unpublished per curiam opinion.", "\n\fJames Anthony May, Appellant Pro Se.", "\n\n\nUnpublished opinions are not binding precedent in this circuit.", "\n\n\n\n\n 2\n\fPER CURIAM:\n\n James Anthony May seeks to appeal the district court’s\n\norders directing May to notify the district court how he\n\nintended to proceed in his two separately filed 42 U.S.C. § 1983\n\n(2006) actions. ", " This court may exercise jurisdiction only over\n\nfinal orders, 28 U.S.C. § 1291 (2006), and certain interlocutory\n\nand collateral orders, 28 U.S.C. § 1292 (2006); Fed. ", "R. Civ. ", "P.\n\n54(b); Cohen v. Beneficial Indus. ", "Loan Corp., 337 U.S. 541, 545-\n\n46 (1949). ", " The orders May seeks to appeal are neither final\n\norders nor appealable interlocutory or collateral orders.", "\n\nAccordingly, we dismiss the appeals for lack of jurisdiction.", "\n\nWe further deny May’s motion for appointment of counsel in\n\nAppeal No. ", "11-7563. ", " We dispense with oral argument because the\n\nfacts and legal contentions are adequately presented in the\n\nmaterials before the court and argument would not aid the\n\ndecisional process.", "\n\n\n\n DISMISSED\n\n\n\n\n 3\n\f" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "FreeLaw" }

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[ "Free Fishdom(TM) for Mac – Absolutist Promo Codes\n\nGet Fishdom(TM) for Mac – Absolutist Coupon Codes\n\nConsider our top rated Fishdom(TM) for Mac - Absolutist coupon codes to get your hands on the biggest available deal from your reputable source of software coupon codes, SoftwarePromoCodes.com. ", "If your trying to find a coupon code for Playrix products, simply visit SoftwarePromoCodes.com for the greatest Fishdom(TM) for Mac - Absolutist Promo Codes. ", "Playrix gives us with the very best coupons and promotional codes so we can offer remarkable special discounts directly to you.", "\n\nBuild up and develop your Fishdom! ", "Progress through challenging boards and solve immersive puzzles to earn cash. ", "Use the money to buy eye-candy fish and attractive ornaments for your dream aquarium. ", "Get accessories and supplies to create the perfect conditions for your finny pals and ensure their comfort. ", "Win awards and upgrade your virtual tank as you perfect your aquarium design skills and have fun with the lovely fishy sims. ", "Being a unique fusion of classic game play with brilliant new ideas, this game with unlimited replayability will bring you lots of joyful moments!", "\n\nIf you encounter any technical problems well help you or give you a full refund.", "RISK FREE! ", "30-day money back guarantee!", "\n\nAbout Fishdom(TM) for Mac - Absolutist Coupon Codes\n\nSoftwarePromoCodes.com provides the biggest database of software savings and deals. ", "Discover the very best Playrix coupon codes at SoftwarePromoCodes.com.", "\n\nDiscover where you can enter your Free Fishdom(TM) for Mac - Absolutist discount codes to obtain the best possible savings.", "\n\nStep 1: Look for the Fishdom(TM) for Mac - Absolutist discount code you want to use and click on the discount button above.", "\n\nStep 2: Two windows will show up. ", "One will be an additional SoftwarePromoCodes.com page and this window will show you whether or not the discount has been activated. ", "It'll also provide the promo code in the center of the page. ", "This is the code you will need when checking out the item from the website cart page.", "\n\nStep 3: The second page that appeared would be the cart on the Playrix web site. ", "Check the box that reads, \"I have a discount code\"!", "\n\nStep 4: Enter in the Fishdom(TM) for Mac - Absolutist discount code which was supplied from the first pop up window.", "\n\nStep 5:The discount will be deducted from your total. ", "Continue on as usual with the checkout to buy the software.", "\n\nStep 6: Should your special offer worked properly, please be sure to give us feedback so we understand that all of our deals are up-to-date.", "\n\nStep 7: If you'd like to receive software news and special deals on more SoftwarePromoCode.com software products, put in your email address to sign-up for our Free Software newsletters, continue shopping or merely leave and enjoy your final savings.", "\n\n(Some of the Discount Codes will need to be explicitly entered upon the check-out web page that we provide in order to work properly and provide you the discount your looking for.)", "\n\nSoftwarePromoCodes.com would not circulate Fishdom(TM) for Mac - Absolutist key gen, Fishdom(TM) for Mac - Absolutist crack, serial key, hacked downloads or Fishdom(TM) for Mac - Absolutist cracked versions. ", "SoftwarePromoCodes.com only will supply Playrix deals which are reputable and sanctioned by the developer of the software.", "\n\n100% Real, Legitimate Software Offered to you Directly from the Developers of the Software\n\nYou simply won't find pirated or hacked software here. ", "Software piracy is theft, Utilising crack, password, serial numbers, registration codes and key generators is unlawful and prevents future growth and development of Fishdom(TM) for Mac - Absolutist, retail and online versions. ", "Our Download links and discount links are directly from the creators of the software.", "\n\nDon't Download Pirated Versions of Fishdom(TM) for Mac - Absolutist.", "\n\nSoftwarePromoCodes.com stands out as the foremost supplier of software discounts, online codes and deals." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "Pile-CC" }

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[ "\n\nThe Wasteful Legacy of Programming as Language - agnstatnd\nhttp://coliveira.net/software/the-wasteful-legacy-of-programming-as-language/\n\n======\nmannykannot\nInteresting, but I think the author is overlooking the point that we use\nprogramming languages because they are a reasonable, though far from perfect,\nmatch to the way we think about solving problems. ", "Human language is not just a\nmeans of communication, it is our primary medium for conscious thought.", "\n\n" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "HackerNews" }

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[ "Seneca Waterways Council\n\nSeneca Waterways Council (SWC) is a local council of the Boy Scouts of America that serves youth in Ontario, Wayne, Seneca, Yates, and Monroe Counties in Western New York. ", " The current Council President is Lew Heisman. ", " The current Council Scout Executive is Stephen Hoitt.", "\n\nOrganization\nThe council is divided into eight administrative districts, each of which serves one or more towns:\n\n Bay Waters District — Serving northeastern Monroe County (towns of Irondequoit, Penfield, and Webster)\n Black Creek District — Serving southwestern Monroe County (towns of Chili, Churchville, Gates, Henrietta, Scottsville, Riga, Rush, and Wheatland)\n Genesee Crossroads District —Serving central Monroe County (city of Rochester)\n Lighthouse District — Serving northwestern Monroe County (towns of Clarkson, Greece, Hamlin, Ogden, Parma and Sweden)\n Mohawk District — Serving all of Yates and Seneca Counties and the eastern halves of Ontario and Wayne Counties (towns of Clifton Springs, Clyde, Dresden, Dundee, Geneva, Gorham, Lyons, Newark, North Rose, Ovid, Penn Yan, Phelps, Romulus, Rose, Rushville, Savannah, Seneca Falls, Sodus, Waterloo, and Wolcott)\n Seneca District — Serving the western halves of Ontario and Wayne Counties (towns of Bloomfield, Canandaigua, Farmington, Gananda, Honeoye, Macedon, Manchester, Marion, Naples, Ontario, Palmyra, Shortsville, Victor, and Williamson)\n Towpath District — Serving southeastern Monroe County (towns of Brighton, East Rochester, Fairport, Honeoye Falls, Mendon, and Pittsford)\n Turning Point District — Serving the Rochester City School District (after school Scouting program)\n\nHistory\n\nSeneca Waterways Council was founded in 2009 after the merger of The Finger Lakes Council and Otetiana Council, both in Western New York.", "\n\nThe Finger Lakes Council served the Finger Lakes Region of New York. ", "At the time of the merger with the Otetiana Council the council service center was located in Geneva, New York and it was operating Camp Babcock–Hovey in Ovid, New York.", "\n\nThe Otetiana Council served the Greater Rochester area. ", "At the time of the merger with the Finger Lakes Council the council service center was located in Downtown Rochester, New York and it was operating the Massawepie Scout Camps in the Adirondack Park as well as Camp Cutler in Naples, New York.", "\n\nThe Seneca Waterways Council Scouting Historical Society has a collection of memorabilia relating to the history of Scouting in the Seneca Waterways Council. ", "Exhibits are displayed at the council service center near the entrance to the Scout shop and are changed bi-monthly. ", "The society meets the third or fourth Tuesday of each month at 7:00 pm, visitors are welcome.", "\n\nCamps\nSome of the historical camps maintained by Seneca Waterways Council's predecessors included Camp Otetiana (Canandaigua Lake, 1918–1926); Camp Tarion (Canandaigua Lake, 1925–1933); Camp Pioneer (Seneca Lake, 1927–1938); Camp Three Lakes (Lake Ontario/Durand-Eastman Park 1931–1939); Camp Arrowhead (Sandy Harbor/Hamlin, 1933–1937); Camp Archibald (Point Breeze/Carlton, 1938–1942); Camp EONAC (Cranberry Lake/Wanakena, 1938–1949); Brown Camp (Wolcott, 1938–?); ", "Camp J. Warren Cutler (Lake Ontario/Webster, 1939–1962); Camp Eagle Island (Lake Ontario/Sodus Bay, 1943–1951); Camp Muller (Naples, ?–?); ", "and Horn Farm Camp (1947–?).", "\n\nSeneca Waterways Council maintains three year-round camps: J. Warren Cutler Scout Reservation in Naples, New York (1963–), The Massawepie Scout Camps in Piercefield, (Adirondack Park) New York (1952–) and Camp Babcock-Hovey in Ovid, New York (1937–).", "\n\nCamp Babcock-Hovey\nCamp Babcock-Hovey is the premier Boy Scout camp in the Finger Lakes Region. ", "Camp Babcock-Hovey sits on the east shore of Seneca Lake and spans of woodlands and fields. ", "Babcock-Hovey accommodates every type of camper and meets all ability levels. ", "The camp is fully handicap accessible; because of this it is the site of the annual Rotary Camp Onseyawa summer camp. ", "The camp has a lakeside waterfront, hiking trails and 10 campsites equipped with tent platforms and lean-tos. ", "In 2007 a gravel road was put in from the entrance to the Dining Hall and in 2008 a new Science and Tech Building was built to promote Science and Technology for 14- to 18-year-olds.[2] In 2010 Pooler's Pond was added for Cub Scout fishing and boating. ", "In 2017 an ATV safety program was added, in partnership with Honda and the ATV Safety Institute, for summer and off season use by individual 14 and older. ", "They have a very active alumni association.", "\n\nJ. Warren Cutler Scout Reservation\nThe J. Warren Cutler Scout Reservation, also known as Camp Cutler, is a camp located in the heart of the Finger Lakes Region of western New York State. ", "It is named after Joseph Warren Cutler (1857–1934), a prominent Rochester businessman who ran the Cutler Manufacturing Company with his brother James Goold Cutler (1848–1927). ", "Joseph Cutler was an avid supporter of Scouting and served as the treasurer of the Rochester Council. ", " After the younger Cutler's death, his widow, Mrs. Amy Jenkins Cutler (1874–1958), donated their family summer home on Lake Road in Webster, New York, to form part of the original Camp Cutler, which was dedicated in 1939. ", " Chief Scout Executive James E. West was present for the event. ", " In the early 1960s Monroe County purchased the property along with additional acreage that had been obtained by the council and added the property to Webster Park. ", " During the same time, negotiations began with the Keenan family to purchase their lands for a new camp. ", " An agreement was reached and the first portion of the new camp was purchased in January 1962. ", " Five years later, in 1966, a dedication ceremony was held. ", " The new Camp J. Warren Cutler has been in continual operation since that time.", "\n\nCamp Cutler is a year-round facility. ", "The camp offers many camping opportunities for Scouts. ", "Campsites range from primitive to rustic sites with lean-tos, to buildings with wood-burning stoves, winterized buildings, training centers with kitchen equipment that can support large groups, and the theme buildings that house the Cub Scout Adventure Camp.", "\n\nThe camp is staffed by professional forest rangers, assisted on week-ends by BSA volunteers known as \"Camp Masters\".", "\n\nThe Cub Scout Adventure Camp, also known as \"CSAC,\" was dedicated in 1993 and operates at Camp Cutler in July and August. ", "Cub Scout Adventure Camp is a three-day, two night Cub Scout summer camp based on five adventure themes: the ships of the High Seas, a fort of the old west, a castle of medieval times, a mountain man encampment and a Native American village.", "\n\nMassawepie Scout Camps\n\nMassawepie Scout Camps (the MSC) is a Boy Scout reservation, owned by Seneca Waterways Council, situated around Massawepie Lake in St. Lawrence County of New York. ", "Otetiana Council purchased the Massawepie property in 1951, and opened the first summer camp in 1952. ", "The area is divided into 4 camps: Mountaineer, Pioneer, Forester, and Voyager. ", " only Pioneer is in use as an active campground (With campsites from Voyager incorporated into Pioneer); Camp Mountaineer is in use for ancillary activities. ", "The size of the entire reservation is approximately . ", "The reservation includes all of Massawepie Lake and nine other freshwater ponds (Catamount, Long, Round, Horseshoe, Boot Tree, Deer, Town Line, Pine and Lost). ", "The camp is one of the largest Boy Scout reservations in the Northeastern United States, and attracts visiting Boy Scout troops from throughout the region and the country, including California, and New Jersey.", "\n\nMassawepie means \"the beaver's lake\" in Iroquois.", "\n\nTschipey Achtu Lodge\nThe Order of the Arrow is represented by Tschipey Achtu Lodge. ", "The lodge was formed in 2010 by a merger of Ty-Ohni Lodge, founded in 1936, and Ganeodiyo Lodge, founded in 1949. ", "Tschipey Achtu means Ghost Deer. ", "The Lodge membership voted to use the official name Tschipey Achtu Lodge No. ", "397, but the ability to use 397 as a lodge number is under some debate, and Tschipey Achtu is operating without a lodge number.", "\n\nSee also\n Scouting in New York\n S.S.S. Lotus\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n A detailed history of Massawepie scout camp\n Massawepie Today\n Babcock-Hovey Alumni Association\n\nCategory:Local councils of the Boy Scouts of America\nCategory:Northeast Region (Boy Scouts of America)" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "Wikipedia (en)" }

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[ "All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.", "\n\nIntroduction {#sec001}\n============\n\nWheelchair sprinting events are some of the most popular races in Paralympics. ", "In these events, athletes compete on racing wheelchairs designed to let them reach their maximal speed \\[[@pone.0193658.ref001]\\].", "\n\nBiomechanics plays an important role helping Paralympic sprinters to excel. ", "The proper alignment of the body segments and a good stroke technique will help to reduce the winning time \\[[@pone.0193658.ref002]\\]. ", "To reach the maximal acceleration as soon as possible and maintain a maximal speed over the race, the resistive forces must be minimized and propulsive forces maximized \\[[@pone.0193658.ref002], [@pone.0193658.ref003]\\]. ", "The propulsive forces (pushing the hand-rim and the wheels producing force on the ground), should overcome the resistive forces (i.e., the rolling friction and aerodynamic drag). ", "Each stroke cycle can be broken-down into three key-moments. ", "The first moment is the beginning of the propulsive phase, being the hands in the 12h position on the hand-rim (known as catch phase). ", "When the hands are in the 18h position on the hand-rim, the propulsion phase ends (known as release phase). ", "When the hands are not in contact with the hand-rim and hyperextended backwards, this is known as the recovery phase \\[[@pone.0193658.ref002]\\]. ", "The propulsive phases (between catch and release) account for approximately 35% of the stroke cycle´s duration and the recovery the remaining 65% \\[[@pone.0193658.ref002]\\].", "\n\nIn wheelchair racing, aerodynamic drag has a significant impact on the performance at speeds higher than 5 m/s \\[[@pone.0193658.ref004]--[@pone.0193658.ref008]\\]. ", "At world record pace, drag force may account for 34.89% of the overall resistive forces \\[[@pone.0193658.ref009]\\]. ", "However, no study was carried out comparing the aerodynamics of a sprinter in the key-moments of the stroke cycle (i.e. catch, release and recovery phases).", "\n\nIt was claimed that marginal shifts in the rider's position on the wheelchair might change the drag by 10% \\[[@pone.0193658.ref010]--[@pone.0193658.ref012]\\]. ", "Still, there is scarce evidence on this. ", "Barbosa et al. ", "\\[[@pone.0193658.ref013]\\] compared by experimental testing the resistive forces in three different head and torso positions, noting variations in the aerodynamics. ", "Thus, the drag force may change in the key-moments of the stroke cycle depending on the relative position of the upper arms, torso and head. ", "E.g., the change in the relative position may have influence on the surface area and, hence, on the drag coefficient.", "\n\nNumerical simulations by Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) are arguably the best technique available to run this comparison. ", "Benchmarked with other procedures to monitor the aerodynamics, CFD has the advantage of minimizing confounding factors such as the intra-subject variability and the changes in the environmental conditions across trials. ", "It is possible to control with higher accuracy the temperature, pressure and speed of each simulation. ", "Unfortunately, the control of these factors in experimental tests is more challenging. ", "Besides that, using CFD it is possible to breakdown the total drag force into viscous and pressure drag \\[[@pone.0193658.ref002]\\].", "\n\nPressure drag can be characterised as the fluid distortion in the rear edges and the pressure differences between the front and back boundaries of the body (in our study the wheelchair-athlete system) \\[[@pone.0193658.ref014], [@pone.0193658.ref015]\\]. ", "The fluid separation from the back boundaries will generate a low pressure zone, mainly caused by the object/body shape \\[[@pone.0193658.ref014], [@pone.0193658.ref015]\\]. ", "The pressure drag is dependent on several factors, including the body size and geometry \\[[@pone.0193658.ref015]--[@pone.0193658.ref020]\\]. ", "As such, arguably in wheelchair racing, the athlete's position will influence the pressure drag. ", "Nevertheless, it was not found any evidence on this in the literature.", "\n\nViscous drag is produced due to the interaction between the body's surface and the fluid \\[[@pone.0193658.ref014]\\]. ", "In the case of a fluid with viscosity, such as air, the fluid is going to stick to the body's surface and being dragged. ", "Because of the viscosity, this layer of fluid attached to the body will make the following layer to attach to itself. ", "Same phenomenon happens to nearby layers. ", "Viscous drag is the force needed to drag the sum of all layers of fluid. ", "Thus, this component is strongly dependent on the speed and surfaces roughness. ", "Although viscous drag might have arguably a smaller impact compared to pressure drag, it has important implications on the athlete's performance. ", "The body position, garments' design and materials used, as well as, surface's roughness will have an effect on viscous drag \\[[@pone.0193658.ref014], [@pone.0193658.ref021]\\]. ", "There are claims that in wheelchair racing, viscous drag can be decreased by reducing the surface roughness, for instance, wearing light and tight garments. ", "However, no study was founded assessing viscous drag in wheelchair racing.", "\n\nEffective aerodynamic area (ACd) is a well-rounded parameter to assess the aerodynamics of a body. ", "It is obtained by the multiplication of the drag coefficient by the surface area. ", "ACd is the area that acts in the drag-production direction (opposite direction of the flow) \\[[@pone.0193658.ref014], [@pone.0193658.ref022]\\]. ", "E.g., in cycling, time trial positions are recommended to decrease the ACd \\[[@pone.0193658.ref022], [@pone.0193658.ref023]\\]. ", "Thus, ACd is mainly dependent of the athlete's surface area and position. ", "Some studies monitored the ACd of wheelchair sprinters \\[[@pone.0193658.ref013], [@pone.0193658.ref024]\\]. ", "Barbosa et al., ", "\\[[@pone.0193658.ref013]\\] observed values between 0.1456m^2^ and 0.1747m^2^; whereas, Hoffman at el., ", "\\[[@pone.0193658.ref024]\\] reported an ACd of 0.37m^2^. The data reported by these authors are mean values for the entire stroke cycle. ", "There is no evidence on the changes in the ACd in different key-moments of the stroke cycle in wheelchair sprinting.", "\n\nThe aim of this study was to assess the aerodynamics in different key-moments of the stroke cycle by CFD. ", "It was hypothesised that the drag varies in different phases of the stroke cycle, depending on the relative position of the segments.", "\n\nMethods {#sec002}\n=======\n\nSubject {#sec003}\n-------\n\nA world-ranked wheelchair sprinter (ranked 4^th^ in the 100m and 400m T-52 category at the time of the data collection) volunteered to take part of this study.", "\n\nApproval was granted by the Ethics Committee of the University of Beira Interior. ", "All procedures were in accordance to the Helsinki Declaration regarding human research. ", "A written consent by the participant was obtained beforehand.", "\n\nScanning the model {#sec004}\n------------------\n\nThe sprinter was scanned on the racing wheelchair wearing his competition gear and helmet. ", "The scans were made in three different positions ([Fig 1](#pone.0193658.g001){ref-type=\"fig\"}): (i) catch (i.e., the beginning of the propulsive phase, being the hands in the 12h position on the hand-rim); (ii) the release (i.e., hands in the 18h position on the hand-rim) and; (iii) recovery phase (i.e., hands do not touch the hand-rim and are hyperextended backwards). ", "The 12h position is set when the hand catches the hand-rim (the catch phase). ", "In this position, the hands contact the hand-rim in an angle of about 0° to 15° with the vertical axis (i.e. on the top of the wheel). ", "The 18h position is set when the hands leave the hand-rim (release phase). ", "The hand contact breaks off, usually near the 180° angle with the vertical axis (i.e. on the bottom of the wheel).", "\n\n{#pone.0193658.g001}\n\nThe scanning was made by the 3D Artec Scanner (Artec Group, Inc., Luxembourg) and saved in the Artec Studio 0.7 (Artec Group, Inc., USA). ", "The same software was used to edit the scans (e.g., smooth and merge all the scan layers). ", "Upon that, Geomagic studio (3D Systems, USA) was used to mesh the object and improve it by smoothing self-intersections, clean noun-manifold edges, and spikes correction being then converted in a computer aided design (CAD) model.", "\n\nNumerical simulation {#sec005}\n--------------------\n\nThe CAD models were imported into Fluent CFD code (Ansys Fluent 16.0, Ansys Inc., Pennsylvania, USA). ", "The numerical simulation was underpinned by the discretization of the Navier-Stokes equations by the finite volumes methods. ", "The Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes converts instantaneous values into means. ", "Fluent CFD code (Ansys Fluent 16.0, Ansys Inc., Pennsylvania, USA.) ", "allowed to solve these equations using the finite volume approach, having the equations been integrated over each control volume. ", "The behaviour of the fluid flow ([Eq 1](#pone.0193658.e001){ref-type=\"disp-formula\"}), Reynolds stresses ([Eq 2](#pone.0193658.e002){ref-type=\"disp-formula\"}), temperature ([Eq 3](#pone.0193658.e003){ref-type=\"disp-formula\"}) and mass transfer ([Eq 4](#pone.0193658.e004){ref-type=\"disp-formula\"}) have been solved as follows: $$\\frac{\\partial_{Ui}}{\\partial_{xi}} = 0$$ $$\\frac{\\partial_{Ui}}{\\partial_{t}} \\pm U_{j}\\frac{\\partial_{Ui}}{\\partial_{x_{j}}} = - \\frac{1}{\\rho}\\frac{\\partial P}{{\\partial x}_{j}} + \\frac{\\partial}{{\\partial x}_{j}}\\left( {2vS_{ij} - \\overline{\\mu_{j}\\prime\\mu_{i}\\prime}} \\right)$$ $$\\frac{\\partial_{\\theta i}}{\\partial_{t}} \\pm U_{j}\\frac{\\partial_{\\theta}}{\\partial_{x_{j}}} = \\frac{1}{\\rho_{cp}}\\frac{\\partial}{{\\partial x}_{j}}\\left( k\\frac{\\partial\\theta}{{\\partial x}_{j}} - \\overline{\\mu_{j}\\prime\\theta\\prime} \\right)$$ $$\\frac{\\partial_{C}}{\\partial_{t}} \\pm U_{j}\\frac{\\partial_{C}}{\\partial_{x_{j}}} = \\frac{\\partial}{{\\partial x}_{j}}\\left( D\\frac{\\partial C}{{\\partial x}_{j}} - \\overline{\\mu_{j}\\prime c\\prime} \\right)$$ Where, μ~i~ and x~i~ are the instantaneous velocity and the position, p is the instantaneous pressure, t is the time, ρ is the fluid density, v is the molecular kinematic viscous, cp is the heat capacity, k is the thermal conductivity, S~ij~ is the strain-rate tensor, c is the instantaneous concentration, and D is the molecular diffusion coefficient. ", "The Reynolds stresses component ($\\overline{\\mu_{j}\\prime\\mu_{i}\\prime}$), describes the turbulence of the mean flow being the exchange of momentum by the change of the fluid parcels.", "\n\nThe *realizable k-epsilon* was the turbulence model selected for this research. ", "This model presents velocity histograms similar to *standard k-e*, *RST and RNG k-e* models. ", "The latter models converged after 11876, 3208 and 2874 interactions, respectively. ", "However, the *realizable k-epsilon* only required 1404 interactions to converge the solution, therefore, showing a higher computation economy \\[[@pone.0193658.ref025]\\]. ", "The aerodynamic drag force was computed as: $$F_{D} = 0.5\\rho A_{d}v^{2}C_{D}$$ Where F~D~ is the drag force, C~D~ represents the drag coefficient, v the relative velocity, A~d~ surface area and ρ is the fluid density.", "\n\nBoundary conditions {#sec006}\n-------------------\n\nThe three-dimensional domain was meshed to depict the fluid flow around the athlete-wheelchair system ([Fig 2](#pone.0193658.g002){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "The whole domain (3m x 2m x 1.5m) was composed by 35 million of prisms and pyramids elements and created in the Ansys meshing module (Ansys Inc., Pennsylvania, USA).", "\n\n{#pone.0193658.g002}\n\nTo create an accurate model, the grid node separation in areas of high velocity and pressure was decreased \\[[@pone.0193658.ref026], [@pone.0193658.ref027]\\]. ", "The subtract operation was used to separate the wheelchair-athlete from the enclosure and define it as an object inside the tunnel. ", "This procedure was carried out for the three different positions (catch, release and recovery phases). ", "The body of the athlete-wheelchair system was aligned with the z-axis direction.", "\n\nThe air velocity was set in the inlet portion of the dome surface (-z direction), with steady values between 2.0 and 6.5 m/s (increments of 1.5 m/s in each simulation). ", "The turbulence intensity was set at 1×10^−6^%. ", "The surface of the sprinter was modelled as a non-slip wall with zero roughness, at which scalable wall functions were assigned. ", "The SIMPLE algorithm scheme was selected to solve the pressure-velocity coupling. ", "For the spatial discretization, the Green-Gauss cell-based gradient was chosen \\[[@pone.0193658.ref028]\\]. ", "Pressure and momentum were defined as second order and second order upwind, respectively. ", "Turbulent kinetic energy and turbulent dissipation rate were set as first order upwind.", "\n\nOutcomes {#sec007}\n--------\n\nThe mean viscous and pressure drag components, total drag coefficient and total drag force were retrieved. ", "The surface area was obtained by Geomagic studio (3D Systems, USA) and then the ACd computed.", "\n\nResults {#sec008}\n=======\n\nViscous drag force ranged between 0.35 N and 2.94 N, from 2.0 m/s to 6.5 m/s, respectively ([Fig 3](#pone.0193658.g003){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "The highest magnitude was noted in the catch phase and the lowest in the recovery phase. ", "The difference between catch and release phases was 3--4% across the selected speeds. ", "The release and recovery phases differed by 1--2%. ", "The differences between the catch and recovery phases were 3--4%. ", "Thus, the differences between key-moments of the stroke cycle ranged between 1% and 4%.", "\n\n{#pone.0193658.g003}\n\nThe pressure drag ranged between 0.38 N and 5.51 N for the same speed range ([Fig 4](#pone.0193658.g004){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "The highest magnitude was noted in the catch phase; whereas, the lowest values in the recovery phase. ", "The differences between catch and release phases were about 3% to 8% across the selected speeds. ", "From the release to recovery phases, the differences ranged from 37% to 43%. ", "The catch phase differed in 43% to 52% from the catch phase. ", "Therefore, the pressure drag differed about 3% to 52% over the entire stroke cycle.", "\n\n{#pone.0193658.g004}\n\nThe total drag force ranged between 0.72 N and 8.45 N ([Fig 5](#pone.0193658.g005){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "The key-moment under less drag was the recovery, and the catch phase the highest. ", "At the selected speeds, it was observed a decreasing drag from the catch to the release phase (3--7%). ", "Between the release and recovery phase, total drag decreased between 21% and 24%. ", "The catch phase differs from the recovery by 25--31%.", "\n\n{#pone.0193658.g005}\n\nThe ACd ranged from 0.24 to 0.41 m^2^ across the selected speeds. ", "The lowest value was noted in the recovery phase and the highest in the catch phase ([Fig 6](#pone.0193658.g006){ref-type=\"fig\"}). ", "From the catch to the release phases, the ACd decreased between 7% and 17%. ", "From the release to the recovery phase, the difference was about 21--24%. ", "The differences between the recovery and catch phases were 30--41%. ", "Altogether, the best ACd was of the three key-moments was found in the recovery phase.", "\n\n{#pone.0193658.g006}\n\nDiscussion {#sec009}\n==========\n\nThe aim of this study was to compare the aerodynamics in three key-moments of the stroke cycle in wheelchair racing by CFD. ", "The recovery phase was the most aerodynamic position, followed-up by the release and catch phases.", "\n\nAs above-mentioned, no research has been conducted assessing the aerodynamics of wheelchair sprinters by CFD. ", "However, Forte et al. ", "\\[[@pone.0193658.ref001]\\] performed a numerical simulation of a road helmet in two different positions at speeds slower than 6.5m/s (near the typical speed reached by wheelchair sprinters in the T52 category). ", "The ACd ranged from 0.024 to 0.034 m^2^. The most aerodynamic position of the head and helmet was keeping an angle of attack of 0° (looking forward). ", "Several studies can be found in the literature monitoring high-speed vehicles in other sports. ", "Winkler and Pernpeintner \\[[@pone.0193658.ref029]\\] tested the brakeman's (behind the pilot) arms position in bobsleigh. ", "The authors reported that the bent arms position showed an ACd of 0.0596m^2^ and with the arms stretched holding the sidewalls of the bobsleigh 0.0609m^2^. The authors noted that the arms' positions influenced by about 2% the ACd. ", "Defraeye et al. ", "\\[[@pone.0193658.ref030]\\] performed a numerical simulation of a cyclist in three different positions. ", "The ACd ranged from 0.169m^2^ to 0.235m^2^. Other studies were performed evaluating the cyclists' ACd \\[[@pone.0193658.ref031]--[@pone.0193658.ref034]\\]. ", "Blocken et al., ", "\\[[@pone.0193658.ref031]\\] performed an analysis of two cyclists in three different positions (upright, dropped and time-trial position) between 60 and 100km/h. ", "The authors reported an ACd between 0.131m^2^ and 0.211m^2^. Time-trial was the most aerodynamic position. ", "In this position the cyclists were keeping a flexed trunk and looking forward. ", "Griffith et al. ", "\\[[@pone.0193658.ref032]\\] assessed the effect of the leg position on the ACd. ", "The ACd ranged from 0.16m^2^ to 0.24m^2^ keeping symmetric and asymmetric knees alignment. ", "The asymmetric knees alignment (one leg fully extended and the other flexed and raised close to the torso) presented the highest ACd.", "\n\nThe values for viscous drag ranged from 3.35 N to 2.94 N. There are no reports about viscous drag in wheelchair racing that we can use to benchmark our data. ", "It is possible to reduce viscous drag by decreasing the surface roughness, for instance, wearing specific garment. ", "Viscous drag in cycling is about 5% of total drag \\[[@pone.0193658.ref030]\\]. ", "In our study, the viscous drag ranged from 35% to 49% of total drag. ", "The higher contribution by viscous component to total drag in wheelchair racing in comparison to cycling can be due to: (i) maximal speed in the T52 category is about 6.5 m/s (i.e., 23.40 km/h). ", "In cycling, performers can reach a higher speed. ", "Studies are conducted at speeds over 60km/h \\[[@pone.0193658.ref031]\\] and; (ii) the surface area of an athlete-wheelchair system is larger than a bicycle-athlete system. ", "Viscous drag is strongly dependent on the surface area, where a higher area will lead to a higher magnitude of this force. ", "In the 12h arms position, viscous drag ranged from 0.36 N to 2.93 N. In the 18h arms position, the viscous drag varied from 0.35 N to 2.83 N. In the recovery phase, viscous drag values were between 0.34N and 2.81 N. In the 12h arms position it was noted the largest ACd. ", "On top of that, the arms flection may had increased the surface roughness. ", "In the 18h position, the arms were fully stretched downwards and the surface roughness might have decreased. ", "This roughness can be due to wrinkles and folded tissue in the racing suit. ", "Over the recovery phase, the arms are overstretched backwards and the trunk flexed forward. ", "In this position, arguably the surface might have had a lower roughness because the arms are hyperextended backwards.", "\n\nPressure drag ranged between 0.38 N and 5.51 N. The total drag ranged between 0.72 N and 8.45 N. In cycling, the pressure drag accounts for 90% of the total drag. ", "Apparel, such as helmets, may help to reduce pressure drag \\[[@pone.0193658.ref001]\\]. ", "Authors also reported that pressure drag is the main contributor for total drag in cycling, running and swimming \\[[@pone.0193658.ref008], [@pone.0193658.ref035], [@pone.0193658.ref036]\\]. ", "In our study, pressure drag had a contribution of 51--65% to total drag. ", "Again, this might be caused by the wheelchair-athlete surface area and the selected speeds. ", "At higher speeds, pressure drag is prone to increase meaningfully. ", "In this study, pressure drag varied in 12h arms position between 0.54 N and 5.51 N. In the 18h position, the differences were between 0.52 N and 5.09 N. In the recovery phase pressure drag values ranged between 0.34 N and 2.91 N. Pressure drag is generated by the pressure differences between the front and back boundaries of the body (in our case the wheelchair-athlete system) \\[[@pone.0193658.ref015]--[@pone.0193658.ref020]\\]. ", "The recovery phase had the lowest pressure drag because the sprinter kept the upper-arms hyperextended backwards. ", "In this position, the total length of the wheelchair-athlete system (length from the front wheel to the tip of the fingers extended backwards in the horizontal plane) increases slightly. ", "Moreover, the geometry of the system is modified, keeping a more aerodynamic position (lower angle of attack by the upper-body) and decreasing the ACd. ", "On the other side, in the 18h position the overall geometry of the system increases the surface area. ", "The upper-body is in an upright position and the upper-arms fully extended and facing downwards, increasing the area exposed on the direction of displacement.", "\n\nThe ACd values ranged from 0.24 to 0.41 m^2^ across the selected speeds. ", "Barbosa et al. ", "\\[[@pone.0193658.ref013]\\] noted an ACd of about 0.15 m^2^ in one elite wheelchair racer. ", "The authors tested aerodynamics by coast-down technique. ", "Hoffman et al., ", "\\[[@pone.0193658.ref024]\\] tested five different wheelchairs also by the coast-down technique, noting a value of 0.37 m^2^. Our findings (ACd: 0.24--0.41m^2^) are in alignment with these latter results. ", "In our study, ACd varied in the 12h position from 0.32 m^2^ to 0.41 m^2^. In the 18h position, ranged between 0.31 m^2^ and 0.35 m^2^. In the recovery phase the ACd values were between 0.24 m^2^ and 0.29 m^2^. The ACd is the wheelchair-athlete system area that acts in the drag-production direction \\[[@pone.0193658.ref023]\\]. ", "Thus, it is possible to argue that the different positions influenced the drag force \\[[@pone.0193658.ref022], [@pone.0193658.ref023]\\]. ", "The 12h arms position presented the highest drag-production area. ", "In the 18h arms position, the trunk flection and the arms near the hand-rims seem to explain the decrease in the drag-production. ", "The same might had occur in the recovery phase; despite the trunk flection and the arms in a hyperextended backwards position decreased ACd and the drag-production area. ", "The drag coefficient (and as such the ACd of our sprinter) is affected by Reynolds number. ", "In this study, our subject showed a Reynolds number of 2.82×10^5^, 4.93×10^5^, 7.04×10^5^ and 9.15×10^5^ at 2.0, 3.5, 5.0 and 6.5 m/s, respectively. ", "For several bodies it is noted a significant drop in the drag coefficient at Reynolds number of 10^5^ \\[[@pone.0193658.ref014], [@pone.0193658.ref037]\\]. ", "E.g., in a sphere the drag coefficient decreased from about 0.6 to 0.4 increasing the Reynolds number between 4×10^5^ and 8×10^5^ \\[[@pone.0193658.ref014]\\]. ", "At Reynolds number between 2×10^6^ and 8×10^6^ the drag coefficient decreased from 0.5 to 0.1 \\[[@pone.0193658.ref037]\\]. ", "This effect is known as \"drag crisis\" and it is associated with the separation of the boundary layer from the surface of the sphere \\[[@pone.0193658.ref037]\\]. ", "Similar phenomenon can explain why the ACd of the wheelchair-sprinter system decreased with increasing speed.", "\n\nTotal drag ranged between 7% and 31%. ", "However, between the catch and release phases the differences were only 3% to 7%. ", "It is to note that the arms' positions have a meaningful impact on the surface area. ", "The different arms' positions may increase the surface area and, therefore, the total drag. ", "These results seem to be in accordance with literature. ", "Reports in cycling and wheelchair racing noted that small variations in the rider's positions may influence drag in about 10% \\[[@pone.0193658.ref010]--[@pone.0193658.ref012]\\]. ", "In our case, the 12h arms position had a higher surface area in comparison with 18h and the recovery phase.", "\n\nIn short distances, coaches should advise their athletes to perform the propulsive phase of the stroke cycle as fast and powerful as possible. ", "This strategy aims to reduce the winning time. ", "In elite wheelchair racers, the recovery phase represents 65% to 67% of the stroke cycle \\[[@pone.0193658.ref005], [@pone.0193658.ref038]--[@pone.0193658.ref041]\\]. ", "The remaining 33% to 35% represents the propulsive phase \\[[@pone.0193658.ref005], [@pone.0193658.ref038]--[@pone.0193658.ref041]\\]. ", "During the recovery phase, athletes should maintain a good body alignment and limbs' symmetry as much as possible to prevent an increase in the drag. ", "The arms must be kept backwards and fully stretched. ", "In the propulsive phase, the arms must perform the propulsion in a symmetric position and athletes must avoid spending too much time in the 12h arms position. ", "The athletes must start a new stroke cycle as faster as possible to avoid increasing the drag. ", "Moreover, insights on the aerodynamics can also help coaches to prescribe training sessions. ", "E.g., designing training session or drills/sets with the goal of reducing the intra-cycle speed decay (over the recovery phase) caused by a poor body alignment.", "\n\nIt can be addressed as main limitations of this study: (i) the simulations were performed in static positions; (ii) one single athlete was recruited; (iii) the maximal speed selected in this study was 6.5 m/s and the average pace of the world record at the moment of the data collection was 6.62 m/s; (iv) the numerical simulations were performed assuming a temperature of 15°C and no other temperatures were tested.", "\n\nConclusion {#sec010}\n==========\n\nThe obtained results shown that aerodynamics varies along the three key-moments of the stroke cycle in wheelchair racing. ", "The position with less drag acting on the athlete-chair system was the recovery phase. ", "The positions submitting higher drag were the catch followed-up by the release phase. ", "These findings suggest the importance of keeping an adequate body alignment to avoid an increase in the drag force and likewise an increase of the intra-cyclic variations of the speed within the stroke cycle.", "\n\nSupporting information {#sec011}\n======================\n\n###### Partial dataset used in this research.", "\n\n(XLSX)\n\n###### \n\nClick here for additional data file.", "\n\nThis project was supported by the FCT---Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (UID/DTP/04045/2013) and by European Union---European Fund for regional development (FEDER) under the COMPETE 2020 Programme (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-006969).", "\n\n[^1]: **Competing Interests:**The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.", "\n" ]

{ "pile_set_name": "PubMed Central" }

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[ "Can i record a phone interview on my iPhone?", "\n\nIt is unfortunately not possible to record an phone interview on a iPhone. ", "Any app on the iPhone lives in a sandbox and does not have access to the actual phone calls (or other apps). ", "This is for security reasons and generally works fine. ", "There is also some legal reasons concerning privacy - but that is another issue. ", "So in short - no, we do have an app that can record a phone interview. ", "Sorry." ]

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[ "Patch testing for adverse drug reactions.", "\nAdverse drug reactions result in a substantial number of hospital admissions and inpatient events. ", "Diagnosis usually is made with clinical judgment and circumstantiality without diagnostic testing. ", "Furthermore, even in situations where diagnostic testing is performed, no safe gold standard tests exist. ", "Oral rechallenge is currently the gold standard but carries the risk of recrudescence of severe allergic symptoms. ", "Other tests include skin prick tests, the lymphocyte transformation test, immunohistochemistry, and patch testing. ", "This article provides a review of patch testing in cases of adverse drug reactions and presents new data on this topic." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "PubMed Abstracts" }

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[ "As the cyber world continues to expand and become denser, as wireless communications, satellites, telecommunications, and network and Internet infrastructures are integrated, such an increase in breadth and depth also introduces new vulnerabilities by providing cyber hackers with opportunities to use ever more sophisticated means and methods. ", "Such incessant cyber attacks not only erode business integrity and undermine personal well-being but also threaten to compromise national security. ", "Despite the fact that new systems and technologies may be designed with security in mind, the hacker always has the advantage that he may choose the time, place, and method of his attack, thereby rendering security mechanisms that are put into place at one point in time potentially impotent to guard against future attacks that utilize data or resources not known or available at the time of construction.", "\nTraditional security mechanisms to deal with attacks on and intrusions into private networks, such as firewalls, antivirus programs, and proxy servers, all suffer from certain drawbacks that may render them ineffective at guarding against many modern forms of cyber attack. ", "For example, traditional security mechanisms operate by analyzing and working within the confines of primarily local data and information. ", "For example, proxy servers typically limit their purview to the data that is transmitted outside of the network and the data that is transmitted into the network. ", "In either case, the proxy server is limited to analyzing only the data that passes through it in order to determine whether that data reflects malicious activity. ", "However, it may not be apparent or even determinable solely by analyzing such data whether there is malicious activity involved, as data may be encrypted or obfuscated, and seemingly benign or friendly external destination servers may be merely operating under the control of known malicious servers that are not visible to the proxy server.", "\nTraditional security mechanisms are also primarily reactive in nature, relying on information about malware programs or attacks that have previously surfaced, and thus previously caused damage, in order to identify those same malware programs or attacks in the future.", "\nMoreover, traditional security mechanisms suffer from the additional drawback that they are largely aimed only at preventing network intrusions from occurring and are thus largely ineffective at taking targeted and granular remedial actions once intrusions do occur." ]

{ "pile_set_name": "USPTO Backgrounds" }

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